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vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Branches_of_learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Branches of learning </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Branches_of_learning-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Branches of learning subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Branches_of_learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sufism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sufism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Sufism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sufism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Philosophy_and_ethics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Philosophy_and_ethics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Philosophy and ethics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Philosophy_and_ethics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Theology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cosmopolitan_scholarly_tradition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cosmopolitan_scholarly_tradition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Cosmopolitan scholarly tradition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cosmopolitan_scholarly_tradition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_and_cultural_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_and_cultural_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Political and cultural history </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_and_cultural_history-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Political and cultural history subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Political_and_cultural_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Muslim_communities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Muslim_communities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Early Muslim communities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Muslim_communities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiqh" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiqh"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Fiqh </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiqh-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern_Islamic_empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern_Islamic_empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Early modern Islamic empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern_Islamic_empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ottoman_imperial_Sunni_ulama" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_imperial_Sunni_ulama"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.1 Ottoman imperial Sunni ulama </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_imperial_Sunni_ulama-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shi'a_state_religion_of_Safavid_Persia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shi'a_state_religion_of_Safavid_Persia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3.2 Shi'a state religion of Safavid Persia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shi'a_state_religion_of_Safavid_Persia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 19th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_Ottoman_scholarly_elite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Ottoman_scholarly_elite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 New Ottoman scholarly elite </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Ottoman_scholarly_elite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthodox_Shi'a_ulama_in_post-Safavid_and_Qajar_Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthodox_Shi'a_ulama_in_post-Safavid_and_Qajar_Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.2 Orthodox Shi'a ulama in post-Safavid and Qajar Iran </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthodox_Shi'a_ulama_in_post-Safavid_and_Qajar_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th/20th_century:_Ulama_and_Muslim_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th/20th_century:_Ulama_and_Muslim_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 19th/20th century: Ulama and Muslim reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-19th/20th_century:_Ulama_and_Muslim_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reformers_and_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reformers_and_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 Reformers and concepts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reformers_and_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Muslim_mass_organizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Muslim_mass_organizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.2 Muslim mass organizations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Muslim_mass_organizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ulama_in_the_secular_national_states_of_the_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ulama_in_the_secular_national_states_of_the_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 Ulama in the secular national states of the 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ulama_in_the_secular_national_states_of_the_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Republic_of_Turkey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic_of_Turkey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.1 Republic of Turkey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republic_of_Turkey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.2 Iran </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.3 Syria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Tunisia,_Egypt,_Iraq" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tunisia,_Egypt,_Iraq"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.4 Tunisia, Egypt, Iraq </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tunisia,_Egypt,_Iraq-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pakistan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pakistan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6.5 Pakistan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pakistan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Modern challenges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Types_of_Ulema_titles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Types_of_Ulema_titles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Types of Ulema titles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Types_of_Ulema_titles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Ulama</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 67 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-67" aria-hidden="true" > 67 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_(%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85)" title="عالم (إسلام) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="عالم (إسلام)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%9Cl%C9%99ma" title="Üləma – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Üləma" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%BE" title="ওলামা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="ওলামা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D3%A9%D0%BB%D3%99%D0%BC%D3%99" title="Ғөләмә – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ғөләмә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bikol Central</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Улема – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Улема" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulam%C3%A1" title="Ulamá – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ulamá" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dag mw-list-item"><a href="https://dag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alikali" title="Alikali – Dagbani" lang="dag" hreflang="dag" data-title="Alikali" data-language-autonym="Dagbanli" data-language-local-name="Dagbani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dagbanli</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BFUlam%C4%81%27" title="ʿUlamā' – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="ʿUlamā'" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%85%CE%BB%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%AC%CF%82" title="Ουλεμάς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ουλεμάς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulemo" title="Ulemo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ulemo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_(%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85)" title="عالم (اسلام) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="عالم (اسلام)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oul%C3%A9ma" title="Ouléma – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ouléma" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B8%EB%9D%BC%EB%A7%88" title="울라마 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="울라마" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama%27u" title="Ulama'u – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Ulama'u" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hausa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%89%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE" title="उलमा – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="उलमा" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulemo" title="Ulemo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Ulemo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CA%BF%C4%80lim" title="ʿĀlim – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="ʿĀlim" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%9E%D7%90" title="עולמא – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="עולמא" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ngulama" title="Ngulama – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Ngulama" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D2%92%D2%B1%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Ғұлама – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Ғұлама" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alim" title="Alim – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Alim" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mad mw-list-item"><a href="https://mad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olama%27" title="Olama' – Madurese" lang="mad" hreflang="mad" data-title="Olama'" data-language-autonym="Madhurâ" data-language-local-name="Madurese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Madhurâ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Улема – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Улема" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%89%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%AE" title="ഉലമ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ഉലമ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90" title="ულემა – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ულემა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oelama" title="Oelama – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Oelama" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%83%A9%E3%83%9E%E3%83%BC" title="ウラマー – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウラマー" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%80%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%B3" title="Ӏеламстаг – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Ӏеламстаг" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama_(islam)" title="Ulama (islam) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ulama (islam)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulamo" title="Ulamo – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ulamo" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="علماء – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="علماء" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulem" title="Ulem – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ulem" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulem%C3%A1" title="Ulemá – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ulemá" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%80%98Ulama" title="‘Ulama – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="‘Ulama" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Улем – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Улем" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aalim" title="Aalim – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Aalim" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulam%C3%A1" title="Ulamá – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Ulamá" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_(%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85)" title="عالم (ئیسلام) – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="عالم (ئیسلام)" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="Улема – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Улема" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ulama" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%89%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE" title="ఉలేమా – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఉలేమా" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AD%E0%B9%8C" title="อุละมาอ์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อุละมาอ์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Улем – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Улем" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="علماء – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="علماء" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E4%B9%8C%E7%90%86%E7%8E%9B" title="乌理玛 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="乌理玛" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulema" title="Ulema – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Ulema" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%83%8F%E7%90%86%E7%91%AA" title="烏理瑪 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="烏理瑪" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q189459#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:Ulama" rel="discussion" 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searchaux" style="display:none">Muslim legal scholars</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Ulama_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Ulama (disambiguation)">Ulama (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maqamat_hariri.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/265px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg" decoding="async" width="265" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/398px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Maqamat_hariri.jpg/530px-Maqamat_hariri.jpg 2x" data-file-width="974" data-file-height="989" /></a><figcaption>Scholars at an <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> library. Maqamat of al-Hariri. Illustration by <a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Mahmud_al-Wasiti" title="Yahya ibn Mahmud al-Wasiti">Yahyá al-Wasiti</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, 1237.