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data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-8fe693a elementor-widget-tablet__width-initial elementor-widget-mobile__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-theme-site-logo elementor-widget-image" data-id="8fe693a" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="theme-site-logo.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net"> <img data-lazyloaded="1" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHdpZHRoPSI1MTIiIGhlaWdodD0iNTEyIiB2aWV3Qm94PSIwIDAgNTEyIDUxMiI+PHJlY3Qgd2lkdGg9IjEwMCUiIGhlaWdodD0iMTAwJSIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I2NmZDRkYjtmaWxsLW9wYWNpdHk6IDAuMTsiLz48L3N2Zz4=" fetchpriority="high" width="512" height="512" data-src="https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1-120x120.png" class="attachment-full size-full wp-image-9106" alt="" data-srcset="https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1.png 1x, https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1.png 2x" data-sizes="(max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /> </a></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-25 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-2d94c469" data-id="2d94c469" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-2a09e1b elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="2a09e1b" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">شەرقىي تۈركىستان سۈرگۈندى ھۆكۈمىتى</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-94e4efc elementor-widget-tablet__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="94e4efc" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">EAST TURKISTAN GOVERNMENT IN EXILE</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-84dbbed elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="84dbbed" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">Restoring Independence for East Turkistan and its people</h2></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-25 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-56f5204" data-id="56f5204" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-15395f0 elementor-align-right elementor-hidden-phone elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-button" data-id="15395f0" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="button.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-button-wrapper"> <a class="elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-md" href="https://east-turkistan.net/donate/"> <span class="elementor-button-content-wrapper"> <span class="elementor-button-icon"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-hand-holding-heart"></i> </span> <span class="elementor-button-text">DONATE</span> </span> </a></div></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-25 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-ed4dfed" data-id="ed4dfed" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div style="--langs:1" class="elementor-element elementor-element-33dc936 cpel-switcher--align-center cpel-switcher--layout-dropdown cpel-switcher--drop-on-hover elementor-widget__width-initial cpel-switcher--drop-to-down elementor-widget elementor-widget-polylang-language-switcher" data-id="33dc936" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="polylang-language-switcher.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><nav class="cpel-switcher__nav"><div class="cpel-switcher__toggle cpel-switcher__lang" onclick="this.classList.toggle('cpel-switcher__toggle--on')"><a lang="en-US" hreflang="en-US" href="https://east-turkistan.net/history-of-east-turkistan/"><span class="cpel-switcher__name">English</span><i class="cpel-switcher__icon fas fa-globe" aria-hidden="true"></i></a></div><ul class="cpel-switcher__list"><li class="cpel-switcher__lang"><a lang="ug-CN" hreflang="ug-CN" href="https://east-turkistan.net/uy/%d8%a8%d8%a7%d8%b4-%d8%a8%db%95%d8%aa-2/"><span class="cpel-switcher__name">ئۇيغۇرچە</span></a></li></ul></nav></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-6c3cafe elementor-section-height-min-height elementor-section-content-middle elementor-section-items-stretch elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-hidden-desktop elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default" data-id="6c3cafe" data-element_type="section" data-settings="{"background_background":"classic"}"><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-25 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0cea986" data-id="0cea986" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-199996f elementor-widget-tablet__width-initial elementor-widget-mobile__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-theme-site-logo elementor-widget-image" data-id="199996f" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="theme-site-logo.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net"> <img data-lazyloaded="1" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHdpZHRoPSI1MTIiIGhlaWdodD0iNTEyIiB2aWV3Qm94PSIwIDAgNTEyIDUxMiI+PHJlY3Qgd2lkdGg9IjEwMCUiIGhlaWdodD0iMTAwJSIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I2NmZDRkYjtmaWxsLW9wYWNpdHk6IDAuMTsiLz48L3N2Zz4=" fetchpriority="high" width="512" height="512" data-src="https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1-120x120.png" class="attachment-full size-full wp-image-9106" alt="" data-srcset="https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1.png 1x, https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1.png 2x" data-sizes="(max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /> </a></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-25 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f163fdc" data-id="f163fdc" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-8a1656c elementor-widget-tablet__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="8a1656c" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">شەرقىي تۈركىستان سۈرگۈندى ھۆكۈمىتى</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-c3f0c97 elementor-widget-tablet__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="c3f0c97" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">EAST TURKISTAN GOVERNMENT IN EXILE</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-a67d69d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="a67d69d" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">Restoring Independence for East Turkistan and its people</h2></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-25 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-def4cc4" data-id="def4cc4" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-c732b16 elementor-align-left elementor-hidden-phone elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-button" data-id="c732b16" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="button.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-button-wrapper"> <a class="elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-md" href="https://east-turkistan.net/donate/"> <span class="elementor-button-content-wrapper"> <span class="elementor-button-icon"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-hand-holding-heart"></i> </span> <span class="elementor-button-text">DONATE</span> </span> </a></div></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-25 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-53dbe26" data-id="53dbe26" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div style="--langs:1" class="elementor-element elementor-element-a907b2b cpel-switcher--align-center cpel-switcher--layout-dropdown cpel-switcher--drop-on-hover elementor-widget__width-initial cpel-switcher--drop-to-down elementor-widget elementor-widget-polylang-language-switcher" data-id="a907b2b" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="polylang-language-switcher.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><nav class="cpel-switcher__nav"><div class="cpel-switcher__toggle cpel-switcher__lang" onclick="this.classList.toggle('cpel-switcher__toggle--on')"><a lang="en-US" hreflang="en-US" href="https://east-turkistan.net/history-of-east-turkistan/"><span class="cpel-switcher__name">English</span><i class="cpel-switcher__icon fas fa-globe" aria-hidden="true"></i></a></div><ul class="cpel-switcher__list"><li class="cpel-switcher__lang"><a lang="ug-CN" hreflang="ug-CN" href="https://east-turkistan.net/uy/%d8%a8%d8%a7%d8%b4-%d8%a8%db%95%d8%aa-2/"><span class="cpel-switcher__name">ئۇيغۇرچە</span></a></li></ul></nav></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-3d51e9f elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="3d51e9f" data-element_type="section" data-settings="{"background_background":"classic"}"><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-e3b1ea0 elementor-hidden-desktop elementor-hidden-tablet" data-id="e3b1ea0" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-985390f elementor-widget elementor-widget-theme-site-logo elementor-widget-image" data-id="985390f" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="theme-site-logo.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net"> <img data-lazyloaded="1" src="data:image/svg+xml;base64,PHN2ZyB4bWxucz0iaHR0cDovL3d3dy53My5vcmcvMjAwMC9zdmciIHdpZHRoPSI1MTIiIGhlaWdodD0iNTEyIiB2aWV3Qm94PSIwIDAgNTEyIDUxMiI+PHJlY3Qgd2lkdGg9IjEwMCUiIGhlaWdodD0iMTAwJSIgc3R5bGU9ImZpbGw6I2NmZDRkYjtmaWxsLW9wYWNpdHk6IDAuMTsiLz48L3N2Zz4=" fetchpriority="high" width="512" height="512" data-src="https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1-120x120.png" class="attachment-full size-full wp-image-9106" alt="" data-srcset="https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1.png 1x, https://east-turkistan.net/wp-content/uploads/2020/12/cropped-cropped-cropped-cropped-ETGE-Logo-1-1.png 2x" data-sizes="(max-width: 512px) 100vw, 512px" /> </a></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-9586b93 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="9586b93" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">شەرقىي تۈركىستان سۈرگۈندى ھۆكۈمىتى</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-cf2bf17 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="cf2bf17" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">East Turkistan Government in Exile</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-63f5fc6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="63f5fc6" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">Restoring Independence for East Turkistan and its people</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-30e0425 elementor-mobile-align-right elementor-widget-mobile__width-initial elementor-widget elementor-widget-button" data-id="30e0425" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="button.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-button-wrapper"> <a class="elementor-button elementor-button-link elementor-size-sm" href="https://east-turkistan.net/donate/"> <span class="elementor-button-content-wrapper"> <span class="elementor-button-text">DONATE</span> </span> </a></div></div></div><div style="--langs:1" class="elementor-element elementor-element-7fcfb78 cpel-switcher--layout-dropdown cpel-switcher--align-right elementor-widget-mobile__width-initial cpel-switcher--drop-on-click cpel-switcher--drop-to-down elementor-widget elementor-widget-polylang-language-switcher" data-id="7fcfb78" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="polylang-language-switcher.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><nav class="cpel-switcher__nav"><div class="cpel-switcher__toggle cpel-switcher__lang" onclick="this.classList.toggle('cpel-switcher__toggle--on')"><a lang="en-US" hreflang="en-US" href="https://east-turkistan.net/history-of-east-turkistan/"><span class="cpel-switcher__name">English</span><i class="cpel-switcher__icon fas fa-caret-down" aria-hidden="true"></i></a></div><ul class="cpel-switcher__list"><li class="cpel-switcher__lang"><a lang="ug-CN" hreflang="ug-CN" href="https://east-turkistan.net/uy/%d8%a8%d8%a7%d8%b4-%d8%a8%db%95%d8%aa-2/"><span class="cpel-switcher__name">ئۇيغۇرچە</span></a></li></ul></nav></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false true" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-02ed62a elementor-section-content-middle elementor-hidden-mobile elementor-hidden-desktop elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="02ed62a" data-element_type="section" data-settings="{"background_background":"classic","background_motion_fx_motion_fx_scrolling":"yes","sticky":"top","background_motion_fx_devices":["desktop","tablet","mobile"],"sticky_on":["desktop","tablet","mobile"],"sticky_offset":0,"sticky_effects_offset":0,"sticky_anchor_link_offset":0}"><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-narrow"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-50 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-dd2a688" data-id="dd2a688" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-bb59e4c elementor-nav-menu--stretch elementor-nav-menu__align-justify elementor-nav-menu--dropdown-tablet elementor-nav-menu__text-align-aside elementor-nav-menu--toggle elementor-nav-menu--burger elementor-widget elementor-widget-nav-menu" data-id="bb59e4c" data-element_type="widget" data-settings="{"full_width":"stretch","layout":"horizontal","submenu_icon":{"value":"<i class=\"fas fa-caret-down\"><\/i>","library":"fa-solid"},"toggle":"burger"}" data-widget_type="nav-menu.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><nav aria-label="Menu" class="elementor-nav-menu--main elementor-nav-menu__container elementor-nav-menu--layout-horizontal e--pointer-background e--animation-fade"><ul id="menu-1-bb59e4c" class="elementor-nav-menu"><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-home menu-item-7705"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net" class="elementor-item menu-link">Home</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom 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class="elementor-item elementor-item-anchor menu-link">Media</a><ul class="sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown"><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-7027"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/category/proceeding-reports/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">Parliamentary Session Reports</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-10986"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/category/publications/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">Publications</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-10988"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/category/voet/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">The Voice of East Turkistan</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-taxonomy menu-item-object-category menu-item-7032"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/category/videos/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">Videos</a></li></ul></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom current-menu-ancestor current-menu-parent menu-item-has-children menu-item-7034"><a aria-expanded="false" href="#" class="elementor-item elementor-item-anchor menu-link">About East Turkistan</a><ul class="sub-menu elementor-nav-menu--dropdown"><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-7035"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/about-the-people-of-east-turkistan/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">About The People of East Turkistan</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-7036"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/east-turkistan-at-a-glance/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">East Turkistan at a Glance</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page current-menu-item page_item page-item-11671 current_page_item menu-item-11697"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/history-of-east-turkistan/" aria-current="page" class="elementor-sub-item elementor-item-active menu-link">History of East Turkistan</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-11560"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/map-of-east-turkistan/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">Map of East Turkistan</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-7038"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/national-anthem/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">National Anthem</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-7039"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/national-emblem/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">National Emblem</a></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-post_type menu-item-object-page menu-item-7040"><a href="https://east-turkistan.net/national-flag/" class="elementor-sub-item menu-link">National Flag</a></li></ul></li><li class="menu-item menu-item-type-custom menu-item-object-custom menu-item-has-children 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data-sizes="(max-width: 1024px) 100vw, 1024px" loading="lazy" /></div></div></div></div></div></section></div><div id="content" class="site-content"><div class="ast-container"><div id="primary" class="content-area primary"><main id="main" class="site-main"><article class="post-11671 page type-page status-publish has-post-thumbnail ast-article-single" id="post-11671" itemtype="https://schema.org/CreativeWork" itemscope="itemscope"><header class="entry-header ast-no-title ast-header-without-markup"></header><div class="entry-content clear" itemprop="text"><div data-elementor-type="wp-page" data-elementor-id="11671" class="elementor elementor-11671" data-elementor-post-type="page"><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-aae7c9c elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="aae7c9c" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6405e48" data-id="6405e48" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-e0a4b0e elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer" data-id="e0a4b0e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="spacer.