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href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E7%94%A8%E6%88%B7%E7%99%BB%E5%BD%95&returnto=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" title="建议你登录，尽管并非必须。[o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>登录</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 未登录编辑者的页面 <a href="/wiki/Help:%E6%96%B0%E6%89%8B%E5%85%A5%E9%97%A8" aria-label="了解有关编辑的更多信息"><span>了解详情</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84%E8%B4%A1%E7%8C%AE" title="来自此IP地址的编辑列表[y]" accesskey="y"><span>贡献</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E6%88%91%E7%9A%84%E8%AE%A8%E8%AE%BA%E9%A1%B5" title="对于来自此IP地址编辑的讨论[n]" accesskey="n"><span>讨论</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="站点"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="目录" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">目录</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">序言</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-概念歷史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#概念歷史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>概念歷史</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-概念歷史-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关概念歷史子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-概念歷史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-希腊城邦（polis）公民" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#希腊城邦（polis）公民"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>希腊城邦（polis）公民</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-希腊城邦（polis）公民-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-超国界公民权利" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#超国界公民权利"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>超国界公民权利</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-超国界公民权利-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-歐共體公民權利" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#歐共體公民權利"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2.1</span> <span>歐共體公民權利</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-歐共體公民權利-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-公民權的各種現代形式" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#公民權的各種現代形式"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>公民權的各種現代形式</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-公民權的各種現代形式-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关公民權的各種現代形式子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-公民權的各種現代形式-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-法律" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#法律"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>法律</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-法律-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-社會參與" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#社會參與"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>社會參與</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-社會參與-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-科技使用" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#科技使用"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>科技使用</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-科技使用-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-公民權跨國比較和國際標準" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#公民權跨國比較和國際標準"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>公民權跨國比較和國際標準</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-公民權跨國比較和國際標準-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关公民權跨國比較和國際標準子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-公民權跨國比較和國際標準-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-中华人民共和国公民权利" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中华人民共和国公民权利"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>中华人民共和国公民权利</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中华人民共和国公民权利-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-美利坚合众国公民权利" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#美利坚合众国公民权利"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>美利坚合众国公民权利</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-美利坚合众国公民权利-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-公民及公民權教育" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#公民及公民權教育"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>公民及公民權教育</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-公民及公民權教育-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关公民及公民權教育子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-公民及公民權教育-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-中華民國公民教育" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中華民國公民教育"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>中華民國公民教育</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中華民國公民教育-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-參看" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#參看"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>參看</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-參看-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参考文献" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参考文献"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>参考文献</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关参考文献子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-注釋" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#注釋"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>注釋</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-注釋-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部链接" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部链接"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>外部链接</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部链接-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">开关目录</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">公民</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。109种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-109" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">109种语言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgerskap" title="Burgerskap – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Burgerskap" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%A9" title="مواطنة – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مواطنة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%B7%D9%86%D9%87" title="مواطنه – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="مواطنه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="নাগৰিকত্ব – 阿萨姆语" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="নাগৰিকত্ব" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="阿萨姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%82%D3%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8A%D0%B8" title="ВатӀанчилъи – 阿瓦尔语" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="ВатӀанчилъи" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="阿瓦尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C9%99t%C9%99nda%C5%9Fl%C4%B1q" title="Vətəndaşlıq – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Vətəndaşlıq" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B4%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%82" title="وطنداشلیق – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="وطنداشلیق" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%D1%8B%D2%A1" title="Гражданлыҡ – 巴什基尔语" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Гражданлыҡ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="巴什基尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkahimanwa" title="Pagkahimanwa – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pagkahimanwa" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Грамадзянства – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Грамадзянства" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewarganegaraan" title="Kewarganegaraan – 貝塔維文" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Kewarganegaraan" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="貝塔維文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Гражданство – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Гражданство" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%97%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC" title="নাগরিকত্ব – 孟加拉语" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="নাগরিকত্ব" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="孟加拉语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C5%BEavljanstvo" title="Državljanstvo – 波斯尼亚语" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Državljanstvo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="波斯尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciutadania" title="Ciutadania – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ciutadania" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%86%D9%85%DB%95%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8E%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="شارۆمەندێتی – 中库尔德语" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="شارۆمەندێتی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="中库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ob%C4%8Danstv%C3%AD" title="Občanství – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Občanství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%BB%C4%83%D1%85" title="Гражданлăх – 楚瓦什语" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Гражданлăх" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="楚瓦什语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasyddiaeth" title="Dinasyddiaeth – 威尔士语" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Dinasyddiaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="威尔士语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statsborgerskab" title="Statsborgerskab – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Statsborgerskab" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Staatsb%C3%BCrgerschaft" title="Staatsbürgerschaft – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Staatsbürgerschaft" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://dsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta%C5%9Ba%C5%84stwo" title="Staśaństwo – 下索布语" lang="dsb" hreflang="dsb" data-title="Staśaństwo" data-language-autonym="Dolnoserbski" data-language-local-name="下索布语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dolnoserbski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CE%B8%CE%B1%CE%B3%CE%AD%CE%BD%CE%B5%CE%B9%CE%B1" title="Ιθαγένεια – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιθαγένεια" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Citizenship" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitanceco" title="Civitanceco – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Civitanceco" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciudadan%C3%ADa" title="Ciudadanía – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ciudadanía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kodakondsus" title="Kodakondsus – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Kodakondsus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herritartasun" title="Herritartasun – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Herritartasun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%87%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%86%D8%AF%DB%8C" title="شهروندی – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شهروندی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kansalaisuus" title="Kansalaisuus – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kansalaisuus" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimar%C3%A6ttur" title="Heimarættur – 法罗语" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Heimarættur" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citoyennet%C3%A9" title="Citoyenneté – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Citoyenneté" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cidadan%C3%ADa" title="Cidadanía – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Cidadanía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tet%C3%A3ygua_reko" title="Tetãygua reko – 瓜拉尼语" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Tetãygua reko" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="瓜拉尼语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%96%D7%A8%D7%97%D7%95%D7%AA" title="אזרחות – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אזרחות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="नागरिकता – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नागरिकता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C5%BEavljanstvo" title="Državljanstvo – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Državljanstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hsb mw-list-item"><a href="https://hsb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sta%C4%87anstwo" title="Staćanstwo – 