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<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en"> <head> <title>CATHOLIC ENCYCLOPEDIA: Cardinal</title><script src="https://dtyry4ejybx0.cloudfront.net/js/cmp/cleanmediacmp.js?ver=0104" async="true"></script><script defer data-domain="newadvent.org" src="https://plausible.io/js/script.js"></script><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03333b.htm"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1"> <meta name="description" content="A dignitary of the Roman Church and counsellor of the pope"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"><link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="RSS" href="http://feeds.newadvent.org/bestoftheweb?format=xml"><link rel="icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><link rel="shortcut icon" href="../images/icon1.ico" type="image/x-icon"><meta name="robots" content="noodp"><link type="text/css" rel="stylesheet" href="../utility/screen6.css" media="screen"></head> <body class="cathen" id="03333b.htm">   <div id="capitalcity"><table summary="Logo" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0 width="100%"><tr valign="bottom"><td align="left"><a href="../"><img height=36 width=153 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></td><td align="right"> <form id="searchbox_000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0" action="../utility/search.htm">  <input type="hidden" name="safe" value="active"> <input type="hidden" name="cx" value="000299817191393086628:ifmbhlr-8x0"/> <input type="hidden" name="cof" value="FORID:9"/>  <label for="searchQuery" id="searchQueryLabel">Search:</label> <input id="searchQuery" name="q" type="text" size="25" aria-labelledby="searchQueryLabel"/>  <label for="submitButton" id="submitButtonLabel" class="visually-hidden">Submit Search</label> <input id="submitButton" type="submit" name="sa" value="Search" aria-labelledby="submitButtonLabel"/> </form> <table summary="Spacer" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td height="2"></td></tr></table> <table summary="Tabs" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr> <td bgcolor="#ffffff"></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../"> Home </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_white_on_color" href="../cathen/index.html"> Encyclopedia </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../summa/index.html"> Summa </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../fathers/index.html"> Fathers </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../bible/gen001.htm"> Bible </a></td> <td class="tab"><a class="tab_color_on_beige" href="../library/index.html"> Library </a></td> </tr></table> </td> </tr></table><table summary="Alphabetical index" width="100%" cellpadding=0 cellspacing=0><tr><td class="bar_white_on_color"> <a href="../cathen/a.htm"> A </a><a href="../cathen/b.htm"> B </a><a href="../cathen/c.htm"> C </a><a href="../cathen/d.htm"> D </a><a href="../cathen/e.htm"> E </a><a href="../cathen/f.htm"> F </a><a href="../cathen/g.htm"> G </a><a href="../cathen/h.htm"> H </a><a href="../cathen/i.htm"> I </a><a href="../cathen/j.htm"> J </a><a href="../cathen/k.htm"> K </a><a href="../cathen/l.htm"> L </a><a href="../cathen/m.htm"> M </a><a href="../cathen/n.htm"> N </a><a href="../cathen/o.htm"> O </a><a href="../cathen/p.htm"> P </a><a href="../cathen/q.htm"> Q </a><a href="../cathen/r.htm"> R </a><a href="../cathen/s.htm"> S </a><a href="../cathen/t.htm"> T </a><a href="../cathen/u.htm"> U </a><a href="../cathen/v.htm"> V </a><a href="../cathen/w.htm"> W </a><a href="../cathen/x.htm"> X </a><a href="../cathen/y.htm"> Y </a><a href="../cathen/z.htm"> Z </a> </td></tr></table></div> <div id="mobilecity" style="text-align: center; "><a href="../"><img height=24 width=102 border="0" alt="New Advent" src="../images/logo.gif"></a></div>  <div id="mi5"><a href="../">Home</a> > <a href="../cathen">Catholic Encyclopedia</a> > <a href="../cathen/c.htm">C</a> > Cardinal</div> <div id="springfield2"> <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-top' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <h1>Cardinal</h1> <a href="https://gumroad.com/l/na2">Please help support the mission of New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more all for only $19.99...</a> A dignitary of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a> and counsellor of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. By the term cardinal (Cardinalis) was originally understood every <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a> permanently attached to a church, every clericus, either intitulatus or incardinatus. [C. 3 (Gelasius I, 492-496), D. XXIV. C 35 (<a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">Gregory I</a>, 595), D. LXXXI. C. 6 (<a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">Gregory I</a>, 603), D. LXXIV. C. 42 (<a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">Gregory I</a>, 592), C. VIII, q. 1.] It became the usual designation of every <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a> belonging to a central or episcopal church, an <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> cardo (Lat. for hinge). Cf. <a href="../cathen/07356b.htm">Hincmar of Reims</a>, "De jure metropolitani", c. 20 (Opp. ed. <a href="../cathen/14027c.htm">Sirmond</a>, II, 731); C. 2, §6 (<a href="../cathen/05773a.htm">Pseudo-Isidore</a>), D. XXII. Lastly it was equivalent to principalis, i.e., excellent, superior, and is so used by <a href="../cathen/02084a.htm">St. Augustine</a> (De baptismo, I, 6; ed. Bened. IX, 56). The origin, development, and modifications of this office will be treated as follows: I. Cardinal-priests; II. Cardinal-deacons; III. Cardinal-bishops; IV. Cardinalitial dioceses, titles, and deaconries; V. Relations of the cardinals to the bishops; VI. Relations of the cardinals to the pope; VII. Nomination of cardinals; VIII. Duties of cardinals; IX. Rights of cardinals; X. The College of cardinals. <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <h2 id="p">Cardinal-priests</h2> Until late in the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> the title of cardinal was given to prominent <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> of important churches, e.g., at Constantinople, <a href="../cathen/10298a.htm">Milan</a>, <a href="../cathen/12662b.htm">Ravenna</a>, <a href="../cathen/10683a.htm">Naples</a>, <a href="../cathen/13716a.htm">Sens</a>, <a href="../cathen/15042a.htm">Trier</a>, <a href="../cathen/09524b.htm">Magdeburg</a>, and Cologne (cf. G. Phillips, Kirchenrecht, Ratisbon, 1845 sq., VI, 41 sqq.; P. Hinschius, "Das Kirchenrecht der Katholiken und Protestanten in Deutschland", <a href="../cathen/02493b.htm">Berlin</a>, 1869, I, 318 sqq.). In keeping with this custom we find the term Cardinalis applied at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> from the end of the fifth century to <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> permanently attached to the (twenty-five to twenty-eight) Roman tituli, or quasi-parishes (quasi diæceses), belonging to the church of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">Bishop of Rome</a>, the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>—therefore to the Cardo ecclesia par excellence—in which tituli the Sacraments of Baptism and Penance were administered, and which were also often called tituli cardinales. The <a href="../cathen/09224a.htm">"Liber Pontificalis"</a> describes as follows this quasi-parochial system of ancient <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>: "Hic [Euaristus, 99-107?] titulos in urbe Româ divisit presbyteris …"; and again: "Hic [Dionysius, 259-268] presbyteris ecclesias dedit et cymeteria et paroccias diocesis constituit"; and elsewhere: "[Marcellus, 308-309] XXV titulos in urbe Româ constituit quasi diocesis propter baptismum et pænitentiam multorum qui convertebantur ex paganis et propter sepulturas martyrum" (op cit., ed. Duchesne, Paris, 1886, I, 126, 157, 164). In other words, an <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> division of the city for various <a href="../cathen/11499b.htm">parochial</a> purposes is attributed to <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a> of the second and third centuries. Such a division, scarcely possible in the period of <a href="../cathen/11703a.htm">persecution</a>, is vouched for at the end of the fifth century by the signatures of Roman <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">presbyters</a> present at the Council of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> in 499 under <a href="../cathen/14377a.htm">Pope Symmachus</a> (cf. A. Thiel, Epistolæ Romanorum Pontificum genuinæ, Brunsberg, 1868, 651 sqq.). These <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">presbyters</a> were thenceforth known as cardinales [C. 5. (Constitutum apocryphum Silvestri I, about the end of the fifth century, c. 7), D. XCIII, C. 2 (Concilium apocryphum Silvestri I, about the end of the fifth century), C. II, q. 4; C. 3, 4, 5 (Roman Synod under <a href="../cathen/14289a.htm">Pope Stephen III</a>, 760), D. LXXXIX; Letter of <a href="../cathen/09160c.htm">Leo IX</a> (1053) to <a href="../cathen/10273a.htm">Michael Cærularius</a> in Jaffé, "Regesta Pontificum Romanorum", 2d ed. (Leipzig, 1885), no. 4302]. However, not all the numerous <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> attached to these titular churches were known as cardinales, but, in keeping with the then current use of cardinalis as the equivalent of principalis (see above), only the first <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a> in each such church—let us say the archipresbyter. According