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data-login_uri="https://www.academia.edu/registrations/google_one_tap" data-moment_callback="onGoogleOneTapEvent" id="g_id_onload"></div><div class="ds-top-related-works--grid-container"><div class="ds-related-content--container ds-top-related-works--container"><h2 class="ds-related-content--heading">Related papers</h2><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="0" data-entity-id="47630488" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/47630488/Parasites_and_Sexual_Selection_in_Birds_of_Paradise">Parasites and Sexual Selection in Birds of Paradise</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="99720736" href="https://independent.academia.edu/StephenPruettJones">Stephen Pruett-Jones</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Integrative and Comparative Biology, 1990</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">SYNOPSIS. We studied blood parasite infections in relation to aspects of sexual selection and mate choice in 10 species of birds of paradise. Across species there was a significant, positive correlation between relative parasite intensity and showiness in males. Parasite infections also correlated across species with the degree of sexual dimorphism and varied with mating systems. Promiscuous species were showier and had significantly higher parasite prevalences than monogamous species. Within one species, Lawes' Parotia (Parotia lawesii), parasite intensity was negatively correlated with all phenotypic traits examined, a pattern significantly different than random. The mating success of males with low parasite intensities varied, but males with high intensities did not mate. Sampling of individual males on repeated occasions revealed large temporal differences in parasite counts which spanned the range believed to affect behavior and mating success. Whereas the interspecific correlations support one prediction of the Hamilton and Zuk hypothesis on parasites and sexual selection, the intraspecific data are equivocal with respect to a second prediction of this hypothesis. Parasites appear to influence the behavior of Lawes' Parotia, but alternative explanations to that of Hamilton and Zuk for this effect are equally plausible and there is no evidence of a link between female choice and the traits in males indicative of parasite loads. We suggest that female Lawes' Parotia may be avoiding highly infected males rather than actively choosing parasite-resistant males.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Parasites and Sexual Selection in Birds of Paradise","attachmentId":66624489,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/47630488/Parasites_and_Sexual_Selection_in_Birds_of_Paradise","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/47630488/Parasites_and_Sexual_Selection_in_Birds_of_Paradise"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="1" data-entity-id="27339594" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/27339594/Parasites_and_mate_choice_in_red_jungle_fowl">Parasites and mate choice in red jungle fowl</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="51387892" href="https://independent.academia.edu/KristineJohnson6">Kristine Johnson</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Integrative and Comparative Biology, 1990</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Parasites and mate choice in red jungle fowl","attachmentId":47594765,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/27339594/Parasites_and_mate_choice_in_red_jungle_fowl","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/27339594/Parasites_and_mate_choice_in_red_jungle_fowl"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="2" data-entity-id="12391729" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/12391729/Female_plumage_spottiness_signals_parasite_resistance_in_the_barn_owl_Tyto_alba_">Female plumage spottiness signals parasite resistance in the barn owl (Tyto alba)</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="31148198" href="https://unil.academia.edu/ADucrest">A. Ducrest</a><span>, </span><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33413809" href="https://rug.academia.edu/CorDijkstra">Cor Dijkstra</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Behavioral Ecology, 2001</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">The hypothesis that extravagant ornaments signal parasite resistance has received support in several species for ornamented males but more rarely for ornamented females. However, recent theories have proposed that females should often be under sexual selection, and therefore females may signal the heritable capacity to resist parasites. We investigated this hypothesis in the socially monogamous barn owl, Tyto alba, in which females exhibit on average more and larger black spots on the plumage than males, and in which males were suggested to choose a mate with respect to female plumage spottiness. We hypothesized that the proportion of the plumage surface covered by black spots signals parasite resistance. In line with this hypothesis, we found that the ectoparasitic fly, Carnus hemapterus, was less abundant on young raised by more heavily spotted females and those flies were less fecund. In an experiment, where entire clutches were cross-fostered between nests, we found that the fecundity of the flies collected on nestlings was negatively correlated with the genetic mother's plumage spottiness. These results suggest that the ability to resist parasites covaries with the extent of female plumage spottiness. Among females collected dead along roads, those with a lot of black spots had a small bursa of Fabricius. Given that parasites trigger the development of this immune organ, this observation further suggests that more spotted females are usually less parasitized. The same analyses performed on male plumage spottiness all provided non-significant results. To our knowledge, this study is the first one showing that a heritable secondary sexual characteristics displayed by females reflects parasite resistance.