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-spacer"><div class="elementor-spacer-inner"></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-6b7c3b0 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="6b7c3b0" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h2 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">History of East Turkistan</h2></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-4ea8a9e elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider" data-id="4ea8a9e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="divider.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-divider"> <span class="elementor-divider-separator"> </span></div></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-95bbeb7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="95bbeb7" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>The territory of East Turkistan is recognized as a pivotal center in the development of human civilization in Central Asia. It boasts a native Indo-European civilization that spans 6,000 to 9,000 years and has a well-documented history of statehood that dates back nearly 3,000 years. This profound legacy is supported by an abundance of archaeological evidence. Paleolithic sites located in Charqilik County, Chöchek City, Jeminay County, the Turpan Basin, and  Qaba County among other sites in East Turkistan provide compelling proof of early human settlements in the region, dating back as far as 300,000 years. These findings not only highlight the long-standing human presence in the territory of East Turkistan but also underscore its significant role in the broader narrative of the development of human civilization in Central Asia.</p></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-8c9f8ce elementor-widget__width-initial elementor-toc--minimized-on-tablet elementor-widget elementor-widget-table-of-contents" data-id="8c9f8ce" data-element_type="widget" data-settings="{"headings_by_tags":["h3","h4","h5","h6"],"exclude_headings_by_selector":[],"collapse_subitems":"yes","min_height":{"unit":"px","size":0,"sizes":[]},"sticky":"top","sticky_parent":"yes","marker_view":"numbers","no_headings_message":"No headings were found on this page.","minimize_box":"yes","minimized_on":"tablet","hierarchical_view":"yes","min_height_tablet":{"unit":"px","size":"","sizes":[]},"min_height_mobile":{"unit":"px","size":"","sizes":[]},"sticky_on":["desktop","tablet","mobile"],"sticky_offset":0,"sticky_effects_offset":0,"sticky_anchor_link_offset":0}" data-widget_type="table-of-contents.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-toc__header"><h4 class="elementor-toc__header-title"> Table of Contents</h4><div class="elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--expand" role="button" tabindex="0" aria-controls="elementor-toc__8c9f8ce" aria-expanded="true" aria-label="Open table of contents"><i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-chevron-down"></i></div><div class="elementor-toc__toggle-button elementor-toc__toggle-button--collapse" role="button" tabindex="0" aria-controls="elementor-toc__8c9f8ce" aria-expanded="true" aria-label="Close table of contents"><i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-chevron-up"></i></div></div><div id="elementor-toc__8c9f8ce" class="elementor-toc__body elementor-toc__list-items--collapsible"><div class="elementor-toc__spinner-container"> <i class="elementor-toc__spinner eicon-animation-spin eicon-loading" aria-hidden="true"></i></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-e34e9aa elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="e34e9aa" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-702d39b" data-id="702d39b" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-e955f51 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="e955f51" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Stone Age</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-a7df783 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="a7df783" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p class="p1">Archeological research in East Turkistan has revealed a rich tapestry of human history dating back to the Stone Age. Early findings indicated the use of Paleolithic core, flakes, and evidence of fire use at several locations. A notable discovery was made in 1982 in Atush, East Turkistan, where archeologists unearthed a petrified human skull. Known as the ‘Atush man,’ this skull from the late Paleolithic period is estimated to be between 17,000 and 10,000 years old.</p><p class="p1">Further exploration in 2004 by a joint American-Chinese-Russian archaeological team led to the discovery of over 500 Paleolithic artifacts across 24 locations in East Turkistan. These sites included Kashgar, Aksu, Korla in the Tarim Basin, Turpan in the south, and numerous locations in the Junggar Basin. Among these, the oldest Paleolithic artifacts were assessed to be between 240,000 to 300,000 years old.</p><p class="p1">In the regions south of Khoten, pebble choppers and other simple chipped tools were uncovered, indicating the presence of Mesolithic hunter-gatherer societies. Mesolithic sites were also found in northern areas such as Khoten, Qumul, Aksu, Turpan, Lop Nor, Krorän, Jimsar, Urumchi, and Altay, featuring a range of well-crafted stone tools, including arrowheads, blades, and scrapers, dating from 9,000 to 8,000 BCE.</p><p class="p1">The Neolithic period, ranging from 10,000 BCE to 4,500 BCE, is also well-represented in East Turkistan. Numerous surface artifacts have been found across the region, both in the north and south. These findings include stable habitations, colored ceramics, and a diverse array of microliths and larger tools such as mortars and pestles. The first Neolithic artifacts in the region were discovered in Niya, East Turkistan, in 1904 by the Hungarian-born British archaeologist Aurel Stein.</p><p class="p1">These archaeological findings lend credence to Uyghur historian Muhammad Emin Bughra’s assertion of a 9,000-year history for East Turkistan’s Indo-European and Turkic peoples. They further illuminate the ancient communal societal life in East Turkistan, demonstrating the region’s significant role in the broader narrative of human civilization development in Central Asia.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-2f8bad4 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="2f8bad4" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-430ae96" data-id="430ae96" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-8dcae5c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="8dcae5c" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Bronze Age</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-7edd616 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="7edd616" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>East Turkistan’s Bronze Age archaeology reveals migrations from western Central Asia and Siberia into the Junggar Basin in northern East Turkistan. This era also shows that the region’s bronze metallurgy predated that of China. During the third millennium BCE, nomadic peoples in Central Eurasia began utilizing wheeled vehicles, such as heavy carts and later light war chariots, and incorporated bronze metallurgy extensively in their daily lives. These nomads, known historically as the “Scythians/Sakas,” are mentioned by Chinese historian Duan Lianqin. He refers to the ancestors of the modern Uyghurs – the “Dingling,” “Tiele,” and “Goache [High Carts]” – as users of heavy carts. Lianqin traces Uyghur history back to the 17th century BCE, approximately 3800-3900 years ago, while Uyghur historians claim their Indo-European and Hun-Turkic ancestors have resided in East Turkistan for 6,000–9,000 years.</p><p>Bronze Age sites in East Turkistan, such as Tashkurgan Krorän, Alagou (Turpan), the Altay, and the Tengri Tagh mountains, both southern and northern, have yielded a variety of artifacts. These include woven fabrics, pottery, jewelry, figurines, farming implements, grains, and animal bones, indicating that animal husbandry was a vital part of life by the second millennium BCE. Archaeological studies suggest interactions between the ancient peoples of East Turkistan and the Andronovo civilization of Western Central Asia.</p><p>Iron Age artifacts in East Turkistan, dating from around 1200 BCE, predate those found in the PRC Empire. The region had its own mines and local smelting techniques, and the metallurgy may have been influenced by pastoral nomadic Indo-European peoples migrating across the Eurasian steppes. Ancient sites in Junggaria and the Turpan-Qumul region indicate a predominance of independent nomadic pastoralism. Historical evidence shows interactions between herders and farmers, suggesting a mixed agricultural and pastoral land use. Victor Mair theorizes that wave of Indo-European migrants entered East Turkistan from Western Central Asia and Siberia around 2700 BCE. He proposes that the Tokharian language, known from first millennium CE sources in the Tarim Basin, was spoken much earlier. Various Indo-European and proto-Hunnic peoples, migrating into East Turkistan in the second millennium BCE, likely spoke different Indo-European languages.</p><p>The Sakas, an Indo-European nomadic warrior tribe, were among the first recorded in East Turkistan. Known as ‘Skōlotoi’ [Σκωλοτοι], ‘Sakai’ [Σακαι], or ‘Saka’ by ancient Greeks, Persians, Egyptians, and Assyrians, they used chariots, practiced horse sacrifice, and buried their dead in kurgans. Artifacts and Indo-European remains dating from around 650 BCE to the latter half of the first millennium BCE have been found in Tashkurgan, the Ili Valley, and Toqsun.</p><p>The “Yuezhi,” another ancient East Turkistani group possibly related to the Sakas, are identified with the “Tokharoi” and are believed to have founded the Kushan Empire (30 CE – 375 CE). Scholars like Mallory and Mair link the “Yuezhi” to the Afanasievo slab-grave culture in the Altay mountains and the Yenisei River basin, while A.K. Narain suggests they might have been native to the region around Dukhan in East Turkistan and the “Qilian” Mountains of Gansu.</p><p>The arrival of “newer” Indo-Europeans from western Central Asia introduced agrarian technologies and the ritual culture of sedentary society to the Tarim Basin. These migrations, coupled with influences from the northern steppes and Pamirs, shaped the Bronze Age culture of East Turkistan. By the late first millennium BCE, the Sakas/Scythians and Tokharian-speaking Indo-Europeans of East Turkistan were well-documented in various historical accounts.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-77c7c5d elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="77c7c5d" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-a8048cf" data-id="a8048cf" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-2f0157e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="2f0157e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Ancient Mummies</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-9bd01a3 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="9bd01a3" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p class="p1">Since their initial discovery in 1904, numerous ancient mummies have been unearthed, studied, and subsequently displayed in the museums of East Turkistan and elsewhere. Primarily found along the eastern and southern edges of the Tarim Basin, in locations such as Lop Nur, Subeshi near Turpan, Krorän, and Qumul, as well as Khotan, Niya, and Cherchen, these mummies provide invaluable insights into the region’s ancient history. Additionally, the Junggar Basin in northern East Turkistan, particularly Arshang, has revealed Bronze Age mummies. These Tarim mummies from Southern East Turkistan have been dated to a broad timeframe, ranging from 2,100 to 400 BCE.</p><p class="p1">Among the earliest finds is the Beauty of Krorän, discovered at Qäwrighul in 1980 and dated to 1800 BCE. Other significant discoveries include the tall, red-haired “Cherchen man” or “Ur-David” (circa 1000 BCE), his infant son with brown hair, the “Qumul Mummy” (circa 1400–800 BCE), a red-headed beauty found in Qizilchoqa, and the “Witches of Subeshi” (4th or 3rd century BCE), notable for their distinctive two-foot-long black felt conical hats with flat brims.</p><p class="p1">Mummies dating between 3000 and 2800 BCE, associated with the Central Asian Andronovo Bronze Age culture, have been found in the Junggar Basin of northern East Turkistan. A study conducted in 2021 concluded that while the Junggar Basin mummies were descended from both the Afanasievo and Ancient North Eurasian populations whereas the Tarim mummies were genetically distinct. Further genetic research, posits that the Tarim mummies from southern East Turkistan are direct descendants of a population that resided in the area during the Ice Age, thereby affirming their presence in the region for at least 9,000 years. This finding corroborates the Uyghur assertion of a long-standing 9,000-year history in East Turkistan through their ancient Indo-European ancestors. The earliest mummies found in the Tarim Basin, alongside other Bronze and Iron Age inhabitants of southern East Turkistan, are possibly the ancestors of the proto-Tokharian, Saka, or “Yuezhi” peoples. In contrast, the proto-Hun-Turkic peoples’ lineage may trace back to the mummies of the Junggar Basin.</p><p class="p1">These findings substantiate the historical presence of Indo-European and Hun-Turkic peoples in East Turkistan. Modern East Turkistanis, identifying closely with these ancient mummies, perceive a direct ancestral connection, asserting a continuity of their unique and ancient heritage over the 6,000 to 9,000 years.</p><p class="p2">Researchers emphasize that the modern East Turkistani/Uyghur genetic makeup includes a mix of West Eurasian, South Asian, North Asia and Northeast Asian ancestries, with the Northeast Asian component aligning more closely with Huns-Mongols. This suggests a notable contribution from ancient Hun (“Xiongnu”) peoples to the Northeast Asian DNA of modern Uyghurs, Kazakhs, and Kyrgyz. The predominance of Western Eurasian (Indo-European) DNA is evident among Uyghurs in areas such as Atush, Kashgar, Yarkent, Khotan, Cherchen, Ili (Ghulja), Aksu, Boretala, and Tarbaghatay. Conversely, the eastern regions of East Turkistan, like Turpan and Qumul, exhibit closer genetic ties to some Uyghur tribes that migrated from Mongolia and later intermingled with the native Indo-European and Hun-Turkic populations.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-9d18b19 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="9d18b19" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-8ef4583" data-id="8ef4583" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-e17ccfe elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="e17ccfe" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Ancient City-States and Kingdoms</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-86c317d elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="86c317d" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="flex-1 overflow-hidden"><div class="react-scroll-to-bottom--css-whecy-79elbk h-full"><div class="react-scroll-to-bottom--css-whecy-1n7m0yu"><div class="flex flex-col pb-9 text-sm"><div class="w-full text-token-text-primary" data-testid="conversation-turn-11"><div class="px-4 py-2 justify-center text-base md:gap-6 m-auto"><div class="flex flex-1 text-base mx-auto gap-3 md:px-5 lg:px-1 xl:px-5 md:max-w-3xl lg:max-w-[40rem] xl:max-w-[48rem] group final-completion"><div class="relative flex w-full flex-col lg:w-[calc(100%-115px)] agent-turn"><div class="flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3"><div class="flex flex-grow flex-col max-w-full"><div class="min-h-[20px] text-message flex flex-col items-start gap-3 whitespace-pre-wrap break-words [.text-message+&]:mt-5 overflow-x-auto" data-message-author-role="assistant" data-message-id="7353e706-5c07-45af-aa85-051217778392"><div class="markdown prose w-full break-words dark:prose-invert light"><p>Archaeological data indicates that since around 3000 BCE, two distinct groups have inhabited East Turkistan. In the northern Junggar Basin, proto-Hun-Turkic peoples established their dominance, while the southern regions of East Turkistan, namely the Tarim Basin and Turpan, were inhabited by Caucasian Indo-European Sakas or Tokharians. Modern Uyghurs and other East Turkistanis trace their ancestry to both these Indo-European and Hun groups.