to a constitution of <a href="../cathen/08423c.htm">John VIII</a>, published between 873 and 882, these cardinal-priests (presbyteri cardinales) were the supervisors of <a href="../cathen/05030a.htm">ecclesiastical discipline</a> at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> and also ecclesiastical judges. We read in this constitution "De jure cardinalium" as follows: "Itemque ex nostrâ præsenti constitutione his in mense vel eo amplius vel apud illum vel illum titulum sive apud illam vel illam diaconiam sive apud alias quasilibet ecclesias vos convenire mandamus, et ob vestram et inferiorum clericorum vitam et mores et qualitates et habitus vestium perscrutandum et qualiter quilibet præpositi se erga subditos habeant vel quod subditi suis præpositis non obediant et ad quæque illicita amputanda, clericorum quoque et laicorum querimonias, quæ ad nostrum judicium pertinent, quantum fieri potest definiendas, quippe cum sicut nostram mansuetudinem Moysi, ita et vestram paternitatem LXX seniorum, qui sub eodem causarum negotia diiudicabant, vicissitudinem gerere, certum habeamus. Item monasteria abbatibus viduata et abbatum nostra præcedente conscientia substitutionem his, qui sunt inter vel fuerint monasticæ professionis, disponenda comittimus" (Jaffé, op. cit., no. 3366). That is, the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> commands them to meet at least twice a month, in their own or other churches, to investigate their own lives and those of the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a>, the relations of superiors and inferiors, and in general to check all violations of the <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a>; also to settle, as far as is possible in the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> court, all conflicts between <a href="../cathen/08748a.htm">laymen</a> and <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a>. The <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, he says, is like Moses in gentleness of government, while the administration of the cardinals recalls the paternal character of the seventy elders who sat as judges under the patriarch's control. The <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> also entrusts to them the administration of vacant <a href="../cathen/01010a.htm">abbeys</a> and the filling of the vacant abbatial offices, but not without his foreknowledge. <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> Moreover, in virtue of a <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> provision as old as the reign of <a href="../cathen/14002a.htm">Pope Simplicius</a> (468-83), these cardinal-priests were wont to conduct Divine service at the three principal cemetery churches (St. Peter, St. Paul, St. Laurence), and later on at the same churches raised (with St Mary Major) to patriarchal rank. To each of these four churches were assigned seven cardinals; the latter were therefore twenty-eight in number. This is the sense of the <a href="../cathen/09224a.htm">"Liber Pontificalis"</a> when it says (ed. Duchesne, I, 249 sqq.): "Hic [Simplicius] constituit ad sanctum Petrum apostolum et ad sanctum Laurentium martyrem ebdomadias, ut presbyteri manerent, propter penitentes et baptismum: regio III ad sanctum Laurentium, regio prima ad sanctum Paulum, regio VI vel septima ad sanctum Petrum" (cf. Duchesne, "Les tîtres presbytéraux et les diacones", in "Mélanges d'archæol. et d'hist.", VII, 17 sqq.; J. Zettinger, "Die ältesten Nachrichten über Baptisterien der Stadt Rom", in "Römische Quartalschrift", XIX, 326 sqq.). For the twelfth century we have the statement of Johannes Diaconus in the sixteenth chapter of his work "De ecclesiâ Lateranensi" (ed. J. Mabillon, in "Museum Italicum", Paris, 1724, II, 574): "Cardinales Sanctæ Mariæ Maioris sunt ii: SS. Apostolorum, S. Cyriaci in Thermas, S. Eusebii, S. Pudentianæ, S. Vitalis, SS. Marcellini et Petri, S. Clementis. Cardinales Sancti Petri sunt ii: S. Mariæ Transtiberim, S. Chrysogoni, S. Cæciliæ, S. Anastasiæ, S. Laurentii in Damaso, S. Marci, SS. Martini et Silvestri. Cardinales Sancti Pauli sunt ii: S. Sabinæ, S. Priscæ, S. Balbinæ, S. Balbinæ SS. Nerei et Achillei, S. Sixti, S. Marcelli, S. Susannæ. Cardinales Sancti Laurentii sunt ii: S. Praxedis, S. Petri ad Vincula, S. Laurentii in Lucina, S. Crucis in <a href="../cathen/08344a.htm">Jerusalem</a>, S. Stephani in Cæliomonte, SS. Joannis et Pauli, SS. Quattuor Coronatorum." The eldest of these cardinal-priests acted as their head: he was known as archipresbyter, and was the chief and immediate assistant of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> at all <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> functions; from the twelfth century he was known as prior cardinalium presbyterorum. <h2 id="d">Cardinal-deacons</h2> Besides the <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> attached to each <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a>, there was in the city a "regionary" <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> of almost equal antiquity, so called because of its relations to the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> regiones or quarters into which, after the fashion of the municipal regions, <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> was at an early <a href="../cathen/04636c.htm">date</a> divided. For the care of the poor the city was divided into seven regions, each of which was administered by a <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a>. The <a href="../cathen/09224a.htm">"Liber Pontificalis"</a> dates this division into seven regions from the time of <a href="../cathen/04012c.htm">Clement I</a>, and ascribes to Popes Evaristus and Fabian the assignment of the regions to as many <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a>. It says of <a href="../cathen/04012c.htm">Clement I</a> (88-97): "Hic fecit VII regiones, dividit notariis fidelibus ecclesiæ, qui gestas martyrum sollicite et curiose, unusquisque per regionem suam, diligenter perquireret" (ed. Duchesne, I, 123), i.e., he divided the city into seven regions and assigned them to as many faithful notaries of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, whose <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> it was earnestly and carefully to collect in each region the acts of the <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyrs</a>. And of Evaristus (99-107?): "Hic titulos in urbe Româ dividit presbyteris et VII diaconos ordinavit qui custodirent episcopum prædicantem, propter stilum veritatis" (op. cit., I, 126), i.e., he divided among the <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> the "titles" of the city of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, and <a href="../cathen/11279a.htm">ordained</a> seven <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> to bear witness to the preaching of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>. Much more credible is the statement in the life of Fabian (236-250): "Hic regiones dividit diaconibus et fecit VII subdiaconos, qui VII notariis immiterent, ut gestas martyrum in integro fideliter colligerent, et multas fabricas per cymeteria fieri præcipit" (op. cit., I, 148), i.e., he divided the "regions" among the <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> and created seven <a href="../cathen/14320a.htm">subdeacons</a> whom he placed over the notaries, that the latter might collect with fidelity and completeness the acts of the <a href="../cathen/09736b.htm">martyrs</a>; he also commanded many buildings to be put up in the cemeteries. In this way there arose in each of the regions an edifice (diaconia) for the reception of the <a href="../cathen/12327a.htm">poor</a>, and close by a church. These regionary <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> were wont to subscribe the acts of Roman <a href="../cathen/14388a.htm">synods</a> and other documents as diaconi ecclesiæ Romanæ, or <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a>, sometimes, probably, adding their proper region. Thereby also were expressed the fixity of their relations to the church of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">Bishop of Rome</a> and their <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obligation</a> to assist him at <a href="../cathen/09306a.htm">liturgical</a> functions. It was natural enough, therefore, that the term cardinales should very soon be applied to these regionary <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> (diaconi cardinales), as well as to the aforementioned twenty-eight <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priests</a> of the immediate <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> entourage in <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> functions. In the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> division of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> into seven regions disappeared, owing to the changes in Roman topography; consequently, the diaconi cardinales ceased gradually to bear the names of their regions. Of the latter there remain only their number, seven, <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecrated</a> by antiquity and their dignity. In the course of <a href="../cathen/14726a.htm">time</a> other <a href="../cathen/03592a.htm">charitable institutions</a> took the place of the original deaconries. At the end of the sixth century <a href="../cathen/06780a.htm">Gregory the Great</a> had eighteen <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a>. Under <a href="../cathen/02427d.htm">Benedict II</a> (684-85) we meet with monasteria diaconiæ. <a href="../cathen/01155b.htm">Adrian I</a> (772-95) fixed