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="border:1px solid #060;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Islamic_jurisprudence" title="Principles of Islamic jurisprudence">Usul al-Fiqh</a></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #686;background:rgb(220,245,220);border-bottom:1px solid #686;"> <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">Ijazah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">Ijtihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhtilaf" title="Ikhtilaf">Ikhtilaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istihlal" title="Istihlal">Istihlal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istihsan" title="Istihsan">Istihsan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istishab" title="Istishab">Istishab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Madhhab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">Maslaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">Qiyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">Taqlid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqwa" title="Taqwa">Taqwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urf" title="Urf">Urf</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #686;background:rgb(220,245,220);border-bottom:1px solid #686;"> <a href="/wiki/Ahkam" title="Ahkam">Ahkam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fard" title="Fard">Fard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mustahabb" title="Mustahabb">Mustahabb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halal" title="Halal">Halal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mubah" title="Mubah">Mubah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makruh" title="Makruh">Makruh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haram" title="Haram">Haram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batil" title="Batil">Batil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bid%27ah" title="Bid'ah">Bid'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fahisha" title="Fahisha">Fahisha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasiq" title="Fasiq">Fasiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fitna_(word)" title="Fitna (word)">Fitna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasad" title="Fasad">Fasad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghibah" title="Ghibah">Ghibah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_sin" title="Islamic views on sin">Gunah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hirabah" title="Hirabah">Hirabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islah" title="Islah">Islah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istighfar" title="Istighfar">Istighfar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Istishhad" title="Istishhad">Istishhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qasd" class="mw-redirect" title="Qasd">Qasd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taghut" title="Taghut">Taghut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqiyya" title="Taqiyya">Taqiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawbah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tawbah">Tawbah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tazkiah" class="mw-redirect" title="Tazkiah">Tazkiah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thawab" title="Thawab">Thawab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moderation_in_Islam" title="Moderation in Islam">Wasat</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="border-top:1px solid #686;background:rgb(220,245,220);border-bottom:1px solid #686;"> Legal vocations and titles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharif" title="Sharif">Sharif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashraf" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashraf">Ashraf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadrat" title="Hadrat">Hadrat</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ulama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faqeeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Faqeeh">Faqeeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allamah" title="Allamah">Allamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohyeddin" title="Mohyeddin">Mohyeddin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">Mufti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti" title="Grand Mufti">Grand Mufti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hujjat_al-Islam" title="Hujjat al-Islam">Hujjat al-Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mujtahid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mujtahid">Mujtahid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Ayatollah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seghatoleslam" title="Seghatoleslam">Seghatoleslam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marja%27" title="Marja'">Marja'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)" title="Hafiz (Quran)">Hafiz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hujja" title="Hujja">Hujja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakim_(title)" title="Hakim (title)">Hakim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imam" title="Imam">Imam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mullah" title="Mullah">Mullah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahdi" title="Mahdi">Mahdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawlawi_(Islamic_title)" title="Mawlawi (Islamic title)">Mawlawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khatib" title="Khatib">Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khawaja" title="Khawaja">Khawaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawl%C4%81n%C4%81" title="Mawlānā">Mawlānā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">Mawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Mufassir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murshid" title="Murshid">Murshid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pir_(Sufism)" title="Pir (Sufism)">Pir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wali" title="Wali">Wali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akhund" title="Akhund">Akhund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhaddith" title="Muhaddith">Muhaddith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mujaddid" title="Mujaddid">Mujaddid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">Qadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">Sheikh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marabout" title="Marabout">Marabout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu%27l-amr" title="Ulu'l-amr">Ulu'l-amr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ustad" title="Ustad">Ustad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27azzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'azzin">Mu'azzin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murid" title="Murid">Murid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mujahideen" title="Mujahideen">Mujahideen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghazi_(warrior)" title="Ghazi (warrior)">Ghazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahid" title="Shahid">Shahid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajji" title="Hajji">Hajji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ansar_(Islam)" title="Ansar (Islam)">Ansar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salaf" title="Salaf">Salaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahabah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahabah">Sahabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabi%27un" title="Tabi'un">Tabi'un</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tabi%27_al-Tabi%27in" title="Tabi' al-Tabi'in">Tabi' al-Tabi'in</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%27i_al-Mutlaq" title="Da'i al-Mutlaq">Da'i al-Mutlaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dawla" title="Al-Dawla">al-Dawla</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Usul_al-Fiqh" title="Template:Usul al-Fiqh"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Usul_al-Fiqh" title="Template talk:Usul al-Fiqh"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Usul_al-Fiqh" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Usul al-Fiqh"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> In <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>, the ulama (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/ˈuːləˌmɑː/</a>; <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: علماء, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: ʿulamāʾ, <a href="/wiki/Literal_translation" title="Literal translation">lit.</a> 'the learned ones';<a href="#cite_note-jacb2-1">[1]</a> singular <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: عالِم, <a href="/wiki/Romanization_of_Arabic" title="Romanization of Arabic">romanized</a>: ʿālim; feminine singular alimah; plural aalimath<a href="#cite_note-Def_EI2-2">[2]</a>), also spelled ulema, are scholars of Islamic <a href="/wiki/Doctrine" title="Doctrine">doctrine</a> and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.<a href="#cite_note-Def_EI2-2">[2]</a> "Ulama" may refer broadly to the educated class of such religious scholars, including <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theologians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religious_law" title="Religious law">canon</a> lawyers (<a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">muftis</a>), judges (<a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadis</a>), professors, and high state religious officials. Alternatively, "ulama" may refer specifically to those holding governmental positions in an <a href="/wiki/Islamic_state" title="Islamic state">Islamic state</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> By longstanding tradition, ulama are educated in religious institutions (<a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasas</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a> (authentic <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a>) are the scriptural sources of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">traditional Islamic law</a>.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Traditional_way_of_education">Traditional way of education</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Traditional way of education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diploma_WDL2489.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Diploma_WDL2489.png/220px-Diploma_WDL2489.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Diploma_WDL2489.png/330px-Diploma_WDL2489.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Diploma_WDL2489.png/440px-Diploma_WDL2489.png 2x" data-file-width="1371" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Ijazah (diploma of competency) in Arabic calligraphy, written by 'Ali Ra'if Efendi in 1206 AH (1791 AD)</figcaption></figure> Students of Islamic doctrine do not seek out a specific educational institution, but rather seek to join renowned teachers.<a href="#cite_note-Berkey_1992-5">[5]</a> By tradition, a scholar who has completed their studies is approved by their teacher. At the teacher's individual discretion, the student is given the permission for teaching and for the issuing of legal opinions (<a href="/wiki/Fatwa" title="Fatwa">fatwa</a>). The official approval is known as the <a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">ijazat at-tadris wa 'l-ifta</a> (<abbr style="font-size:85%" title="literal translation">lit.</abbr> 'license to teach and issue legal opinions').<a href="#cite_note-G-Makdisi-6">[6]</a> Through time, this practice has established a chain of teachers and pupils who have become teachers in their own time.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Places_of_learning">Places of learning</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Places of learning">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Endowment_Charter_(%27Waqfiyya%27)_of_Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_(TIEM_2192).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Endowment_Charter_%28%27Waqfiyya%27%29_of_Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_%28TIEM_2192%29.jpg/220px-Endowment_Charter_%28%27Waqfiyya%27%29_of_Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_%28TIEM_2192%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Endowment_Charter_%28%27Waqfiyya%27%29_of_Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_%28TIEM_2192%29.jpg/330px-Endowment_Charter_%28%27Waqfiyya%27%29_of_Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_%28TIEM_2192%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Endowment_Charter_%28%27Waqfiyya%27%29_of_Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_%28TIEM_2192%29.jpg/440px-Endowment_Charter_%28%27Waqfiyya%27%29_of_Haseki_H%C3%BCrrem_Sultan_%28TIEM_2192%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1244" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>Endowment Charter (Waqfiyya) of the <a href="/wiki/Hurrem_Sultan" class="mw-redirect" title="Hurrem Sultan">Hürrem Sultan</a> Mosque, Madrasa and <a href="/wiki/Haseki_Sultan_Imaret" title="Haseki Sultan Imaret">Imaret</a> (soup-kitchen). AD 1556–1557 (AH 964). <a href="/wiki/Museum_of_Turkish_and_Islamic_Arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts">Museum of Turkish and Islamic Arts</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></figcaption></figure> The traditional place of higher education is the <a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">madrasa</a>. The institution likely originated in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khurasan</a> during the 10th century AD, and spread to other parts of the Islamic world from the late 11th century onwards.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010600–603-9">[9]</a> The most famous early madrasas are the Sunni <a href="/wiki/Nezamiyeh" title="Nezamiyeh">Niẓāmiyya</a>, founded by the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk</a> vizir <a href="/wiki/Nizam_al-Mulk" title="Nizam al-Mulk">Nizam al-Mulk</a> (1018–1092) in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Iran and Iraq</a> in the 11th century. The <a href="/wiki/Mustansiriya_Madrasah" title="Mustansiriya Madrasah">Mustansiriya</a>, established by the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid caliph</a> <a href="/wiki/Al-Mustansir_(Baghdad)" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mustansir (Baghdad)">Al-Mustansir</a> in <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> in 1234 AD, was the first to be founded by a caliph, and also the first known to host teachers of all four major <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhab</a> known at that time. From the time of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_peoples" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian peoples">Persian</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> (1260–1335 AD) and the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid dynasty</a> (1370–1507 AD) onwards, madrasas have often become part of an architectural complex which also includes a mosque, a Sufi <a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">ṭarīqa</a>, and other buildings of socio-cultural function, like <a href="/wiki/Turkish_bath" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish bath">baths</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">hospital</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010600–603-9">[9]</a> Madrasas are considered sacred places of learning. They may provide boarding and salaries to a limited number of teachers, and boarding for a number of students out of the revenue from religious endowments (<a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">waqf</a>), allocated to a specific institution by the donor. In later times, the deeds of endowment were issued in elaborate <a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Islamic calligraphy</a>, as is the case for <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> endowment books (vakıf-name).