上索布语" lang="hsb" hreflang="hsb" data-title="Staćanstwo" data-language-autonym="Hornjoserbsce" data-language-local-name="上索布语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hornjoserbsce</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81llampolg%C3%A1rs%C3%A1g" title="Állampolgárság – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Állampolgárság" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Քաղաքացիություն – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քաղաքացիություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citatanitate" title="Citatanitate – 国际语" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Citatanitate" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="国际语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewarganegaraan" title="Kewarganegaraan – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kewarganegaraan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D3%80%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE%D0%BB" title="БӀорахол – 印古什语" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="БӀорахол" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="印古什语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitaneso" title="Civitaneso – 伊多语" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Civitaneso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="伊多语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADkisborgarar%C3%A9ttur" title="Ríkisborgararéttur – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Ríkisborgararéttur" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cittadinanza" title="Cittadinanza – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Cittadinanza" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%B8%82%E6%B0%91" title="市民 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="市民" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A5%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%94%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მოქალაქეობა – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="მოქალაქეობა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yet_A%CC%B1tyobyin" title="Yet A̱tyobyin – 卡塔布语" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Yet A̱tyobyin" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="卡塔布语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B" title="Азаматтық – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Азаматтық" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8C%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5" title="ಪೌರತ್ವ – 卡纳达语" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪೌರತ್ವ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="卡纳达语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%8B%9C%EB%AF%BC" title="시민 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="시민" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-krc mw-list-item"><a href="https://krc.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Гражданство – 卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" lang="krc" hreflang="krc" data-title="Гражданство" data-language-autonym="Къарачай-малкъар" data-language-local-name="卡拉恰伊巴尔卡尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Къарачай-малкъар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Welat%C3%AEn%C3%AE" title="Welatînî – 库尔德语" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Welatînî" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="库尔德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%83%D0%BA" title="Жарандуулук – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жарандуулук" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civitas_(ius_civium)" title="Civitas (ius civium) – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Civitas (ius civium)" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C3%B6rger" title="Börger – 林堡语" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Börger" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="林堡语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cittadinanza" title="Cittadinanza – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Cittadinanza" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%84%E0%BA%A7%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%A1%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%9E%E0%BA%BB%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%A5%E0%BA%B0%E0%BB%80%E0%BA%A1%E0%BA%B7%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%87" title="ຄວາມເປັນພົນລະເມືອງ – 老挝语" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ຄວາມເປັນພົນລະເມືອງ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="老挝语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilietyb%C4%97" title="Pilietybė – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Pilietybė" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilson%C4%ABba" title="Pilsonība – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Pilsonība" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-map-bms mw-list-item"><a href="https://map-bms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewarganegaraan" title="Kewarganegaraan – Banyumasan" lang="jv-x-bms" hreflang="jv-x-bms" data-title="Kewarganegaraan" data-language-autonym="Basa Banyumasan" data-language-local-name="Banyumasan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Banyumasan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Државјанство – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Државјанство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%97%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%82" title="പൗരത്വം – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പൗരത്വം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B3%D1%8D%D0%BD%D1%88%D0%B8%D0%BB" title="Иргэншил – 蒙古语" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Иргэншил" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="蒙古语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5" title="नागरिकत्व – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="नागरिकत्व" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewarganegaraan" title="Kewarganegaraan – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kewarganegaraan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgerlikheid" title="Burgerlikheid – 低萨克森语" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Burgerlikheid" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="低萨克森语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="नागरिकता – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="नागरिकता" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Burgerschap" title="Burgerschap – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Burgerschap" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statsborgar" title="Statsborgar – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Statsborgar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Statsborgerskap" title="Statsborgerskap – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Statsborgerskap" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ciutadanetat" title="Ciutadanetat – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Ciutadanetat" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%97%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%A4%E0%A8%BE" title="ਨਾਗਰਿਕਤਾ – 旁遮普语" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਨਾਗਰਿਕਤਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="旁遮普语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obywatelstwo" title="Obywatelstwo – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Obywatelstwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="شہریت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="شہریت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="تابعیت – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="تابعیت" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cidadania" title="Cidadania – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Cidadania" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rmy mw-list-item"><a href="https://rmy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Themutnipen" title="Themutnipen – Vlax Romani" lang="rmy" hreflang="rmy" data-title="Themutnipen" data-language-autonym="Romani čhib" data-language-local-name="Vlax Romani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Romani čhib</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cet%C4%83%C8%9Benie" title="Cetățenie – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Cetățenie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Гражданство – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Гражданство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Горожанство – 盧森尼亞文" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Горожанство" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="盧森尼亞文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%B1%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%9C%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A4%E1%B1%AD%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%B9%E1%B1%9B%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%AB" title="ᱱᱟᱜᱟᱨᱤᱭᱟᱹᱛᱮᱫ – 桑塔利语" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱱᱟᱜᱟᱨᱤᱭᱟᱹᱛᱮᱫ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="桑塔利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C5%BEavljanstvo" title="Državljanstvo – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Državljanstvo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%BB%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%A7%E0%B7%80%E0%B7%90%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%B7%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%80%E0%B6%BA" title="ර‍ටවැසිභාවය – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ර‍ටවැසිභාවය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Citizenship" title="Citizenship – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Citizenship" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0t%C3%A1tne_ob%C4%8Dianstvo" title="Štátne občianstvo – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Štátne občianstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dr%C5%BEavljanstvo" title="Državljanstvo – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Državljanstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Shtet%C3%ABsia" title="Shtetësia – 阿尔巴尼亚语" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Shtetësia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="阿尔巴尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D1%99%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Држављанство – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Држављанство" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medborgarskap" title="Medborgarskap – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Medborgarskap" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uraia" title="Uraia – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Uraia" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%88" title="குடியுரிமை – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="குடியுரிமை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%9B%E0%B9%87%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9E%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%B7%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%87" title="ความเป็นพลเมือง – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ความเป็นพลเมือง" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagkamamamayan" title="Pagkamamamayan – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pagkamamamayan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatanda%C5%9Fl%C4%B1k" title="Vatandaşlık – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Vatandaşlık" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%88%D0%BB%D1%8B%D0%BA" title="Ватандашлык – 鞑靼语" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ватандашлык" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="鞑靼语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tum mw-list-item"><a href="https://tum.