</p><p>Historical records from the Han Dynasty, along with findings from frozen tombs at the Alay Mountain site in Pazyryk, suggest that small city-states and kingdoms in the Tarim Basin and Turpan region engaged in trade and paid tribute to nomadic overlords, either Huns or their proto-Hun predecessors, north of the Tengri Tagh from around 500 BCE. Greek and Assyrian sources from the 9th to 8th centuries BCE referred to the Central Asian nomads, including those in East Turkistan, as “Cimmerians,” “Scythians,” and “Sakas.” In the 6th century BCE, Old Persian manuscripts labeled the people of East Turkistan as ‘Saka,’ a term later used by Herodotus to describe the Scythians of “Issedones” (East Turkistan), noting their use of hemp in vapor baths. Archaeologists have discovered a Saka (Scythian) cemetery dating back 2,500 years in the Pamir Plateau in southwestern East Turkistan, with evidence of direct hemp consumption.</p><p>Strabo, a Greek geographer and historian from the 1st century BCE, recorded that both Cyrus the Great and Darius I fought against the “Sacae [Saka]” people of “Issedones” in the fifth century BCE, and that Alexander the Great encountered them in the 4th century BCE. Mahmud Al-Kashgari, an 11th-century Uyghur-Qarakhanid lexicographer and geographer, recounted in his work <em>Dīwāni Lughāt al-Turk</em> the ancient Turkic people’s interactions with Alexander the Great.</p><p>In 176 BCE, the Hun Emperor Batur Tengriqut (Modun Chanyu) communicated to Emperor Wen of the Han Dynasty that East Turkistan and its surrounding areas comprised over 26 city-states and kingdoms. These entities, primarily located in oases within the vast desert of the Tarim Basin, maintained tributary relationships with the proto-Hun-Turkic tribes of the Junggar Basin. The <em>Han Shu (Book of Han)</em>, dating from the 1st century BCE, lists 36 city-states and kingdoms across East Turkistan and its neighboring regions. Prominent among these were Krorän (“Loulan”), Kargan (“Shanshan”), Chechen (“Qiemo”), Khoten (“Yutian”), Guma (“Pishan”), Kashgar (“Shule”), Onsu (“Wensu”), Kucha (“Quici”), Yarkhoto/Turpan (“Cheshi/Jushii”), and Dukhan (“Dunhuang”).</p><p>It is noteworthy that historically, Chinese records have often sinicized the names of foreign countries and peoples. This practice continues to the present day, with Chinese names for foreign countries and peoples often bearing little resemblance to their actual native names. Examples include Austria being referred to as “ào dì lì,” Hungary as “xiōng yá lì,” Greece as “xī là,” and the United States as “měi guó.”</p></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-42b8c5e elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="42b8c5e" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-beb7832" data-id="beb7832" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-a21a7ab elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="a21a7ab" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Hun ("Xiongnu") Empire</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-73c12ad elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="73c12ad" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>The Huns, known as “Xiongnu” in Chinese sources, are believed to have been part of a Indo-European Scythian culture, closely related to the Pazyryk and Afanasievo cultures (3500 – 2500 BCE) which immediately preceded their emergence in history. The earliest reference to the Huns by the Zhou states in China dates back to 457 BCE, where they were referred to as “Hu,” a generic term initially used for nomadic peoples prior to the Han Dynasty but later became synonymous with the Huns.</p><p>The Zhan Guo Ce (Annals of the Warring States) records that the proto-Huns engaged in trade with the Chinese Zhou states, exchanging horses and furs. However, the expansion of the Zhou States—Yan, Zhao, and Qin—into the territories of the proto-Hu, who were either nomadic or semi-nomadic, led to increased tensions. Historian Di Cosmo (2002) suggests that the construction of the Great Wall by the Zhou States was a strategy to defend against nomadic peoples who were either displaced or became hostile due to Chinese military presence in these regions. The expansionism of the Chinese eventually provoked Hun attacks, with a notable incident in 215 BCE when Emperor Qin Shi Huang ordered General Meng Tian to lead a massive army against the Ordos Hun tribes.</p><p>The Huns responded to Chinese aggression by formalizing their tribal confederation into a structured government. In 209 BCE, Hun Emperor Batur Tengriqut, also known as Modun Chanyu in Chinese sources, united various Hun, proto-Turkic, and Indo-European Central Asian nomadic and semi-nomadic groups, establishing Hun sovereignty over northern East Turkistan (Jungaria), Mongolia (including Southern Mongolia), and Manchuria. Before the Qin unification in 221 BCE, the northern Chinese states had managed to contain the Huns, but the situation changed with the emergence of the Han Dynasty from the Qin Dynasty. In 200 BCE, Batur Tengriqut successfully encircled a large Han army with his own forces, leading to a humiliating peace treaty for the Han in 198 BCE, which involved sending expensive annual tributes to the Huns.</p><p>In 176 BCE, Hun Emperor Batur Tengriqut asserted his empire’s success in a proclamation, stating that they had conquered the Tocharians (Yuzezhi), Krorän (Loulan), the Uysun (Wusun), and 26 other states, integrating them into the Hun Empire.</p><p>Despite the treaty, the Huns continued to invade Han territory after Batur Tengriqut’s death in 174 BCE, leading to another peace treaty in 162 BCE. The Hun Empire also established an office in 162 BCE to manage relations with the independent city-states and kingdoms of southern East Turkistan and Transoxiana, which had become their de facto vassals. The Han Dynasty, perceiving these city-states and kingdoms as aligned with the Hun Empire, adopted a strategy of using foreign powers against each other, indicative of their diplomatic and military tactics at the time.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-cd073f4 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="cd073f4" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-0458553" data-id="0458553" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-0f24b38 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="0f24b38" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Hun-Sino War and Great Power Competition in Central Asia</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-af23314 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="af23314" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="flex-1 overflow-hidden"><div class="react-scroll-to-bottom--css-whecy-79elbk h-full"><div class="react-scroll-to-bottom--css-whecy-1n7m0yu"><div class="flex flex-col pb-9 text-sm"><div class="w-full text-token-text-primary" data-testid="conversation-turn-15"><div class="px-4 py-2 justify-center text-base md:gap-6 m-auto"><div class="flex flex-1 text-base mx-auto gap-3 md:px-5 lg:px-1 xl:px-5 md:max-w-3xl lg:max-w-[40rem] xl:max-w-[48rem] group final-completion"><div class="relative flex w-full flex-col lg:w-[calc(100%-115px)] agent-turn"><div class="flex-col gap-1 md:gap-3"><div class="flex flex-grow flex-col max-w-full"><div class="min-h-[20px] text-message flex flex-col items-start gap-3 whitespace-pre-wrap break-words [.text-message+&]:mt-5 overflow-x-auto" data-message-author-role="assistant" data-message-id="dd9ea9a4-26fa-46f8-9aba-47133910c64f"><div class="markdown prose w-full break-words dark:prose-invert dark"><p>In 139 BCE, Han Emperor Wu Di dispatched Zhang Qian to East Turkistan with a delegation of over 100 men, aiming to form an alliance with the “Yuezhi” against the Huns. However, Zhang Qian’s mission was unsuccessful; he was detained by the Huns and failed to establish an alliance with the “Yuezhi.” Despite this setback, his expedition to Central Asia significantly shaped ancient Chinese knowledge and policies towards the region. Following a failed Chinese ambush in 133 BCE, relations between the Huns and the Chinese deteriorated, sparking the Sino-Hun War, which lasted from 133 BCE to 90 CE. A significant event in this conflict was the “Battle of Hexi” in 121 BCE, where the Huns suffered a defeat, losing the Gansu corridor and Dukhan (Dunhuang) to the Han Empire.</p><p>From the 2nd Century BCE to the 1st Century CE, the geopolitical landscape of Eastern Eurasia was characterized by a dualistic foreign relations framework. This structure divided Central Asia into two conflicting spheres of influence, reminiscent of contemporary power dynamics. The city-states and kingdoms of southern East Turkistan, at the least, were vassals to the Hun (“Xiongnu”) Empire, while northern East Turkistan (Junggaria) was directly under Hun rule. The Sino-Hun War subsequently embroiled southern East Turkistan and Central Asia in a great power competition between the Hun Turkic and Han Chinese empires. As a result, the independent city-states and kingdoms of East Turkistan navigated this geopolitical turbulence with shifting allegiances. Despite Zhang Qian’s second mission to Central Asia in 115 BCE and subsequent Han efforts from 104 BCE through 60 BCE, the Chinese struggled to sever the relationship between the Huns and their vassals in southern East Turkistan and Transoxiana.</p><p>In 60 BCE, the Han dynasty established the “Xiyu Duhu Fu [Western Countries Protector General]” office to manage relations and exert influence over the numerous independent kingdoms and city-states of southern East Turkistan and Central Asia. This office, similar to the Hun Empire’s diplomatic office in southern East Turkistan, worked to sway these entities from aligning with the Huns.</p><p>However, the Han’s efforts in East Turkistan and Central Asia waned in 8 CE due to internal civil war, allowing the Huns to regain influence over the region’s independent city-states and kingdoms. During this period, the Kushan Empire (30 CE – 375 CE) also rose to prominence in southwestern East Turkistan. Despite subsequent Han incursions into southern East Turkistan between 74-76 CE and 91-107 CE, their influence in the region diminished after 107 CE, leaving the Huns to reassert their dominance over the Tarim Basin’s city-states and kingdoms. After the decline of the Northern Huns to the proto-Mongolic Xianbei in 155 CE and the subjugation of the Southern Huns in 216 CE, the Han dynasty lost its interest in southern East Turkistan.</p><p>Throughout this era, the city-states and kingdoms of East Turkistan and Transoxiana, including prominent ones like the Kingdom of Krorän, navigated the major geopolitical rivalry between the Hun and Han empires. These entities frequently altered their alliances to maintain independence and sovereignty despite the strategic power competition. Notably, the diplomatic and military presence of the Hun and Han empires in southern East Turkistan, such as the establishment of the “Xiyu Duhu Fu,” should not be misconstrued as evidence of sovereignty.</p><p>The Chinese government’s current claims that temporary Han military farm garrisons (“Tuntian”) in East Turkistan signify permanent presence and sovereignty are historically unsubstantiated. These garrisons supported diplomatic and trade missions and occasional military operations but do not imply Han sovereignty over the region. Similarly, the Han dynasty’s relationship with East Turkistan and the broader Central Asian region’s city-states and kingdoms is analogous to the PRC’s current relations with independent Central Asian Republics. It is crucial to recognize that the presence of military bases and diplomatic missions by global powers in a region does not equate to sovereignty claims. Contemporary Chinese assertions of ancient sovereignty over East Turkistan defy historical and diplomatic precedents and raise concerns about the implications of accepting such claims for international relations and territorial integrity.</p></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-020abac elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="020abac" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-b1b289a" data-id="b1b289a" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-f525a68 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="f525a68" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Kushan Empire and Buddhist Kingdoms</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-6edbc25 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="6edbc25" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>During the first and second centuries CE, while the Hun and Han Empires vied for control in Central Asia, the Tocharian (“Yuezhi”) people emerged as a formidable power in Tokharistan (ancient Bactria), founding the Kushan Empire around 30 CE. By 90 CE, the Kushans had extended their influence to regions that are now known as Kashgar, Yarkent, and Khotan. Throughout the first to fourth centuries CE, the Kushan Empire exerted significant influence over the Indo-European city-kingdoms in the southern and western sections of the Tarim Basin. It was under the Kushans that Buddhism was introduced to East Turkistan and Central Asia.</p><p>Post the final Han expedition in 127 CE, as recorded in Chinese chronicles, China’s engagement with East Turkistan and Central Asia was predominantly confined to diplomatic and trade delegations to the Chinese courts. The remnants of the Huns, Uysun, and other proto-Turkic groups such as the “Goache” governed northern East Turkistan (Junggaria). Meanwhile, in the south, independent city-states and kingdoms thrived, some coming under the influence of the expanding Kushan Empire. The Kingdoms of Kashgar, Khoten, Kucha, and Cherchen emerged as prominent entities in the southern and western parts of the Tarim Basin. Other Indo-European Tarim Basin city-states and kingdoms, including Krorän and Kargan, prospered as independent feudal entities, engaging in trade with the Kushan Empire, other Indo-European kingdoms, and the Chinese. This era witnessed a flourishing of Buddhism across the city-states and kingdoms of East Turkistan.</p><p>By the late third century CE, the Kingdoms of Khoten and Kucha had established themselves as major Buddhist centers. In the mid-fourth century CE, the Chinese mounted two invasions into East Turkistan, targeting the affluent city-states of the Turpan and Tarim Basin for tribute and loot. Upon completing their raids, they swiftly withdrew from East Turkistan, taking with them the Indian-Kuchean Buddhist monk Kumarajiva. In China, Kumarajiva was instrumental in translating Buddhist texts into Chinese and teaching disciples.</p><p>During this same period, the Sogdians, later referred to as ‘Sart [merchants]’ by Mahmud Kashgari in the 11th century CE, played a crucial role in facilitating trade and communication along the ancient Silk Road. The term ‘Sart’ was later used by the Russians in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries to describe the modern Uyghur merchants of East Turkistan’s oasis cities. The Sogdian language became the lingua franca of the Silk Road, and the Sogdians established new cities throughout East Turkistan. While other Indo-European languages were present, the meticulous record-keeping by the Sogdians means that most manuscripts discovered from this era in East Turkistan are in the Sogdian language.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-ba7f84e elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="ba7f84e" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-69b987d" data-id="69b987d" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-1ee4759 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="1ee4759" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Imperial Hephthalites (White Huns) and Avars</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-d389634 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="d389634" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>During the 5th to 6th centuries CE, the Ak Hun, also known as the White Huns, emerged as a dominant power in East Turkistan. They were known as Hephthalites by the Greco-Romans, ‘Spet Xyon’ (White Hun) by the Persians, ‘Sveta Huna’ by the Indians, and ‘al-Hayațila’ or ‘al-Atrâk’ (Turks) by the Arabs. In the late 5th century, the Chinese chronicles referred to them as “Ye-thai-i-li-to / Yada,” engaged in conflict with the “Gaoche” for control of the region.</p><p>The Turkic “Gaoche,” also known as “Tegreg” or “High Carts,” first appeared in Chinese records in 357 CE. The Weishu (Book of Wei) described them as descendants of the “Tiele,” who were also known to the Chinese as the “Dingling.” The Dingling were initially recorded in the 1st century BCE as a branch of the Huns. Following the collapse of the Hun Empire, the “Gaoche” emerged as a distinct group, with their western branch residing in Junggaria in northern East Turkistan and the eastern branch inhabiting Kengsu, Gansu, and Southern Mongolia.</p><p>By the late 5th century, the Avar (“Rouran”) Khaganate, a Proto-Mongolic tribal confederation originating from the Donghu, held suzerainty over the “Gaoche.” At the onset of the Middle Ages, the Ak Hun (Imperial Hephthalites) governed the Indo-European kingdoms and city-states of the Tarim Basin in southern East Turkistan and Transoxiana. Simultaneously, the Avar Khaganate exercised control over the Turkic peoples, including the “Gaoche” and “Tiele,” in Junggaria and Kengsu.