<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> The donor could also specify the subjects to be taught, the qualification of the teachers, or which <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhab</a> the teaching should follow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010600–603-9">[9]</a> Moreover, the donor is free to specify in detail the curriculum, as was shown by Ahmed and Filipovic (2004) for the Ottoman imperial madrasas founded by <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> As Berkey (1992) has described in detail for the education in medieval <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a>, unlike medieval Western universities, in general madrasas have no distinct <a href="/wiki/Curriculum" title="Curriculum">curriculum</a>, and do not issue <a href="/wiki/Diploma" title="Diploma">diplomas</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Berkey_1992-5">[5]</a> The educational activities of the madrasas focuses on the law, but also includes what Zaman (2010) called "Sharia sciences" (al-ʿulūm al-naqliyya) as well as the rational sciences like philosophy, astronomy, mathematics or medicine. The inclusion of these sciences sometimes reflects the personal interests of their donors, but also indicates that scholars often study various different sciences.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010600–603-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Branches_of_learning">Branches of learning</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Branches of learning">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sufism">Sufism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Sufism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufism</a></div> Early on in Islamic history, a line of thought developed around the idea of <a href="/wiki/Mysticism" title="Mysticism">mysticism</a>, striving for the perfection (<a href="/wiki/Ihsan" title="Ihsan">Ihsan</a>) of worship.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P72_75-12">[12]</a> During the first Islamic century, <a href="/wiki/Hasan_al-Basri" title="Hasan al-Basri">Hasan al-Basri</a> (642–728 AD) was one of the first Muslim scholars to describe, according to <a href="/wiki/Albert_Hourani" title="Albert Hourani">Albert Hourani</a> (1991) "the sense of the distance and nearness of God ... in the language of love". During the 7th century, the ritual of <a href="/wiki/Dhikr" title="Dhikr">Dhikr</a> evolved as a "way of freeing the soul from the distractions of the world". Important early scholars who further elaborated on mysticism were <a href="/wiki/Harith_al-Muhasibi" class="mw-redirect" title="Harith al-Muhasibi">Harith al-Muhasibi</a> (781–857 AD) and <a href="/wiki/Junayd_of_Baghdad" title="Junayd of Baghdad">Junayd al-Baghdadi</a> (835–910 AD).<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P72_75-12">[12]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Philosophy_and_ethics">Philosophy and ethics</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Philosophy and ethics">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">early Muslim conquests</a> brought about <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arab</a> Muslim rule over large parts of the <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic world</a>. During the time of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, at latest, the scholars of the emerging Islamic society had become familiar with the classical philosophical and scientific traditions of the world they had conquered. The collection of classical works and their translation into the Arabian language<a href="#cite_note-Sezgin_1970_P3_4-13">[13]</a> initiated a period which is known today as the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. According to Hourani (1991), the works of the classical scholars of antiquity were met with considerable intellectual curiosity by Islamic scholars. Hourani quotes <a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">al-Kindi</a> (c. 801–873 AD), "the father of Islamic philosophy",<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> as follows: <blockquote> We should not be ashamed to acknowledge truth from whatever source it comes to us, even if it is brought to us by former generations and foreign peoples. For him who seeks the truth there is nothing of higher value than truth itself.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> </blockquote> The works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, in particular his <a href="/wiki/Nicomachean_Ethics" title="Nicomachean Ethics">Nicomachean Ethics</a>, had a profound influence on the Islamic scholars of the Golden Age like <a href="/wiki/Al-Farabi" title="Al-Farabi">Al-Farabi</a> (870–950 AD), <a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hassan_al-Amiri" title="Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri">Abu al-Hassan al-Amiri</a> (d. 992 AD) and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Ibn Sina</a> (ca. 980–1037 AD). In general, the Islamic philosophers saw no contradiction between philosophy and the religion of Islam. However, according to Hourani, al-Farabi also wrote that philosophy in its pure form was reserved for an intellectual elite, and that ordinary people should rely for guidance on the sharia. The distinction between a scholarly elite and the less educated masses "was to become a commonplace of Islamic thought".<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P78-16">[16]</a> As exemplified by the works of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">al-Razi</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 865–925 AD), during later times, philosophy "was carried on as a private activity, largely by medical men, pursued with discretion, and often met with suspicion".<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P78-16">[16]</a> The founder of Islamic philosophical ethics is <a href="/wiki/Miskawayh" title="Miskawayh">Ibn Miskawayh</a> (932–1030 AD)<a href="#cite_note-EI-17">[17]</a> He combined Aristotelian and Islamic ethics, explicitly mentioning the Nicomachean Ethics and its interpretation by <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_of_Gaza" class="mw-redirect" title="Porphyry of Gaza">Porphyry of Gaza</a> as the foundation of his philosophical thoughts.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In the 12th century, the early Islamic <a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a> which had developed out of <a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_philosophy" title="Hellenistic philosophy">Hellenistic philosophy</a> was effectively criticised by <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> one of the most influential scholars of Islam.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> In his works <a href="/wiki/The_Incoherence_of_the_Philosophers" title="The Incoherence of the Philosophers">Tahāfut al-Falāsifa</a> (The Incoherence of the Philosophers), Mizan al-'amal (Criterion of Action) and <a href="/wiki/Kimiya-yi_sa%27%C4%81dat" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimiya-yi sa'ādat">Kimiya-yi sa'ādat</a> (The Alchemy of Happiness), he refuted the <a href="/wiki/Avicennism" title="Avicennism">Philosophy of Ibn Sīnā</a>, and demonstrated that the Aristotelian ethics is incompatible with Islamic ethics: The latter is based on the belief in God and in life after death, which together provide the foundation of action in the pursuit of <a href="/wiki/Kimiya-yi_sa%27%C4%81dat#Sa'āda" class="mw-redirect" title="Kimiya-yi sa'ādat">sa'āda</a> (Happiness).<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Law">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a></div> According to <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a>, the authority to interpret the messages of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> lies with the <a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shia_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shia doctrine)">Imamah</a>, a line of infallible interpreters of the truth. The <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> majority, however, reject this concept and maintain that God's will has been completely revealed in the Quran and <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a> of the Prophet. The capacity of its interpretation lies with the ulama.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P158-22">[22]</a> By the eleventh century, the major schools of Sunni and Shia law (<a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhab</a>) had emerged. Whilst, historically, the schools were at times engaged in mutual conflicts, the differences became less controversial over time, and merely represent regional predominances today. The four most important Sunni schools are:<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P158-22">[22]</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Shafi'i">Shafi'i</a> (<a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mashriq" title="Mashriq">Mashriq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maliki" class="mw-redirect" title="Maliki">Maliki</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghreb</a> and <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central</a> and <a href="/wiki/South_Asia" title="South Asia">South Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Balkans" class="mw-redirect" title="The Balkans">the Balkans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> (most common in the <a href="/wiki/Arab_states_of_the_Persian_Gulf" title="Arab states of the Persian Gulf">Gulf counties</a>)</li></ul> Shia madhhab include the <a href="/wiki/Ja%27fari_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Ja'fari jurisprudence">Ja'fari</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zaidiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidiyyah">Zaidi</a> schools. Minor madhhab also mentioned in the <a href="/wiki/Amman_message" class="mw-redirect" title="Amman message">Amman message</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> are the <a href="/wiki/Ibadi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibadi">Ibadi</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Zahiri" class="mw-redirect" title="Zahiri">Zahiri</a> schools. All Sunni madhhabs recognize four sources of <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a> (divine law): the Quran, <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">sunnah</a> (authentic hadith), <a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">qiyas</a> (analogical reasoning), and <a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">ijma</a> (juridical consensus).<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> However, the madhhabs differ from each other in their conception of the <a href="/wiki/Principles_of_Islamic_jurisprudence" title="Principles of Islamic jurisprudence">Principles of Islamic jurisprudence</a>, or uṣūl al-fiqh, as briefly summarised by Hourani (1991).<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P158_160-25">[25]</a> The Hanbalis accepted only the consensus of the <a href="/wiki/Sahabah" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahabah">Companions of the Prophet</a> (aṣ-ṣaḥābah), which gave more leeway to independent reasoning (<a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a>) within the boundaries of the rules of qiyās. The Hanafis hold that strict analogy may at times be supported by a limited use of juristic preference (<a href="/wiki/Istihsan" title="Istihsan">istihsan</a>), whereas the Maliki school also allows pragmatic considerations in the interest of public welfare (<a href="/wiki/Istislah" title="Istislah">istislah</a>) are also acceptable.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P158_160-25">[25]</a> Instead of the Sunni concept of analogy (qiyās), Shia ulama prefer "dialectical reasoning" (<a href="/wiki/%27Aql" title="'Aql">'Aql</a>) to deduce law.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The body of substantive jurisprudence (<a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a>) defines the proper way of life through interpretation of sharia, which Muslims should follow if they want to live according to God's will. Over time, the madhhabs established "codes of conduct", examining human actions in the light of the Quran and Hadith. Supplementing the sharia were customs (<a href="/wiki/Urf" title="Urf">ʿurf</a>) within a given society. Islamic law and regional customs were not opposed to each other: In 15th century Morocco, <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qadis</a> were allowed to use a process called ʻamal in order to choose from different juridical opinions one which applied best to the local customs, even if they were not supported by the consensus of the majority. More often, the use of sharia led to changes in local customs.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P158_160-25">[25]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theology">Theology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Theology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Schools of Islamic theology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">ʿIlm al-Kalām</a>, the "science of discourse", also termed "Islamic theology", serves to explain and defend the doctrine of the Quran and Hadith.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> The concept of kalām was introduced during the first Islamic centuries by the <a href="/wiki/Mu%CA%BFtazila" class="mw-redirect" title="Muʿtazila">Muʿtazila</a> school.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> One of the most prominent scholars of the Muʿtazila was <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Jabbar_ibn_Ahmad" class="mw-redirect" title="Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad">Abd al-Jabbar ibn Ahmad</a> (935–1025 AD). From the 11th century on, the Muʿtazila was suppressed by the Sunni <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a>, but it continued playing an important role in the formation of Shia theology. The <a href="/wiki/Ash%27ari" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash'ari">Ash'ari</a> school encouraged the use of Kalām as the basis of fiqh, and was followed in this approach by parts of the Shafi'i madhhab. In contrast, the Hanbali and Maliki madhhabs discouraged theological speculation. <a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_al-Maturidi" title="Abu Mansur al-Maturidi">Abu Mansur al-Maturidi</a> (853–944 AD) developed his own form of Kalām, differing from the Ash'ari view in the question of Man's free will and God's omnipotence. Maturidi Kalām was often used in combination with Hanafi fiqh in the northwestern parts of the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P158_160-25">[25]</a> A distinct school of theology often called <a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_theology_(Islam)" class="mw-redirect" title="Traditionalist theology (Islam)">traditionalist theology</a> emerged under the leadership of <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Hanbal" title="Ahmad ibn Hanbal">Ahmad ibn Hanbal</a> in the early centuries of Islam among hadith scholars who rejected rationalistic argumentation.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> In the wake of the Ash'arite synthesis between Mu'tazilite rationalism and <a href="/wiki/Hanbalite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbalite">Hanbalite</a> literalism, its original form survived among a minority of mostly Hanbalite scholars.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> While <a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a> are often called the Sunni "orthodoxy", traditionalist theology has thrived alongside it, laying rival claims to be the orthodox Sunni faith.