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%B4akhazi" title="Ŵakhazi – 通布卡语" lang="tum" hreflang="tum" data-title="Ŵakhazi" data-language-autonym="ChiTumbuka" data-language-local-name="通布卡语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiTumbuka</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Громадянство – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Громадянство" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DB%81%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="شہریت – 乌尔都语" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="شہریت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="乌尔都语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fuqarolik" title="Fuqarolik – 乌兹别克语" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fuqarolik" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="乌兹别克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sitadinansa" title="Sitadinansa – 威尼斯语" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Sitadinansa" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quy%E1%BB%81n_c%C3%B4ng_d%C3%A2n" title="Quyền công dân – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quyền công dân" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" title="公民 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="公民" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9C%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="მენოღალობა – 明格列爾文" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="მენოღალობა" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="明格列爾文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%92%D7%A2%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%98" title="בירגערשאפט – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="בירגערשאפט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%80y%C3%A8%E1%BB%8Dm%E1%BB%8D%C3%ACl%C3%BA" title="Àyèọmọìlú – 约鲁巴语" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Àyèọmọìlú" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="约鲁巴语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kong-b%C3%AEn" title="Kong-bîn – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Kong-bîn" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%AC%8A" title="公民權 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="公民權" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q42138#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="编辑跨语言链接" class="wbc-editpage">编辑链接</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="命名空间"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" title="浏览条目正文[c]" accesskey="c"><span>条目</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" rel="discussion" title="关于此页面的讨论[t]" accesskey="t"><span>讨论</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="更改语言变体" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">不转换</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-varlang-0" class="selected ca-variants-zh mw-list-item"><a href="/zh/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh" hreflang="zh"><span>不转换</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-1" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hans/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hans" hreflang="zh-Hans"><span>简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-2" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hant/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hant" hreflang="zh-Hant"><span>繁體</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-3" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-CN mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-cn/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hans-CN" hreflang="zh-Hans-CN"><span>大陆简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-4" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-HK mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hk/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hant-HK" hreflang="zh-Hant-HK"><span>香港繁體</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-5" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-MO mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-mo/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hant-MO" hreflang="zh-Hant-MO"><span>澳門繁體</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-6" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-MY mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-my/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hans-MY" hreflang="zh-Hans-MY"><span>大马简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-7" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-SG mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-sg/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hans-SG" hreflang="zh-Hans-SG"><span>新加坡简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-8" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-TW mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-tw/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" lang="zh-Hant-TW" hreflang="zh-Hant-TW"><span>臺灣正體</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="查看"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91"><span>阅读</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit" title="编辑该页面[e]" accesskey="e"><span>编辑</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=history" title="本页面的早前版本。[h]" accesskey="h"><span>查看历史</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="页面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="工具" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">工具</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">工具</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="更多选项" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 操作 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91"><span>阅读</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit" title="编辑该页面[e]" accesskey="e"><span>编辑</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=history"><span>查看历史</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 常规 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%93%BE%E5%85%A5%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" title="列出所有与本页相链的页面[j]" accesskey="j"><span>链入页面</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%93%BE%E5%87%BA%E6%9B%B4%E6%94%B9/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" rel="nofollow" title="页面链出所有页面的更改[k]" accesskey="k"><span>相关更改</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Project:%E4%B8%8A%E4%BC%A0" title="上传图像或多媒体文件[u]" accesskey="u"><span>上传文件</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%89%B9%E6%AE%8A%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="全部特殊页面的列表[q]" accesskey="q"><span>特殊页面</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&oldid=85004246" title="此页面该修订版本的固定链接"><span>固定链接</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=info" title="关于此页面的更多信息"><span>页面信息</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E5%BC%95%E7%94%A8%E6%AD%A4%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2&page=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&id=85004246&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="有关如何引用此页面的信息"><span>引用此页</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:URL%E7%BC%A9%E7%9F%AD%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F&url=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E5%2585%25AC%25E6%25B0%2591"><span>获取短链接</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E5%2585%25AC%25E6%25B0%2591"><span>下载二维码</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-electronpdfservice-sidebar-portlet-heading" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-electronpdfservice-sidebar-portlet-heading" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 打印/导出 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="electron-print_pdf" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=show-download-screen"><span>下载为PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="javascript:print();" rel="alternate" title="本页面的可打印版本[p]" accesskey="p"><span>打印页面</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 在其他项目中 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Citizenship" hreflang="en"><span>维基共享资源</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q42138" title="链接到连接的数据仓库项目[g]" accesskey="g"><span>维基数据项目</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="页面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="外观"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">外观</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">维基百科，自由的百科全书</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="zh" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84833064">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E6%B6%88%E6%AD%A7%E4%B9%89" title="Wikipedia:消歧义"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/25px-Disambig_gray.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/38px-Disambig_gray.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/50px-Disambig_gray.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="168" /></a></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r74069148">body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .ifmobile>.mobile{display:none}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .ifmobile>.nomobile{display:inherit;display:initial}</style><span class="ifmobile"><span class="nomobile">  </span><span class="mobile"></span></span>此條目介紹的是公民身份或公民权。关于<b>公民</b>的其他含义，请见「<b><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91_(%E6%B6%88%E6%AD%A7%E4%B9%89)" class="mw-disambig" title="公民 (消歧义)">公民 (消歧义)</a></b>」。关于<b>公民权</b>的其他含义，请见「<b><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%9D%83%E5%88%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="公民权利">公民权利</a></b>」。</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E6%B6%88%E6%AD%A7%E4%B9%89" title="Wikipedia:消歧义"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Confusion_grey.svg/24px-Confusion_grey.svg.png" decoding="async" width="24" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Confusion_grey.svg/36px-Confusion_grey.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Confusion_grey.svg/48px-Confusion_grey.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="200" /></a></span><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r74069148"><span class="ifmobile"><span class="nomobile">  </span><span class="mobile"></span></span><b>提示</b>：此条目页的主题不是<b><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91" title="人民">人民</a></b>、<b><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E6%B0%91" title="國民">国民</a></b>或<b><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E7%B1%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="国籍">国籍</a></b>。</div> <style 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.ambox-move{border-left-color:#9932cc!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left-color:#a2a9b1!important}}</style><table class="box-Update plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ambox_outdated_serious.svg/40px-Ambox_outdated_serious.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ambox_outdated_serious.svg/60px-Ambox_outdated_serious.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ambox_outdated_serious.svg/80px-Ambox_outdated_serious.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="620" data-file-height="620" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">此條目<b>需要更新</b>。<span class="hide-when-compact"></span> <small class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">2020年6月</span>)</i></small><span class="hide-when-compact"><br /><small>請更新本文以反映近況和新增内容。完成修改後請移除本模板。</small></span><span class="hide-when-compact"></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="infobox" style="max-width:300px;float:right;padding:0 0.4em;border:1px solid #aaa;margin:0 0 0.4em 0.4em"><div style="background-color:#f5f5f5;text-align:center;font-weight:bold;padding:0.5em 0;margin:0.5em 0;font-size:120%">公民权</div><div><span typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Peter_Dutton_at_Australian_Citizenship_Ceremony,_2017.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Peter_Dutton_at_Australian_Citizenship_Ceremony%2C_2017.jpg/300px-Peter_Dutton_at_Australian_Citizenship_Ceremony%2C_2017.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Peter_Dutton_at_Australian_Citizenship_Ceremony%2C_2017.jpg/450px-Peter_Dutton_at_Australian_Citizenship_Ceremony%2C_2017.