</p><p>The influence of the White Huns persisted in East Turkistan, as they continued to rule as principalities under the Kök Turk Khaganate well into the 8th century. This period marked a significant chapter in the region’s history, characterized by the interplay of various cultural and political influences across East Turkistan.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-7ef8776 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="7ef8776" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-12f502e" data-id="12f502e" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-1cd2f4e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="1cd2f4e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Kök Turk Khaganate</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-76c024f elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="76c024f" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>In the 5th century CE, a Turkic group from the Altay Mountains in northern East Turkistan rose against the Rouran Khaganate, forming the Kök Turk Khaganate in 551 CE. At its zenith around 576 CE, the Kök Turk Khaganate’s territory spanned across much of Central Asia, from the Black Sea to Manchuria. Known as “Tūjué 突厥” in Chinese records, they were also referred to as ‘Twrk,’ ‘Tturka’, and ‘Drugu’ by the Sogdians, Tokharians, and Tibetans, respectively, and as ‘Tourkoi’ by the Persians and Eastern Romans.</p><p>The rulers of the Kök Turk Khaganate originated from the ‘Asena/Asina/Ashina’ tribe, believed by some Chinese scholars to have descended from the Hun (“Xiongnu”) confederation. However, western historians like Hungarian linguist András Róna-Tas have posited that the Asena/Ashina might have Indo-European origins, potentially descending from the Tokharians, Saka, or Uysun (Wusun) tribes.</p><p>The Kök Turk Khaganate, like the Hun Empire, was a confederation of diverse Indo-European and Turkic tribes. In 560 CE, they conquered the Ak Hun (Hephthalites) and other Indo-European entities in the Tarim Basin. The rise of the Kök Turk Khaganate sparked a new phase of great power competition in Central Asia, particularly with the Sui Dynasty feeling threatened. In 603 CE, the Sui Dynasty instigated rebellions within the Khaganate, leading to its division into Eastern and Western Turks. The Tang Dynasty would later undertake several expeditions against the Eastern Kök Turks in the 620s and 630s.</p><p>The Tang Dynasty employed strategies to incite rebellion among Turkic tribes, such as the Uyghurs, Tardush, and Karluks, weakening the Western Turks who ruled over East Turkistan. After subjugating the Eastern Turks by 630 CE, the Tang used their vassal tribes to conquer oases city-states in East Turkistan, forcing them to accept Tang suzerainty. In 640 CE, the Tang established the “Protector General of Anxi” office, mirroring the Han Dynasty’s approach to exert influence in the region.</p><p>By 657 CE, the Tang had fragmented the Western Turkic Khaganate by pitting rival Khans against each other. However, a rebellion in 662 overthrew Tang suzerainty. The Tibetan Empire allied with Turkic tribes to expel Tang influence from the Tarim Basin in 670 CE. Despite attempts to regain control, the Tang’s influence in East Turkistan and Central Asia was largely unsuccessful after 693 CE. The Asena clan re-established the second Turkic Khaganate in 682 CE, regaining control over the region by 712 CE.</p><p>During this era, the Kök Turk Khaganate, the Tang Dynasty, the Tibetans, and the Arabs vied for dominance in Central Asia. Bilge Qaghan’s leadership prevented the Tang Dynasty from dominating this struggle. Despite the Tang’s initial success in manipulating Turkic tribes, they never achieved true sovereignty over East Turkistan or Central Asia. Their influence was sporadic and often countered by other regional powers.</p><p>The Chinese presence in East Turkistan was primarily through military campaigns and limited to Tang officials and garrisons, often staffed by Turkic soldiers and led by non-Chinese commanders. The Tang court itself displayed significant Central Asian and steppe influences. The defeat of Tang forces at the Battle of Talas in 751 CE by a coalition of Tibetans, Turks, and Arabs marked the end of significant Chinese influence in Central Asia until the latter half of the 20th century, especially following the An Lushan Rebellion in 755 CE.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-bda4d2c elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="bda4d2c" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-7e550a9" data-id="7e550a9" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-7a6ffb7 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="7a6ffb7" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Toqquz Oghuz Khaganate (Uyghur Empire)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-708678e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="708678e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>The Toquz Oghuz Khaganate, also known as the Uyghur Empire, was established in 744 CE under the leadership of the Yaghlaqar tribe. This empire represented a continuation of the Kök Turks, albeit under a new ruling family. The Terkhin (Tairat) inscriptions from 754 CE and a Manichean text from 763 CE emphasize the Turkic identity of the Uyghurs, referring to them as “Turk Budun [Turk people].”</p><p>The Tang Shu, a Chinese historical record, notes that the Toquz Oghuz territory spanned the entire area of the ancient Hun (Xiongnu) Empire. The Uyghur Khaganate, like its predecessors, was a confederation governing various Turkic and Indo-European tribes and peoples across East Turkistan and Central Asia. The Wei Shu, another Chinese source, first mentioned the Uyghurs as part of the “Goache” confederation, later recognized as “Tiele” by the Chinese.</p><p>The Sui Shu (Book of Sui) describes the Tiele as descendants of the Huns (Xiongnu), divided into seven regions across Central Asia. The Xin Tang Shu (New Book of Tang) further traces the Uyghur lineage to the Huns, noting their use of high-wheeled carts and their naming as “Gaoche” during the Yuan Wei period (386-535 CE).</p><p>The Toquz Oghuz were semi-nomadic but also engaged in trade and agriculture. They established significant cities such as Ordu Baliq (Royal Capital). For state administration, they adopted Sogdian cultural and political practices, with Sogdians advising the rulers and managing commercial networks. The Uyghurs also adopted the Sogdian script and converted to Manichaeism for effective administration.</p><p>The Uyghurs maintained a cautious relationship with the Tang Dynasty, aiding them in the An Lushan Rebellion in 755 CE. In return, they received substantial tribute from the Tang. However, internal strife, such as the coup d’état by Tun Bagha Tarkhan in 779 CE, impacted their relations with the Tang.</p><p>Under the Yaghlaqlar dynasty, and later under Alp Qutluq from the Ädiz clan, the Toquz Oghuz Khaganate expanded its influence, often clashing with the Tibetans and Karluks. Their influence reached as far as Sogdiana (present-day Uzbekistan).</p><p>The Tang Dynasty, burdened by tributes to the Toquz Oghuz, began instigating conflicts within the empire. In 840 CE, the Yenisei Kyrgyz, invited by a defector from the Toquz Oghuz, invaded and sacked Ordu Baliq, forcing the Uyghurs to flee. Pan Tekin led a significant group to Qocho in East Turkistan, while others sought refuge in Tang territory, only to be repelled and later attacked by the Tang forces from 842 to 848 CE.</p><p>This period in history is marked by the Uyghur Empire’s dominance in Central Asia, their complex relations with neighboring powers, and the eventual decline and displacement of the Uyghurs, highlighting the turbulent nature of the region’s political landscape during that era.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-52ca652 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="52ca652" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-1aff6d3" data-id="1aff6d3" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-a93649c elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="a93649c" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Qarakhanid State</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-01d0a16 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="01d0a16" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>Following the collapse of the Toquz Oghuz Khaganate, some tribes from the confederation migrated southward into East Turkistan and the Gansu region. The Yaghmas, Karluks, and Chigil, from areas such as Yettesu (Zhetysu), the Illi valley, and southwestern East Turkistan, united to form the Qarakhanid Khanate in 840 CE. Kul Kadir Khan, a member of the Asena royal clan, declared himself the Qaghan, leading this new confederation.</p><p>The Qarakhanid Khanate (840-1213 CE), Central Asia’s first Turkic Muslim dynasty, was known by various names: al-Khaqaniya and Almuluk al-khaniyya al-atrak by the Arabs, Al-Afrasiyab by the Persians, and “Halahan” in Chinese records. The mass conversion to Islam under Sultan Sutuq Bughra Khan in 960 CE marked a significant religious shift. The Qarakhanids took Transoxiana from the Samanids in 999 CE and conquered the Indo-European Buddhist Kingdom of Khoten in 1006 CE, though full Islamization of its population took several generations.</p><p>The Qarakhanids, as orthodox Sunni Hanafi Muslims, emphasized loyalty to the Abbasid caliph in Baghdad to solidify their legitimacy. The western and eastern parts of the Khanate were ruled by Bughra Kara Khaqan and Arslan Kara Khaqan, respectively, from their capitals in Samarqand, Balsagun (Kyrgyzstan), and Kashgar (East Turkistan). By 1040, the Khanate had split into Eastern and Western Qarakhanid khanates due to internal competition.</p><p>Under Qarakhanid rule, Central Asia witnessed significant urbanization, craftsmanship, and trade, particularly with the Northern Song and Liao dynasties. Despite retaining some nomadic traits, the Qarakhanids oversaw an era of intense sedentarization and agricultural expansion.</p><p>The Turkification of Indo-European peoples in Transoxiana, Yettesu, and the Tarim Basin began under the Qarakhanids, and Islam spread eastward. They embraced Arabo-Persian Muslim culture, establishing Transoxiana and Fergana as centers of Hanafi law and theology. Works like Mahmud Kashghari’s Diwani Lughat al-Turk and Yusuf Khass Hajib’s Qutadgu Bilig illustrate the flourishing of Turkic Islamic literature and thought during this period.</p><p>In the 12th century, the Qarakhanids became vassals of the Qara Qidan (Kara Khitay), leading to their decline by the 13th century. Their alliance with the Khwarezmians in 1212 CE and the execution of the last Qarakhanid ruler by Khwarazm Shah Muhammad in 1213 CE marked the end of the dynasty. The Qarakhanids are revered for their significant contributions to the modern Uyghur culture, language, identity, and religious lineage, making them an important ancestral figure in the history of the Uyghur people and Central Asia.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-110c89c elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="110c89c" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-59e215d" data-id="59e215d" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-fce6516 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="fce6516" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-93de8e6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="93de8e6" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>After the collapse of the Toquz Oghuz (Uyghur) Empire in 840 CE, a faction led by Pan Tekin from the Ädiz clan migrated south into the Qara Khoja-Turpan region of East Turkistan, establishing the Idiqut State, also known as the Qocho Uyghur Kingdom, in 843 CE. The Ädiz clan, part of the Turkic “Goache / Tiele” confederation, previously resided around the Syr Darya and southwestern East Turkistan, later joining the Sir-Tardush (“Xueyantuo”) near Lake Baikal before returning to East Turkistan.</p><p>The surviving Yaghlaqar branch of the Toquz Oghuz, after enduring the Tang massacres, settled in Kengsu and western Gansu, founding the Kansu Uyghur Kingdom (“Ganzhou Uyghur Kingdom”) in 870 CE. They later became known as the ‘Sarïg Yogïr [Yellow Uyghurs]’ following subjugation by the Tanguts in 1037 CE.</p><p>The Indo-European Tokharians in the Tarim Basin intermarried with the Uyghurs, leading to a gradual replacement of the Tokharian language by the Turkic Uyghur language. Initially, the Idiqut rulers had Mongoloid features typical of Altaic people, but by the 12th century, Chinese envoys described the inhabitants of the Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom as having curly hair, deep-set eyes, and curly beards, indicating a significant degree of physical integration.</p><p>In 866 CE, the Idiqut Uyghur ruler declared himself Khan, adopting the old Basmyl title of Idiqut [Sacred Majesty]. The kingdom expanded to include Qarasher, Beshbaliq, Changbaliq, and Bugur, with Qara Sheher (Qocho) as its capital and Beshbaliq as the summer capital. The Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom practiced religious tolerance, accommodating Manichaeism, Buddhism, and Nestorian Christianity, while opposing Islam due to conflicts with the expanding Qarakhanids.</p><p>By 1096 CE, the Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom had lost Aksu, Tumshuq, and Kucha to the Qarakhanids. In 1130 CE, the Mongolic Khitan people established the Qara Khitay Empire, gaining suzerainty over the Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom and the Qarakhanid Khanate. In 1209, the Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom voluntarily submitted to Chinggis Khan, becoming a vassal state of the Mongol Empire and thereby removing Qara Khitay suzerainty.</p><p>The Idiqut Uyghurs played a vital role in the Mongol Empire, with Barchuq Art Tegin being ordained as Chinggis Khan’s fifth son and holding important positions. The Uyghurs provided critical administrative skills to the Mongol Empire, establishing the use of official seals, administrative records, and the Uyghur script. They served as governors and tax collectors for Mongol provinces.</p><p>Due to their valuable service, the Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom avoided the destructive conquests that affected many Central Asian cities, enduring from the 9th to the 14th centuries. It maintained its sovereignty until the 1370s, when it was annexed by Eastern Chaghatay Khanate (Moghulistan). The Idiqut Uyghur Kingdom’s legacy is significant, contributing to the cultural and administrative development of the region.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-eaa05b6 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="eaa05b6" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-76543ca" data-id="76543ca" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-29a38b6 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="29a38b6" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Chaghatay, Yarkent and Junggar Khanates</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-38afd6c elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="38afd6c" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>The Chaghatay Khanate, governed by Chaghatay Khan, Genghis Khan’s second son, and his descendants and successors, emerged as a separate entity after the Mongol Empire’s split in 1259. Following the death of Qazan Khan in 1346, the Chaghatay Khanate, encompassing East and West Turkistan, divided into Transoxiana in the west and Moghulistan in the east, controlling much of East Turkistan. Tughluq Timur, of Chaghatay descent, defeated the nomadic Mongols, converted to Islam, and by 1363, most Moghuls had also converted to Islam and become Turkified under his rule. Timur launched invasions in 1360 and 1361 into the Western Chaghatay Khanate to re-establish its dominance. The Chaghatay domains once stretched from Transoxiana to the Tarim Basin, and from the Irtysh River in Siberia to Ghazni in Afghanistan. Moghulistan ruled much of Eastern Turkistan, and its settled lands in the Tarim Basin, known as Mangalai Suyah or “Advanced Land Facing the Sun,” included the western and central Tarim oases like Khoten, Yarkent, Yengisar, Kashgar, Aksu, and Uch Turpan, but not the eastern Tengri Tagh oases of Kucha, Qarashahr, Turpan, and Qumul, which still had a local Uyghur administration and a Buddhist population.</p><p>In the 1390s, the Muslim Khan of Moghulistan, Chaghatay Khizr Khoja, conquered the Qocho-Turpan region and forced the Buddhist Uyghurs of Qocho and Turfan to accept Islam. After nearly 100 years, Moghulistan further split into two parts: the Yarkent Khanate (Mamlakati Yarkent), with its capital at Yarkent, encompassing all of southern East Turkistan and the Turpan-Kengsu regions, and Moghulistan to the north of Tengri Tagh, later known as Junggaria. Dughlat Mirza Abu-Bakr initially established a state in Yarkent after rebelling against Moghulistan, capturing Kashgar and Khotan and declaring himself an independent ruler in 1465 after defeating Moghulistan rulers Yunus Khan and his son Ahmed Khan (or Ahmed Alaq). The Dughlat Amirs, ruling south of the Tarim Basin, were vassals of Chaghatay Khan and his descendants from the mid-13th century. Kashgar was the capital of Mamlakati Kashgar [The Country of Kashgar]. In May 1514, Sultan Seyid (Said) Khan, Yunus Khan’s grandson, led a 5000-man expedition from Andijan to Kashgar, dethroning Mirza Abu-Bakr. Subsequently, other East Turkistani cities—Yarkent, Khotan, Aksu, and Uch Turpan—recognized Sultan Said Khan as the ruler of the newly established Yarkent Khanate.