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Female plumage spottiness signals parasite resistance in the barn owl (Tyto alba)","attachmentId":37639804,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/12391729/Female_plumage_spottiness_signals_parasite_resistance_in_the_barn_owl_Tyto_alba_","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/12391729/Female_plumage_spottiness_signals_parasite_resistance_in_the_barn_owl_Tyto_alba_"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="3" data-entity-id="5371500" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/5371500/Sexual_dimorphism_in_susceptibility_to_parasites_and_cell_mediated_immunity_in_great_tit_nestlings">Sexual dimorphism in susceptibility to parasites and cell-mediated immunity in great tit nestlings</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="7473075" href="https://unibe-ch.academia.edu/HeinzRichner">Heinz Richner</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Animal Ecology, 2003</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Parasites can affect host fitness, provoke host responses, and thereby mediate host life history evolution. As life history strategies are often sex-specific, immunological or behavioural responses of the host aiming to reduce the impact of parasites may be sexually dimorphic, e.g. as a consequence of sex differences in the resource allocation tradeoff between parasite defence, morphological traits and body functions. Parasites may therefore affect males and females differently leading to sex specific patterns of parasite susceptibility.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Sexual dimorphism in susceptibility to parasites and cell-mediated immunity in great tit nestlings","attachmentId":49321550,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/5371500/Sexual_dimorphism_in_susceptibility_to_parasites_and_cell_mediated_immunity_in_great_tit_nestlings","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/5371500/Sexual_dimorphism_in_susceptibility_to_parasites_and_cell_mediated_immunity_in_great_tit_nestlings"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="4" data-entity-id="21795697" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/21795697/Male_biased_parasitism_by_common_helminths_is_not_explained_by_sex_differences_in_body_size_or_spleen_mass_of_breeding_cormorants_Phalacrocorax_auritus">Male-biased parasitism by common helminths is not explained by sex differences in body size or spleen mass of breeding cormorants Phalacrocorax auritus</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32076509" href="https://carleton-ca.academia.edu/MarkForbes">Mark R Forbes</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Journal of Avian Biology, 2008</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Male-biased parasitism by common helminths is not explained by sex differences in body size or spleen mass of breeding cormorants Phalacrocorax auritus","attachmentId":42558387,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/21795697/Male_biased_parasitism_by_common_helminths_is_not_explained_by_sex_differences_in_body_size_or_spleen_mass_of_breeding_cormorants_Phalacrocorax_auritus","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/21795697/Male_biased_parasitism_by_common_helminths_is_not_explained_by_sex_differences_in_body_size_or_spleen_mass_of_breeding_cormorants_Phalacrocorax_auritus"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="5" data-entity-id="14201367" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/14201367/Condition_and_parasite_dependent_expression_of_a_male_like_trait_in_a_female_bird">Condition- and parasite-dependent expression of a male-like trait in a female bird</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33188207" href="https://csic.academia.edu/LorenzoP%C3%A9rezrodr%C3%ADguez">Lorenzo Pérez-rodríguez</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Biology Letters, 2011</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Condition- and parasite-dependent expression of a male-like trait in a female bird","attachmentId":44474631,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/14201367/Condition_and_parasite_dependent_expression_of_a_male_like_trait_in_a_female_bird","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/14201367/Condition_and_parasite_dependent_expression_of_a_male_like_trait_in_a_female_bird"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="6" data-entity-id="47266855" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/47266855/Sex_biased_parasitism_in_vector_borne_disease_Vector_preference">Sex-biased parasitism in vector-borne disease: Vector preference?</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="60725609" href="https://independent.academia.edu/CamilleSophieCozzarolo">Camille-Sophie Cozzarolo</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">PLOS ONE</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Sex-biased infections are a recurrent observation in vertebrates. In many species, males are more parasitized than females. Two potentially complementary mechanisms are often suggested to explain this pattern: sexual differences in susceptibility mainly caused by the effect of sex hormones on immunity and differential exposure to parasites. Exposure is mostly a consequence of host behavioural traits, but vector-borne parasitic infections involve another degree of complexity due to the active role of vectors in transmission. Blood-sucking insects may make choices based on cues produced by hosts. Regarding malaria, several studies highlighted a male-biased infection by Plasmodium sp in great tits (Parus major). We hypothesize that the mosquito vector, Culex pipiens, might at least partially cause this bias by being more attracted to male birds. Intrinsic variation associated to bird sex would explain a preference of mosquitoes for males. To test this hypothesis, we provide uninfected mosquitoes with a choice between uninfected male and female nestlings. Mosquito choice is assessed by sex typing of the ingested blood. We did not observe any preference for a given sex. This result does not support our prediction of a preference of mosquitoes for male great tits during the nestling period. In conclusion, mosquitoes do not seem to have an intrinsic preference for male nestlings. However, sexually divergent traits (e.g. behaviour, odour, metabolic rate) present in adults may play a role in the attraction of mosquitoes and should be investigated.