at eighteen the number of the diaconal churches, nor was there any alteration of this number until the sixteenth century. In consequence, from the end of the eleventh to the end of the twelfth century, the number of cardinal-deacons was fixed permanently at eighteen. The chief source of this enlargement of their number was the addition of the six diaconi palatini and their <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>, i.e., the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> officers whose <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> it was to serve in turn during the week at the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> Mass (<a href="../cathen/09224a.htm">"Liber Pontificalis"</a>, I, 3647, 50470, 509110, and II, 1874, 2527; Duchesne, "Les régions de Rome au moyen-âge", in "Mélanges d'archéologie et d'hist.", X, 144). The above-mentioned Johannes Diaconus describes as follows the manner in which these eighteen cardinal-deacons assisted at the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> Mass: "In quibusdam vero dominicis et festivis diebus sanctorumque præcipue sollemnitatibus quandoque sacerdos est regalis et imperialis episcopus, immo patriarcha; et idem apostolicus in supradicto sacratissimo altare Salvatoris huius Lateranensis basilicæ missam debet celebrare; et quando celebrat dominus papa sancti Petri vicarius … debet etiam ibi præsens esse archidiaconus cum sex diaconibus palatinis, qui in palatio legere debent evangelium et in basilicâ Lateranensi et alii duodecim diacones regionarii, qui solent evangelium legere in stationibus ecclesiarum Romæ constitutis. Isti decem et octo diaconi totidem ecclesias habent infra muros civitatis. Et tamen omnes sunt canonici patriarchalis basilicæ Lateranensis" ("De Ecclesiâ Lateranensi", C. viii, in "Museum Italicum", II, 567), i.e., on certain great feasts, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of superior rank say <a href="../cathen/10006a.htm">Mass</a> on the altar of the <a href="../cathen/09014b.htm">Lateran Basilica</a>. When the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> says Mass there must also be present, with their <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>, the six palatine <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a>, whose <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> it is to read the Gospel in the [<a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a>] palace, and in the <a href="../cathen/09014b.htm">Lateran Basilica</a>; also the twelve regionary <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> (diacones regionarrii) who are wont to read the Gospel in the "station" churches of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. These eighteen <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> have each a church of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>; they are also, adds Johannes Diaconus, canons of the <a href="../cathen/09014b.htm">Lateran Basilica</a>. The head of the cardinal-deacons was the <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>, also known as prior diaconorum cardinalium. In his quality of supervisor of <a href="../cathen/05030a.htm">ecclesiastical discipline</a> in the city, and curator of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> finances, he was, after the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, the most important <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">person</a> in the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a> during the early <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a>. <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> Since, according to the foregoing, the name of "cardinal" was linked with participation and co-operation in the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> Mass, or in <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> services at the principal <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> churches of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> it need not surprise us that, by reason of analogous participation in these services, other Roman <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a>, from the <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacons</a> downwards, came to bear the title of cardinal. Cardinal-subdeacons are often mentioned, and once even cardinal-acolytes. In the "Commentarius electionis Gregorii VII" the electors are said to be "Romanæ ecclesiæ cardinales clerici, acoliti, subdiaconi, diaconi, presbyteri" (Jaffé, Bibliotheca Rer. Germ., <a href="../cathen/02493b.htm">Berlin</a>, 1864, II, 9 sqq.). <h2 id="b">Cardinal-bishops</h2> In the course of <a href="../cathen/14726a.htm">time</a> and according as the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> headship of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> manifested itself more and more, the volume of <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> and temporal business increased greatly at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, in consequence of which the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a> called in neighbouring <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> to represent them at episcopal functions and to aid them with their counsel. They also followed the custom, widespread in the early <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">medieval period</a>, of dealing with the important questions in synodal meetings. The <a href="../cathen/09224a.htm">"Liber Pontificalis"</a> says of <a href="../cathen/14289a.htm">Stephen III</a> (768-772): "Erat enim hisdem præfatus beatissimus præsul ecclesiæ traditionis observator. Hic statuit ut omni dominico die a septem episcopis cardinalibus ebdomadariis, qui in ecclesiâ Salvatoris observant, missarum sollemnia super altare beati Petri celebraretur et Gloria in excelsis Deo diceretur" (I, 478), i.e., the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, as a diligent custodian of tradition ordered that every <a href="../cathen/14335a.htm">Sunday</a> solemn Mass should be said on the altar of St. Peter, in the <a href="../cathen/09014b.htm">Lateran Basilica</a>, by one of the seven cardinal-bishops in weekly service at which Mass also the "Gloria in Excelsis" should be sung. This statement takes it for granted that at the end of the eighth century the weekly service of the cardinal-bishops was already an ancient custom. That these <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> also received the name of episcopi cardinales is intelligible enough after what has been said. Though the number of cardinal-bishops has always been seven, their particular sees have not shared the same fixity. In the entourage and service of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> we meet not only <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia</a>, Porto, <a href="../cathen/01255b.htm">Albano</a>, Præneste, and Silva Candida, but also <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> of <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Velletri</a>, Gabii, <a href="../cathen/14747b.htm">Tivoli</a>, <a href="../cathen/01448a.htm">Anagni</a>, Nepi, and Segni (Phillips, Kirchenrecht, VI, 178 sqq.; Hinschius, Kirchenrecht, I, 324 sqq.). It is only since the beginning of the twelfth century that the cardinalitial <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> were finally fixed as the seven in the immediate vicinity of <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, hence suburbicaria: <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia</a>, Porto, Santa Rufina (Silva Candida), <a href="../cathen/01255b.htm">Albano</a>, Sabina, Tusculum (Frascati), Præneste (<a href="../cathen/11421a.htm">Palestrina</a>). (Cf. Johannes Diaconus, "De eccl. Later.", c. xvi, ed. Mabillon, in "Museum Ital.", II, 574; L. Duchesne, "Le sedi episcopali nell' antico ducato di Roma", 1892, 6 sqq.) In the twelfth century the number of the cardinalitial <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> was diminished by one, when <a href="../cathen/03185a.htm">Callistus II</a> united Santa Rufina (Silva Candida) with Porto, so that only six remained. In the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a>, therefore, the cardinals should have numbered fifty-three or fifty-four. As a rule, however, they were fewer; after the thirteenth century their number often sank considerably. Under <a href="../cathen/01287b.htm">Alexander IV</a> (1254-61) there were but seven cardinals. During the <a href="../cathen/13539a.htm">Western Schism</a> their number increased, inasmuch as each of the contending claimants created his own college of cardinals. The <a href="../cathen/04288a.htm">Council of Constance</a> demanded that their number be fixed at twenty-four (<a href="../cathen/09725a.htm">Martin V</a>, in his <a href="../cathen/04670a.htm">Decree</a> of Reform, 1418, C. 1 "De numero et qualitate cardinalium"; cf. B. Hübler, "Die Konstanzer Reformation und die Konkordate von 1418", Leipzig, 1867, 128). The same number was demanded by the Council of Basle in 1436 (Sess. XXIII, c. iv, "De numero et qualitate cardinalium", in <a href="../cathen/07135c.htm">Hardouin</a>, "Acta Conc.", Paris, 1714, VIII, 1206 xq.). In 1555 an agreement was reached between <a href="../cathen/11581a.htm">Paul IV</a> and the cardinals, whereby their number was fixed at forty, but this agreement was never carried out. On the other hand, <a href="../cathen/14033a.htm">Sixtus V</a>, by his yet valid constitutions "Postquam verus", of 3 Dec., 1586 (§ 4), and "Religiosa sanctorum", of 13 April, 1587, fixed the number of cardinals at seventy, six cardinal-bishops, fifty cardinal-priests, and fourteen