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Peter_Dutton_at_Australian_Citizenship_Ceremony%2C_2017.jpg/600px-Peter_Dutton_at_Australian_Citizenship_Ceremony%2C_2017.jpg 2x" data-file-width="797" data-file-height="398" /></a></span></div><table style="text-align:left;word-break:break-word;table-layout:fixed;width:100%;font-size:90%"><caption style="background-color:#f5f5f5;font-weight:bold;margin-top:0.2em"><span><span>關係</span>、<span>政治概念</span>、<span><a href="/wiki/%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="制度">制度</a></span></span></caption><tbody><tr><th scope="row">上级分类</th><td><span><span>成员资格</span>、<span><a href="/wiki/%E8%BA%AB%E4%BB%BD%E8%AE%A4%E5%90%8C" title="身份认同">身份</a></span></span> <span class="mw-valign-baseline noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42138#P279" title="编辑"><img alt="编辑" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/12px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/18px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/24px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">所属实体</th><td><span><span><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B_(%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AF%A6%E9%AB%94)" title="國 (政治實體)">国</a></span></span> <span class="mw-valign-baseline noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42138#P361" title="编辑"><img alt="编辑" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/12px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/18px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/24px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row">话题方面</th><td><span><span><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B_(%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AF%A6%E9%AB%94)" title="國 (政治實體)">国</a></span>、<span><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83" title="人权">人權</a></span></span> <span class="mw-valign-baseline noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42138#P1269" title="编辑"><img alt="编辑" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/12px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/18px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, 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scope="row">主要規管文獻</th><td><span><span>European Convention on Nationality</span>、<span>减少无国籍状态公约</span></span> <span class="mw-valign-baseline noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q42138#P92" title="编辑"><img alt="编辑" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/12px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/18px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/24px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84265675">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-heading,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-above,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-below{background:inherit!important;color:inherit!important;border-color:#54595d!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar a:not(.new):not(.mw-selflink):link{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title" style="background:#f0f0ff;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%80%8B%E4%BA%BA" title="個人">個人</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="法律地位（页面不存在）">法律地位</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:World_Citizen_Symbol.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/World_Citizen_Symbol.svg/100px-World_Citizen_Symbol.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/World_Citizen_Symbol.svg/150px-World_Citizen_Symbol.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/World_Citizen_Symbol.svg/200px-World_Citizen_Symbol.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="205" data-file-height="205" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;"> 概念</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">公民身份</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A7%BB%E6%B0%91" title="移民">移民</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B3%95%E7%A7%BB%E6%B0%91" title="非法移民">非法移民</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D" title="國籍">國籍</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%92%E5%8C%96" title="归化">归化</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%B1%85%E7%95%99%E6%9D%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="居留权（页面不存在）">留居许可</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B8%E4%B9%85%E5%B1%85%E7%95%99%E6%AC%8A" title="永久居留權">永久居留权</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D" title="無國籍">無國籍</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;"> 類別</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%8B%98%E7%95%99" title="行政拘留">行政拘留</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%BA" title="外國人">外國人</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">公民</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E9%87%8D%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D" title="多重國籍">多重國籍</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%B3%95%E7%A7%BB%E6%B0%91" title="非法移民">非法移民</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E5%B7%A5" title="民工">民工</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B1%AC%E5%9C%B0%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="屬地主義">土生公民</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%92%E5%8C%96" title="归化">归化者</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E7%8A%AF" title="政治犯">政治犯</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9A%BE%E6%B0%91" title="难民">难民</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%84%A1%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D" title="無國籍">无国籍人士</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="font-size:110%;"> 社會政治學</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%BB%E6%B0%91%E6%B3%95&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="移民法（页面不存在）">移民法</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E6%97%8F%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="民族主義">民族主義</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E7%B1%8D%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="国籍法">国籍法</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8E%92%E5%A4%96" class="mw-redirect" title="排外">排外</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%9F%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="本土主义">本土主义</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="line-height:1.6"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84244141">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:110%;margin:0 8em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:110%;margin:0 5em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E4%B8%AA%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D" title="Template:个人的法律地位"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:%E4%B8%AA%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D" title="Template talk:个人的法律地位"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E4%B8%AA%E4%BA%BA%E7%9A%84%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B%E5%9C%B0%E4%BD%8D" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:个人的法律地位"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>公民</b>（英語：<span lang="en">Citizen</span>）是在一个<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AE%9E%E4%BD%93" class="mw-redirect" title="政治实体">政治实体</a>如<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" title="国家">国家</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E5%B8%82" title="城市">城市</a>中，拥有公民身份并根据该地法律规定享有权利和承担义务的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91" title="人民">人民</a>。 </p><p><b>公民身份</b>或<b>公民權</b>（<span lang="en">Citizenship</span>）是一種認同或身份的形式，使個人在政治社群中取得相關的社會權利和義務<sup id="cite_ref-Barker2004_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Barker2004-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-公民权研究手册_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-公民权研究手册-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>，和<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E7%B1%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="国籍">国籍</a>概念不同，擁有國籍如未成年的國民可能沒有行使公民權的<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="權利">權利</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A9%E5%8B%99" title="義務">義務</a><sup id="cite_ref-陈治世1990_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-陈治世1990-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>，在<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6" title="宪法学">宪法学</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="政治學">政治學</a>則指由<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%BE%8B" title="法律">法律</a>规范及<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB" title="政治">政治</a>社群中的個人和群體的<a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%83%E5%88%A9" title="权利">权利</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A9%E5%8B%99" title="義務">义务</a>關係<sup id="cite_ref-宪法学原理_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-宪法学原理-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-楚树龙唐虹2006_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-楚树龙唐虹2006-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>，但這不表示未成年人不具有公民身分；事實上，一般認為一個人的國籍就是他在某個國家的公民身分，而這一般與性別、年齡、種族、膚色、宗教信仰等各種外在條件無關，也就是公民的「公」字無關性別；然而少數國家可能會對公民身分的取得做出限制，像是<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%99%E7%83%8F%E5%9C%B0%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="沙烏地阿拉伯">沙烏地阿拉伯</a>只允許<a href="/wiki/%E7%A9%86%E6%96%AF%E6%9E%97" title="穆斯林">穆斯林</a>成為<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%99%E7%83%8F%E5%9C%B0%E9%98%BF%E6%8B%89%E4%BC%AF" class="mw-redirect" title="沙烏地阿拉伯">沙烏地阿拉伯</a>公民。 </p><p>近代公民權或公民資格的擴張或縮減與<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA" title="封建">封建</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%88%E5%88%B6" title="專制">專制</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB" title="民主">民主</a>等制度的關係有不少的政治及學術討論<sup id="cite_ref-Turner1990_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Turner1990-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-王啸2006_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-王啸2006-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>對<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="民主國家">民主國家</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%93%E5%88%B6%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="专制国家">專制國家</a>的公民權教育和保障的跨國比較仍是政策制定及學術研究的重要議題之一<sup id="cite_ref-GrossmanLee2008_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-GrossmanLee2008-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-DethMontero2007_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DethMontero2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>在各國培養公民素養的學校教育方面，全球規模最大的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="公民教育">公民素養</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="公民教育">公民教育</a>的研究計劃<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E5%8F%8A%E7%B4%A0%E9%A4%8A%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%A5%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="國際公民及素養調查研究">國際公民及素養調查研究</a>調查各國如何解決下一代公民積極參與社會的挑戰，評估各國青少年對未來公民身分之準備教育，對學生的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E8%BA%AB%E4%BB%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="公民身份">公民素養</a>的概念知識與能力進行測驗評量，其測驗及調查的範圍包括：公民認知、政治組織、公民概念（如人權）、以及負責任公民的作為及態度等等<sup id="cite_ref-年智英2011_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-年智英2011-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-洪信令2007_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-洪信令2007-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-藍先茜2010_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-藍先茜2010-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="概念歷史"><span id=".E6.A6.82.E5.BF.B5.E6.AD.B7.E5.8F.B2"></span>概念歷史</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=1" title="编辑章节：概念歷史"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="希腊城邦（polis）公民"><span id=".E5.B8.8C.E8.85.8A.E5.9F.8E.E9.82.A6.EF.BC.88polis.EF.BC.89.E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91"></span>希腊城邦（polis）公民</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=2" title="编辑章节：希腊城邦（polis）公民"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>公民社會的概念起源和發展於兩千五百年前的古希臘。<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" class="mw-redirect" title="古希臘">古希臘</a>是衆多城市的一個集合體，每一個城市自行管理各自的事務。希臘首都雅典的民主觀念作為代表，雅典即有“公民統治”的民主觀念，但與現今社會的公民標準相差甚遠，這些權利不包括婦女、窮人、奴隸以及居住在雅典的外國人，不過已有公民社會以及公民秩序的理念。 </p><p>公民權可以是一種辨識方法，分辨誰是原本羅馬居民，誰是從別的地方來的，任何在羅馬出生的男人成年后都是<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" title="羅馬公民">羅馬公民</a>，妇女、<a href="/wiki/%E5%A5%B4%E9%9A%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="奴隸">奴隸</a>除外。公民在共和国时期与帝国前期限于具有罗马血统的成年男子，即至少有一方亲属是罗马人，希腊成年男子一般也被视为罗马公民，但随着<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC" class="mw-redirect" title="古羅馬">古羅馬</a>急速擴張，在帝国后期只要是在罗马长期生活的成年男子自由民都视为罗马公民。在共和国，公民均有權投票，妇女不属于公民。公民有權立約，有權具備合法的婚姻。公民不能夠被判處死刑，除非他們被控訴叛國罪。被征服的<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E7%9C%81" class="mw-redirect" title="行省">行省</a>屬地的人民要成為羅馬公民最簡單的方法是從軍。 </p><p>在欧洲中世纪和中国古代，君主制下大多数民众没有参与政治的权力，只是现行体制的的消极服从者，即<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%A3%E6%B0%91" title="臣民">臣民</a><sup id="cite_ref-孙关宏_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-孙关宏-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。中國先秦时代的典籍即出现了“公民”的说法，但古代為公之民，是天子所屬子民，行使天子律令所義務與權利，與私人之私民相對，與現代概念不同。近代资产阶级革命打破君主制下人身依附关系，在人与人之间建立自由契约关系，个人才第一次成为自由独立的理性个体，作为一个公民成为<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%8F%82%E4%B8%8E" title="政治参与">政治参与</a>的主体<sup id="cite_ref-孙关宏_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-孙关宏-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap">:<span>287</span></sup>。