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> Islamic theology experienced further developments among <a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology#Shia_schools_of_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Shia theologians</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cosmopolitan_scholarly_tradition">Cosmopolitan scholarly tradition</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Cosmopolitan scholarly tradition">edit</a>]</div> The study of, and commentaries on Quran and hadith, debates about ijtihad and taqlid and the issuing of fatwa as well as the use of Arabic, and later also Persian as common languages of discourse constituted the religious authority of the ulama throughout the entire Islamic world. Zaman<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010595–599-32">[32]</a> has demonstrated that, as personal contacts were key to acquiring knowledge, Islamic scholars sometimes travel far in search of knowledge (ṭalab al-ʿilm). Due to their common training and language, any scholars travelling from one region of the Islamic world to another can easily integrate themselves into the local Muslim community and hold offices there: The traveller <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> (1304–1368 or 1369), born in <a href="/wiki/Tangiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Tangiers">Tangiers</a>, Morocco, to a family of ulema, was appointed qadi by Sultan <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Tughluq" title="Muhammad bin Tughluq">Muhammad bin Tughluq</a> of <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Delhi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Delhi">Delhi</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nuruddin_ar-Raniri" title="Nuruddin ar-Raniri">Nuruddin ar-Raniri</a> (d. 1658), born to a <a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Muslims" title="Gujarati Muslims">Gujarati Muslim</a> family, travelled to, and worked as Shaykh ul-Islam in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a> under the protection of <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Thani" title="Iskandar Thani">Iskandar Thani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Sultan of Aceh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010595–599-32">[32]</a> Both scholars were able to move freely in an "interconnected world of fellow scholars".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010598-33">[33]</a> According to Zaman, their offices and positions as respected scholars were only questioned if they proved themselves unfamiliar with local customs (as happened to Ibn Battuta]), or met resistance from opponents with stronger local roots (ar-Raniri).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010595–599-32">[32]</a> Through their travels and teachings, ulama are able to transmit new knowledge and ideas over considerable distances. However, according to Zaman (2010), scholars have often been required to rely on commonly known texts which could support their fatwas. A text which might be widely known within the intellectual circles of one region could be unknown in another. The ability of scholars from one region to support their argument in another might therefore be limited by the familiarity with the respective texts of the community they are working in. In an era without book print or mass communication media, a scholar's reputation might have remain limited if he was unfamiliar with the local canon of texts. As the <a href="/wiki/Ijazah" title="Ijazah">ijazah</a>, the scholar's approval by another master, is key to the scholar's reputation, the latter would be greater in regions where the approving masters is more widely known.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZaman2010603–606-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_and_cultural_history">Political and cultural history</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Political and cultural history">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Muslim_communities">Early Muslim communities</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Early Muslim communities">edit</a>]</div> The second caliph, <a href="/wiki/Umar" title="Umar">Umar ibn al-Khattab</a>, funded a group of Muslims to study the revelations, stories of Muhammed's life, "and other pertinent data, so that when he needed expert advice" he could draw it from these "people of the bench". According to <a href="/wiki/Tamim_Ansary" title="Tamim Ansary">Tamim Ansary</a>, this group evolved into the Ulama<a href="#cite_note-Destiny_disrupted_50-35">[35]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiqh">Fiqh</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Fiqh">edit</a>]</div> The formative period of <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Islamic jurisprudence</a> stretches back to the time of the early Muslim communities. In this period, jurists were more concerned with pragmatic issues of authority and teaching than with theory.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Progress in theory began to develop with the coming of the early Muslim jurist <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Idris_ash-Shafi%27i" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i">Muhammad ibn Idris ash-Shafi'i</a> (767–820), who codified the basic principles of Islamic jurisprudence in his book ar-Risālah. The book details the four roots of law (Qur'an, <a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">ijma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Qiyas" title="Qiyas">qiyas</a>) while specifying that the primary Islamic texts (the Qur'an and the hadith) must be understood according to objective rules of interpretation derived from scientific study of the Arabic language.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> According to Feldman (2008), under many Muslim caliphate states and later states ruled by sultans, the ulama were regarded as the guardians of Islamic law and prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results, with the ruler and ulama forming a sort of "separation of powers" in government.<a href="#cite_note-Feldman-38">[38]</a> Laws were decided based on the <a href="/wiki/Ijma" title="Ijma">Ijma</a> (consensus) of the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Ummah</a> (community), which was most often represented by the legal scholars.<a href="#cite_note-Feldman-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern_Islamic_empires">Early modern Islamic empires</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Early modern Islamic empires">edit</a>]</div> The Sunni Ottoman, and the <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a">Shi'a</a> Safavid Persian dynasties, rulers of the two opponent early modern Islamic empires, both relied on ulama in order to legitimise their power. In both empires, ulama patronised by the royal courts created "official" religious doctrines which supported the dynastic rule. At the high points of their political power, respectively, the development took different paths: The Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Süleyman I">Süleyman I</a> successfully integrated the imperial ulama into the imperial bureaucracy, and Ottoman secular law into Islamic law.<a href="#cite_note-Zilfi_2006-39">[39]</a> In contrast, Shah <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Abbas I of Persia</a> was unable to gain similar support by the Shi'a ulama, who retained a more independent position. During the late Safavid empire, the Shi'a ulama developed into one of the warrantors of continuity in a period of instability of the central government, thus securing a relative independency which they retained during the reign of subsequent dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-Garthwaite_NCHoI_507_508-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ottoman_imperial_Sunni_ulama">Ottoman imperial Sunni ulama</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Ottoman imperial Sunni ulama">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seyh-%C3%BCl-Isl%C3%A2m.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Seyh-%C3%BCl-Isl%C3%A2m.jpg/220px-Seyh-%C3%BCl-Isl%C3%A2m.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="372" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Seyh-%C3%BCl-Isl%C3%A2m.jpg/330px-Seyh-%C3%BCl-Isl%C3%A2m.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2f/Seyh-%C3%BCl-Isl%C3%A2m.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Seyh-ül-Islâm, watercolour, ca. 1809</figcaption></figure> After the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453, the leaders and subjects of the Ottoman Empire became increasingly aware of its role as a <a href="/wiki/Great_power" title="Great power">great power</a> of its time. This new self-awareness was associated with the idea to legitimise the new political role by linking the religious scholarship to the political system: Ottoman historians of the 15th and 16th century like Ibn Zunbul or Eyyûbî,<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> described the deeds of the Ottoman sultans in terms of idealised Islamic <a href="/wiki/Ghazi_(warrior)" title="Ghazi (warrior)">ghazi</a> warriors. According to Burak (2015), the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_literature" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman literature">Ottoman literature</a> genres of the "rank order" (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: tabaḳat and the "biografic lexicon" (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: Eş-şakaiku'n) compiled the biographies of scholars in such ways as to create a concise and coherent tradition of the doctrine and structure of the Ottoman imperial scholarship. During the 16th century, scholars like the Shaykh al-Islām <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Kemal" title="Ibn Kemal">Kemālpaşazade</a> (d. 1534), <a href="/wiki/Ta%C5%9Fk%C3%B6pr%C3%BCzade" title="Taşköprüzade">Aḥmād b. Muṣṭafā Taşköprüzāde</a> (1494–1561), Kınalızāde ʿAli Çelebi (d. 1572) and Ali ben Bali (1527–1584)<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> established a seamless chain of tradition from <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa" title="Abu Hanifa">Abu Hanifa</a> to their own time. Explicitly, some authors stated that their work must not only be understood as the historiography of the Hanafi <a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">madhhab</a>, but that it should be consulted in case of eventual disagreements within the school of law. This exemplifies their purpose to establish a canon of <a href="/wiki/Hanafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanafi">Hanafi</a> law within the Ottoman imperial scholarship.<a href="#cite_note-Burak_P65_100-43">[43]</a> which modern Ottomanists termed the "Ottoman Islam".<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> After 1453, <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_the_Conqueror" class="mw-redirect" title="Mehmed the Conqueror">Mehmed the Conqueror</a> (1432–1481) had established eight madrasas in former Byzantine church buildings,<a href="#cite_note-inalcik-167-45">[45]</a> and later founded the <a href="/wiki/Sahn-%C4%B1_Seman_Medrese" title="Sahn-ı Seman Medrese">sahn-ı şeman</a> or "Eight courtyards madrasa", adjacent to the <a href="/wiki/Fatih_Mosque,_Istanbul" title="Fatih Mosque, Istanbul">Fatih mosque</a>, where he brought together the most distinguished Islamic law scholars of his territory.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> In his 2015 study on the "second formation of Islamic law",<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> Burak has shown in detail how the Ottoman state gradually imposed upon the traditional ulama a hierarchy of "official imperial scholars", appointed and paid by the central government. From the conquest of the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate of Cairo</a> in 1517 onwards, the Ottoman ulama set up their own interpretation of the Sunni Hanafi doctrine which then served as the official religious doctrine of the empire. The formal acknowledgment by decree of the sultan became a prerequisite to issue fatwas. In the 17th century, the annalist al-Hamawi used the expression "sultanic mufti" (al-ifta' al-sultani) to delineate the difference between the officially appointed religious leaders and those who had followed the traditional way of education.<a href="#cite_note-burak21-64-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> Other authors at that time called the Ottoman law scholars "Hanafi of Rūm [i.e., the Ottoman Empire]" (Rūmi ḫānāfi), "Scholars of Rūm" (ʿulamā'-ı rūm) or "Scholars of the Ottoman Empire" (ʿulamā' al-dawla al-ʿUthmaniyyā).<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Shaykh_al-Isl%C4%81m" title="Shaykh al-Islām">Shaykh al-Islām</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: Şeyhülislam) in Istanbul became the highest-ranking Islamic scholar within, and head of the ulama throughout the empire.<a href="#cite_note-burak21-64-48">[48]</a> The ulama in the Ottoman Empire had a significant influence over politics due to the belief that secular institutions were all subordinate to Islamic law, the <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: Şeriat). The ulama were responsible for interpreting the religious law, therefore they claimed that their power superseded that of the government.<a href="#cite_note-inalcik-171-51">[51]</a> Within the Ottoman hierarchy of ulama, the Shaykh al-Islām held the highest rank. He exerted his influence by issuing fatwas, his written interpretations of the sharia had authority over the entire Ottoman population. In the 16th century, as the support by the ulama of the sultan and the central government was essential for shaping the still-growing empire, the importance of the office rose, and its power increased. As members of the <a href="/wiki/Ilmiye" title="Ilmiye">Ilmiye</a>, the imperial scholars were part of the Ottoman elite class of the <a href="/wiki/Askeri" title="Askeri">Askeri</a>, and were exempt from any taxes.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> However, by approving scholars and appointing them to offices, over time the sultan's influence increased over the religious scholars, although, as a Muslim, he still stood under the Islamic law.<a href="#cite_note-Zilfi_2006-39">[39]</a> Even the Shaykh al-Islām was subordinate to the sultan; his position, like the ranks of the muftis, was described as a "service" (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: hizmet) or "rank" (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: rütbe or paye-ı Sahn), to which a candidate was appointed or elevated.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Sometimes, the sultans made use of their power: In 1633, <a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a> gave order to execute the Shaykh al-Islām Ahīzāde Ḥüseyin Efendi. In 1656, Shaykh al-Islām Ḥocazāde Mesʿud Efendi was sentenced to death by sultan <a href="/wiki/Mehmed_IV" title="Mehmed IV">Mehmed IV</a>.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> The use of the Sunni Islam as a legitimisation of the Ottoman dynastic rule is closely linked to Sultan <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Süleyman I">Süleyman I</a> and his <a href="/wiki/Kazasker" title="Kazasker">kazasker</a> and later Schaykh al-Islām <a href="/wiki/Ebussuud_Efendi" title="Ebussuud Efendi">Ebussuud Efendi</a>. Ebussuud compiled an imperial book of law (ḳānūn-nāme),<a href="#cite_note-Imber_CHT_3_236_238-55">[55]</a> which combined religious law (sharīʿah) with secular dynastic law (<a href="/wiki/Qanun_(law)" title="Qanun (law)">ḳānūn</a>) in the person of the sultan.