cardinal-deacons, in imitation of the seventy elders of Moses, and declared null and void all nominations in excess of this number (Bullarium Rom., Turin, 1857, VIII, 810 sqq., 833 sqq.). As a matter of fact, such nominations would not be invalid, and have been made (Archiv. f. kathol. Kirchenrecht, LXIX, 167 sq.). <h2 id="section4">Cardinalitial dioceses, titles, and deaconries</h2> The actual cardinalitial <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> are <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia and Velletri</a>, <a href="../cathen/12290a.htm">Porto and Santa Rufina</a>, <a href="../cathen/01255b.htm">Albano</a>, <a href="../cathen/06243a.htm">Frascati</a> (Tusculum), <a href="../cathen/11421a.htm">Palestrina</a> (Præneste), and Sabina. The cardinalitial titles are as follows: S. Lorenzo in Lucina, S. Agnese fuori le mura, S. Agostino, S. Anastasia, SS. Andrea e Gregorio al Monte Celio, SS. XII Apostoli, S. Balbina, S. Bartolommeo all'Isola, S. Bernardo alle Terme, SS. Bonifacio ed Allessio, S. Calisto, S. Cæcilia, S. Clemente, S. Crisogono, S. Croce in Gerusalemme, S. Eusebio, S. Giovanni a Porta Latina, SS. Giovanni e Paolo, S. Girolamo degli Schiavoni, S. Lorenzo in Damaso, S. Lorenzo in Panisperna, SS. Marcellino e Pietro, S. Marcello, S. Marco, S. Maria degli Angeli, S. Maria della Pace, S. Maria della Scala, S. Maria della Vittoria, S. Maria del Popolo, S. Maria in Araceli, S. Maria in Cosmedin, S. Maria in Transpontina, S. Maria in Trastevere, S. Maria in Via, S. Maria sopra Minerva, S. Maria Nuova e S. Francesca Romana, SS. Nereo ed Achilleo, S. Onofrio, S. Pancrazio, S. Pietro in Montorio, S. Pietro in Vincoli, S. Prassede, S. Prisca, S. Pudenziana, SS. Quattro Coronati, SS. Quirico e Giulítta, S. Sabina, SS. Silvestro e Martino ai Monti, S. Silvestro in Capite, S. Sisto, S. Stefano al Monte Celio, S. Susanna, S. Tommaso in Parione, SS. Trinità al Monte Pincio, S. Vitale, SS. Gervasio e Protasio. The cardinalitial deaconries are: S. Maria in Via Lata, S. Adriano al Foro Romano, S. Agata alla Suburra, S. Angelo in Pescheria, S. Cesareo in Palatio, SS. Cosma e Damiano, S. Eustachio, S. Giorgio in Velabro, S. Maria ad Martyres, S. Maria in Aquiro, S. Maria in Cosmedin, S. Maria in Dominica, S. Maria in Portico, S. Nicola in Carcere Tulliano, SS. Vito, Modesto e Crescenzio. There are, therefore, in all, seventy-five churches (6 + 53 + 16) disposable for the three orders of cardinals. And since, as a rule, the cardinals number less than seventy, there are usually several churches without any cardinal. (Cf. P. M. Baumgarten, "Der Papst, die Regierung und die Verwaltung der heiligen Kirche in Rom", <a href="../cathen/10631a.htm">Munich</a>, 1905, 186 sq., following the data of the "Gerarchia Cattolica", Rome, 1904.) <h2 id="section5">Relations of the cardinals to the bishops</h2> The cardinals were, therefore, from a very early period, assistants of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> in his <a href="../cathen/09306a.htm">liturgical</a> functions, in the care of the <a href="../cathen/12327a.htm">poor</a>, the administration of <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> finances and possessions, and the synodal disposition of important matters. They took on a very much greater importance, however, after the <a href="../cathen/04670a.htm">decree</a> of <a href="../cathen/11055a.htm">Nicholas II</a> (1059), "In nomine Domini", regulating papal elections. In accordance with this document the election of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> and the government of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, during the vacancy of the <a href="../cathen/01640c.htm">Apostolic See</a>, fell more and more into their hands; they passed to them exclusively after the <a href="../cathen/04670b.htm">Decretal</a> of <a href="../cathen/01287a.htm">Alexander III</a>, "Licet de vitandâ", at the third Lateran Council (1179). The increasing insignificance of the "regionary" and "palatine" <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a>, from the middle of the twelfth century, coupled with the disappearance of the judices palatini, tended to enlarge the share of the cardinals in the administration of <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> <a href="../cathen/08571c.htm">justice</a> and finances, also of the fiefs of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a> and of the <a href="../cathen/14257a.htm">States of the Church</a>. We may add to this that after the cessation of <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> journeys to the different nations of <a href="../cathen/03699b.htm">Christendom</a> and of the Roman <a href="../cathen/14388a.htm">synods</a> under <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> presidency, the cardinals remained almost the only counsellors and <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">legates</a> of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a>. Henceforth their functions were equivalent to those of the "permanent synod" and the <a href="../cathen/14383b.htm">syncelli</a> at Constantinople (Sägmüller, "Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle bis Papst Bonifaz VIII", Freiburg, 1896, 16 sqq., 208 sqq.; S. Keller, "Die sieben römischen Pfalzrichter im byzantinischen Zeitalter", Stuttgart, 1904). The place and the occasion of this manifold activity of the cardinals was the consistory, i.e. the reunion of the cardinals and the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. In it were regularly treated questions of <a href="../cathen/05752c.htm">faith</a> and important disciplinary matters, e.g. dogmatic decisions, canonizations, approbations of rules of new orders, affairs of the <a href="../cathen/08026a.htm">Inquisition</a> and the <a href="../cathen/15188a.htm">universities</a>, <a href="../cathen/07783a.htm">indulgences</a> for the Universal Church, modifications of the rules for papal elections, the convocation of <a href="../cathen/04423f.htm">general councils</a>, also the <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a> and mission of Apostolic <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">legates</a> and vicars. Moreover, in the consistory were treated all matters concerning <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> and <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, the so-called causæ majores par excellence, among them the creation, transfer, division, reunion, and suppression of <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>, the <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a> and confirmation of <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, also their transfer, resignation, cession, suspension, deposition, and degradation. It was in the consistory that were granted to <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a> the numerous privileges by which they were withdrawn from episcopal, and made subject to <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a>, <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a>; there also took place frequently the confirmation of the <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">abbots</a> and abbesses elected in such exempt <a href="../cathen/04340c.htm">monasteries</a>. Before the consistory, moreover, were treated the important questions that arose concerning the properties of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a> (bona ecclesiæ romanæ), the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> fiefs, the <a href="../cathen/04543c.htm">Crusades</a>, and such grave political matters as the settlement of disputed royal elections, the <a href="../cathen/01656b.htm">approbation</a> of newly-elected kings, and the deposition of princes. In the meetings of the consistory, which in the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> were frequently held weekly, the cardinals also assisted the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> in the disposition of an overwhelming mass of lawsuits. Finally, the cardinals were put in charge of several of the great offices of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>: in the Chancery a cardinal-chancellor or rather vice-chancellor, in the administration of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> revenues a cardinal-camerarius, in the conduct of the penitentiaria a cardinal-penitentiary. The cardinals were also grand-inquisitors, likewise the "rectors" in the <a href="../cathen/14257a.htm">States of the Church</a>. Others were sent abroad as cardinal <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">legates</a>; others again acted as cardinal protectors of nations and <a href="../cathen/12748b.htm">religious</a> orders (Sägmüller, Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle, 46 sqq.). Given the position of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> and his intimate relations both to the individual cardinals and to such a close corporation as the college itself, at <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> functions, in papal elections, in <a href="../cathen/14388a.htm">synods</a>, in the consistory, in the conduct of diplomatic negotiations, it is easy to understand how all cardinals, including cardinal-priests and cardinal-deacons came to outrank <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> and <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a>, and after the fourteenth century even <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">patriarchs</a>, just as at Constantinople the <a href="../cathen/14383b.htm">syncelli</a> eventually outranked <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> and <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a>. This