</p><p>The Yarkent Khanate, under Sultan Khan, quickly consolidated control over much of East Turkistan, conducting frequent raids eastward into Ming territory and south into Tibet. Around this time, the Kazakhs emerged as a political entity, establishing the Kazakh Khanate in the Yettesu (Zhetysu) Region and the northwest parts of East Turkistan. However, in the 15th century, the Oirat Mongols migrated westward into northern East Turkistan, defeating the last Chaghatay Khans and taking control of Moghulistan, which later became Junggaria.</p><p>East Turkistan thrived under the Yarkent Khanate, experiencing a cultural and intellectual renaissance, particularly with the compilation of the Twelve Muqams. However, with the arrival of foreign Naqshbandi extremists in the early 17th century, the Yarkent Khanate began to decline politically and socially. The Naqshbandi Sufis, likely of Persian descent and led by Ahmad Kasani, called themselves “Khojas” or “Masters” and claimed to be “sayyids” or “descendants of the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh).” By the late 17th century, the Khojas, under the leadership of Hidayetullah Afaq Khoja, had infiltrated and corrupted much of East Turkistani society. The Khojas contended with the governing elite of the Yarkent Khanate, advocating for the implementation of strict Sharia law rather than the secular Yasa in place. Ismail Khan, the last legitimate ruler of the Turkic Yarkent Khanate, exiled Afaq Khoja and many of his followers in 1670. Afaq Khoja then sought assistance from the Dalai Lama, who implored the Buddhist Junggar Khan, Galdan, to help the Khojas seize control of the Yarkent Khanate. In 1678, the Junggars invaded and overthrew the Yarkent Khanate in 1705, establishing Afaq Khoja as the puppet ruler of southern East Turkistan.</p><p>As vassals of the Junggars in the north of East Turkistan, Afaq Khoja and his descendants tyrannized southern East Turkistan, oppressing the Turkic peoples. During the Junggars’ expansion into Central Asia, the Khojas split into two factions: the Aq-Taghliq (White Mountaineers) and Qara Taghliq (Black Mountaineers). These groups fought for control of southern East Turkistan, turning the population against each other and instituting stringent Sharia law, leading to societal ignorance. The Khojas used Islam to subjugate the Turkic people of East Turkistan, deliberately keeping them uneducated until the early 20th century and the rise of the East Turkistan national movement.</p><p>By 1752, Amursana and Dawachi were embroiled in a power struggle for the Junggar Khanate’s throne. After Amursana’s defeat, he fled to the Manchu Qing and returned in 1755 with a large Manchu army that easily conquered northern East Turkistan amidst the Junggar civil war. The Manchus then subdivided the Junggars into multiple realms and appointed multiple Junggar khans to more easily exercise suzerainty. However, Amansura led a rebellion against the Manchus to establish himself as the sole Khan of the Junggars. The Manchus responded with a “final solution,” slaughtering the majority of the Junggar men, while the women, children, and elderly were taken as slaves. Historians estimate that between 1755 and 1757, approximately 600,000 Junggars perished due to massacres, starvation, and disease, ultimately leading to their extinction as a people.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-f1a4180 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="f1a4180" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-622ec4b" data-id="622ec4b" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-9ed2d61 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="9ed2d61" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">East Turkistan under Manchu Colonial Occupation (1759-1863)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-75ca111 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="75ca111" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>The Junggar leader Amursana attempted to incite Afaq Khoja’s sons to seize control of the Tarim Basin by exploiting factionalism in southern East Turkistan. While other Khojas offered to unite in the name of Islam rather than engage in internal conflict, Afaq Khoja’s son Burhan ad-Din attacked the Qarataghliq faction, providing an opportunity for the Manchus, Oirat Mongols, and followers of Burhan-ad Din to march to Kashgar and capture it in June 1759. Qing General Fude also subdued Yarkent and Khoten, while Burhan ad-Din and other Khoja leaders fled to Badakhshan. Although Yusuf Khoja of Yarkent organized a resistance force, they were ultimately defeated. By the winter of 1759, the Manchus successfully occupied the entirety of East Turkistan, both the Junggar Basin in the north and the Tarim Basin in the south. Between 1759 and 1863, the Manchus maintained control over the southern region of East Turkistan by utilizing various Khoja factions and clerics as local puppet administrators.</p><p>To sustain their occupation of East Turkistan, the Manchu Qing dynasty resettled over a hundred thousand Chinese colonists (Han and Hui, Chinese Muslims) in the northern Junggar region of the country. After facing several uprisings against Manchu occupation, the Qing dynasty placed the entire East Turkistan under the military rule of a Zhiang Zhun (Military Governor) headquartered west of Ghulja. The Qing Military Governor position was established in 1762 and was responsible for suppressing any uprisings and dissent against Manchu Qing occupation. To maintain their grip on East Turkistan, the Manchus stationed a substantial army, initially comprising 40,000 soldiers and eventually growing to more than 50,000 soldiers by the mid-19th century.</p><p>In addition to the Qing Military Governor and their sizable military presence, the Manchus employed the “beg” system to appoint loyal local officials as puppet administrators in their new military colony of East Turkistan. The term ‘beg’ means “local governor” or “local ruler” in the Uyghur/Turkic language. These local puppet officials competed with one another to demonstrate their loyalty to their Qing overlords, and the Manchus enriched these local puppet rulers to further solidify their occupation of East Turkistan. Concurrently, the Manchus cultivated the ulamas (religious scholars and clerics) among the khojas to maintain their influence over the population of East Turkistan. These Islamic religious leaders received titles and salaried positions from the Manchu occupation forces. The puppet officials and clerics in East Turkistan were notorious for their repression and exploitation of the local populace, leading to sporadic popular uprisings against the Manchu invaders and their local puppet collaborators.</p><p>Following the Manchu conquest of East Turkistan in 1759, the people of East Turkistan continuously resisted Manchu occupation and rebelled approximately 42 times between 1759 and 1863 in their quest to regain independence. In August 1863, the people of Yarkent revolted against the Manchu Empire, coinciding with a revolt by the Tungans (Chinese Muslims). By 1864, the uprising had spread throughout East Turkistan, with Turkic peoples, weary of repression and foreign occupation, rebelling against the puppet begs and their Manchu masters.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-2174799 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="2174799" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-6ca5f21" data-id="6ca5f21" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-c721451 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="c721451" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The State of Yette Sheher (1864-1877)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-a076d01 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="a076d01" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>Following the Manchu conquest of East Turkistan in 1759, the native Turkic inhabitants of East Turkistan persistently resisted Manchu occupation, initiating approximately 42 rebellions between 1759 and 1864 with the objective of restoring their independence. In August 1863, a significant revolt erupted in Yarkent, located in southern East Turkistan, against the Manchu Empire. By 1864, this uprising had expanded throughout East Turkistan, with various Turkic peoples fatigued by repression and foreign subjugation, revolting against the Manchu-appointed local rulers and their Manchu superiors.</p><p>In the wake of the 1863-1864 national uprising in East Turkistan, the Khanate of Khoqand, situated in present-day Uzbekistan, deployed Yaq’ub Beg, an Uzbek military officer, to aid the people of East Turkistan in expelling the remaining Manchu forces and to assist in establishing a modern state. In June 1864, Yaq’ub Beg aided Buzurg Khan Tora in capturing Kashgar, leading to the establishment of the State of Yette Sheher [Uyghur: يەتتە شەھەر دۆلەتى or Yette Sheher Döleti] in East Turkistan. By July 1866, Yaqub Beg had assumed control from Buzurg Khan Tora, who proved ineffective in state governance. Subsequently, he successfully liberated Yarkand and Khotan by the end of 1866. By the spring of 1867, Yaq’ub Beg had also liberated Aksu and Kucha from the control of the Khojas and their Manchu overlords, thereby firmly establishing stability and order in East Turkistan.</p><p>Following Yaq’ub Beg’s successful liberation of southern East Turkistan, then recognized as Kashgaria, from Manchu Qing rule, the State of Yette Sheher endeavored to curtail commercial ties with Russia in 1867-1868. This initiative was driven by apprehensions that Russian commercial infiltration might lead to military expansion into East Turkistan, mirroring the events in the Khoqand Khanate. In response, the State of Yette Sheher initially closed its borders with West Turkistan, then under Russian control, and mobilized troops along the frontier. However, to further bolster its position, the State sought to establish diplomatic relations with the British Empire as a counterbalance to the Russian Empire.</p><p>In 1871, the Russian Empire, concerned that the Ili Sultanate in northwest East Turkistan might align with the State of Yette Sheher and jeopardize its hold over West Turkistan, initiated an invasion of the Ili Valley. The Ili Sultanate, an independent Uyghur state under the leadership of Alihan Sultan, had emerged in Ghulja following the national uprising of 1864.</p><p>Between 1870 and 1871, the State of Yette Sheher reclaimed the Turpan and Urumchi regions of East Turkistan, which had fallen under the occupation of Tunggan (Hui / Chinese Muslim) forces post the 1864 uprisings. In a strategic move to safeguard its sovereignty, Yaq’ub Beg pursued diplomatic engagement and sought recognition from the era’s great powers: the British Empire, the Russian Empire, and the Ottoman Empire. In June 1872, on the brink of conflict with Russia, the State of Yette Sheher reached an accord. Yaq’ub Beg consented to a commercial treaty in exchange for Russia’s recognition of his sovereignty over southern and eastern East Turkistan, including Urumchi and its surroundings.</p><p>To preempt any potential Russian invasion, the State of Yette Sheher sought support from Russia’s adversaries, the British Empire and the Ottoman Empire. From 1871 onwards, envoys were dispatched to these empires, leading to the establishment of official diplomatic relations with the Ottoman Empire in 1873, where Yaq’ub Beg was recognized as the Emir of the State of Yette Sheher. In February 1874, a commercial treaty with the British Empire was signed, formalizing diplomatic relations and mutual recognition.</p><p>Concurrently, the State of Yette Sheher focused on fortifying its military capabilities and defenses, apprehensive of potential invasions by the Manchus or Russians. Its army, numbering over 50,000 troops in the early 1870s, was a significant investment, with considerable resources allocated to acquiring modern weaponry. In 1873, the Ottoman Empire supplied the State of Yette Sheher with 1,200 rifles and six cannons. Efforts to procure an additional 12,000 modern rifles were partially successful, limited by financial constraints. Additionally, with British aid, the State of Yette Sheher established armament factories to upgrade its existing arsenal.</p><p>By 1873, officials of the Manchu Qing dynasty were engaged in a debate over the prospect of invading East Turkistan. Qing Viceroy Li-Hun-Chang expressed opposition to such an invasion. However, Chinese General Zuo Zongtang advocated for the invasion, arguing that “capturing East Turkistan is capturing Mongolia, and protecting Mongolia is protecting the capital (Beijing).” Due to the Manchu Empire’s financial constraints, General Zuo Zongtang secured substantial loans from the British Hong Kong-Shanghai Banking Corporation (HSBC) to fund a Manchu Qing expedition to conquer East Turkistan. The Qing used these loans to purchase modern rifles and Krupp cannons from Germany. Additionally, the Russians, wary of an independent Turkic state near their colonial holdings in Occupied West Turkistan (Central Asia), supplied grain and other foodstuffs to the Manchu armies.</p><p>In the spring of 1876, a formidable Manchu Qing army, numbering 90,000 and led by Zuo Zongtang, initiated an invasion of East Turkistan, capturing Urumchi on August 18, 1876. By April 1877, the Qing forces advanced into Turpan, where the armies of the State of Yette Sheher faced successive defeats due to their smaller numbers and lack of modern heavy artillery. Following numerous setbacks, Yaq’ub Beg retreated to Korla for regrouping but was poisoned on May 30, 1877, by the treacherous governor of Yarkent, Niyaz Hakim Beg. Post Yaq’ub Beg’s demise, the military forces of the State of Yette Sheher, lacking effective leadership, endured further defeats, culminating in the overthrow of the State on December 18, 1877. The Manchu Qing secured complete control over East Turkistan with the fall of Khoten in January 1878.</p><p>The State of Yette Sheher symbolized the first triumphant effort by the people of East Turkistan to re-establish an independent state since the fall of the Yarkent Khanate in 1678 and the initial Manchu Qing conquest of East Turkistan in 1759. The legacy of the State of Yette Sheher profoundly influenced the East Turkistan national movement in the early twentieth century and significantly impacted the re-establishment of East Turkistan’s independence through the formation of the East Turkistan Republics in 1933 and 1944.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-42d99da elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="42d99da" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-ccc7c2c" data-id="ccc7c2c" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-4956ff8 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="4956ff8" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Second Manchu Occupation of East Turkistan (1878-1912)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-c6bb688 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="c6bb688" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>After the Manchu Qing invaded East Turkistan in 1876, they massacred many of the Turkic peoples of East Turkistan and re-implemented a strategy of colonizing the region with Chinese (Han and Hui) colonists. East Turkistan was officially annexed into the Manchu Empire as “Xinjiang [ The Colony/New Territory]” on November 18, 1884. To solidify its occupation of East Turkistan, the Manchu Qing Empire pursued a ruthless policy of colonization and extensively tried to assimilate the people of East Turkistan by forcing them to learn the Chinese language and embrace Chinese customs. Despite numerous uprisings against Manchu occupation, none of them were successful. The Manchus cultivated the descendants of Afaq Khoja and his followers who had previously serve the Qing Empire as local begs (administrators) to exert influence over the East Turkistani people and prevent rebellions against Manchu occupation. In 1912, the Chinese overthrew the Manchus, leaving East Turkistan under the de-facto control of former Qing officials who were essentially Chinese warlords.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-f1552be elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="f1552be" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-81e37ab" data-id="81e37ab" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-4b46a07 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="4b46a07" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Birth of East Turkistan's National Movement</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-e2a4905 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="e2a4905" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>In 1883, wealthy Uyghurs from Atush and other parts of East Turkistan, after traveling the globe and witnessing the miserable state of East Turkistan’s society, began establishing modern schools under the “usul-ul jadid” or “new technique” to enlighten the people of East Turkistan. Anti-colonial discourse was a prominent component of the ideology espoused by the Jadidists, who were known as the “Tereqqiperwerlwer” [progressives] or “Ziyalilar” [intellectuals] in Central Asia. The descendants of Afaq Khoja and the begs dominated the “ulama” [Islamic clerics] class in East Turkistan and actively collaborated with the Manchu Qing and later the Chinese warlords. They opposed the progressives and intellectuals, which was also the case with the greater Turkistan national movement in Central Asia.