臣民将政府视为“他们”，而公民则将政府视为“我们”<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="超国界公民权利"><span id=".E8.B6.85.E5.9B.BD.E7.95.8C.E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.9D.83.E5.88.A9"></span>超国界公民权利</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=3" title="编辑章节：超国界公民权利"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="歐共體公民權利"><span id=".E6.AD.90.E5.85.B1.E9.AB.94.E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.AC.8A.E5.88.A9"></span>歐共體公民權利</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=4" title="编辑章节：歐共體公民權利"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="公民權的各種現代形式"><span id=".E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.AC.8A.E7.9A.84.E5.90.84.E7.A8.AE.E7.8F.BE.E4.BB.A3.E5.BD.A2.E5.BC.8F"></span>公民權的各種現代形式</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=5" title="编辑章节：公民權的各種現代形式"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="法律"><span id=".E6.B3.95.E5.BE.8B"></span>法律</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=6" title="编辑章节：法律"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>世界各國法律通常會訂定公民及政治權利規定國家與個人之間的關係，指定國家不應干涉及侵害某些個人行為，但視各國國情規定而不同，常見的公民自由包括居住及<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B7%E5%BE%99%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="遷徙自由">遷徙自由</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AB%96%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" title="言論自由">言論自由</a>、講學、著作及<a href="/wiki/%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="出版自由">出版自由</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A7%98%E5%AF%86%E9%80%9A%E8%A8%8A%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="秘密通訊自由（页面不存在）">秘密通訊自由</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%B0%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="宗教信仰自由">宗教信仰自由</a>、思想及良知自由、<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%86%E6%9C%83" class="mw-disambig" title="集會">集會</a>結社自由、<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E6%88%80%E6%84%9B" class="mw-redirect" title="自由戀愛">婚姻自由</a>、<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BD%B7%E5%B7%A5%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="罷工自由（页面不存在）">罷工自由</a>、私生活不受侵犯的權利、國家出入境自由、擁有財產自由等等。 </p><p>公民權利必須建基於平等的原則，任何法律或政策不得對不同<a href="/wiki/%E7%A8%AE%E6%97%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="種族">種族</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%86%9A%E8%89%B2" title="膚色">膚色</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%A7%E5%88%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="性別">性別</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%B9%B4%E9%BD%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="年齡">年齡</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%AA%9E%E8%A8%80" title="語言">語言</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99" title="宗教">宗教</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E8%A6%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="政見">政見</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D" title="國籍">國籍</a>作出區別、歧視，或有任何不公平待遇。「在法律面前人人平等，在沒有歧視的情況下受到法律保障」是一大主要原則。每一個公民對公共服務都可以享有同樣的享用權，在婚姻及職業上不應存在性別、家庭崗位、殘疾等任何的歧視。 </p><p>公民政治權利是指公民依法享有參與國家政治生活的權利。它包括以下的內容： </p> <ul><li>公民有<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B8%E8%88%89%E6%AC%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="選舉權">選舉權</a>及被選舉權</li> <li>參与國家管理的權利</li> <li>政治參與的基本條件是<a href="/wiki/%E7%9F%A5%E6%83%85%E6%AC%8A" title="知情權">知情權</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="社會參與"><span id=".E7.A4.BE.E6.9C.83.E5.8F.83.E8.88.87"></span>社會參與</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=7" title="编辑章节：社會參與"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>有<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%B8%E4%B9%85%E5%B1%85%E7%95%99%E6%AC%8A" title="永久居留權">永久居留權</a>的人士在一段時間後可以申請<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%92%E5%8C%96" title="归化">归化</a>為公民，但必須符合一定條件。 </p><p>由於許多國家改用<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%AC%8A%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="公民及公民權教育">公民及公民權教育</a>的概念來取代或擴張定義較狹隘的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="公民教育">公民教育</a>，這兩概念的差異在於前者對公民生活及<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="公民社會">公民社會</a>的參與及接解的知識、瞭解與機會的範圍，比<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="公民教育">公民教育</a>關注的如<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B8%E8%88%89" title="選舉">選舉</a>中的<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E7%A5%A8" title="投票">投票</a>的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AD%A3%E5%BC%8F%E6%A9%9F%E6%A7%8B&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="正式機構（页面不存在）">正式機構</a>及法律流程更廣，包括公民如何互動並塑造他們自己的社群（包括學校）及社會。 <sup id="cite_ref-ICCS2009_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICCS2009-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="科技使用"><span id=".E7.A7.91.E6.8A.80.E4.BD.BF.E7.94.A8"></span>科技使用</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=8" title="编辑章节：科技使用"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="公民權跨國比較和國際標準"><span id=".E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.AC.8A.E8.B7.A8.E5.9C.8B.E6.AF.94.E8.BC.83.E5.92.8C.E5.9C.8B.E9.9A.9B.E6.A8.99.E6.BA.96"></span>公民權跨國比較和國際標準</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=9" title="编辑章节：公民權跨國比較和國際標準"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r83732972"><table class="box-Globalize plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ambox_globe_content.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Globe icon"><img alt="Globe icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/40px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="33" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/60px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bd/Ambox_globe_content.svg/80px-Ambox_globe_content.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="350" data-file-height="290" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">此以下段落<b>論述以部分區域為主</b>，未必有<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E9%81%BF%E5%85%8D%E5%9C%B0%E5%9F%9F%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83" title="Wikipedia:避免地域中心">普世通用</a>的觀點。<span class="hide-when-compact"></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><br /><small>請<span class="plainlinks"><a class="external text" href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit">協助補充內容</a></span>以<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E9%81%BF%E5%85%8D%E5%9C%B0%E5%9F%9F%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83" title="Wikipedia:避免地域中心">避免偏頗</a>，或<a href="/wiki/Talk:%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91" title="Talk:公民">討論</a>本文的問題。</small></span><span class="hide-when-compact"></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="中华人民共和国公民权利"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E5.8D.8E.E4.BA.BA.E6.B0.91.E5.85.B1.E5.92.8C.E5.9B.BD.E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.9D.83.E5.88.A9"></span>中华人民共和国公民权利</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=10" title="编辑章节：中华人民共和国公民权利"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83" title="中华人民共和国人权">中华人民共和国人权</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见：<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%B6%E5%85%AB%E5%AE%AA%E7%AB%A0" title="零八宪章">零八宪章</a></div> <p>根据1982年修改的《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95" title="中华人民共和国宪法">中华人民共和国宪法</a>》第三十三条，凡具有<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD" title="中华人民共和国">中华人民共和国</a>国籍的人都是中华人民共和国公民。 </p><p>与1960年代相比，当今的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%A7%E9%99%86" title="中国大陆">中国大陸</a>对经济和社会的控制已大为放宽，然而政治自由仍然受到中央和地方政府的严格控制。宪法中规定的“基本权利”包括：<a href="/wiki/%E8%A8%80%E8%AE%BA%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="言论自由">言论自由</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E9%97%BB%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" title="新闻自由">出版自由</a>、<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="受公正审判权" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="right to a fair trial"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%97%E5%85%AC%E6%AD%A3%E5%AE%A1%E5%88%A4%E6%9D%83&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="受公正审判权（页面不存在）">受公正审判权</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/right_to_a_fair_trial" class="extiw" title="en:right to a fair trial"><span lang="en" dir="auto">right to a fair trial</span></a></span>）</span></span>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%97%E6%95%99%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" title="宗教自由">宗教自由</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E9%81%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="普選">选举权</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%A2%E4%BA%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="财产">财产权</a>。部分西方组织认为当国家对犯人进行起诉时，这些规定并未产生行之有效的保护。<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中华人民共和国人权的另一严重问题在于中华人民共和国公民目前并不受到《<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%9D%83%E5%88%A9%E4%B8%8E%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E6%9D%83%E5%88%A9%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E5%85%AC%E7%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="公民权利与政治权利国际公约">公民权利与政治权利国际公约</a>》的保护。中华人民共和国国家元首虽在1998年于该公约上签字，但迄今<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="全国人大">全国人大</a>仍未批准该公约。2004年1月，胡锦涛表示，一旦条件成熟，中国大陸政府将向全国人大提交批准该公约。同年5月，温家宝访问欧洲再度回应说尽快批准。<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>三年之后，在2008年3月，有记者询问温家宝政府准备何时提请全国人大正式批准该公约，温家宝回答正在研究，尽快批准。<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>政府公开和经常地进行政治言论和信息审查，<sup id="cite_ref-right_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-right-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>特别是出版控制。<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E5%9B%BD%E7%95%8C%E8%AE%B0%E8%80%85" title="无国界记者">无国界记者</a>认为中华人民共和国是全世界出版自由最少的国家。<sup id="cite_ref-rsf.org-554_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsf.org-554-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>部分人认为政府有对团体、组织和信仰的限制政策，在自己认为他们有害“社会稳定”时就会采取各种手段予以压制，如<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AD%E5%9B%9B%E4%BA%8B%E4%BB%B6" title="六四事件">六四事件</a>。政府对信息进行了有好有坏的控制：一個非常強大的媒體控制系統面臨非常強大的市場力量、教育水平日渐提高、决策更加开放（特别是关于环境问题）。 </p><p>西方国家政府和<a href="/wiki/%E9%9D%9E%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87" title="非政府组织">非政府组织</a>经常批评中华人民共和国，称其普遍侵犯公民权利，包括黑狱，逼供，拷打，虐待囚犯，限制言论、集会、宗教、新闻自由以及劳动权益。<sup id="cite_ref-right_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-right-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中国大陸的死刑在全世界最多，2004年90%的死刑发生在中国大陸<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 在2005年无国界记者新闻自由指数中，中国大陸排名在167个国家中排名第159。<sup id="cite_ref-rsf.org-554_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rsf.org-554-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中国大陸记者<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%95%E6%B8%85%E6%B6%9F" title="何清涟">何清涟</a>在她2004年的书《中国媒体控制》介绍<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中国大陸政府控制网络和其他传播介质。 </p><p>中华人民共和国政府已经做出回应，认为人权概念应考虑到一个国家现有的经济发展水平，贫穷的国家更多精力应放在人民群众的生存权和发展权。<sup id="cite_ref-yqlgro_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yqlgro-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>人民生活水平的上升，扫盲指数和平均寿命在过去三十年里有所进展。<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>打击自然灾害，如常年的<a href="/wiki/%E9%95%BF%E6%B1%9F" title="长江">长江</a>洪水泛滥也有较大改善。<sup id="cite_ref-yqlgro_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-yqlgro-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>参 10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="美利坚合众国公民权利"><span id=".E7.BE.8E.E5.88.A9.E5.9D.9A.E5.90.88.E4.BC.97.E5.9B.BD.E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.9D.83.E5.88.A9"></span>美利坚合众国公民权利</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=11" title="编辑章节：美利坚合众国公民权利"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83" class="mw-redirect" title="美国人权">美国人权</a></div> <p>虽然美国人权受法律保障及公众认同，但政府死刑、种族歧视、族群政策、枪击、警察杀平民，经常侵犯人权。德国之声在对2005年美国发布的外国年度人权报告进行评论时认为，尽管美国媒体享受充分的自由使得政府的行为受到监督，但是这个监督机制并不能完全杜绝践踏人权的现象。由于在反恐战争中的关塔那摩虐囚事件，美国在人权问题上的公信力正在不断下降。<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>言论自由是美国人经常提到的一种自由，但是很多美国人并未意识到言论自由也受法律限制。1919年的<a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B3%E5%85%8B%E8%AF%89%E5%90%88%E4%BC%97%E5%9B%BD%E6%A1%88" title="申克诉合众国案">申克诉合众国案</a><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>确立了危险测试，允许在公共秩序受到言论的明显而即刻的威胁时限制言论自由。在1925年的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%90%89%E7%89%B9%E5%8A%B3%E8%AF%89%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%A1%88&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="吉特劳诉美国案（页面不存在）">吉特劳诉美国案</a><sup id="cite_ref-Gitlow_v._New_York_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gitlow_v._New_York-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中确立了危险倾向测试，限制了有可能导致暴力的言论。在这之前，对言论的限制通常被判决为违宪，这些限制也包括对报纸、电影和电视节目的限制。1971年的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%90%E7%B4%84%E6%99%82%E5%A0%B1%E8%A8%B4%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%A1%88" class="mw-redirect" title="紐約時報訴美國案">纽约时报诉美国案</a><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中，最高法院判决纽约时报有权公布关于<a href="/wiki/%E8%B6%8A%E5%8D%97%E6%88%98%E4%BA%89" title="越南战争">越南战争</a>的信息。最高法院也将保护范围扩展到象征性言论和商业言论。