pre-eminence, however, was a matter of slow and uneven development. The cardinal-bishops were the first to outrank other <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, then <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a>, and finally <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">patriarchs</a>. But as the cardinals formed a <a href="../cathen/04107b.htm">college</a>, and the collegiate <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> were equally shared by all, the cardinal-priests and cardinal-deacons claimed the same rank as the cardinal-bishops, while the latter were quite willing to see their colleagues placed on their own higher plane. It was occasionally maintained in the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> that the cardinals were no less successors of the Apostles than the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, and that their authority was of Divine origin. For argument appeal was made to the seventy elders of Moses and to Deuteronomy, xvii, 8 sqq., and to other texts. <a href="../cathen/09162a.htm">Leo X</a> declared in the <a href="../cathen/03052b.htm">Bull</a> "Supernæ" of 5 May, 1514, that the cardinals in a body should come immediately after the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> and should precede all others in the church (Bullar. Rom., V, 604 sqq.). The superior rank of the cardinals was clearly indicated when, after the time of <a href="../cathen/01287a.htm">Alexander III</a>, <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> and even <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a> became cardinal-priests, and even (though less frequently) cardinal-deacons (Sägmüller, Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle, 193 sqq.). The cardinals were on an equality with emperors and kings, whom they addressed as "brothers", e.g. the cardinal <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">legate</a> Roland at the Diet of <a href="../cathen/02525b.htm">Besançon</a> in 1157. It was only natural, therefore, that in the end the name cardinal, which until late in the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> was borne by the principal <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">ecclesiastics</a> of the more important churches, should be reserved for the Roman cardinals. <a href="../cathen/12130a.htm">Pius V</a>, it is said, issued a <a href="../cathen/04670a.htm">decree</a> to this effect 17 Feb., 1567. There were never any "cardinals by birth" (cardinales nati), i.e., no other office necessarily implied elevation to the dignity of cardinal. <h2 id="section6">Relations of the cardinals to the pope</h2> In the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> the cardinals attempted more than once to secure over the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> the same pre-eminence which they had secured in a permanent way over the episcopate, i.e., they sought to change the monarchical form of government into an aristocracy. What tended to bring about this result was the fact that in all important matters the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a> were accustomed not to act without the counsel or the consent of the cardinals (de fratrum nostrorum consilio, de fr. n. consensu), or declared that they could not act otherwise. Consequently, the conclusion was often drawn by canonists, or by the enemies of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a>, that they were <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to govern in this manner. Moreover, this was inferred from the current consent of corporations. It was applied to both <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> and cardinals as well as to the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> and his chapter; to the Ecclesia Romana as well as to any other <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">cathedral church</a>. Hence, during the <a href="../cathen/04192a.htm">papal conclaves</a>, which often lasted a long time, the cardinals sought occasionally to bind the new <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> by "election-capitulations" (see <a href="../cathen/03311a.htm">CAPITULATIONS </a>), after the <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obligations</a> imposed on new <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> by their chapters; prevented the appointment of new cardinals; allied themselves (at least individually) with the <a href="../cathen/02137c.htm">civil power</a> against the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>; maintained that the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> could not abdicate without their consent; or even that they could depose him, at least that they could convoke a council for that purpose, as in fact they did convoke the <a href="../cathen/12112b.htm">Council of Pisa</a> in 1409 to put an end to the <a href="../cathen/13539a.htm">Western Schism</a>. The Council of Basle decreed that it was the <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> of the cardinals, first individually and then as a <a href="../cathen/04107b.htm">college</a>, to reprove any <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> forgetful of his <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a>, or acting in a way that no longer corresponded to his exalted position (<a href="../cathen/07135c.htm">Hardouin</a> Acta Conc., VIII, 1208). The first "election-capitulations" were drawn up in the <a href="../cathen/04192a.htm">conclave</a> of 1352 and were often repeated, especially during the <a href="../cathen/13539a.htm">Western Schism</a>, when the cardinal electors were wont to bind the future <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> to do all that was possible for the extinction of the <a href="../cathen/13529a.htm">schism</a>. <a href="../cathen/08022a.htm">Innocent XII</a> finally forbade all such previous agreements by the Constitution "Ecclesiæ Catholicæ" of 22 Sept., 1695. In face of such an attitude on the part of the cardinals, some <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a> were very cautious and conciliatory and might be classed as "parliamentary popes", e.g. <a href="../cathen/04019a.htm">Clement IV</a>; others, like <a href="../cathen/02662a.htm">Boniface VIII</a>, resisted, and rightly, with great earnestness. [Cf. Sägmüller, "Zur Geschichte des Kardinalats. Ein Traktat des Bischofs von Feltre und Treviso, Teodoro de' Lelli, über das Verhältniss von Primat und Kardinalat" (Rome, 1893); Idem, "Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle", 215 sqq.; M. Souchon, "Die Papstwahlen von Bonifaz VIII bis Urban VI, und die Entstehung des Schismas 1378" (Brunswick, 1888); Idem, "Die Papstwahlen in der Zeit des grossen Schismas" (ibid., 1898); Wenck, "Göttingische gelehrte Anzeigen" (1900), 139 sqq; Sägmüller, "Zur Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle bis Bonifaz VIII", "Die oligarchischen Tendenzen der Kardinalkollege bis Bonifaz VIII", "Zur Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle bis Papst Bonifaz VIII" in "Tübingen theolog Quartalschrift", LXXX (1898), 596 sqq., LXXXIII (1901), 45 sqq., LXXXVIII (1906), 595 sqq.; also N. Valois, "La France et le grand schisme d'Occident" (Paris, 1902), and J. Haller, "Papsttum und Kirchenreform" (Berlin, 1903 sqq.).] <div class="CMtag_300x250" style="display: flex; height: 300px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; "></div> <h2 id="section7">Nomination of the cardinals</h2> In the <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a> of cardinals the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> has always been, and is still, free. In the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">medieval period</a>, according to the detailed account given by Cardinal Giacomo Gaetani Stefaneschi, in his "Ordo Romanus XIV" (c. cxvi, sq.), a work of the early part of the fourteenth century, the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> was wont to ask the cardinals for their opinions as to the new members of the college, but afterwards decided quite freely (Mabillon, "Museum Italicum", II, 424 sqq.; J. Kästers, "Studien zu Mabillons römischen Ordines", Münster, 1905, 65 sqq.). The above-mentioned "election-capitulations" and the Council of Basle demanded that the <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a> of cardinals should be made dependent on the consent of the college (<a href="../cathen/07135c.htm">Hardouin</a> Acta Conc., VIII, 1207). According to the demand of the reform-councils (<a href="../cathen/04288a.htm">Constance</a>, Basle) and the decrees of the <a href="../cathen/15030c.htm">Council of Trent</a> (Sess. XXIV, De ref., c. i), there should be in the college representatives of all <a href="../cathen/03712a.htm">Christian</a> nations. <a href="../cathen/14033a.htm">Sixtus V</a> decreed, in keeping with the wishes of the reform-councils, that, above all, it should contain <a href="../cathen/05072b.htm">doctors</a> of <a href="../cathen/14580x.htm">theology</a> (magistri theologiæ), and that there should be in the college at least four <a href="../cathen/14580a.htm">theologians</a> from the <a href="../cathen/10183c.htm">mendicant orders</a>. According to an ancient concession the wishes of <a href="../cathen/02121b.htm">Austria</a>, <a href="../cathen/14169b.htm">Spain</a>, and <a href="../cathen/12297a.htm">Portugal</a> are as far as possible respected, when there is question of raising to the cardinalate a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> of one of these nations, known thenceforth as a crown-cardinal. It is customary for the governments of the same nations to contribute