</p><p>By the turn of the twentieth century, East Turkistan’s progressive intellectuals would lead the country’s modern enlightenment and spearhead the national movement. Abduqadir Damolla sparked a national awakening in East Turkistan by establishing modern schools that promoted modern education and anti-colonialism. Abduqadir Damolla, known as the “Father of East Turkistan’s National Movement,” was assassinated in 1924 by a group of treacherous religious zealots who were aligned with, and instigated by, the Chinese warlords.</p><p>Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples in East Turkistan rose up to fight Chinese colonization and occupation at every opportunity throughout the early twentieth century. This included the 1912 uprising in Qumul led by Tomur Khalfa, the 1915 uprising in Turpan led by Ahmed, the 1917 uprising in Kucha led by Muhammed Ali Khan, and the 1923 uprising in Kashgar led by Salidin. Following the death of Shah Mexsut, Khan of the Qumul Khanate, in 1930, the Chinese warlord Jin Shuren abolished the Khanate and began seizing Uyghur farmers’ lands, handing them over to Chinese colonists from Gansu. Later, he relocated Uyghurs to low-quality areas near the desert and heavily taxed them. Resistance movements began to emerge in the area by 1931, and a full-scale uprising initiated by Salih Daruga erupted in February 1931, quickly spreading throughout East Turkistan.</p><p>Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi, a Uyghur intellectual and modernist, returned from India in 1932 and persuaded the wealthy Bughra family in Khoten to support a national uprising against Chinese occupation. They formed the Committee for National Revolution, and by February 1933, Khotan and its surroundings had been liberated from Chinese warlords. A provisional Khoten Government was established on February 20, 1933, with Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi as Prime Minister and Muhammed Emin Bughra as Commander-in-Chief of the Armed Forces. In the spring of 1933, the Khoten Government established the Kashgar Affairs Office, which established contacts with pro-independence Uyghur, Uzbek, and Kyrgyz leaders in the country.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-1e00df5 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="1e00df5" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-3d39a8e" data-id="3d39a8e" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-5bfd5ef elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="5bfd5ef" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkistan (1933-1934)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-9fafb5f elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="9fafb5f" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>The East Turkistan Independence Association was formally established in the summer of 1933 and published “Istiqlal” (Independence), a scientific, political, national, and literary bi-weekly review printed by the Swedish Mission Press in Kashgar. By October 1933, all preparations for the establishment of an independent East Turkistan Republic had been completed. Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi wrote to the leader of the Qumul uprising, Khoja Niyaz, and asked him to be the President of the new republic.</p><p>On November 12, 1933, over 20,000 people gathered in Kashgar, including 7,000 Uyghur and other Turkic soldiers, to formally proclaim the restoration of their independence as the Turkic Islamic Republic of East Turkistan (TIRET). The national flag was introduced as a blue flag with a white star and crescent, and a national anthem was introduced and sung. Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi was appointed Prime Minister, and Khoja Niyaz was named President of the new independent republic in his absence. A Constitution with 30 articles was read aloud, and a cabinet of nine ministers was formed. Although the TIRET Constitution recognized Islam as the official state religion, it also highlighted the protection of religious freedom.</p><p>The TIRET’s progressive modernist leaders prioritized modernization and development, particularly in education, health, and economic reforms. Following the declaration of the East Turkistan Republic, Foreign Minister Qasimjan Haji sent a telegram to Ankara via Peshawar officially congratulating Turkiye on becoming the East Turkistan Republic. Unfortunately, Ankara refused to acknowledge the TIRET out of fear of upsetting their Soviet allies.</p><p>The TIRET actively sought international recognition and support by writing diplomatic letters to heads of state and dispatching emissaries to the United Kingdom, USSR, Afghanistan, Sweden, Iran, Turkey, and Germany. In Afghanistan, the envoys met with King Mohammed Zahir Shah and Prime Minister Sardar Mohammad Hashim Khan, who declared their neutrality but agreed to sell them arms and sent Afghan volunteers to East Turkistan despite their neutrality. The Soviet Union was opposed to the TIRET because it feared that its independence would spark rebellion in western Turkistan, which was under Soviet control. It’s also noteworthy to mention that at least two of the TIRET’s cabinet ministers were Uzbeks affiliated with the Turkistan national independence movement (so-called “Basmachis”) who had fought against Soviet occupation.</p><p>The TIRET had all the aspects of a modern state, including a government with various ministries and parliament, and a standing military. It even issued currency and passports to its citizens. On January 13, 1934, Khoja Niyaz arrived in Kashgar with over 2,000 troops to take over the presidency, accompanied by Mahmut Muhiti, a prominent Uyghur leader from Turpan who would rise to the rank of Major General. General Muhiti was later appointed as the TIRET’s Defense Minister. President Khoja Niyaz wrote to China’s government in Nanjing to reaffirm East Turkistan’s Declaration of Independence, which was declared by the Parliament of the People of East Turkistan of their own free will. President Khoja Niyaz outlined five principles for the establishment of the first East Turkistan Republic:</p><ol><li><p>All of East Turkistan’s territory, which the Chinese call “Xinjiang,” is part of the East Turkistan Republic, and all who do not belong [Chinese invaders and colonists, as well as Russian forces] should return to their own home [to their own country].</p></li><li><p>The TIRET’s Government and economy will be managed by the people of East Turkistan.</p></li><li><p>All oppressed people in East Turkistan will be free to pursue education, commerce, and the formation of a new nation.</p></li><li><p>The President of the East Turkistan Republic, Khoja Niyaz, will establish a government devoted to people’s happiness.</p></li><li><p>The East Turkistan Republic will strive, through its various departments [ministries], to catch up with other modern societies.</p></li></ol><p>Fearing that the TIRET would inspire Western Turkistan’s independence, the Soviets intervened in the conflict between the East Turkistan Republic, Chinese Muslim warlords, and Han Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai, who was close to the Soviets. On January 24, 1934, the Soviets invaded northern East Turkistan with 7,000 troops supported by tanks and air support to assist Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai in seizing control of East Turkistan. The East Turkistan Republic was attacked in late January 1934 by Hui (Chinese Muslim) military forces led by Hui General Ma Fuyang, fighting under the command of Ma Zhongying, commander of the Republic of China’s 36th Division. Following heavy fighting between the army of the East Turkistan Republic and the Chinese Muslim forces, on February 6, 1934, the Government of the first East Turkistan Republic was forced to withdraw from Kashgar, with Prime Minister Abdulbaqi and most of the government relocating to Yengisar and Defense Minister Mehmut Muhiti withdrawing with most of the TIRET’s Army to Atush.</p><p><b>Ministers of the TIRET</b></p><ul><li>President & Commander in Chief: Khoja Niyaz Haji</li><li>Prime Minister: Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi</li><li>Foreign Minister: Muhammad Qasim Jan Haji</li><li>Justice Minister: Sharif Qari</li><li>Interior Minister: Yunus Beg</li><li>Health Minister: Abdullah Khan</li><li>Defense Minister: Sultan Beg Bakhtiyar Beg</li><li>Education Minister: Abdul Karim Khan Mexsum</li><li>Finance Minister: Ali Akhun Bay</li><li>Endowments Minister: Shemseddin Turdi Haji</li><li>Trade and Commerce Minister: Sadiq Beg</li><li>Khotan Amir (with ministerial rights): Nur Ahmad Jan Bughra</li><li>Communications Minister: Abdullah Damolla</li><li>President of National Assembly: Tahir Beg</li><li>Secretary of National Assembly: Sufi Zade</li></ul><p>The TIRET’s capital Kashgar was overrun, and the Hui (Chinese Muslim) forces of the Republic of China’s 36th Division massacred over 8,000 Uyghur civilians and several members of the British consulate in Kashgar. The TIRET Government immediately dispatched couriers to its forces in Khoten, requesting that reinforcements be sent immediately, which arrived in Yarkent in early March 1934. President Khoja Niyaz fled to the Soviet Union via Irkeshtam and was apprehended by the Soviets. The Soviets put pressure on Khoja Niyaz to sign an agreement that dismissed the East Turkistan Republic and disbanded its army in exchange for shared power with Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai. Minister Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi and his cabinet in Yengisar received notice of President Khoja Niyaz’s treacherous agreement with the Soviets on March 1, 1934. The following day, they called a special cabinet meeting and rejected the agreement, branding President Khoja Niyaz a national traitor.</p><p>The Chinese Muslims fighting under the banner of the Republic of China began their siege of Yengisar in March, and the city fell to Chinese forces on April 16, 1934. The first East Turkistan Republic officially fell on April 16, 1934, though others would continue to fight under the banner of the East Turkistan Republic for many months later. Khoja Niyaz, a national traitor, detained Prime Minister Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi and most of the TIRET cabinet in Atush and handed them over to Sheng Shicai, who handed them over to the Chinese in Gansu.</p><p>By the end of 1934, the Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai had taken control of the majority of East Turkistan, and he established a puppet “Xinjiang Government,” appointing Khoja Niyaz as Vice Chairman and “Civil Governor for Life” at the request of the Soviets. In a deceptive political move, Khoja Niyaz was forced to abandon his army and relocate to Urumchi to take his new position, rendering him powerless. TIRET Prime Minister Sabit Damolla Abdulbaqi and Justice Minister Zarif Qari were executed under the Soviet puppet Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai’s orders. Sheng Shicai demoted Mehmut Muhiti to Deputy Military Commander after he had initially been appointed Military Commander of the “Southern Xinjiang Military Region.” Nonetheless, he retained command of the 6th Division, which was primarily made up of Uyghurs and was based in Kashgar and Atush. In the 1931-1934 National Independence War to restore East Turkistan’s independence, up to 200,000 East Turkistanis were killed fighting against the Chinese, and later the Soviet invaders.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-59da4e4 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="59da4e4" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f3385a1" data-id="f3385a1" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-47dd39d elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="47dd39d" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Reign of Terror under Chinese Warlord Sheng Shicai (1934-1943)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-2707ed2 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="2707ed2" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>Sheng Shicai absorbed the Chinese Muslim forces fighting for the Republic of China into his puppet “Xinjiang Government” and used them to crush further Uyghur/Turkic uprisings in East Turkistan. In 1935, a Uyghur uprising against Chinese occupation erupted in Charkilik county and was brutally suppressed by Chinese Muslim forces. Over 100 Uyghurs were executed, along with the uprising leader’s entire family. In 1936, the Turkic peoples of Altay, under Yunus Haji, established the Society for National Defense to fight to re-establish East Turkistan’s national independence; around the same time, an uprising broke out in Kashgar. However, the Soviets and their puppet Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai would be brutal in suppressing Turkic uprisings. To subjugate the East Turkistani people, Sheng Shicai and his Soviet advisors invented 125 kinds of torture and 28 methods of killing.</p><p>With the help of the Soviets, Sheng Shicai had established a totalitarian regime in East Turkistan by 1937. Sheng had transformed East Turkistan into a police state, which is still the case today. General Mehmut Muhiti later organized a national uprising in Kashgar before fleeing to India in April 1937 to seek foreign assistance. He later left for Japan, where he lobbied the Imperial Japanese government to support East Turkistan’s independence after failing to obtain British support. The 6th Uyghur Division in Atush, led by Kichik Akhun and General Abdul Niyaz, liberated Kashgar, Yengisar, Yarkent, and Khoten from April to September 1937, briefly establishing an independent government that lasted until September 1937.</p><p>Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai’s troops were unable to quell the national uprising, prompting the Soviets to intervene with 5,000 troops, an armored regiment, and an air unit in August 1937. On September 15, 1937, Abdul Niyaz was executed, and the East Turkistan national uprising was declared fully suppressed on October 15, 1937, when the Soviets bombed Khoten, killing the last East Turkistani resistance forces. Some 80,000 East Turkistanis were killed in the 1937 revolution to restore East Turkistan’s independence.</p><p>After the 1937 national uprising, an era of severe repression started in which virtually no one was spared. Sheng Shicai apprehended Khoja Niyaz and about 120 of his followers shortly after Uyghurs in Kashgar began to resist in April 1937 and executed them after labeling them as “counter-revolutionaries,” “Trotskyites,” and “Japanese agents.” Some 300,000 East Turkistanis, mostly Uyghurs, were arrested, and many were later executed, particularly those with ties to the former East Turkistan Republic or anti-China sentiments. Worried about the potential of future uprisings being funded by wealthy Uyghurs, the Chinese warlord confiscated the properties and wealth of over 10,000 East Turkistani families.</p><p>In early 1940, the East Turkistani people of Altay, mostly Kazakhs, took up arms and rose up against Sheng Shicai but were brutally crushed when they were attacked by a combined Soviet, Chinese, and Mongolian force of over 8,000 soldiers backed by Soviet air support. As Nazi troops approached Stalingrad in 1941, Sheng Shicai assumed the Soviets would be defeated and unable to assist him in maintaining his occupation of East Turkistan. As a result, he sought assistance from the Republic of China, led by Chinese nationalists. As the Soviets gained ground against the Nazis in 1942, Sheng Shicai sent a telegram to Stalin pleading with him to incorporate East Turkistan into the USSR as the “18th Soviet Republic.” In May 1943, however, the Soviets issued a directive to support the Turkic national movement in East Turkistan.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-a8e6d42 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="a8e6d42" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-f511357" data-id="f511357" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-0901c4a elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="0901c4a" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">The Second East Turkistan Republic (1944-1949)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-c4b4007 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="c4b4007" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>By April 1944, the Uyghur and other Turkic peoples had formed the East Turkistan National Liberation Organization (Uyghur: Sherqiy Turkistan Milli Azatliq Teshkilati) and were receiving covert Soviet assistance to support their resistance against Chinese occupation. The Chinese warlord Sheng Shicai, who had accepted the authority of the Republic of China (Nationalist China) by this time, was named the head of the Kuomintang’s puppet “Xinjiang Government” by the Republic of China. Following the Soviet victory over Germany in 1944, Sheng wrote to Stalin proposing the incorporation of East Turkistan (so-called “Xinjiang”) into the USSR as the 18th Soviet Socialist Republic. Stalin, in turn, forwarded the letter to Chiang Kai-shek, who replaced Sheng and returned him to Chongqing, China.