1989年，在引起很大争议的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%BE%97%E5%85%8B%E8%90%A8%E6%96%AF%E5%B7%9E%E8%AF%89%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%E9%80%8A%E6%A1%88&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="得克萨斯州诉约翰逊案（页面不存在）">得克萨斯诉约翰逊案</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中，最高法院裁定焚烧<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E6%97%97" title="国旗">国旗</a>属于受到<a href="/wiki/%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%80%E4%BF%AE%E6%AD%A3%E6%A1%88" class="mw-redirect" title="憲法第一修正案">宪法第一修正案</a>保护的象征性言论。 </p><p>一些范围内的言论不受宪法保护。这些言论包含猥亵性言论、诽谤、攻击性言论和不当干涉。在米勒诉加利福尼亚州案<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中，最高法院确立了判断猥亵性言论的标准<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>。2002年，最高法院在阿什克罗夫特诉自由言论联盟案<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>中判定1996年通过的儿童色情预防法违宪。口头和书面的诽谤属于利用自己的言论自由侵害他人的名誉权。攻击性言论和不当干涉属于利用自己的言论自由侵犯他人的言论自由，法院通常判决这些言论不受宪法保护。但是在<a href="/wiki/%E9%BA%A6%E5%8D%A1%E9%94%A1%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="麦卡锡主义">麦卡锡主义</a>盛行的<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BA%A2%E8%89%B2%E6%81%90%E6%83%A7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="红色恐惧（页面不存在）">红色恐惧</a>时期，很多人因为被麦卡锡指责同情共产主义而失去工作。 </p><p>因特网的发展提出了重新定义言论自由的挑战。在<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%85%E8%99%8E" title="雅虎">雅虎</a>禁止在其网上拍卖区出售纳粹相关商品之后，<a href="/wiki/Google" title="Google">Google</a>、雅虎、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%AE%E8%BD%AF" title="微软">微软</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%9D%E7%A7%91" class="mw-redirect" title="思科">思科</a>因为协助进行<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E5%AE%A1%E6%9F%A5" class="mw-redirect" title="中国网络审查">中国网络审查</a>而于2006年受到美国国会调查。在2006年初，美国公众在仇恨性言论、宗教权利和美国校内对学生服饰的规范的问题上仍旧有很大分歧。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="公民及公民權教育"><span id=".E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E5.8F.8A.E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.AC.8A.E6.95.99.E8.82.B2"></span>公民及公民權教育</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=12" title="编辑章节：公民及公民權教育"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">主条目：<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="公民教育">公民教育</a></div> <p><b>公民教育</b>或<b>公民素養</b>指國家政府所提供讓人民應發揮公民<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%A9%E5%8B%99" title="義務">義務</a>與<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="權利">權利</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="教育">教育</a>，因此公民教育的概念和實施和<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%AC%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="公民權">公民權</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E8%BA%AB%E4%BB%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="公民身份">公民身份</a>密不可分，和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB" title="民主">民主</a>一詞有一樣長久的歷史脈絡<sup id="cite_ref-harrington2012_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-harrington2012-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 。 </p><p>根據權威<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E6%88%90%E7%B8%BE%E8%A9%95%E4%BC%B0%E5%8D%94%E6%9C%83" title="國際教育成績評估協會">國際教育成績評估協會</a>在其<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E6%88%90%E7%B8%BE%E8%A9%95%E4%BC%B0%E5%8D%94%E6%9C%83#國際公民及素養調查研究" title="國際教育成績評估協會">國際公民及素養調查研究</a>的描述，注意到許多國家現在改用<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%AC%8A%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="公民及公民權教育">公民及公民權教育</a>來取代定義較狹隘的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="公民教育">公民教育</a>，兩者概念差異見<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2#國際教育組織定義及研究" title="公民教育">公民教育條目首節內容</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-ICCS2009_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICCS2009-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="中華民國公民教育"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E8.8F.AF.E6.B0.91.E5.9C.8B.E5.85.AC.E6.B0.91.E6.95.99.E8.82.B2"></span>中華民國公民教育</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=13" title="编辑章节：中華民國公民教育"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>「公民」也是<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B" title="中華民國">中華民國</a><a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%9D%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%80%E8%B2%AB%E8%AA%B2%E7%A8%8B" title="九年一貫課程">九年一貫課程</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%AD%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="國民中學">國民中學</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E7%B4%9A%E4%B8%AD%E7%AD%89%E5%AD%B8%E6%A0%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="高級中等學校">高級中等學校</a>的一個社會領域<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%B8%E7%A7%91" class="mw-redirect" title="學科">學科</a>之一（<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E7%90%86" class="mw-redirect" title="地理">地理</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="歷史">歷史</a>、<b>公民</b>），其教授的內容有：家庭、生活、政治、法律、經濟、全球關連。通常社會學類內容於第一冊，政治為第二冊，法律為第三冊，經濟為第四冊。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參看"><span id=".E5.8F.83.E7.9C.8B"></span>參看</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=14" title="编辑章节：參看"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91" title="人民">人民</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A" title="社会">社会</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="公民社會">公民社會</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%8A%97%E5%91%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="公民抗命">公民抗命</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="公民教育">公民教育</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E9%87%8D%E5%9C%8B%E7%B1%8D" class="mw-redirect" title="雙重國籍">雙重國籍</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A9%E8%B3%A6%E4%BA%BA%E6%AC%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="天賦人權">天賦人權</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%8F%82%E4%B8%8E" title="政治参与">政治参与</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%BA%8B%E7%99%BB%E8%A8%98" title="民事登記">民事登記</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献"><span id=".E5.8F.82.E8.80.83.E6.96.87.E7.8C.AE"></span>参考文献</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=15" title="编辑章节：参考文献"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Barker2004-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Barker2004_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Chris Barker. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=lcIdndXVQGEC&pg=PA476">文化研究: 理論與實踐</a>. 五南圖書出版股份有限公司. 2004: 476– <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-957-11-3732-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-957-11-3732-2"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-957-11-3732-2</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327004307/http://books.google.com/books?id=lcIdndXVQGEC&pg=PA476">存档</a>于2015-03-27）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=Chris+Barker&rft.btitle=%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%3A+%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96%E8%88%87%E5%AF%A6%E8%B8%90&rft.date=2004&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-957-11-3732-2&rft.pages=476-&rft.pub=%E4%BA%94%E5%8D%97%E5%9C%96%E6%9B%B8%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E8%82%A1%E4%BB%BD%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlcIdndXVQGEC%26pg%3DPA476&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-公民权研究手册-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-公民权研究手册_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=nsqNHwAACAAJ">公民权研究手册</a>. 浙江人民出版社. 2007 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-213-03507-4" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-213-03507-4"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-7-213-03507-4</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326224511/http://books.google.com/books?id=nsqNHwAACAAJ">存档</a>于2015-03-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%9D%83%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E6%89%8B%E5%86%8C&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-7-213-03507-4&rft.pub=%E6%B5%99%E6%B1%9F%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnsqNHwAACAAJ&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-陈治世1990-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-陈治世1990_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">陈治世. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=ah8P0PjX1hsC&pg=PA208">國際法</a>. 臺灣商務印書館. 1990: 208– <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-957-05-0188-9" title="Special:网络书源/978-957-05-0188-9"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-957-05-0188-9</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326232536/http://books.google.com/books?id=ah8P0PjX1hsC&pg=PA208">存档</a>于2015-03-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=%E9%99%88%E6%B2%BB%E4%B8%96&rft.btitle=%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E6%B3%95&rft.date=1990&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-957-05-0188-9&rft.pages=208-&rft.pub=%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E5%95%86%E5%8B%99%E5%8D%B0%E6%9B%B8%E9%A4%A8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dah8P0PjX1hsC%26pg%3DPA208&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-宪法学原理-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-宪法学原理_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=G1FYtz_gC5UC&pg=PA179">宪法学原理</a>. 中信出版社. 2005: 179– <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-5086-0351-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-5086-0351-3"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-7-5086-0351-3</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327040620/http://books.google.com/books?id=G1FYtz_gC5UC&pg=PA179">存档</a>于2015-03-27）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6%E5%8E%9F%E7%90%86&rft.date=2005&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-7-5086-0351-3&rft.pages=179-&rft.pub=%E4%B8%AD%E4%BF%A1%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DG1FYtz_gC5UC%26pg%3DPA179&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-楚树龙唐虹2006-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-楚树龙唐虹2006_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">楚树龙; 唐虹. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=zVim3oTzeAoC&pg=PA33">政治学概论</a>. 清华大学出版社有限公司. 2006: 33– <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-302-12118-3" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-302-12118-3"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-7-302-12118-3</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326235830/http://books.google.com/books?id=zVim3oTzeAoC&pg=PA33">存档</a>于2015-03-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=%E5%94%90%E8%99%B9&rft.au=%E6%A5%9A%E6%A0%91%E9%BE%99&rft.btitle=%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6%E6%A6%82%E8%AE%BA&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-7-302-12118-3&rft.pages=33-&rft.pub=%E6%B8%85%E5%8D%8E%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE%E6%9C%89%E9%99%90%E5%85%AC%E5%8F%B8&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzVim3oTzeAoC%26pg%3DPA33&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Turner1990-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Turner1990_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation journal">Bryan S. Turner. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0038038590024002002">Outline of a Theory of Citizenship</a>. Sociology. 1990-05, <b>24</b> (2): 189–217 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2022-10-06</span>]</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0038-0385"><span title="国际标准连续出版物号">ISSN 0038-0385</span></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0038038590024002002"><span title="數位物件識別號">doi:10.1177/0038038590024002002</span></a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221013185224/https://journals.sagepub.com/doi/10.1177/0038038590024002002">存档</a>于2022-10-13） <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到英语网页">（英语）</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.atitle=Outline+of+a+Theory+of+Citizenship&rft.au=Bryan+S.+Turner&rft.date=1990-05&rft.genre=article&rft.issn=0038-0385&rft.issue=2&rft.jtitle=Sociology&rft.pages=189-217&rft.volume=24&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.sagepub.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1177%2F0038038590024002002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0038038590024002002&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-王啸2006-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-王啸2006_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">王啸. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=gg97NG6W_XAC&pg=PA657">全球化时代的中国公民教育</a>. 福建教育出版社. 