at the creation of such a cardinal the incident "taxes" or expenses (2832 scudi, or about $3000). Similarly they are wont to provide for the support of their respective national cardinal protectors. At the <a href="../cathen/15303a.htm">Vatican Council</a> the demand was made that in the <a href="../cathen/03333b.htm#x">Sacred College</a> and the <a href="../cathen/13136a.htm">Roman Congregations</a> there should be from every nation not only scholarly, but also wise and experienced, men ("Coll. Lacensis", Freiburg, 1890—VIII, 838; <a href="../cathen/06725a.htm">Granderath</a>-Kirsch, "Gesch. des vatik. Konzils", ibid., 1903—I, 440; II, 167). The <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">person</a> nominated must possess the qualifications of a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> (Council of Trent, Sess. XXIV, De ref., c. i). He must, therefore, be at least thirty years of age. However, for the cardinal-deacons it suffices to have entered on the twenty-second year; but the new cardinal-deacon must receive <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacon's</a> orders within a year, otherwise he loses both passive and active vote (Postquam verus, § 6). In keeping with the provisions for promotion to nobility, <a href="../cathen/07650a.htm">illegitimates</a>, even when legitimated by later marriage, are ineligible (ibid., § 12), also (ibid., § 16) the fathers of (living) legitimate children, nephews or cardinals, and (ibid., §§ 17, 18) those who are related to a cardinal in the first or second degree of <a href="../cathen/04264a.htm">consanguinity</a>. Of course, the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> can occasionally dispense from these disqualifying conditions (Archiv für kath. Kirchenrecht, LXIX, 168). cardinals takes place in a secret consistory, during which those actually resident in <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> are informed of their <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a>. In the afternoon of the same day the newly-created cardinals meet in the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope's</a> apartments, in the antechamber of which the scarlet zucchetta, or skull-cap, is handed to them; thereafter the scarlet <a href="../cathen/02577a.htm">biretta</a> is placed by the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> on the head of each. The "red hat" is given in the next public consistory after they have taken the customary <a href="../cathen/11176a.htm">oath</a>. At the beginning of the next secret consistory takes place the <a href="../cathen/03538b.htm">ceremony</a> known as the "opening of the mouth" (aperitio oris), and at the close of the same consistory the "closing of the mouth" (clausura oris), symbolizing their <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duties</a> to keep the secrets of their office and to give wise counsel to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. The ring is then given to each, and at the same time the "title" or church by which the new cardinal shall henceforth be <a href="../cathen/08673a.htm">known</a>. If the creation of a cardinal takes place outside of <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italy</a>, the scarlet zucchetta is sent him by one of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope's</a> Guardie Nobili (Noble Guards), and the scarlet <a href="../cathen/02577a.htm">biretta</a> by a special ablegate. In <a href="../cathen/02121b.htm">Austria</a>, <a href="../cathen/14169b.htm">Spain</a>, and <a href="../cathen/12297a.htm">Portugal</a> the <a href="../cathen/02577a.htm">biretta</a> is usually imposed by the sovereign or civil ruler. Occasionally it is conferred by some distinguished <a href="../cathen/12386b.htm">prelate</a> especially delegated by the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. In all such cases the recipient must promise under <a href="../cathen/11176a.htm">oath</a>, and under pain of nullity of his <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a>, that within a year he will go personally to <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> for the further ceremonies above described, and to receive his "title" (Postquam verus, § 19). Formerly the dignity of cardinal was acquired only after public proclamation and reception of the hat and ring. At present any form of publication suffices (Pius V, 29 Jan., 1571; <a href="../cathen/07004b.htm">Greg. XV</a>, "Decet", 12 March, 1621, in "Bullarium Romanum", XII, 663 sq.). Creation of cardinals in petto is therefore without effect, unless there follows publication of the names. A testamentary publication does not suffice. <a href="../cathen/12134b.htm">Pius IX</a> announced (15 March, 1875) a creation of cardinals in petto with publication of their names in his testament, but this creation never went into effect. From the reign of <a href="../cathen/09725a.htm">Martin V</a>, i.e. from the end of the <a href="../cathen/13539a.htm">Western Schism</a>, during which there were many cardinals created by the contending <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">popes</a>, it became customary for the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> to create cardinals without declaring their names (creati et reservati in pectore), the Italian equivalent for which is in petto. The publication of the names may, in given circumstances, be made at a much later date. Only, at whatever time such publication takes place, the cardinals so created rank in seniority according to the <a href="../cathen/04636c.htm">date</a> of their original announcement as reserved in petto, and precede all those created after that time (P.A. Kirsch, "Die Reservatio in petto bei der Kardinalscreation", in "Archiv. f. kath. Kirchenrecht", LXXXI, 421 sqq.; K. Eubel, "Zur Kardinalsernennung des Dominicus Capranica", in "Röm. Quartalschrift", XVII, 273 sqq.). By virtue of canonical obedience the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> could compel an unwilling <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">person</a> to accept the cardinalitial dignity. (Cf. L. Wahrmund, "Ueber die kirchliche Zulässigkeit der Rekusation der übertragenen Kardinalswürde", in "Archiv f. kath. Kirchenrecht", LXVII, 3 sqq.) The <a href="../cathen/11176a.htm">oath</a> taken by the cardinals is quite similar to that taken by <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>. But the cardinal must swear that he will defend conscientiously the <a href="../cathen/03052b.htm">papal Bulls</a> concerning non-alienation of the possessions of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a>, nepotism, and papal elections, likewise his own cardinalitial dignity. <h2 id="section8">Duties of cardinals</h2> It is the <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> of the cardinals to assist the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> at the chief <a href="../cathen/09306a.htm">liturgical</a> services known as capellæ papales, to distinguish them from the capellæ cardinaliciæ, at which the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> is not present; also to counsel him and aid in the government of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> (c. 17 in VIto de electione, I, 6; Council of Trent, Sess. XXIV, de ref., c. 1, and Sess. XXV, de ref., c. 1). Hence the cardinals are <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to reside at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> and cannot leave the <a href="../cathen/14257a.htm">Papal States</a> without permission of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. The violation of this <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">law</a> entails grave penalties, even the loss of the cardinalitial dignity (C. 2, X, de clerico non residente, III, 4; <a href="../cathen/09162a.htm">Leo X</a>, "Supernæ", 5 May, 1514, § 28, in "Bullar. Rom.", V, 604 sqq.; <a href="../cathen/08020b.htm">Innocent X</a>, "Cum juxta", 19 Feb., 1646, in "Bullar. Rom.", XV, 441 sqq.). Similarly, they would lose all the <a href="../cathen/02473c.htm">benefices</a> possessed by them (Council of Trent, Sess. XXIV, de ref., c. 17). It is otherwise with foreign <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> created cardinals; they retain their <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a> and are not <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to reside at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. The "suburbicarian" <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, however, by ancient custom reside at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. The share of the cardinals in the government of the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> is exercised partly in the consistories, partly in the curial offices (Cancellaria, Dataria, Penitentiaria), in the <a href="../cathen/13136a.htm">Roman Congregations</a>, and in various ecclesiastical commissions. The Consistory.