<a href="#cite_note-Barkey_2008-56">[56]</a> For example, Ebussuud provided a reason why the government could own land, or could levy and increase taxes, as the government was responsible for the protection of the common good of all Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-Imber_CHT_3_236_238-55">[55]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shi'a_state_religion_of_Safavid_Persia">Shi'a state religion of Safavid Persia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Shi'a state religion of Safavid Persia">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Safi-ad-din_Ardabili" class="mw-redirect" title="Safi-ad-din Ardabili">Shaikh Safi-ad-Din Ardabili</a> (1252–1334) was the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Safaviyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Safaviyya">Safaviyya</a> <a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">tariqa</a>. Safi ad-Din's great-great grandson <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail</a>, who from 1501 onwards ruled over the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian Empire">Persian Empire</a>, was the founder of the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a>. <a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">Shah</a> Ismail I proclaimed the <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> Shi'a as the new Persian state religion. To <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">propagate the Safavid faith</a>, he invited ulama from <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jabal_Amel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabal Amel">Jabal 'Āmil</a> in southern <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> to travel around Iran and promote the Shi'a doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> In 1533, Shah <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a> commissioned a new edition of the <a href="/wiki/Safvat_as-safa" title="Safvat as-safa">Safvat as-safa</a>, Shaikh Ṣāfī's genealogy. It was rewritten in order to support the royal family's claim at descendency from <a href="/wiki/Musa_al-Kadhim" class="mw-redirect" title="Musa al-Kadhim">Musa al-Kadhim</a>, the Seventh Imam, and thus to legitimise the Safavid rule.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> During the reign of Shah <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Abbas I</a> (1571 – 1629 AD), the argument of the <a href="/wiki/Theocracy" title="Theocracy">theocratic</a> unity of religious and political power was no longer sufficient to legitimise the Shah's authority: Shi'a ulama renounced the monarch's claim to represent the hidden Imam by teaching that descendancy did not necessarily mean representation. Likewise, as the influence of Sufi mysticism weakened, the Shah's role as the head of the Safaviyya lost its significance as a justification for his political role. Abbas I thus sought to associate himself with eminent ulama like <a href="/wiki/Bah%C4%81%CA%BE_al-d%C4%ABn_al-%CA%BF%C4%80mil%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahāʾ al-dīn al-ʿĀmilī">Shaykh Bahāʾi</a> (1574–1621 AD), whom he made Shaykh al-Islām in his new capital, Isfahan. Other famous ulama working under Abbas's patronage were <a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a> (d. 1631 or 1632 AD), one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Isfahan" title="School of Isfahan">School of Isfahan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Muhammad_Ardabili" title="Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ardabili">Ahmad ibn Muhammad Ardabili</a> (d. 1585). By their teachings, they further developed the Shi'a Islamic teachings and religious practice. However, as religion did no longer suffice to support political power in Persia, Abbas I had to develop independent concepts to legitimise his rule. He did so by creating a new <a href="/wiki/Ghulam" title="Ghulam">ghulam</a> army, thus evoking the <a href="/wiki/Turco-Mongol_tradition" title="Turco-Mongol tradition">Turco-Mongol tradition</a> of <a href="/wiki/Timur" title="Timur">Timur</a> and his reign.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: 19th century">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Ottoman_scholarly_elite">New Ottoman scholarly elite</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: New Ottoman scholarly elite">edit</a>]</div> By the beginning of the 19th century, the Ottoman ulama still retained their political influence. When sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_III" title="Selim III">Selim III</a> tried to reform the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman army</a>, the ulama opposed his plans, which they rejected as an <a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">apostasy from Islam</a>. Consequently, his reform failed. However, Selims successor <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_II" title="Mahmud II">Mahmud II</a> (r. 1808–1839) was more successful: He called the new troops, organised according to European models, by the name "Victorious army of Muhammad" (Asâkir-i Mansure-i Muhammediye). By doing so, he was able to overcome the accusation of apostasy and secure the ulama's support.<a href="#cite_note-HME_73_75-61">[61]</a> Mahmuds reforms created a new imperial elite class who spoke Western European languages and were knowledgeable of the Western European societies and their political systems. As the political and economic pressure increased on the Ottoman Empire in the course of the 19th century, this new elite carried on the Sultan's reforms and helped initiating a new era of reform, the <a href="/wiki/Tanzimat" title="Tanzimat">Tanzimat</a>. In parallel, the political influence of the ulama was circumvented and reduced step by step. A <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Sharia_and_the_Foundations" title="Ministry of Sharia and the Foundations">ministry for religious endowments</a> was created in order to control the finances of the <a href="/wiki/Waqf" title="Waqf">vakıf</a>. Thus, the ulama lost direct control over their finances, which significantly reduced their capacity to exert political influence.<a href="#cite_note-HME_73_75-61">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Orthodox_Shi'a_ulama_in_post-Safavid_and_Qajar_Iran">Orthodox Shi'a ulama in post-Safavid and Qajar Iran</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Orthodox Shi'a ulama in post-Safavid and Qajar Iran">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Allamah_Majlisi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Portrait_of_Allamah_Majlisi.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Allamah_Majlisi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="347" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Portrait_of_Allamah_Majlisi.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Allamah_Majlisi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/Portrait_of_Allamah_Majlisi.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Allamah_Majlisi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="946" /></a><figcaption>Iranian Shaykh ul-Islam Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi (1627–1699)</figcaption></figure> In Iran, a period of political instability began with the collapse of the Safavid reign after shah <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Husayn" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Husayn">Sultan Husayns</a> death in 1722. In the light of the discontinuity and fragmentation of the central government, two social groups maintained continuity and, consequently, rose in power: Tribal chieftains established, amongst others, the <a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Khanates of the Caucasus</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Afsharid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasties</a>. The second group who benefitted from the weakness of the central authority was the Shi'a ulama. According to Garthwaite (2010), "the ulama constituted one institution that not only provided continuity, but gradually asserted its role over and against royal authority." A process of change began which continued throughout the 19th century and into the present.<a href="#cite_note-Garthwaite_NCHoI_504_525-62">[62]</a> Already some of the last Safavids, <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_I_of_Persia" title="Suleiman I of Persia">Sulayman Shah</a> (r. 1666–1694) and <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_II" title="Tahmasp II">Tahmasp II</a> (r. 1722–1732) had sought the ulama's support in an attempt to strengthen their authority. Particularly, they associated themselves with a group of ulama who supported the "official" <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> Shi'a doctrine, established by the Iranian Shaykh al-Islām <a href="/wiki/Mohammad-Baqer_Majlesi" title="Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi">Mohammad-Baqer Majlesi</a> (1627–1699) during the later decades of Safavid rule. The dispute between the Twelver Shi'a and <a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a>'s (d. 1631 or 1632) and <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a>'s (c. 1571/2 – 1640) <a href="/wiki/School_of_Isfahan" title="School of Isfahan">School of Isfahan</a>, who promoted Sufi mysticism and <a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a>, continued throughout the 18th century, and shaped the relationship between ulama and government during the reigns of the subsequent dynasties.<a href="#cite_note-Garthwaite_NCHoI_507_508-40">[40]</a> With the accession of <a href="/wiki/Agha_Mohammad_Khan_Qajar" title="Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar">Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar</a> to the Iranian throne, the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a> consolidated the central power. However, the Qajar Shahs, in particular <a href="/wiki/Naser_al-Din_Shah_Qajar" title="Naser al-Din Shah Qajar">Naser al-Din Shah Qajar</a> (r. 1848–1896), whose reign paralleled that of the Ottoman Sultans of the Tanzimat time, failed at obtaining central control over the ulama. The <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shiite</a> scholars retained their political influence on the Persian society. They also maintained unrestricted access to the financial resources from the religious endowments. In addition, the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a> tax was paid to individual imams and not to state-sponsored tax collectors. Both their religious influence and their financial means allowed the Shiite ulama to act, at times, against the Shah.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Thus, under the Qajar dynasty, the ulama provided a source of religious legitimacy and served as interpreters of religious law in a dual legal system where the state administered law based on custom (<a href="/wiki/Urf" title="Urf">ʻurf</a>).<a href="#cite_note-choueiri-81-64">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th/20th_century:_Ulama_and_Muslim_reform">19th/20th century: Ulama and Muslim reform</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: 19th/20th century: Ulama and Muslim reform">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reformers_and_concepts">Reformers and concepts</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Reformers and concepts">edit</a>]</div> Starting in the first half of the 19th century, direct contacts began and gradually increased between members of the ulama and modern Western Europe. The Egyptian alim <a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a> (1801–1873) was amongst the first members of the ulama who travelled to Europe. As a religious counsellor to a delegation by the Egyptian <a href="/wiki/Khedive" title="Khedive">khedive</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali Pasha</a> he stayed in Paris from 1826 to 1831. His report "The Extraction of Gold or an Overview of Paris" (Taḫlīṣ al-ibrīz fī talḫīṣ Bārīz) (1849) included some outlines of future reforms and potential improvements in his native country. Although al-Tahtawi had gone through the traditional education of an alim, his interest focused on modern French concepts of administration and economy. He only referred to Islam in order to emphasize that Muslims can adopt practical knowledge and insights from Europe. As such, lt-Tahtawi's report reflects the political efforts of Muhammad Ali Pasha, who did not intend to reform al-Azhar university, but aimed at building an independent educational system sponsored by his government.<a href="#cite_note-Dallal_NCHoI-65">[65]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hayreddin_Pasha" title="Hayreddin Pasha">Hayreddin Pasha</a> (1822/3–1890) was an <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Tunisia" title="Ottoman Tunisia">Ottoman Tunisian</a> alim and statesman who reformed the administration and jurisdiction of the province. He was able to explain his ideas in French (Réformes nécessaires aux États musulmans – Necessary reforms of the Muslim states. Paris, 1868), which he had learned whilst representing his sovereign <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_I_ibn_Mustafa" title="Ahmad I ibn Mustafa">Ahmad Bey</a> at the court of <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_III" title="Napoleon III">Napoleon III</a> from 1852 to 1855. In contrast to al-Tahtawi, Hayreddin Pasha used the religious concept of the Muslim collective interest (<a href="/wiki/Maslaha" title="Maslaha">maṣlaḥa</a>) to make his point, thereby applying the idea of <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a> to public affairs.<a href="#cite_note-Dallal_NCHoI-65">[65]</a> Positions comparable to the Western Islamic ulama were also taken in the Eastern parts of the Islamic world by <a href="/wiki/Syed_Ahmad_Khan" title="Syed Ahmad Khan">Syed Ahmad Khan</a>, the pioneering Muslim modernist in South Asia, and <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Din_al-Afghani" title="Jamal al-Din al-Afghani">Jamal al-Din al-Afghani</a>. The latter is regarded as the mentor of <a href="/wiki/Pan-Islamism" title="Pan-Islamism">Pan-Islamism</a>, but also as one of the founders of the <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">political Islam</a> and of the late 19th and 20th century <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dallal_NCHoI-65">[65]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dar_al-Ifta_al-Misriyyah" title="Dar al-Ifta al-Misriyyah">Egyptian Grand Mufti</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Abduh" title="Muhammad Abduh">Muhammad Abduh</a> (1849–1905), who was granted the degree of 'Alim by al-Azhar university in 1877, was the first who used the term <a href="/wiki/Islah" title="Islah">Islāh</a> in order to denote political and religious reforms. Until 1887 he edited together with al-Afghani the newspaper al-ʿUrwa al-Wuthqā ("The firm bond"). The gazette widely spread the pan-islamistic concept of Islam representing a religious bond which was believed to be stronger than nationality or language. From 1876 on, Abduh edited the newspaper <a href="/wiki/Al-Ahram" title="Al-Ahram">al-Ahrām</a>. Since 1898, he also edited, together with <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Rida" title="Rashid Rida">Rashid Rida</a> (1865–1935), the newspaper al-Manār ("The Beacon"),<a href="#cite_note-66">[note 1]</a> in which he further developed his ideas. al-Manār appeared in print for almost 40 years and was read throughout the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-Dallal_NCHoI-65">[65]</a> ʿAbduh understood Islah as a concept of "reform of mankind" (iṣlāḥ nauʿ al-insān).