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Sex-biased parasitism in vector-borne disease: Vector preference?","attachmentId":66449853,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/47266855/Sex_biased_parasitism_in_vector_borne_disease_Vector_preference","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/47266855/Sex_biased_parasitism_in_vector_borne_disease_Vector_preference"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="7" data-entity-id="26376616" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/26376616/Do_blood_parasites_affect_reproductive_performance_in_male_red_bishops_Euplectes_orix_A_test_of_the_Hamilton_Zuk_hypothesis">Do blood parasites affect reproductive performance in male red bishops (Euplectes orix)? A test of the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="50309956" href="https://independent.academia.edu/EdlerR">R. Edler</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Ethology Ecology & Evolution, 2004</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">According to the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis of parasite-mediated sexual selection the expression of male secondary sexual characters as well as health and condition should be negatively affected by parasites. Over five breeding seasons we investigated the relationship between prevalence and intensity of blood parasites and reproductive performance as well as health state in male red bishops (Euplectes orix), a highly polygynous weaverbird species common in southern Africa. Neither prevalence nor intensity of infections with Plasmodium sp., the only blood parasite found in this study, were related to two important measures of male reproductive performance, i.e. the number of nests built (an intrasexually selected trait which is the most important determinant of male mating success) and the ability to establish a territory. In addition, parasite prevalence and intensity were not affected by season, time within season, age or body condition. These results do not support predictions derived from the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis of parasite-mediated sexual selection. However, our data indicate that high stress levels as assessed by the heterophile/lymphocyte ratio might increase parasite susceptibility.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Do blood parasites affect reproductive performance in male red bishops (Euplectes orix)? A test of the Hamilton-Zuk hypothesis","attachmentId":46680185,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/26376616/Do_blood_parasites_affect_reproductive_performance_in_male_red_bishops_Euplectes_orix_A_test_of_the_Hamilton_Zuk_hypothesis","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/26376616/Do_blood_parasites_affect_reproductive_performance_in_male_red_bishops_Euplectes_orix_A_test_of_the_Hamilton_Zuk_hypothesis"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="8" data-entity-id="13720321" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/13720321/Ecological_causes_of_sex_biased_parasitism_in_threespine_stickleback">Ecological causes of sex-biased parasitism in threespine stickleback</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="32847274" href="https://independent.academia.edu/PatrikNosil">Patrik Nosil</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2001</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">Males and females can differ in levels of parasitism and such differences may be mediated by the costs of sexual selection or by ecological differences between the genders. In threespine stickleback, Gasterosteus aculeatus, males exhibit paternal care and territorial nest defence and the costs of reproduction may be particularly high for males relative to females. We monitored levels of parasitism for 15 years in a population of stickleback infected by four different parasite species. Consistent with general predictions, overall parasite prevalence (total parasitism) was greater in males than in females. However, this excess did not occur for each species of parasite. Males had higher prevalence of a cestode Cyathocephalus truncatus and a trematode Bunodera sp. relative to females, while females had higher prevalence of a cestode Schistocephalus solidus and nematodes. This suggested ecological sources to differences in parasitism rather than reproductive costs and therefore we examined diet of unparasitized stickleback, predicting that differences in dietary niche would influence relative parasitism. This was partially confirmed and showed that female stomach contents had increased frequency of pelagic items, the major habitat for the primary host of S. solidus whereas males exhibited increased frequency of benthic items, the dominant habitat of C. truncatus and Bunodera. Temporal shifts in the extent and direction of differential parasitism among years between the sexes were associated with temporal shifts in dietary differences. Our results, combined with those in the literature, suggest that ecological differences between genders could be a more important component to patterns of parasitic infection in natural populations than currently appreciated.</p><div class="ds-related-work--ctas"><button class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-swp-download-button" data-signup-modal="{"location":"wsj-grid-card-download-pdf-modal","work_title":"Ecological causes of sex-biased parasitism in threespine stickleback","attachmentId":45022139,"attachmentType":"pdf","work_url":"https://www.academia.edu/13720321/Ecological_causes_of_sex_biased_parasitism_in_threespine_stickleback","alternativeTracking":true}"><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">download</span><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">Download free PDF</span></button><a class="ds2-5-text-link ds2-5-text-link--inline js-wsj-grid-card-view-pdf" href="https://www.academia.edu/13720321/Ecological_causes_of_sex_biased_parasitism_in_threespine_stickleback"><span class="ds2-5-text-link__content">View PDF</span><span class="material-symbols-outlined" style="font-size: 18px" translate="no">chevron_right</span></a></div></div><div class="ds-related-work--container js-wsj-grid-card" data-collection-position="9" data-entity-id="33938714" data-sort-order="default"><a class="ds-related-work--title js-wsj-grid-card-title ds2-5-body-md ds2-5-body-link" href="https://www.academia.edu/33938714/Immune_Function_in_an_Avian_Brood_Parasite_and_Its_Nonparasitic_Relative">Immune Function in an Avian Brood Parasite and Its Nonparasitic Relative</a><div class="ds-related-work--metadata"><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33290860" href="https://illinois.academia.edu/LorenMerrill">Loren Merrill</a><span>, </span><a class="js-wsj-grid-card-author ds2-5-body-sm ds2-5-body-link" data-author-id="33711269" href="https://independent.academia.edu/StephenRothstein">Stephen Rothstein</a></div><p class="ds-related-work--metadata ds2-5-body-xs">Physiological and Biochemical Zoology, 2013</p><p class="ds-related-work--abstract ds2-5-body-sm">JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms of scholarship. 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