</p><p>Following Sheng Shicai’s departure, East Turkistan saw the beginnings of a new national uprising. Local Uyghur and Turkic resistance forces formed the “Nilka Guerrillas” group led by Gheni Batur in mid-August 1944 to secure East Turkistan’s independence. On October 8, 1944, they successfully liberated Nilka County in northwest East Turkistan. Members of the East Turkistan National Liberation Organization attacked the KMT (Republic of China) police headquarters in Ghulja on November 7, 1944. At the same time, groups of Uyghur, Kazakh, and other Turkic resistance forces began to attack the outskirts, eventually liberating Ghulja on November 12th as Chinese occupation forces fled.</p><p><span style="font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; color: var( --e-global-color-primary ); background-color: var(--ast-global-color-4);">On November 12, 1944, the East Turkistan National Liberation Organization held a large rally at the Uyghur, Kazakh, and Kyrgyz Club in Ghulja to declare the restoration of East Turkistan’s independence as the East Turkistan Republic. The leader of the East Turkistan National Liberation Organization, Alihan Tore, an ethnic Uzbek, was elected as the President. Although the second East Turkistan Republic founders hadn’t drafted a comprehensive constitution for the newly established Republic before it declared independence, they announced the Nine Political Precepts (Toquz Maddliq Siyasi Programma) as a precursor to a constitution.</span></p><p><b>Summary of the ETR’s Nine Political Precepts:</b></p><p>• Rooting out the tyranny of the Han Chinese</p><p> • Establishment of a democratic government</p><p>• Creation of an armed forces belonging to the people</p><p> • Equality for all ethnic groups</p><p>• Granted the right to freedom of religion</p><p>• Popular elections of government officials at all levels</p><p> • Developing political and economic relations with friendly countries, especially the Soviet Union</p><p> • Development of education, culture, and health</p><p> • Adoption of the Uyghur script as the official written language of the East Turkistan Republic</p><p>President Alihan Tore condemned Chinese occupation of East Turkistan in his speech on November 12, 1944. He called on the Chinese government to stop creating pseudo-history about East Turkistan and demanded China to “abandon its ambitions for the territory of East Turkistan.” He called on all the people of East Turkistan to “fight to liberate the entire nation from the tyranny of Chinese occupation over the fatherland of East Turkistan,” stating it was not only a civic duty but also a religious duty. On February 24, 1945, the ETR’s Government Council announced Resolution No. 24:</p><p><i>The most important objectives of the revolution for the liberation of East Turkistan are to topple the brutal rule of the Han Chinese, exterminate the savage Nationalist Chinese armies, and achieve the wish that our people have cherished for centuries: driving out the Han Chinese colonizers, and establishing a strong and prosperous independent state that cares for the people, with true equality for all ethnicities.</i></p><p>The second East Turkistan Republic, like its predecessor the first ETR, had all aspects of a modern state including a highly organized government with various departments and ministries, a Government Council which acted as a provisional parliament, a standing national army, a judicial system, and it even issued currency known as the “East Turkistan Dollar [Uyghur: Sherqiy Turkistan Dollari].” It was much more professionalized and stronger in comparison to the first East Turkistan Republic.</p><p><span style="font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; color: var( --e-global-color-primary ); background-color: var(--ast-global-color-4);">The East Turkistan National Army (ETNA) was formally established on April 8, 1945, with a large military parade. The armed groups were organized into seven regiments, four independent battalions, and one independent company spread across the northwestern part of East Turkistan. The ETNA carried out general recruitment of all ethnic groups, except for the Han Chinese. The ETNA had over 40,000 troops, while Chinese General Sung claimed the ETNA had over 60,000 soldiers. The ETNA Headquarters established several departments, including a Political Department, War Department, Military Administration Department, Cadre Department, Reconnaissance Department, and a Supply and Logistics Department.</span></p><p>The East Turkistan National Army was armed primarily with German weapons as well as with some Soviet and American equipment captured from the Republic of China. The Soviet Union sold the East Turkistan Republic a large portion of its initial arsenal. The Artillery Division of the East Turkistan National Army originally consisted of at least 12 field artillery cannons, two armored vehicles, and two tanks. A National Aviation Force was formed using forty-two planes captured by the East Turkistan National Army at a Republic of China airbase in Ghulja. By July 1945, the East Turkistan National Army was fighting a three-front war against the Republic of China’s positions throughout the rest of East Turkistan.</p><p> By September 1945, the East Turkistan National Army had liberated the Targhabatay and Altay region on the Northern Front. The East Turkistan National Army liberated all territories west of the Manas River on the Central Front. On the Southern Front, the East Turkistan National Army crossed the Tengri Tagh (“Tianshan”) mountains and successfully liberated much of the northern Aksu region by September 1945, and it established the Kashgar Regiment to liberate Kashgar from Chinese occupation. Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples in Kashgar, Yarkent, and other parts of East Turkistan began to resist against Chinese occupation after learning of the impending arrival of the East Turkistan National Army. The East Turkistan Republic was rapidly expanding until October 1945 when it came to a halt as a result of Soviet intervention. The Republic of China (Nationalist China) dispatched Chinese warlord Ma Fuyang and his Hui (Chinese Muslim) army to reinforce Republic of China troops and help them defend Urumchi from an impending attack by the East Turkistan National Army. By early September 1945, the Republic of China had deployed over 100,000 Han and Hui Chinese troops to East Turkistan.</p><p><span style="font-style: inherit; font-weight: inherit; color: var( --e-global-color-primary ); background-color: var(--ast-global-color-4);">In September 1945, the East Turkistan National Army liberated Manas and planned to cross the Manas River, advancing eastward towards Urumchi, the stronghold of the Chinese occupation forces. However, Soviet military advisers abruptly urged the ETR leadership to cease all military operations. President Alihan Tore, also the ‘Marshal of the East Turkistan National Army,’ resisted Soviet pressure, insisting on continuing military campaigns to liberate East Turkistan and ensure its survival. However, the signing of the Sino-Soviet Treaty of Friendship, signed on August 14, 1945, by the Soviet Union and the Republic of China, indicated the Soviet Union’s decision to sacrifice the East Turkistan Republic for broader Soviet interests.</span></p><p class="p1">The Soviet Union pledged to cease all aid to the East Turkistan Republic, tacitly allowing the Republic of China to suppress it. The Soviets then pressured the East Turkistan Republic to engage in peace talks with the Republic of China. President Alihan Tore and his supporters in the East Turkistan Republic’s Government Council strongly opposed negotiating a peace treaty with China, denouncing the peace talks as a betrayal of the Uyghur people, the revolution’s achievements, and an attempt to curry favor with the Chinese. Despite opposition from half the government, the East Turkistan Republic responded to the Chinese Government’s negotiation request on October 2, 1945.</p><p class="p1">The East Turkistan Republic proposed non-violent means, such as negotiations, for resolving East Turkistan’s independence issue. The delegation sought independence, with all other matters contingent on this basis.</p><p class="p1">By 1946, due to Soviet pressure, the ETR’s leadership signed a detrimental “peace treaty” with the Republic of China. On January 5, 1946, just days before the delegation led by ETR Foreign Minister Ahmetjan Qasim and the Republic of China signed the “Eleven Articles of Peace,” the Republic of China recognized the Mongolian People’s Republic (Mongolia). The “Eleven Articles of Peace” called for extended peace talks and forming an ethnically equal coalition government with Chinese and other Turkic peoples. During the talks, President Alihan Tore’s faction in the East Turkistan Republic continued opposing the peace talks, urging the Government Council to emphasize the East Turkistan Republic’s independent nature.</p><p class="p1"><b>Summary of Resolutions passed:</b></p><p class="p1">Resolution No. 110 – October 15, 1945: Declaration of November 7 as Memorial Day for the East Turkistan Revolution.</p><p class="p1">Resolution No. 113 – October 22, 1945: Declaration of November 12 as East Turkistan Independence Day.</p><p class="p1">Resolution No. 185 – January 5, 1946: Formation of a civil servant wage system.</p><p class="p1">Resolution No.197 – January 12, 1946: Fixation of national taxes and tax rates.</p><p class="p1">Resolution No. 203 – January 13, 1946: Establishment of the State Administrative System.</p><p class="p1">Resolution No. 235 – March 5, 1946: Standards for military promotion and banning the circulation of Chinese currency in East Turkistan markets.</p><p class="p1">Resolution No. 249 – March 28, 1946: Declaration of April 8 as Memorial Day for the Founding of the National Army.</p><p class="p1">The Decline of the ETR</p><p class="p1">At the outset of the peace talks, the Republic of China’s Government in Chongqing dispatched General Zhang Zhizhong as Military Governor of East Turkistan’s territories under Chinese control. Accompanying him were three Chongqing Uyghurs – Isa Yusuf Alptekin, Masud Sabri, and Muhammed Emin Bughra – who acted as puppets for the Republic of China. They were tasked with persuading East Turkistan’s Uyghur and other Turkic people to favor “autonomy” under Chinese rule instead of independence. The East Turkistan Republic labeled them as “traitors” and “puppets of the KMT,” declaring that they were working to fragment the people’s strength for complete annihilation.</p><p class="p1">Internal strife within the East Turkistan Republic’s Government Council ensued, with the pro-Soviet faction led by Abdulkerim Abbasov and the nationalist faction led by Alihan Tore. As peace talks progressed, the pro-Soviet faction, with Soviet support, increasingly sidelined President Alihan Tore and his allies. The “Second Addendum to the Peace Terms” was signed on June 6, 1946. Shortly after, Soviet advisors began returning to the Soviet Union. Despite opposition, President Alihan Tore could not halt the so-called “peace talks.” On June 16, 1946, he and several trusted officials were detained and escorted to Almaty by Soviet representatives. Alihan Tore was then placed under house arrest in Tashkent (Uzbekistan), where he died in 1976.</p><p class="p1">In July 1946, a puppet “Xinjiang Provincial Coalition Government” was formed, with ETR leaders serving dual roles. Ahmetjan Qasimi, the ETR Foreign Minister, also became Vice-Chairman of this puppet government. Abdulkerim Abbasov, the ETR’s Interior Minister, was appointed “Deputy Secretary-General.” Ahmetjan Qasim attended the Chinese National Assembly in late 1946 to advocate for East Turkistan’s self-determination rights, which the Chinese rejected. He then returned to Ghulja, withdrawing from the puppet government in summer 1947, and called for unity and support for the East Turkistan Republic.</p><p class="p1">On July 12, 1947, Foreign Minister Ahmetjan Qasim and Interior Minister Rahimjan Sabir appealed to the Soviet Union to protect East Turkistan and its people. The Soviet Council of Ministers proposed supporting the East Turkistan Republic on September 10, 1947, including military assistance. However, these proposals were largely unimplemented due to Stalin’s opposition.</p><p class="p1">The Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union announced measures to support the East Turkistan Republic on April 24, 1948, including financial and military aid and repatriation of Uyghurs and other Turkic people studying in the Soviet Union. However, by late 1948, the Soviets were openly supporting the Chinese Communists against the Chinese Nationalist Party (KMT). They began negotiations with Mao Zedong and the Chinese Communist Party regarding East Turkistan. On February 4, 1949, a meeting between the Soviet Union and the Chinese Communist Party led to Mao’s insistence on annexing East Turkistan into China, offering only autonomy.</p><p class="p1">By summer 1949, the Soviet Union agreed to hand over East Turkistan to Mao. In June 1949, Stalin met with a Chinese Communist Party delegation to discuss support for China, including urging an early invasion of East Turkistan. He advised increasing the Chinese population in East Turkistan post-occupation. In August 1949, the Chinese Communist Party sent a reconnaissance team to Ghulja. Fearing opposition from the East Turkistan Republic’s leadership to the communist invasion, the Soviets plotted their assassination. On August 24, 1949, key ETR leaders were lured to the Soviet Union for a meeting and were reportedly killed, with their bodies allegedly disposed of in a disused Russian imperial stable. Official narratives claim the leaders died in a plane crash, a story suspected of being a cover for the assassinations. CIA declassified documents in 2014 revealed that 30 senior ETR government and military officials were assassinated by the Soviets in September 1949 to prevent resistance to the impending Chinese Communist invasion.</p><p class="p1">On October 12, 1949, the newly established People’s Republic of China’s People’s Liberation Army invaded East Turkistan. After the PLA had consolidated control in Urumchi and most of eastern East Turkistan, Seypidin Azizi publicly announced the ETR leaders’ deaths in a plane crash en route to Beijing in mid-December 1949. On December 20, 1949, the People’s Liberation Army invaded Ghulja, and two days later, the People’s Republic of China forcibly overthrew the independent East Turkistan Republic, absorbing its military into the PLA’s 5th Army Corps.</p></div></div></div></div></div></section><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-top-section elementor-element elementor-element-3b254a6 elementor-section-boxed elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="3b254a6" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-background-overlay"></div><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-100 elementor-top-column elementor-element elementor-element-e39a2ab" data-id="e39a2ab" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-a9c624e elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="a9c624e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-medium">Chinese Occupation of East Turkistan (1949-Present)</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-3cb0c2e elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="3cb0c2e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p class="p1">The occupation of East Turkistan by Chinese Communist forces in late 1949 marked a turning point in the region’s history, occurring at a time when the demographic landscape was overwhelmingly Turkic. Over 90% of the population comprised Uyghurs, Kazakhs, and other native groups, with Chinese occupation forces and colonists accounting for less than 4%. This demographic makeup played a significant role in shaping the resistance that followed.</p><p class="p1">In the early years of occupation, the Chinese government engaged in severe repression. In 1952, Burhan Shahidi, the puppet governor, chillingly announced the killing of over 120,000 “enemies of China” since the invasion. This was followed by a 1954 report from the PRC’s Xinjiang Daily claiming the elimination of an additional 30,000 “counter-revolutionaries.”</p><p class="p1">To counter growing resistance, the Chinese established the Xinjiang Production and Construction Corps (XPCC) in 1954. This paramilitary force, consisting of 175,000 personnel and formed on Mao Zedong’s orders, was tasked with colonizing East Turkistan and suppressing dissent.</p><p class="p1">In 1955, the region was designated the “Xinjiang Uyghur Autonomous Region” in a strategic attempt to pacify the population. However, this move failed to suppress the independence movement, as the local population continued to resist the Chinese military presence and repressive tactics.