<a href="#cite_note-merad_144a-67">[66]</a> In his works, he emphasized the special importance of a reform of the traditional madrasa system, which was taken to disadvantage by the parallel establishment of the secular, state-sponsored educational system in Egypt. He strove at reconciling the traditional and modern educational systems, thereby justifying from the point of view of Islam the introduction of modern institutions by the national state. He referred to the Islamic concept of the collective interest or <a href="/wiki/Common_good" title="Common good">common good</a> of the Muslim community (maṣlaḥa), to which he accorded overarching importance (al-maṣlaḥa shar) in the interest of his fellow Muslims. The concept of islāh gained special relevance for the future, as it strives at understanding and justifying all aspects of modern life from the Islamic doctrine.<a href="#cite_note-Dallal_NCHoI-65">[65]</a> After Abduh's death in 1905, Rashīd Ridā continued editing al-Manār on his own. In 1924, he published a collection of writings by some ulama of <a href="/wiki/Najd" title="Najd">Najd</a>: Maǧmūʿat al-ḥadiṭ an-naǧdīya.<a href="#cite_note-68">[67]</a> Thus, the teachings of the Yemeni alim <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ash-Shawkani" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ash-Shawkani">Muhammad ash-Shawkani</a> (1759–1839), which had already been discussed since the 1880s, gained greater publicity. Likewise, the writings of the <a href="/wiki/Hanbali" class="mw-redirect" title="Hanbali">Hanbali</a> scholar <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Taymiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Taymiyyah">Ibn Taymiyyah</a> (1263–1328) came to attention again. Ibn Taymiyyah's doctrine provided a link between the <a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">wahhabiyya</a> and parts of the <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">salafiyya</a> movements.<a href="#cite_note-69">[68]</a> The theological differences between the two movements were altogether too large for a complete union of the two doctrines. However, the opening of the Salafi movement towards Wahhabism helped to reconcile the latter with the Islamic public after king <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Saud" title="Ibn Saud">Ibn Saud</a>'s invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a> in 1924. The Central Arabian militias (<a href="/wiki/Ikhwan" title="Ikhwan">Iḫwān</a>) had occupied and looted the holy towns of Mecca and Medina, thereby destroying monuments which they considered pagan (<a href="/wiki/Shirk_(Islam)" title="Shirk (Islam)">shirk</a>). Starting with the Pan-Islamic Congress in Mecca in 1926, the pro-Saudi movement developed into one of the most relevant currents of Islamic thought.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In his Egyptian exile, the Syrian alim <a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Rahman_al-Kawakibi" title="Abd al-Rahman al-Kawakibi">Abd ar-Rahman al-Kawakibi</a> (1854–1902) met al-Afghani, Abduh and Rida. In his books Ṭabāʾiʿ al-istibdād ("The nature of <a href="/wiki/Despotism" title="Despotism">despotism</a>") and Umm al-Qurā ("Mother of villages [i.e., Mecca]", 1899) he accused the Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Abd%C3%BClhamid_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdülhamid II">Abdülhamid II</a> of corrupting the <a href="/wiki/Ummah" title="Ummah">Islamic community</a>. The Ottoman despotism "encroaches on the rights of its citizens, keeps them ignorant to keep them passive, [and] denies their right to take an active part in human life".<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_2001_PP272_273-70">[69]</a> Therefore, the law must be reformed. By the use of ijtihad, a "modern and unified system of law" must be created, and "proper religious education" must be provided. Because of the central position of the Arabic peoples in the ummah and the Arabic language in the intellectual discourse, but also because "Arabian Islam is ... free from modern corruptions and the <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">bedouin</a> are free from the moral decay and passivity of despotism", the balance of power must shift from the Turks towards the Arabs. The Ottoman dynasty must give up their claim to the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_caliphate" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman caliphate">caliphate</a>, and a new caliph of <a href="/wiki/Quraysh" title="Quraysh">Quraysh</a> descent must be elected by representatives of the ummah. His temporal authority would be set up in the <a href="/wiki/Hejaz" title="Hejaz">Hejaz</a>, whilst he would hold religious authority over the entire Muslim community, "assisted ... by a consultative council nominated by the Muslim rulers".<a href="#cite_note-Hourani_2001_PP272_273-70">[69]</a> Al-Kawākibīs idea that the Arabian doctrine represented a more puristic form of the Islam, according to Cleveland and Bunton (2016), prepared the ground for the 20th century <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a> as well as the Islamic renewal movement of the <a href="/wiki/Nahda" title="Nahda">Nahda</a>.<a href="#cite_note-71">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Muslim_mass_organizations">Muslim mass organizations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Muslim mass organizations">edit</a>]</div> In 1912, the <a href="/wiki/Muhammadiyah" title="Muhammadiyah">Muhammadiyah</a> organization was founded in <a href="/wiki/Yogyakarta" title="Yogyakarta">Yogyakarta</a> (in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>),<a href="#cite_note-72">[71]</a> which, together with <a href="/wiki/Nahdlatul_Ulama" title="Nahdlatul Ulama">Nahdlatul Ulama</a> ("Reawakening of the ulama"), founded in 1926, form the two largest Muslim organizations in the world.<a href="#cite_note-73">[72]</a> Since the 1930s, their religious boarding schools (pesantren) also taught mathematics, natural sciences, English and history. Since the 1980, the Nahdlatul Ulama schools also offered degrees in economy, jurisdiction, paedagogical and medical sciences. In the 1990s, under their leader <a href="/wiki/Abdurrahman_Wahid" title="Abdurrahman Wahid">Abdurrahman Wahid</a>, the organization adopted an anti-fundamentalistic doctrine, teaching democracy and pluralism.<a href="#cite_note-74">[73]</a> <a href="/wiki/Darul_Uloom_Deoband" title="Darul Uloom Deoband">Darul Uloom Deoband</a>, next to al-Azhar one of the most influential madrasas, was founded in the city of <a href="/wiki/Deoband" title="Deoband">Deoband</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a>, in 1867. Initially, the intention of the school was to help Indian Muslims, who had become subjects of the British Empire after 1857, to lead their lives according to Islamic law. The Deobandi propagate a Sunni Islam of the Hanafi school, which was the most prevalent madhhab in South Asia. Still today, they aim at a revival of the Islamic society and education. Following the example of Deoband, thousands of madrasas were founded during the late 19th century which adopted the Deobandi way of studying fundamental texts of Islam and commenting on Quran and Hadith. By referring back to traditional Islamic scholars, the Deobandi School aims at defending the traditional Islamic madhhab, especially the Hanafi, against criticism which arose from other Islamic schools like the <a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i Hadith</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a> During the 1990s, the Afghan taliban also referred to the Deoband School.<a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ashraf_Ali_Thanwi" title="Ashraf Ali Thanwi">Ashraf Ali Thanwi</a> (1863–1943) is one of the most prominent teachers of Darul Uloom Deoband. Thanwi initiated and edited multi-volume encyclopedic commentaries on the Quran. However, he was also able to reach out to a larger audience: His book <a href="/wiki/Bahishti_Zewar" title="Bahishti Zewar">Bahishti Zewar</a>, which is still widely read in South Asia, as it details, amongst other topics, the proper conduct and beliefs for Muslim women.<a href="#cite_note-77">[76]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ahl-i_Hadith" title="Ahl-i Hadith">Ahl-i Hadith</a> is a movement which emerged in North India in the mid-19th century. By rejecting <a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">taqlid</a> (following legal precedent) and favoring <a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a> (independent legal reasoning) based on the foundational scriptures of Islam, they oppose the traditional madhhab and criticize their reliance on legal authorities other than the traditional texts.<a href="#cite_note-78">[77]</a> The Ahl-i Hadith was the first organization which printed and spread the works of Muhammad ash-Shawkani, whose writings did also influence the doctrine of the Salafi movement in the Arab Middle East and worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-79">[78]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muslim_World_League" title="Muslim World League">Muslim World League</a> is an international non-governmental Islamic organization based in <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca, Saudi Arabia</a> that is a member of <a href="/wiki/UNICEF" title="UNICEF">UNICEF</a>, <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organisation_of_Islamic_Cooperation" title="Organisation of Islamic Cooperation">OIC</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> It aims to resolve the issues faced by the Islamic community by organizing scholarly conferences with the ulama around the world in order to form public Islamic opinions based on principles of moderation, peace and harmony.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ulama_in_the_secular_national_states_of_the_20th_century">Ulama in the secular national states of the 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Ulama in the secular national states of the 20th century">edit</a>]</div> In most countries, the classical institution of the madrasa as a place of teaching remained largely intact until the beginning of the 20th century. In the Western parts of the Islamic world, national states arose from the disintegration and partition of the Ottoman Empire after the First World War. The government of <a href="/wiki/Kemalism" title="Kemalism">Kemalist</a> Turkey sought to distance the nation from the religious traditions and institutions of the Ottoman past.<a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> In Egypt, the establishment of a state-controlled educational system had already begun in the 1820s.<a href="#cite_note-Dallal_NCHoI-65">[65]</a> From 1961 onwards, <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> tried to increase the state control over ancient Islamic institutions like al-Azhar university. The head of al-Azhar was—and still is—appointed directly by the president, and new faculties were created in this ancient Islamic institution.<a href="#cite_note-83">[82]</a> Initially giving rise to modernist reforms, up to a certain degree the state-sponsored faculties were able to retain their independence from government control. However, as Pierret has pointed out in detail for Syria,<a href="#cite_note-Pierret_2015_22-84">[83]</a> in some countries the orthodox madrasa system remained largely intact, its decentralised organisation protecting it from state control. In fact, the government's attempt at controlling the religious education focussed largely on the academic institutions and neglected the traditional madrasas. By their continuing ability to provide social support and access to an educational alternative which was propagated as being more orthodox according to Islamic faith, the traditional ulama not only maintained their influence on large parts of the population, but actually increased their political influence and power.<a href="#cite_note-Pierret_2015_22-84">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Republic_of_Turkey">Republic of Turkey</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Republic of Turkey">edit</a>]</div> In the Kemalist Republic of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, traditional Ottoman religious institutions were abolished like the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman Caliphate</a>, the office of the Shaykh ul-Islam, as well as the dervish <a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">brotherhoods</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Religious_Affairs" title="Presidency of Religious Affairs">Presidency of Religious Affairs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Turkish_language" title="Turkish language">Turkish</a>: Diyanet İşleri Başkanlığı, or Diyanet) was created in 1924 by article 136 of the <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Turkey" title="Constitution of Turkey">Constitution of Turkey</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_National_Assembly_of_Turkey" title="Grand National Assembly of Turkey">Grand National Assembly of Turkey</a> as a successor to the office of the Shaykh ul-Islam.<a href="#cite_note-constitution-85">[84]</a> From 1925 onwards, the traditional <a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervish</a> <a href="/wiki/Khanqah" class="mw-redirect" title="Khanqah">tekkes</a> and Islamic schools were dissolved. Famous convents like the <a href="/wiki/Mevlana_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="Mevlana Museum">Tekke of the Mevlevi order in Konya</a> were secularized and turned into museums.<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran">Iran</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Iran">edit</a>]</div> In Iran, contrary to many other Islamic countries, the Shi'a ulama have maintained their religious authority together by <a href="/wiki/Khums" title="Khums">Khums</a> tax. Thus, they maintained their ability to exert political pressure. Between 1905 and 1911, a coalition of ulama, <a href="/wiki/Bazaari" title="Bazaari">bazaari</a>, and some radical reformers incited the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a>, which led to the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Majlis_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Majlis of Iran">parliament (majlis) of Iran</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Islamic Revolution</a> in Iran was led by a senior <a href="/wiki/Shia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia">Shia</a> cleric—the <a href="/wiki/Ayatollah" title="Ayatollah">Ayatollah</a> <a href="/wiki/Ruhollah_Khomeini" title="Ruhollah Khomeini">Ruhollah Khomeini</a>—who then established the <a href="/wiki/Guardianship_of_the_Islamic_Jurist" title="Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist">Guardianship of the Islamic Jurist</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syria">Syria</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Syria">edit</a>]</div> In his study Religion and State in Syria (2013),<a href="#cite_note-89">[88]</a> Pierret pointed out how the training of Syria's ulama gradually became more institutionalised, based upon the traditional madrasa system. In 1920, the madrasa of the <a href="/wiki/Khusruwiyah_Mosque" title="Khusruwiyah Mosque">Khusruwiyah Mosque</a> complex (which was to be destroyed in 2014 during the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a>) introduced an entrance exam and a stable curriculum for its Islamic seminary. Graduates were issued a diploma carrying the name of the institution, which bore the signatures of all teachers, signifying individual ijazah. In 1947, courses also included natural sciences and foreign languages. In 1947, the state-run "Faculty of Sharia" was initiated in Damascus by <a href="/wiki/Kamal_al-Qassab" title="Kamal al-Qassab">Kamal al-Qassab</a> (1853–1954), a former student of Muhammad Abduh (1849–1905) in Cairo. Until 1954, all Syrian ulama aiming at higher degrees had to join <a href="/wiki/Al-Azhar_University" title="Al-Azhar University">Al-Azhar University</a> in Cairo. In 1954, however, Syria's first higher faculty of sharia was founded by members of the modernist wing of the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim Brotherhood of Syria">Muslim Brotherhood</a>. Its curriculum, which included economy and the "current situation of the Muslim world", according to Pierret, "anticipated the 1961 modernist reform of al-Azhar by <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Nasser</a>". In 1972, the curriculum of the state-run "Sharia high schools" was reformed again, thus providing access for their students to all faculties of Syrian high schools.