2006: 657– <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-7-5334-4254-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-7-5334-4254-5"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-7-5334-4254-5</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327040607/http://books.google.com/books?id=gg97NG6W_XAC&pg=PA657">存档</a>于2015-03-27）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=%E7%8E%8B%E5%95%B8&rft.btitle=%E5%85%A8%E7%90%83%E5%8C%96%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%AD%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2&rft.date=2006&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-7-5334-4254-5&rft.pages=657-&rft.pub=%E7%A6%8F%E5%BB%BA%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgg97NG6W_XAC%26pg%3DPA657&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-GrossmanLee2008-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-GrossmanLee2008_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">David L. Grossman; Wing On. Lee; Kerry J. Kennedy. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=btkuYUgXLRIC&pg=PA5">Citizenship Curriculum in Asia and the Pacific</a>. Springer. 2008: 5– <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-4020-8745-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-4020-8745-5"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-1-4020-8745-5</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326224629/http://books.google.com/books?id=btkuYUgXLRIC&pg=PA5">存档</a>于2015-03-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=David+L.+Grossman&rft.au=Kerry+J.+Kennedy&rft.au=Wing+On.+Lee&rft.btitle=Citizenship+Curriculum+in+Asia+and+the+Pacific&rft.date=2008&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-8745-5&rft.pages=5-&rft.pub=Springer&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbtkuYUgXLRIC%26pg%3DPA5&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-DethMontero2007-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-DethMontero2007_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Jan W. Van Deth; José R. Montero; Anders Westholm. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=RIe1xEaHCHcC&pg=PA1">Citizenship And Involvement in European Democracies: A Comparative Analysis</a>. Taylor & Francis. 2007: 1– <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">24 January</span> 2013]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-415-41231-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-415-41231-5"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-0-415-41231-5</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150326223156/http://books.google.com/books?id=RIe1xEaHCHcC&pg=PA1">存档</a>于2015-03-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=Anders+Westholm&rft.au=Jan+W.+Van+Deth&rft.au=Jos%C3%A9+R.+Montero&rft.btitle=Citizenship+And+Involvement+in+European+Democracies%3A+A+Comparative+Analysis&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=978-0-415-41231-5&rft.pages=1-&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRIe1xEaHCHcC%26pg%3DPA1&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-年智英2011-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-年智英2011_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation conference">年智英. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130328230659/http://niea.neea.edu.cn/infor.jsp?infoid=44534&class_id=40_04">国际考试评价机构及其评价项目研究</a>. 教育部考试中心“十二五”事业发展规划专题研究（2010JKS4006）之国际文献调研组招标子课题成果. 国家教育考试评价研究院-国家教育考试评价研究院课题组. 2011-02-23 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2013-01-23</span>]</span>. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://niea.neea.edu.cn/infor.jsp?infoid=44534&class_id=40_04">原始内容</a>存档于2013-03-28）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=%E5%B9%B4%E6%99%BA%E8%8B%B1&rft.btitle=%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E8%80%83%E8%AF%95%E8%AF%84%E4%BB%B7%E6%9C%BA%E6%9E%84%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%B6%E8%AF%84%E4%BB%B7%E9%A1%B9%E7%9B%AE%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6&rft.date=2011-02-23&rft.genre=conference&rft.pub=%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E8%80%83%E8%AF%95%E8%AF%84%E4%BB%B7%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E9%99%A2-%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E8%80%83%E8%AF%95%E8%AF%84%E4%BB%B7%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E9%99%A2%E8%AF%BE%E9%A2%98%E7%BB%84&rft.series=%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E9%83%A8%E8%80%83%E8%AF%95%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E2%80%9C%E5%8D%81%E4%BA%8C%E4%BA%94%E2%80%9D%E4%BA%8B%E4%B8%9A%E5%8F%91%E5%B1%95%E8%A7%84%E5%88%92%E4%B8%93%E9%A2%98%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%EF%BC%882010JKS4006%EF%BC%89%E4%B9%8B%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%96%87%E7%8C%AE%E8%B0%83%E7%A0%94%E7%BB%84%E6%8B%9B%E6%A0%87%E5%AD%90%E8%AF%BE%E9%A2%98%E6%88%90%E6%9E%9C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fniea.neea.edu.cn%2Finfor.jsp%3Finfoid%3D44534%26class_id%3D40_04&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-洪信令2007-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-洪信令2007_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation news">洪信令. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130418221337/http://epaper.cere.ntnu.edu.tw/index.php?id=8">IEA及其最近研究計畫（壹）</a>. 教育研究與評鑑中心電子報 <b>第 1 期</b>. 2007 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2013-01-23</span>]</span>. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epaper.cere.ntnu.edu.tw/index.php?id=8">原始内容</a>存档于2013-04-18）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.atitle=IEA%E5%8F%8A%E5%85%B6%E6%9C%80%E8%BF%91%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E8%A8%88%E7%95%AB%EF%BC%88%E5%A3%B9%EF%BC%89&rft.au=%E6%B4%AA%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%A4&rft.date=2007&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E8%88%87%E8%A9%95%E9%91%91%E4%B8%AD%E5%BF%83%E9%9B%BB%E5%AD%90%E5%A0%B1&rft.volume=%E7%AC%AC+1+%E6%9C%9F&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepaper.cere.ntnu.edu.tw%2Findex.php%3Fid%3D8&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-藍先茜2010-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-藍先茜2010_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation conference">藍先茜; 駐洛杉磯臺北經濟文化辦事處文化組. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://epaper.edu.tw/windows.aspx?windows_sn=5899">國際公民素養調查結果出爐　台灣表現優異</a>. 資料來源：2010年6月29日，IEA新聞稿. 駐外單位：駐洛杉磯文化組藍先茜摘要. 2010-07-01 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2013-01-23</span>]</span>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201208094636/https://epaper.edu.tw/windows.aspx?windows_sn=5899">存档</a>于2020-12-08）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=%E8%97%8D%E5%85%88%E8%8C%9C&rft.au=%E9%A7%90%E6%B4%9B%E6%9D%89%E7%A3%AF%E8%87%BA%E5%8C%97%E7%B6%93%E6%BF%9F%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E8%BE%A6%E4%BA%8B%E8%99%95%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%B5%84&rft.btitle=%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E7%B4%A0%E9%A4%8A%E8%AA%BF%E6%9F%A5%E7%B5%90%E6%9E%9C%E5%87%BA%E7%88%90%E3%80%80%E5%8F%B0%E7%81%A3%E8%A1%A8%E7%8F%BE%E5%84%AA%E7%95%B0&rft.date=2010-07-01&rft.genre=conference&rft.pub=%E9%A7%90%E5%A4%96%E5%96%AE%E4%BD%8D%EF%BC%9A%E9%A7%90%E6%B4%9B%E6%9D%89%E7%A3%AF%E6%96%87%E5%8C%96%E7%B5%84%E8%97%8D%E5%85%88%E8%8C%9C%E6%91%98%E8%A6%81&rft.series=%E8%B3%87%E6%96%99%E4%BE%86%E6%BA%90%EF%BC%9A2010%E5%B9%B46%E6%9C%8829%E6%97%A5%EF%BC%8CIEA%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E7%A8%BF&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fepaper.edu.tw%2Fwindows.aspx%3Fwindows_sn%3D5899&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iea.nl/iccs_press_release.html">IEA公布ICCS 頁首輪報告及新聞稿等</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2013-01-30</span>]</span>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130310032054/http://www.iea.nl/iccs_press_release.html">存档</a>于2013-03-10）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=IEA%E5%85%AC%E5%B8%83ICCS+%E9%A0%81%E9%A6%96%E8%BC%AA%E5%A0%B1%E5%91%8A%E5%8F%8A%E6%96%B0%E8%81%9E%E7%A8%BF%E7%AD%89&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iea.nl%2Ficcs_press_release.html&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-孙关宏-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-孙关宏_14-0"><sup><b>14.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-孙关宏_14-1"><sup><b>14.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">孙关宏. 政治学概论. 复旦大学出版社. 2003: 287. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/7309036611" title="Special:网络书源/7309036611"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 7309036611</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=%E5%AD%99%E5%85%B3%E5%AE%8F&rft.btitle=%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6%E6%A6%82%E8%AE%BA&rft.date=2003&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=7309036611&rft.pages=287&rft.pub=%E5%A4%8D%E6%97%A6%E5%A4%A7%E5%AD%A6%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E7%A4%BE&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span>。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">塞缪尔.P.亨廷顿. 变化社会中的政治秩序. 三联书店. 1989-07: 283. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9787108001221" title="Special:网络书源/9787108001221"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 9787108001221</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.au=%E5%A1%9E%E7%BC%AA%E5%B0%94.P.%E4%BA%A8%E5%BB%B7%E9%A1%BF&rft.btitle=%E5%8F%98%E5%8C%96%E7%A4%BE%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E7%A7%A9%E5%BA%8F&rft.date=1989-07&rft.genre=book&rft.isbn=9787108001221&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=%E4%B8%89%E8%81%94%E4%B9%A6%E5%BA%97&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ICCS2009-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ICCS2009_16-0"><sup><b>16.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ICCS2009_16-1"><sup><b>16.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"> <cite class="citation journal">Schulz, Wolfram; John Ainley, Julian Fraillon, David Kerr, Bruno Losito. ICCS 2009 International Report: Civic knowledge, attitudes and engagement among lower secondary school students in thirty-eight countries.. Civics and Citizenship Assessment. 2010-01-01: 22. <q>Many countries now use the term civic and citizenship education rather than the narrower term of civic education, or they have superseded the latter with the broader term of citizenship education. Civic education focuses on knowledge and understanding of formal institutions and processes of civic life (such as voting in elections). Citizenship education focuses on knowledge and understanding and on opportunities for participation and engagement in both civic and civil society.1 It is concerned with the wider range of ways that citizens use to interact with and shape their communities (including schools) and societies ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.atitle=ICCS+2009+International+Report%3A+Civic+knowledge%2C+attitudes+and+engagement+among+lower+secondary+school+students+in+thirty-eight+countries.&rft.aufirst=Wolfram&rft.aulast=Schulz&rft.date=2010-01-01&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Civics+and+Citizenship+Assessment&rft.pages=22&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> <span style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">引文使用过时参数<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">coauthors</code> (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#deprecated_params" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">参见<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E4%B9%8B%E5%A3%B0" title="德国之声">德国之声</a>的评论文章 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0,2144,1928791,00.html评论：美国人权法官威望大打折扣">[1]</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20090922204728/http://www.dw-world.de/dw/article/0%2C2144%2C1928791%2C00.html%E8%AF%84%E8%AE%BA%EF%BC%9A%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%98%E5%A8%81%E6%9C%9B%E5%A4%A7%E6%89%93%E6%8A%98%E6%89%A3">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.gongfa.com/chenxcyanlunziyou.htm">Schenck v. United States</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20200920040349/http://www.gongfa.com/chenxcyanlunziyou.htm">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>）（<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美国最高法院判例汇编第249卷" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 249"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%B1%87%E7%BC%96%E7%AC%AC249%E5%8D%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美国最高法院判例汇编第249卷（页面不存在）">249</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_249" class="extiw" title="en:List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 249"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 249</span></a></span>）</span></span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A" title="美国最高法院判例报告">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/249/47/">47</a> (1919)）</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Gitlow_v._New_York-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Gitlow_v._New_York_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/infousa/AmGovIntro/GB/ch03.htm">Gitlow v. New York</a> <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">互联网档案馆</a>的<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060115154611/http://www.usembassy-china.org.cn/infousa/AmGovIntro/GB/ch03.htm">存檔</a>，存档日期2006-01-15.