</p><p class="p1">Throughout the 1950s, numerous small-scale rebellions and protests occurred. Despite brutal quelling by Chinese forces, these uprisings demonstrated the unbroken spirit of resistance among the East Turkistanis. The decade ended with a reinforced Chinese grip over the region, but the seeds of resistance had been firmly sown, setting the stage for continued struggle in the decades to follow.</p><p class="p1">The 1960s saw a resurgence in the independence movement in East Turkistan, fueled by the Turkic majority’s view of Chinese occupation and increased colonization as a direct threat to their cultural, religious and national identity. The anti-Chinese protests in Ghulja in 1962, leading to mass exodus to the Soviet Union, highlighted the desperation and resilience of the Turkic peoples.</p><p class="p1">The 1970s were marked by severe crackdowns from the Chinese government, aimed at dismantling the East Turkistan resistance movement. The assassination of key figures like General Mamtimin Iminov by the PRC was a huge blow to East Turkistani resistance. Yet the formation of the United National Revolutionary Front of East Turkistan (UNRFET) in Almaty in 1975 indicated the continued commitment of the diaspora to the independence cause.</p><p class="p1">The 1980s period also saw an increase in cultural expressions of nationalism, with literature, music, and art becoming mediums of resistance and identity preservation. Despite facing overwhelming odds and severe repression, the spirit of resistance and the aspiration for a free and independent East Turkistan continued to drive the movement forward.</p><p class="p1">The Baren Uprising in 1990 was a critical moment in the East Turkistan independence movement. It was a response to the forced abortion of Uyghur babies in Baren township, and quickly escalated into an armed conflict. Around 200 young Uyghurs and Kyrgyz, led by Zeydin Yusuf, demonstrated against the Chinese government’s policies. The Chinese response was immediate and brutal, leading to a significant loss of life and further oppression.</p><p class="p1">This uprising became a rallying point for the East Turkistani independence movement, both domestically and internationally. It highlighted the colonial and genocidal policies under Chinese rule and galvanized support for the East Turkistani cause. A ruthless crackdown following the uprising resulted in mass arrests, further human rights atrocities, and a heightened military presence in the region.</p><p class="p1">The 1990s saw the East Turkistan independence movement gain momentum, bolstered by the fall of the Soviet Union and the emergence of independent Central Asian republics. This geopolitical shift provided new avenues of support and hope for the Uyghur diaspora. East Turkistanis in Central Asia, particularly in Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan, began to coordinate more effectively against Chinese rule.</p><p class="p1">During this decade, numerous organizations advocating for East Turkistan’s independence were established. The East Turkistan National Center (ETNC), founded in Istanbul in 1992, became a crucial platform for global advocacy. However, the movement faced challenges, including internal disagreements and the Chinese government’s efforts to undermine these organizations.</p><p class="p1">In response to these growing independence calls, the Chinese government intensified its repressive measures. This included a crackdown on traditional Uyghur social gatherings like mashreps, which had been revived to strengthen Uyghur nationalism and combat youth unemployment and substance abuse. The Chinese authorities also launched campaigns to counter independence sentiments, labeling them as threats to national security.</p><p class="p1">On March 19, 1996, Jiang Zemin hosted a critical meeting of the Chinese Communist Party’s Politburo concerning East Turkistan. A top-secret document, CCP Central Committee Document No. 7 (1996), issued directives to “defend the stability of Xinjiang.” This included working with Turkey, Kazakhstan, and Kyrgyzstan to limit and weaken independence forces and prevent the East Turkistan issue from gaining international traction. A key aspect of this strategy involved the use of spies and agents to infiltrate, divide, and weaken the independence movement.</p><p class="p1">Following the September 11 attacks in 2001, the global narrative on terrorism shifted dramatically. The Chinese government capitalized on this change, falsely portraying the East Turkistan national independence movement as an “Islamist movement.” This mischaracterization was a strategic move to align the suppression of the East Turkistan movement with the global War on Terror, thereby seeking to justify their repressive measures under the guise of “counter-terrorism.”</p><p class="p1">In the early 2000s, the Chinese government employed increasingly covert tactics to undermine the East Turkistan independence movement. This involved planting spies and agents within the Uyghur diaspora, who were sent to the West under the guise of activists. Their mission, aligned with directives from the CCP Central Committee Document No. 7, was to subtly implement China’s agenda. This strategy aimed to weaken the independence movement from within by sowing discord and altering its direction.</p><p class="p1">By 2004, certain Uyghurs suspected of being Chinese government agents had gained significant influence in the diaspora. They played a pivotal role in dissolving the East Turkistan National Congress, an organization that had been a vocal advocate for the independence of East Turkistan. These agents advocated ceasing the use of the term “East Turkistan” and suppressing calls for independence, thereby diluting the core objectives of the movement.</p><p class="p1">As a result of these internal shifts, the World Uyghur Congress was established. Its mandate focused on advocating for “human rights” and “greater autonomy” under Chinese rule in rejection of independence. This approach, which many in the diaspora viewed as a strategy to buy time for China, was met with significant resistance from those who remained steadfast in their pursuit of complete independence.</p><p class="p1">In response to the perceived dilution of the independence movement’s goals, many within the East Turkistani diaspora rejected the World Uyghur Congress’s stance. On September 14, 2004, they established the East Turkistan Government in Exile in Washington DC. This organization was explicitly founded to advocate for the restoration of East Turkistan’s independence. The creation of this government in exile marked a significant moment in the history of the East Turkistan independence movement, symbolizing a renewed and focused commitment to their original goal of establishing a sovereign state.</p><p class="p1">Post 2001, China’s campaign of colonization, forced assmiliation, and occupation intensified leading to a full blown campaign of genocide. 2014 marked the beginning of a the most darkest chapter in the history of East Turkistan. The Chinese government initiated a campaign of genocide against Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and other Turkic peoples as part of its strategy to prevent the independence of East Turkistan and crush pro-independence sentiments. This systematic campaign was designed not only to suppress political dissent but also to erase the ethnic, cultural, and religious identities of these groups.</p><p class="p1">One of the most chilling aspects of this campaign has been the mass internment of over 3 million Uyghurs, Kazakh, Kyrgyz and other Turkic peoples in concentration camps and prisons. These facilities, often termed as “re-education camps” by the Chinese government, are sites of severe human rights atrocities, including torture, indoctrination, sterilization, organ harvesting, medical experimentation and even summer executions.</p><p class="p1">Millions more have been subjected to enslavement in forced labor camps and factories across China. Under the guise of poverty alleviation and vocational training programs, Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples are coerced into working under conditions that constitute forced labor. These practices not only violate basic human rights but also taint global supply chains with products made through exploitation.</p><p class="p1">The Chinese government’s campaign has also included the forced sterilization of hundreds of thousands of Uyghur and Turkic women. This brutal policy is aimed at controlling the population growth of these ethnic groups, furthering the assimilation and Sinicization agenda. Forced Family Separation and Indoctrination of Children</p><p class="p1">Nearly a million Uyghur and other Turkic children have been separated from their families and placed in state-run orphanages and boarding schools. In these institutions, children are subjected to intense indoctrination, forced to speak Mandarin, and are systematically alienated from their cultural and religious heritage. This separation is part of a broader strategy to assimilate the next generation of Uyghurs and other Turkic peoples into becoming Chinese.</p><p class="p1">The Chinese government’s campaign extends to the destruction and banning of Uyghur and Turkic language, culture, and religious practices. Mosques, shrines, and other cultural and religious sites have been demolished or repurposed. The use of the Uyghur language has been severely restricted in educational and public spheres. These measures are part of a systematic effort to erase the distinct cultural and religious identity of these groups.</p><p class="p1">While there has been increasing international recognition of the ongoing genocide in East Turkistan, meaningful action from the global community remains lacking. Some countries and international bodies have condemned China’s actions, but economic and political considerations often impede substantial interventions. The international community’s response has been criticized for its hesitancy and lack of effectiveness in addressing and curbing these human rights atrocities.</p><p class="p1">In conclusion, the campaign of genocide initiated by the Chinese government against Uyghurs, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz, and other Turkic peoples in East Turkistan since 2014 represents one of the gravest human rights crises of the human history.</p><p class="p1">The past 74 years of Chinese occupation, colonization, and genocide in East Turkistan represent the darkest chapter in the region’s history. This era has been marked by immense suffering, cultural erasure, and relentless efforts to extinguish the spirit of an entire people. Yet, despite these unimaginable hardships, the people of East Turkistan have never relinquished their hope and determination to restore their independence and secure their existence.</p></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-17e2eb1 elementor-widget elementor-widget-text-editor" data-id="17e2eb1" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="text-editor.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><p>Page last update: December 2023</p></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-d50cdfc elementor-widget elementor-widget-spacer" data-id="d50cdfc" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="spacer.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-spacer"><div class="elementor-spacer-inner"></div></div></div></div></div></div></div></section></div></div></article></main></div></div></div><div data-elementor-type="footer" data-elementor-id="6700" class="elementor elementor-6700 elementor-location-footer" 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data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-inner-section elementor-element elementor-element-12b686cd elementor-section-content-top elementor-section-full_width elementor-section-height-default elementor-section-height-default" data-id="12b686cd" data-element_type="section"><div class="elementor-container elementor-column-gap-default"><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-33 elementor-inner-column elementor-element elementor-element-2e9a6a7b" data-id="2e9a6a7b" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-3dfa9d47 elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="3dfa9d47" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">Headquarters</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-34219ae0 elementor-mobile-align-left elementor-icon-list--layout-traditional elementor-list-item-link-full_width elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-list" data-id="34219ae0" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="icon-list.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><ul class="elementor-icon-list-items"><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <span class="elementor-icon-list-icon"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-map-marked-alt"></i> </span> <span class="elementor-icon-list-text">1325 G Street NW, Suite 500 Washington, DC 20005</span></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="tel:+1%20202-599-2244"><span class="elementor-icon-list-icon"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-phone-alt"></i> </span> <span class="elementor-icon-list-text">+1 202-599-2244, Ext: 1</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="mailto:contact@east-turkistan.net"><span class="elementor-icon-list-icon"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-envelope"></i> </span> <span class="elementor-icon-list-text">contact@east-turkistan.net</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <span class="elementor-icon-list-icon"> <i aria-hidden="true" class="fas fa-clock"></i> </span> <span class="elementor-icon-list-text">M-F: 09:00-18:30 EST</span></li></ul></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-33 elementor-inner-column elementor-element elementor-element-3ae514db" data-id="3ae514db" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-14a8d4df elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="14a8d4df" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">Government</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-48b1f02e elementor-mobile-align-left elementor-icon-list--layout-traditional elementor-list-item-link-full_width elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-list" data-id="48b1f02e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="icon-list.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><ul class="elementor-icon-list-items"><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/about-the-etge/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">About the ETGE</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/constitution/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">Constitution</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/leadership/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">Leadership</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/parliament/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">Parliament in Exile</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/president/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">President</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/prime-minister/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">Prime Minister</span> </a></li></ul></div></div></div></div><div class="elementor-column elementor-col-33 elementor-inner-column elementor-element elementor-element-3e7521b4" data-id="3e7521b4" data-element_type="column"><div class="elementor-widget-wrap elementor-element-populated"><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-445fa2f elementor-widget elementor-widget-heading" data-id="445fa2f" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="heading.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><h4 class="elementor-heading-title elementor-size-default">About East Turkistan</h4></div></div><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-2f840cb8 elementor-mobile-align-left elementor-icon-list--layout-traditional elementor-list-item-link-full_width elementor-widget elementor-widget-icon-list" 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href="https://east-turkistan.net/national-anthem/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">National Anthem</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/national-emblem/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">National Emblem</span> </a></li><li class="elementor-icon-list-item"> <a href="https://east-turkistan.net/national-flag/"><span class="elementor-icon-list-text">National Flag</span> </a></li></ul></div></div></div></div></div></section><div class="elementor-element elementor-element-7e433e6e elementor-widget-divider--view-line elementor-widget elementor-widget-divider" data-id="7e433e6e" data-element_type="widget" data-widget_type="divider.default"><div class="elementor-widget-container"><div class="elementor-divider"> <span class="elementor-divider-separator"> </span></div></div></div><section data-particle_enable="false" data-particle-mobile-disabled="false" class="elementor-section elementor-inner-section elementor-element 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