<a href="#cite_note-90">[89]</a> According to Pierret (2015), the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> coup of 1963 brought about a weakening of the state-controlled sharia high schools by the secular government. Many teachers of the Damascus faculty of sharia were forced into exile during the 1960s. Attempts of the regime during the 1980s at changing the curricula of the faculty and create a new "Ba'athist ulama" failed. The faculty, maintaining their ability to recruit competent teachers, was able to resist the political pressure. Consequently, the Syrian government prohibited the faculty to grant doctorates until 1998, and delayed the establishment of another faculty in Aleppo until 2006.<a href="#cite_note-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tunisia,_Egypt,_Iraq">Tunisia, Egypt, Iraq</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Tunisia, Egypt, Iraq">edit</a>]</div> In 1961, <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abdel Nasser</a> put the Al-Azhar University under the direct control of the state. "Azharis were given military uniforms and found themselves marching in step under the orders of army officers."<a href="#cite_note-kepel-53-92">[91]</a> After the independence of <a href="/wiki/Algeria" title="Algeria">Algeria</a>, President <a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Ben_Bella" title="Ahmed Ben Bella">Ahmed Ben Bella</a> also deprived the Algerian ulama of their power. <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region#Ba.27athist_Iraq:_1968.E2.80.932003" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">Baathist</a> repression in Iraq led to a drop of enrollment in the Shia holy cities of Iraq from 12,000 students in the early 1900s to only 600 scholars and students in 1977.<a href="#cite_note-Zouhair-85-93">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Pakistan">edit</a>]</div> In the 1980s and 1990s, competition arose between Sunni and Shia interests in <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, with Saudi Arabian humanitarian organizations using the sponsorship of madrasas to spread their <a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabi</a> doctrine,<a href="#cite_note-94">[93]</a> while the Islamic Republic of Iran used Shiite madrasas to similarly peddle influence.<a href="#cite_note-95">[94]</a> For poorer communities in Pakistan, internationally sponsored madrasas could be the only accessible form of education.<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> This influence from institutions which were financially independent from the state led to a resurgence of the social and political influence of the traditional ulama,<a href="#cite_note-Zaman-97">[96]</a> while the insufficient state control over the educational institutions, insufficient qualification of the teachers and ideologic indoctrination of such institutions all become considerable issues.<a href="#cite_note-98">[97]</a> Graduates (talib) from North Pakistani madrasas like "<a href="/wiki/Mullah" title="Mullah">Mullah</a>" <a href="/wiki/Mullah_Omar" title="Mullah Omar">Mohammed Omar</a> subsequently played a role in the establishment of the Afghan <a href="/wiki/Taliban" title="Taliban">Taliban</a> regime.<a href="#cite_note-99">[98]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Modern_challenges">Modern challenges</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Modern challenges">edit</a>]</div> Some opinions from within the Muslim world have criticized the lack of scientific training of the ulama, and argued that those proficient in the sciences should qualify for this title.<a href="#cite_note-theguardian.com-100">[99]</a> In Egypt, the Al-Azhar University has begun to introduce scientific and practical subjects in its traditional theological colleges to help the ulama face the challenges of the modern world.<a href="#cite_note-Islam_and_Modernity-101">[100]</a> Sudanese politician <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Al-Turabi" class="mw-redirect" title="Hassan Al-Turabi">Hassan Al-Turabi</a> argued, in his work The Islamic State,<a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> that the ulama should not be limited to those versed in religious affairs but include experts in fields such as engineering, science, politics, and education because all knowledge is divine and God-given. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types_of_Ulema_titles">Types of Ulema titles</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Types of Ulema titles">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hafiz_(Quran)" title="Hafiz (Quran)">Hafiz (Quran)</a> recites Quran by heart</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Q%C4%81ri%CA%BE" title="Qāriʾ">Qāriʾ</a>, who reads Quran with correct pronunciation</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mawlawi_(Islamic_title)" title="Mawlawi (Islamic title)">Mawlawi (Islamic title)</a> who has done 12 years of Islamic studies and preaches <a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li>Mir, who has all above titles, equivalent to doctorate degree</li> <li>Mir ul Urah, who is above Mir</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mufti" title="Mufti">Mufti</a>, issues fatwas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Mufti" title="Grand Mufti">Grand Mufti</a>, highest Mufti</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/27px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="27" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/40px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/54px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akhoond" class="mw-redirect" title="Akhoond">Akhoond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seghatoleslam" title="Seghatoleslam">Seghatoleslam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Allamah" title="Allamah">Allamah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anjuman-i-Ulama-i-Bangala" title="Anjuman-i-Ulama-i-Bangala">Anjuman-i-Ulama-i-Bangala</a>, reformist Bengali association of Ulamas</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_studies_scholars" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Islamic studies scholars">List of Islamic studies scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern-day_Muslim_scholars_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="List of modern-day Muslim scholars of Islam">List of modern-day Muslim scholars of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahdlatul_Ulama" title="Nahdlatul Ulama">Nahdlatul Ulama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_clergy" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a clergy">Shi'a clergy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Notes">Notes</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> not to be confused with the television station <a href="/wiki/Al-Manar" title="Al-Manar">Al-Manar</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 35em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-jacb2-1"><a href="#cite_ref-jacb2_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBrown2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_A.C._Brown" class="mw-redirect" title="Jonathan A.C. Brown">Brown, Jonathan A.C.</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/3">Misquoting Muhammad: The Challenge and Choices of Interpreting the Prophet's Legacy</a>. <a href="/wiki/Oneworld_Publications" title="Oneworld Publications">Oneworld Publications</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/misquotingmuhamm0000brow/page/3">3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-420-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78074-420-9"><bdi>978-1-78074-420-9</bdi></a>. <q>The ulama (literally, the learned ones);</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Misquoting+Muhammad%3A+The+Challenge+and+Choices+of+Interpreting+the+Prophet%27s+Legacy&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-78074-420-9&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+A.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmisquotingmuhamm0000brow%2Fpage%2F3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Def_EI2-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Def_EI2_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Def_EI2_2-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCl._GilliotR.C._ReppK.A._NizamiM.B._Hooker2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Cl. Gilliot; R.C. Repp; K.A. Nizami; M.B. Hooker; Chang-Kuan Lin; J.O. Hunwick (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/encyclopaediaofi0008unse">"Ulamā"</a>. In P. Bearman, P.; Bianquis, Th.; Bosworth, C.E.; van Donzel, E.; Heinrichs, W.P. (eds.). Encyclopaedia of Islam (2 ed.). Leiden: E.J. Brill. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_1278">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_1278</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16121-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16121-4"><bdi>978-90-04-16121-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ulam%C4%81&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam&rft.place=Leiden&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=E.J.+Brill&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_1278&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16121-4&rft.au=Cl.+Gilliot&rft.au=R.C.+Repp&rft.au=K.A.+Nizami&rft.au=M.B.+Hooker&rft.au=Chang-Kuan+Lin&rft.au=J.O.+Hunwick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fencyclopaediaofi0008unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/ulama">"ʿulamāʾ (Islam)"</a>. Encyclopaedia Britannica. Retrieved 16 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopaedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=%CA%BFulam%C4%81%CA%BE+%28Islam%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fulama&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaman2007" class="citation book cs1">Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ulamainconte_zama_2002_000_9059584/page/1">The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ulamainconte_zama_2002_000_9059584/page/1">1</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13070-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13070-5"><bdi>978-0-691-13070-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ulama+in+Contemporary+Islam%3A+Custodians+of+Change&rft.pages=1&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13070-5&rft.aulast=Zaman&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Qasim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fulamainconte_zama_2002_000_9059584%2Fpage%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Berkey_1992-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Berkey_1992_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Berkey_1992_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerkey1992" class="citation book cs1">Berkey, Jonathan (1992). The transmission of knowledge in medieval Cairo: A social history of Islamic education. 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"Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F604423">10.2307/604423</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/604423">604423</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Scholasticism+and+Humanism+in+Classical+Islam+and+the+Christian+West&rft.volume=109&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-182+175-77&rft.date=1989-04%2F1989-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F604423&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F604423%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Makdisi&rft.aufirst=George&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraham1993" class="citation journal cs1">Graham, William (1993). 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London: Azimuth Editions/The Noor Foundation. pp. 82–91. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-2-8306-0120-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-2-8306-0120-6"><bdi>978-2-8306-0120-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Religious+endowments&rft.btitle=Empire+of+the+Sultans%3A+Ottoman+art+from+the+collection+of+Nasser+D.+Khalili&rft.place=London&rft.pages=82-91&rft.pub=Azimuth+Editions%2FThe+Noor+Foundation&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-2-8306-0120-6&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=J.+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmedFilipovich2004" class="citation journal cs1">Ahmed, Shabab; Filipovich, Nenad (2004). 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III: Medizin – Pharmazie – Zoologie – Tierheilkunde = History of the Arabic literature Vol. III: Medicine – Pharmacology – Veterinary Medicine. Leiden: E. J. Brill. pp. 3–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+des+arabischen+Schrifttums+Bd.+III%3A+Medizin+%E2%80%93+Pharmazie+%E2%80%93+Zoologie+%E2%80%93+Tierheilkunde+%3D+History+of+the+Arabic+literature+Vol.+III%3A+Medicine+%E2%80%93+Pharmacology+%E2%80%93+Veterinary+Medicine&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=3-4&rft.pub=E.+J.+Brill&rft.date=1970&rft.aulast=Sezgin&rft.aufirst=Fuat&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbboud2006" class="citation book cs1">Abboud, Tony (2006). Al-Kindi : the father of Arab philosophy. Rosen Pub. 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Aus dem Arab. übers., mit einer Einl., mit Anm. und Indices hrsg. von ʻAbd-Elṣamad ʻAbd-Elḥamīd (2006). Das Kriterium des Handelns : Criterion of Action (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p. 52. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-534-19039-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-534-19039-3"><bdi>978-3-534-19039-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Kriterium+des+Handelns+%3A+Criterion+of+Action&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pages=52&rft.pub=Wissenschaftliche+Buchgesellschaft&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-534-19039-3&rft.aulast=Elschazl%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Ab%C5%AB-%E1%B8%A4amid+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB.+Aus+dem+Arab.+%C3%BCbers.%2C+mit+einer+Einl.%2C+mit+Anm.+und+Indices+hrsg.+von+%CA%BBAbd-El%E1%B9%A3amad+%CA%BBAbd-El%E1%B8%A5am%C4%ABd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatt1953" class="citation book cs1">Watt, W. 