—A <a href="../cathen/04285a.htm">papal consistory</a> is the assembly of the cardinals about the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> and recalls the consistorium principis of the Roman Empire (<a href="../cathen/11419a.htm">G. Paleotti</a>, "De sacri consistorii consultationibus", Rome, 1592; Sägmüller, "Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle", 46 sqq., 97 sqq.). <a href="../cathen/04285a.htm">Consistories</a> are public (publica) or extraordinary, and secret (secreta) or ordinary. Semi-public consistories are a combination of a public and a secret consistory. The public consistories are attended not only by the cardinals, but by the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, <a href="../cathen/12386b.htm">prelates</a>, princes, and ambassadors to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> court present in <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>. They are called for the purpose of giving the red hat to new cardinals, the solemn conclusion of canonizations, and public audiences to sovereigns and their ambassadors. Much more important are the secret consistories. As already described, it was in them that during the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> were heard and decided the numberless lawsuits and judicial matters that came before the <a href="../cathen/01640c.htm">Apostolic See</a>. <a href="../cathen/08013a.htm">Innocent III</a> was wont to hold such a consistory three times a week ("Gesta Innocentii", c. 41, in <a href="../cathen/10290a.htm">Migne</a>, P.L., CCXIV, LXXX; A. Luchaire, "Le tribunal d'Innocent III", in "Séances et travaux de l'Acad. des sciences morales et politiques", 1903, 449 sqq.; M. Späthen, "Giraldus Cambrensis und Thomas von Evesham über die von ihnen an der Kurie geführten Prozesse" in "Neues Archiv d. Gesellschaft f. alt. deutsche Geschichtskunde", XXXI, 595 sqq.). With the transfer of their judicial attributes to the great curial offices, especially the <a href="../cathen/13205c.htm">Rota</a> and the <a href="../cathen/13136a.htm">Roman Congregations</a>, consistories became less frequent. Under <a href="../cathen/08021a.htm">Innocent XI</a> (d. 1689) they were held once a month (J. H. Bangen, Die römische Kurie, ihre gegenwärtige Zusammensetzung und ihr Geschäftsgang, Münster, 1854, 75). Secret consistories are now called more rarely, at intervals of several months, and deal with the few subjects or questions actually pending. The following matters are dealt with in them, and call for the counsel of the cardinals: the creation, i.e. <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a> proper, of new cardinals; the publication of names reserved in petto; the giving of the cardinalitial insignia with exception of the red hat; the opening and closing of the mouth; the institution of <a href="../cathen/11549a.htm">patriarchs</a>, <a href="../cathen/10244c.htm">metropolitans</a>, and <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, and the <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a> of such <a href="../cathen/08025a.htm">titular</a> <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> as do not belong to the missionary territories; the transfer of <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>; the granting of the <a href="../cathen/11427a.htm">pallium</a> to <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a>; the creation, division, and union of <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>; the institution of <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">abbots</a> whose <a href="../cathen/01010a.htm">abbeys</a> are in the gift of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a>; the <a href="../cathen/11093a.htm">nomination</a> of the camerlengo and the vice-chancellor of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a>; the choice and mission of cardinals as legati a latere; the conclusion of <a href="../cathen/04196a.htm">concordats</a>, consultation on differences and conflicts between <a href="../cathen/14250c.htm">Church and State</a>. Generally, however, the consistory is called only to inform the cardinals by a so-called allocution of the status of important ecclesiastico-political matters, or to make known the opinion of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. These allocutions are meant for the entire <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a> and are therefore published in <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> organs. After the death of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> (sede vacante) the <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duties</a> of the College of Cardinals differ from those exercised by them during his lifetime (sede plenâ). In the earliest times the government of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a> was taken over by the presbyterium or presbyteral <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a>, as we <a href="../cathen/08673a.htm">know</a> from a letter of that body addressed to <a href="../cathen/04583b.htm">St. Cyprian of Carthage</a> after the death of Pope Fabian in 250 (Cypriani, Opp. omnia, ed. G. Hartel, <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, 1868, 486; A. Harnack, "Die Briefe des römischen Klerus aus der Zeit der Sedisvacanz im Jahr 250" in "Theolog. Abhandlungen Karl von Weizsäcker gewidmet", Tübingen, 1892, I sqq.). From the sixth century on it was the archipresbyter (<a href="../cathen/01697b.htm">archpriest</a>), the archidiaconus (<a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>), and the <a href="../cathen/12426a.htm">primicerius notariorum</a> (chief notary) who represented the <a href="../cathen/01640c.htm">Apostolic See</a>, locum servantes Apostolicæ Sedis (<a href="../cathen/09215c.htm">Liber Diurnus</a>, ed. Th. Sickel, <a href="../cathen/15417a.htm">Vienna</a>, 1889, Formula LIX). After the full development of the authority of the College of Cardinals, as above described, the latter took charge and exercised its power in very many ways; some canonists went so far as to maintain that during the vacancy of the <a href="../cathen/01640c.htm">Apostolic See</a> the College of Cardinals possessed the fullness of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> prerogative. Their authority was exercised chiefly in two ways, in the administration of the <a href="../cathen/14257a.htm">States of the Church</a> and in the election of the new <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. (It is to be noted that Art. 6 of the <a href="../cathen/08208a.htm">Italian</a> <a href="../cathen/07048a.htm">Law of Guarantees</a>, 13 May, 1871, provides for complete liberty of the cardinals in papal elections.) The <a href="../cathen/03052b.htm">Bull</a> "Ubi Periculum" of <a href="../cathen/06798a.htm">Gregory X</a>, concerning papal elections, issued at the Council of Lyons (1274), confined the cardinals to the exercise of the above-mentioned power. Among other things it says: "Iidem quoque cardinales accelerandæ provisioni sic vacent attentius, quod se nequâquam de alio negotio intromittant, nisi forsan necessitas adeo urgens incideret, quod eos oporteret de terrâ ipsius ecclesiæ defendendâ vel eius parte aliqua providere, vel nisi aliquod tam grande et tam evidens periculum immuneret quod omnibus et singulis cardinalibus præsentibus videretur illi celeriter occurrendum" (C. 3, § 1, in VIto de electione, I, 6). In other words, the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> commands the cardinals to make all due haste with the election and to concern themselves with nothing else, except in case of necessity, e.g. the defence of the <a href="../cathen/14257a.htm">States of the Church</a> or any part of them, or some danger so great and evident that each and every one of the cardinals present thinks it <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a> to deal with it immediately. The law prevailing at present is based on the Constitution "In eligendis" of <a href="../cathen/12129a.htm">Pius IV</a> (9 October, 1562) §§ 6-8 (Bullarium Rom., VII, 233 sqq.). This constitution provides that according to ancient custom (evidently closely related to the above-described interimistic administration by the <a href="../cathen/01697b.htm">archpriest</a>, the <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>, and the chief of the notaries) the administration of the <a href="../cathen/14257a.htm">States of the Church</a> shall be confided to the College of Cardinals after the following manner: the cardinal camerlengo (della Santa Romana Chiesa) and three other cardinals (a cardinal-bishop, cardinal-priest, and cardinal-deacon, the so-called capita ordinum) shall manage all current business. Every three days, however, during the <a href="../cathen/04192a.htm">conclave</a>, the capita ordinum are renewed according to seniority. These cardinals do not possess <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a>; they cannot therefore make <a href="../cathen/09053a.htm">laws</a> nor modify the system of papal elections, create cardinals or <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, nor issue commissions to cardinal <a href="../cathen/09118a.htm">legates</a>. They could, however, in case of a grave danger menacing the <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">Church</a>, provide by an absolute majority and secret vote for the <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a> ways and means to meet the situation, issue urgent temporary ordinances for particular <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>, and order the public recitation of <a href="../cathen/12345b.htm">prayers</a>. In case of the death of the cardinal camerlengo, the cardinal grand penitentiary, and individual penitentiaries, this cardinalitial commission could fill their places for the period of the vacancy (C. 2, § 1 in "Clem.de Electione", I, 6; <a href="../cathen/04030a.htm">Clement XII</a>, "Apostolatus Officium", 4 Oct., 1732, §§ 6, 15, 18, in "Bullar. Roman.", XXIII, 445 sqq.). No canonical provisions exist regulating the authority of the College of Cardinals sede Romanâ impeditâ, i.e. in case the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> became insane, or personally a <a href="../cathen/07256b.htm">heretic</a>; in such cases it would be <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a> to consult the dictates of right <a href="../cathen/12673b.htm">reason</a> and