（<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美国最高法院判例汇编第268卷" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 268"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%B1%87%E7%BC%96%E7%AC%AC268%E5%8D%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美国最高法院判例汇编第268卷（页面不存在）">268</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_268" class="extiw" title="en:List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 268"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 268</span></a></span>）</span></span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A" title="美国最高法院判例报告">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/268/652/">652</a> (1925)）</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">New York Times Co. v. United States（<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美国最高法院判例汇编第403卷" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%B1%87%E7%BC%96%E7%AC%AC403%E5%8D%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美国最高法院判例汇编第403卷（页面不存在）">403</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_403" class="extiw" title="en:List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 403</span></a></span>）</span></span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A" title="美国最高法院判例报告">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/403/713/">713</a> (1971)），也称为五角大楼文件案。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Texas v. Johnson （<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美国最高法院判例汇编第491卷" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 491"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%B1%87%E7%BC%96%E7%AC%AC491%E5%8D%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美国最高法院判例汇编第491卷（页面不存在）">491</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_491" class="extiw" title="en:List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 491"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 491</span></a></span>）</span></span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A" title="美国最高法院判例报告">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/491/397/">397</a> (1989)）。之后国会通过的国旗保护法也被同样裁定违宪。</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller v. California （<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美国最高法院判例汇编第413卷" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 413"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%B1%87%E7%BC%96%E7%AC%AC413%E5%8D%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美国最高法院判例汇编第413卷（页面不存在）">413</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_413" class="extiw" title="en:List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 413"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 413</span></a></span>）</span></span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A" title="美国最高法院判例报告">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/413/15/">15</a> (1973)）</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">这个标准也因此被称为米勒测试</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ashcroft v. Free Speech Coalition（<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="美国最高法院判例汇编第535卷" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 535"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%B1%87%E7%BC%96%E7%AC%AC535%E5%8D%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="美国最高法院判例汇编第535卷（页面不存在）">535</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">（<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">：</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases,_volume_535" class="extiw" title="en:List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 535"><span lang="en" dir="auto">List of United States Supreme Court cases, volume 535</span></a></span>）</span></span> <a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%A4%E4%BE%8B%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A" title="美国最高法院判例报告">U.S.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://supreme.justia.com/cases/federal/us/535/234/">234</a> (2002)）</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-harrington2012-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-harrington2012_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia">Benjamin R. Barber. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://books.google.com/books?id=cbdutVzp2LcC&pg=PT174">civic education</a>. Austin Harrington (编). Encyclopedia of Social Theory. Routledge: 174–. 6 December 2012 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">23 December</span> 2012]</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-1-136-78694-5" title="Special:网络书源/978-1-136-78694-5"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span> 978-1-136-78694-5</a>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150327011717/http://books.google.com/books?id=cbdutVzp2LcC&pg=PT174">存档</a>于2015-03-27）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.atitle=civic+education&rft.au=Benjamin+R.+Barber&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Social+Theory&rft.date=2012-12-06&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.isbn=978-1-136-78694-5&rft.pages=174-&rft.pub=Routledge&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcbdutVzp2LcC%26pg%3DPT174&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="注釋"><span id=".E6.B3.A8.E9.87.8B"></span>注釋</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&action=edit&section=16" title="编辑章节：注釋"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist" style="list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation report">China. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200805135825/http://www.hrw.org/world-report-2009/china">2009年世界报告</a> (报告). 人权观察组织. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hrw.org/en/world-report-2009/china">原始内容</a>存档于2020-08-05）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=2009%E5%B9%B4%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E6%8A%A5%E5%91%8A&rft.genre=report&rft.pub=%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83%E8%A7%82%E5%AF%9F%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.hrw.org%2Fen%2Fworld-report-2009%2Fchina&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Will the Boat Sink the Water?: The Life of China's Peasants</i> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chen_Guidi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chen Guidi（页面不存在）">Chen Guidi</a> and Wu Chuntao (2006) <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781586483586" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-58648-358-6</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Empire of Lies: The Truth About China in the Twenty-First Century</i> / <a href="/w/index.php?title=Guy_Sorman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Guy Sorman（页面不存在）">Guy Sorman</a> (2008) <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781594032165" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-59403-216-5</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">　法律学者建议全国人大批准通过《公民权利和政治权利国际公约》《南方周末》 2008年1月10日</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151222130535/http://gb.chinareviewnews.com/doc/1005/9/6/1/100596175_5.html?coluid=7&kindid=0&docid=100596175&mdate=0318143503">温家宝答记者问</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2013-01-24</span>]</span>. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gb.chinareviewnews.com/doc/1005/9/6/1/100596175_5.html?coluid=7&kindid=0&docid=100596175&mdate=0318143503">原始内容</a>存档于2015-12-22）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=%E6%B8%A9%E5%AE%B6%E5%AE%9D%E7%AD%94%E8%AE%B0%E8%80%85%E9%97%AE&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgb.chinareviewnews.com%2Fdoc%2F1005%2F9%2F6%2F1%2F100596175_5.html%3Fcoluid%3D7%26kindid%3D0%26docid%3D100596175%26mdate%3D0318143503&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-right-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-right_22-0"><sup><b>6.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-right_22-1"><sup><b>6.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christusrex.org/www1/sdc/hr_facts.html">China Human Rights Fact Sheet</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20170429111336/http://www.christusrex.org/www1/sdc/hr_facts.html">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） (March 1995). Retrieved 16 April 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-rsf.org-554-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-rsf.org-554_23-0"><sup><b>7.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-rsf.org-554_23-1"><sup><b>7.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554">Reporters sans frontières - Annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index - 2005</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2013-01-24</span>]</span>. （原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080419011906/http://www.rsf.org/rubrique.php3?id_rubrique=554">存档</a>于2008-04-19）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=Reporters+sans+fronti%C3%A8res+-+Annual+Worldwide+Press+Freedom+Index+-+2005&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rsf.org%2Frubrique.php3%3Fid_rubrique%3D554&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080925131136/http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0405-07.htm">存档副本</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2008-09-22</span>]</span>. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.commondreams.org/headlines05/0405-07.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2008-09-25）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=%E5%AD%98%E6%A1%A3%E5%89%AF%E6%9C%AC&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.commondreams.org%2Fheadlines05%2F0405-07.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span> 5 April 2005. Accessed 23 June 2006. <i>The Independent/UK</i> article, republished.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hrichina.org/public/contents/article?revision%5fid=29582&item%5fid=29576">Media Control in China</a> （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20070313020226/http://hrichina.org/public/contents/article?revision%5fid=29582&item%5fid=29576">页面存档备份</a>，存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>） published 2004 by Human Rights in China, New York. Revised edition 2006 published by Liming Cultural Enterprises of Taiwan</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-yqlgro-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-yqlgro_26-0"><sup><b>10.0</b></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-yqlgro_26-1"><sup><b>10.1</b></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140703202209/http://english.gov.cn/official/2005-07/28/content_18115.htm">China's Progress in Human Rights</a>. 2005-07 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2008-04-18</span>]</span>. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://english.gov.cn/official/2005-07/28/content_18115.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2014-07-03）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=China%27s+Progress+in+Human+Rights&rft.date=2005-07&rft.genre=unknown&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fenglish.gov.cn%2Fofficial%2F2005-07%2F28%2Fcontent_18115.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060826200540/http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/first%20beginning/t56058.htm">China's reform and opening-up promotes human rights, says premier</a>. Embassy of the People's Republic of China in the United States. 2003-12-11 <span class="reference-accessdate"> [<span class="nowrap">2006-04-28</span>]</span>. （<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.china-embassy.org/eng/zt/first%20beginning/t56058.htm">原始内容</a>存档于2006-08-26）.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91&rft.btitle=China%27s+reform+and+opening-up+promotes+human+rights%2C+says+premier&rft.date=2003-12-11&rft.genre=unknown&rft.pub=Embassy+of+the+People%27s+Republic+of+China+in+the+United+States&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.china-embassy.org%2Feng%2Fzt%2Ffirst%2520beginning%2Ft56058.htm&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;"> </span></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部链接"><span id=".E5.A4.96.E9.83.A8.E9.93.BE.E6.8E.A5"></span>外部链接</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a 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