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Aus dem Arab. übers., mit einer Einl., mit Anm. und Indices hrsg. von ʻAbd-Elṣamad ʻAbd-Elḥamīd (2006). Das Kriterium des Handelns : Criterion of Action (in German). Darmstadt: Wissenschaftliche Buchgesellschaft. p. 56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-534-19039-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-534-19039-3"><bdi>978-3-534-19039-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Das+Kriterium+des+Handelns+%3A+Criterion+of+Action&rft.place=Darmstadt&rft.pages=56&rft.pub=Wissenschaftliche+Buchgesellschaft&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-3-534-19039-3&rft.aulast=Elschazl%C4%AB&rft.aufirst=Ab%C5%AB-%E1%B8%A4amid+Mu%E1%B8%A5ammad+al-Ghaz%C4%81l%C4%AB.+Aus+dem+Arab.+%C3%BCbers.%2C+mit+einer+Einl.%2C+mit+Anm.+und+Indices+hrsg.+von+%CA%BBAbd-El%E1%B9%A3amad+%CA%BBAbd-El%E1%B8%A5am%C4%ABd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-Hourani_HAP_P158-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani_HAP_P158_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani_HAP_P158_22-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourani2012" class="citation book cs1">Hourani, Albert (2012). 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Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09027-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09027-9"><bdi>978-1-107-09027-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+second+formation+of+Islamic+Law.+The+Hanafi+School+in+the+Early+Modern+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-09027-9&rft.aulast=Burak&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-burak21-64-48">^ <a href="#cite_ref-burak21-64_48-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-burak21-64_48-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurak2015" class="citation book cs1">Burak, Guy (2015). The second formation of Islamic Law. The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. pp. 21–64. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09027-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09027-9"><bdi>978-1-107-09027-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+second+formation+of+Islamic+Law.+The+Hanafi+School+in+the+Early+Modern+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pages=21-64&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-09027-9&rft.aulast=Burak&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMuṣṭafa_b._Fatḫ_Allāh_al-Ḥamawi2011" class="citation book cs1">Muṣṭafa b. Fatḫ Allāh al-Ḥamawi (2011). Fawāʿid al-irtiḫāl wa-natā'ij al-safar fi akhbār al-qarn al-ḥādī ʿashar. Beirut: Dār al-Nawadīr. p. 128.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Faw%C4%81%CA%BFid+al-irti%E1%B8%AB%C4%81l+wa-nat%C4%81%27ij+al-safar+fi+akhb%C4%81r+al-qarn+al-%E1%B8%A5%C4%81d%C4%AB+%CA%BFashar&rft.place=Beirut&rft.pages=128&rft.pub=D%C4%81r+al-Nawad%C4%ABr&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Mu%E1%B9%A3%E1%B9%ADafa+b.+Fat%E1%B8%AB+All%C4%81h+al-%E1%B8%A4amawi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988">, cited after Burak 2015, p. 48 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAḥmad_b._Muṣṭafa_Taşköprüzade1975" class="citation book cs1">Aḥmad b. Muṣṭafa Taşköprüzade (1975). Al-Shaqāʿiq al-nuʿmāniyya fi ʿulamā' al-dawla al-ʿUthmaniyyā. 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I.B.Tauris. p. 20. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-990-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78076-990-5"><bdi>978-1-78076-990-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran+and+the+World+in+the+Safavid+Age&rft.pages=20&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-78076-990-5&rft.au=Willem+Floor%2C+Edmund+Herzig&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHZNpBgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsafavids%2Bimported%2Blebanon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSavory2007" class="citation book cs1">Savory, Roger (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v4Yr4foWFFgC&q=safavids+imported+syria">Iran under the Safavids</a>. 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(ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ioTXW3316AC&q=history+of+the+ulama&pg=PA81">A Companion to the History of the Middle East</a>. John Wiley & Sons. p. 81. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781405152044" title="Special:BookSources/9781405152044"><bdi>9781405152044</bdi></a>. Retrieved 10 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+the+History+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=81&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2008-04-15&rft.isbn=9781405152044&rft.aulast=Ghazzal&rft.aufirst=Zhouhair&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ioTXW3316AC%26q%3Dhistory%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bulama%26pg%3DPA81&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dallal_NCHoI-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Dallal_NCHoI_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dallal_NCHoI_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dallal_NCHoI_65-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dallal_NCHoI_65-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dallal_NCHoI_65-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Dallal_NCHoI_65-5">f</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmad_S._Dallal2010" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_S._Dallal" title="Ahmad S. Dallal">Ahmad S. Dallal</a> (2010). "The origins and early development of Islamic reform". In Hefner, R. (ed.). The New Cambridge History of Islam. Vol. 6: Muslims and modernity. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press. pp. 107–147. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84443-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-84443-7"><bdi>978-0-521-84443-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+origins+and+early+development+of+Islamic+reform&rft.btitle=The+New+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+U.K.&rft.pages=107-147&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-84443-7&rft.au=Ahmad+S.+Dallal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-merad_144a-67"><a href="#cite_ref-merad_144a_67-0">^</a> Merad: Article "Iṣlāḥ. 1. The Arab World" in EI² Vol. IV. p. 144a. </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> Cairo, Maṭb. al-Manār, 1342/1924 </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchulze2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schulze, Reinhard (2016). Geschichte der Islamischen Welt von 1900 bis zur Gegenwart (in German). München: C. H. Beck. pp. 111–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-68855-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-68855-3"><bdi>978-3-406-68855-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Geschichte+der+Islamischen+Welt+von+1900+bis+zur+Gegenwart&rft.place=M%C3%BCnchen&rft.pages=111-117&rft.pub=C.+H.+Beck&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-406-68855-3&rft.aulast=Schulze&rft.aufirst=Reinhard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hourani_2001_PP272_273-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani_2001_PP272_273_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hourani_2001_PP272_273_70-1">b</a> Al-Kawākibī's thoughts are cited as summarised in* <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHourani2001" class="citation book cs1">Hourani, Albert (2001). 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Norton / The New Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/understandingsep0000unse/page/53">53–66, see p. 55</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-774-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-56584-774-3"><bdi>978-1-56584-774-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%22Traditionalist%22+Islamic+activism%3A+Deoband%2C+tablighis%2C+and+talibs&rft.btitle=Understanding+September+11&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=53-66%2C+see+p.+55&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%2F+The+New+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-56584-774-3&rft.aulast=Metcalf&rft.aufirst=Barbara+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Funderstandingsep0000unse%2Fpage%2F53&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAshraf_ʻAlī_Thānvī,_Barbara_Daly_Metcalf1992" class="citation book cs1">Ashraf ʻAlī Thānvī, Barbara Daly Metcalf (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gjKv1IhDoMgC">Perfecting Women: Maulana Ashraf 'Ali Thanawi's Bihishti Zewar</a>. 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Taliban: Islam, Oil and the New Great Game in Central Asia. I.B. Tauris & Co Ltd. pp. 77, 83, 139. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-830-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86064-830-4"><bdi>978-1-86064-830-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Taliban%3A+Islam%2C+Oil+and+the+New+Great+Game+in+Central+Asia&rft.pages=77%2C+83%2C+139&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris+%26+Co+Ltd&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-1-86064-830-4&rft.aulast=Rashid&rft.aufirst=Ahmed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-theguardian.com-100"><a href="#cite_ref-theguardian.com_100-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBunglawala2011" class="citation news cs1">Bunglawala, Inayat (March 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/commentisfree/belief/2011/mar/09/islam-science-evolution">"Islam must engage with science, not deny it"</a>. The Guardian.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Islam+must+engage+with+science%2C+not+deny+it&rft.date=2011-03&rft.aulast=Bunglawala&rft.aufirst=Inayat&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fcommentisfree%2Fbelief%2F2011%2Fmar%2F09%2Fislam-science-evolution&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Islam_and_Modernity-101"><a href="#cite_ref-Islam_and_Modernity_101-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHanif̉1997" class="citation book cs1">Hanif̉, N. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RZROS_RT6SEC&pg=PA318">Islam and Modernity</a>. Sarup & Sons. p. 318. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788176250023" title="Special:BookSources/9788176250023"><bdi>9788176250023</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+Modernity&rft.pages=318&rft.pub=Sarup+%26+Sons&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9788176250023&rft.aulast=Hanif%CC%89&rft.aufirst=N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRZROS_RT6SEC%26pg%3DPA318&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> Al-Turabi, H., Sardar, Z., Jamal, M. and Zuber, M., (1983) The Islamic State. Voices of Resurgent Islam, 241. </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBurak2015" class="citation book cs1">Burak, Guy (2015). The second formation of Islamic Law. The Hanafi School in the Early Modern Ottoman Empire. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09027-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09027-9"><bdi>978-1-107-09027-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+second+formation+of+Islamic+Law.+The+Hanafi+School+in+the+Early+Modern+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-09027-9&rft.aulast=Burak&rft.aufirst=Guy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHefnerMuhammad_Qasim_Zaman2007" class="citation book cs1">Hefner, Robert W.; Muhammad Qasim Zaman, eds. (2007). Schooling Islam: The culture and politics of modern Muslim education. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12933-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12933-4"><bdi>978-0-691-12933-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Schooling+Islam%3A+The+culture+and+politics+of+modern+Muslim+education&rft.place=Princeton%2C+NJ&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12933-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPierret2013" class="citation book cs1">Pierret, Thomas (2013). Religion and state in Syria. The Sunni ulama from coup to revolution. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60990-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-60990-7"><bdi>978-1-107-60990-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+state+in+Syria.+The+Sunni+ulama+from+coup+to+revolution&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-107-60990-7&rft.aulast=Pierret&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaman2007" class="citation book cs1">Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ulamainconte_zama_2002_000_9059584">The Ulama in Contemporary Islam: Custodians of Change</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13070-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-13070-5"><bdi>978-0-691-13070-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ulama+in+Contemporary+Islam%3A+Custodians+of+Change&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-13070-5&rft.aulast=Zaman&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Qasim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fulamainconte_zama_2002_000_9059584&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/i7383.pdf">PDF</a>, accessed 2 May 2017</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZaman2010" class="citation book cs1">Zaman, Muhammad Qasim (2010). "Transmitters of authority and ideas across cultural boundaries, eleventh to eighteenth century". In Cook, Michael (ed.). The new Cambridge history of Islam (3rd ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51536-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51536-8"><bdi>978-0-521-51536-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Transmitters+of+authority+and+ideas+across+cultural+boundaries%2C+eleventh+to+eighteenth+century&rft.btitle=The+new+Cambridge+history+of+Islam&rft.place=Cambridge%2C+UK&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51536-8&rft.aulast=Zaman&rft.aufirst=Muhammad+Qasim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AUlama" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Bein, Amit. Ottoman Ulema, Turkish Republic: Agents of Change and Guardians of Tradition (2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/Ottoman-Ulema-Turkish-Republic-Guardians/dp/0804773114/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&s=books&qid=1304349943&sr=1-1">Amazon.com</a></li> <li>Hatina, Meir. Ulama, Politics, and the Public Sphere: An Egyptian Perspective (2010). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-60781-032-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-60781-032-2">978-1-60781-032-2</a></li> <li>Heyd. Uriel. "Some Aspects of The Ottoman Fetva." School of Oriental and African Studies Bulletin; 32 (1969), p. 35–56.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halil_Inalcik" class="mw-redirect" title="Halil Inalcik">Inalcik, Halil</a>. 1973. "Learning, the Medrese, and the Ulema." In The Ottoman Empire: The Classical Age 1300–1600. New York: Praeger, pp. 165–178.</li> <li>Mehmet, Ipsirli, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.muslimheritage.com/topics/default.cfm?ArticleID=416">Guidelines to the Jurisprudence of Ottoman Ulema</a></li> <li>Rabithah Ma'ahid Islamiyah <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rmi-nu.or.id/search/label/Ulama">Biografi Ulama of Indonesia</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210430223023/http://www.rmi-nu.or.id/search/label/Ulama">Archived</a> 30 April 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li>Tasar, Murat. "The Ottoman Ulema: their understanding of knowledge and scholarly contribution." The Turks. 3: Ottomans. Editors: Hasan Celâl Güzel, C.Cem Oğuz, Osman Karatay. Ankara: Yeni Türkiye, 2002, pp. 841–850.</li> <li>Zilfi, Madeline C. 1986. "The Kadizadelis: Discordant Revivalism in Seventeenth Century Istanbul." Journal of Near Eastern Studies 45 (4): 251–269.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulama&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output 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