the teachings of history. <h2 id="section9">Rights of cardinals</h2> To the many <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duties</a> of the cardinals correspond very extensive <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a>. They enjoy, in a very special manner, the privilegium fori, or right to <a href="../cathen/04447a.htm">ecclesiastical court</a> and judges; the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> is their only judge, and alone can depose them (C. 2, X, de clerico non residente, III, 4). The provision that for the condemnation of an ecclesiastic seventy-two, forty-four, or twenty-seven witnesses were needed, according as he was <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>, <a href="../cathen/12406a.htm">priest</a>, or <a href="../cathen/04647c.htm">deacon</a>, is no longer recognized (C. un. in VIto de schismaticis, V, 3; <a href="../cathen/11581a.htm">Paul IV</a>, "Cum sepius", 9 Jan., 1556 in "Bullar. Rom.", VI, 507 sq.). Modern states no longer recognize the privilegium fori even for cardinals; in recent times they have often appeared before the civil courts at <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> (S. Brandi, I Cardinali di S. R. Chiesa nel diritto pubblico italiano, Rome, 1905). Inimical <a href="../cathen/11703a.htm">persecution</a> of a cardinal, personal injury to, or <a href="../cathen/12430a.htm">imprisonment</a> of, him, are counted high treason (crimen læsæ majestatis); not only the principals, but also those intellectually responsible for the wrong (originators, participants, auxiliaries), and their male descendants incur the canonical penalties of <a href="../cathen/08001a.htm">infamy</a>, confiscation, loss of testamentary <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> and civil offices, and <a href="../cathen/05678a.htm">excommunication</a>. (C. 5, in VIto de pænis, V. 9; "Apostolicæ Sedis moderationi", 12 Oct., 1869, I, 5). Apart from <a href="../cathen/05678a.htm">excommunication</a> these penalties are no longer practically applicable. In accordance with the historical development of the office, the cardinals obtained place and vote in <a href="../cathen/04423f.htm">general councils</a>. They alone can be sent abroad as legati a latere. They enjoy all the privileges of <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>. Any censure, canonical, or otherwise threatened, or any odious provision is applicable to cardinals only when it is expressly so provided (C. 4, in VIto de sententiâ excommunicationis, V, 11). They may choose a confessor in any diocese; he must, however, have the <a href="../cathen/01656b.htm">approbation</a> of his own <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> (C. 16, X de pænitentiâ V, 38). Like the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, they have the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to a domestic <a href="../cathen/03574b.htm">chapel</a>, and may everywhere use <a href="../cathen/01348b.htm">portable altars</a> (C. 12 in VIto de privilegiis, V, 7). In their titular churches the cardinals exercise a certain quasi-episcopal <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a>, i.e. they may there use the episcopal ornaments (pontificalia), give the episcopal blessing, and <a href="../cathen/12454b.htm">promulgate</a> <a href="../cathen/07783a.htm">indulgences</a> of 200 days (Congreg. Indulg., 28 Aug., 1903). They may confer <a href="../cathen/14779a.htm">tonsure</a> and <a href="../cathen/10332b.htm">minor orders</a> on the members of their <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">family</a>, also on <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">persons</a> attached to their titular churches (<a href="../cathen/02432a.htm">Benedict XIV</a>, "Ad audientiam", 15 Feb., 1753, § 16, in "Bullar. Bened.", XIV, IV, Const. 11). When actually present in <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, they may grant <a href="../cathen/02473c.htm">benefices</a> in their titular churches (C. 24, X de electione, I, 6; C. 11, X de Metrop. et Ord., I, 33). They may also hold visitations in their own churches, and exercise therein corrective and disciplinary authority; they may not, however, exercise judicial authority (C. 11, X de Metrop. et Ord., I, 33; <a href="../cathen/08022a.htm">Innocent XII</a>, "Romanus Pontifex", 17 Sept., 1692, § 9, in "Bullar. Rom.", XX, 464; F. Albitius, "De iurisdictione quam habent cardinales in ecclesiis suorum titulorum", Rome, 1668). If a cardinal is promoted to a <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishopric</a>, the usual informational process is omitted; he is not <a href="../cathen/11189a.htm">obliged</a> to take the usual <a href="../cathen/11176a.htm">oath</a>, and is relieved of the ordinary curial expense known as taxæ (Sägmüller, Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle, 153 sqq.). Every cardinal resident in <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> has a <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to a revenue of 4,000 scudi (about $4,000). This is known as his <a href="../cathen/12072a.htm">piatto cardinalicio</a>, or ordinary means of support. If the ordinary revenues assigned him do not produce as much, the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> treasury makes up the deficit. For their support churches are also assigned to them, e.g. as commendatory <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">abbots</a>. Their right to elect the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> will be treated in the article <a href="../cathen/04192a.htm">CONCLAVE</a>. The honorary <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> of the cardinals are also numerous. They come immediately after the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, and precede all other ecclesiastical dignitaries. As Roman princes they follow immediately the reigning sovereign, and rank with the prince of reigning houses ("Cæremoniale cardinalium", 14 May, 1706, § 6; <a href="../cathen/04670a.htm">Decree</a> of 16 April, 1858; Bangen, "Die römische Curie", 462). Hence, only cardinals of reigning houses retain their inherited titles of nobility and their <a href="../cathen/05782a.htm">family</a> arms, but without the crown and with the cardinal's hat and the fifteen tassels (<a href="../cathen/08020b.htm">Innocent X</a>, "Militantis ecclesiæ", 19 Dec., 1644, in "Bullar. Rom.", XV, 339 sq.). They alone have the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to the name of cardinal and are addressed as Eminentia, Eminentissimi (Your Eminence or Your Eminences), a title formerly borne by the German <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> prince-electors and, to the present day, by the Grand Master of the Knights of St. John. <a href="../cathen/15218b.htm">Urban VIII</a> instructed them (10 June, 1630) to cease correspondence with any sovereign who refused them this title. It may be added that the legislation of several states takes cognizance of the exalted rank of the cardinals. Chief among the insignia of the cardinal is the red hat, first worn by the legati a latere (cardinal envoys of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>). It was granted to the secular cardinals by <a href="../cathen/08017a.htm">Innocent IV</a> at the Synod of <a href="../cathen/09472a.htm">Lyons</a> in 1245, and to the religious cardinals by <a href="../cathen/07004a.htm">Gregory XIV</a> in 1591; the latter, it must be noted, continue to wear the distinctive habit of their order (Barmgarten, "Die Uebersendung des rothen Hutes" in "Hist. Jahrbuch", XXVI, 99 sqq.). They also wear the red (scarlet) <a href="../cathen/02577a.htm">biretta</a>, that was granted to them, probably, by <a href="../cathen/11578a.htm">Paul II</a> (1464-71). They also have the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to wear scarlet, particularly a scarlet mantle, which according to tradition was probably granted them by <a href="../cathen/02662a.htm">Boniface VIII</a> (1294-1303). They also wear a ring with a sapphire stone, and use the ombrellino that is held over them whenever they quit their carriages to accompany with bare heads the <a href="../cathen/05584a.htm">Blessed Sacrament</a>, if perchance they meet It on their way. In their titular churches a baldacchino covers the cardinalitial throne, and they have the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to use in these churches the episcopal ornaments, i.e. the <a href="../cathen/10404a.htm">mitre</a> of damask silk (since <a href="../cathen/11578a.htm">Paul II</a>), the <a href="../cathen/04515c.htm">crosier</a> and the <a href="../cathen/11601a.htm">pectoral cross</a>. They also give the benedictio sollemnis after the manner of a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>. <a href="../cathen/12137a.htm">Pius X</a>, by a <a href="../cathen/04670a.htm">decree</a> of 24 May, 1905, permitted cardinal-priests and cardinal-deacons to wear everywhere the <a href="../cathen/11601a.htm">pectoral cross</a>, even in presence of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> ("Acta S. Sedis", XXXVII, 681; Sägmüller, "Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle", 149 sqq.). During the vacancy of the <a href="../cathen/01640c.htm">Apostolic See</a> the colour of the cardinal's dress is saffron (J.M. Suaresius, Dissert. de croceâ cardinalium veste, Rome, 1670). <h2 id="section10">The college of cardinals</h2> The cardinals, as already said, are a corporation, a <a href="../cathen/04107b.htm">college</a> after the manner of the <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">cathedral</a> chapters. When the latter ceased to lead any longer the vita canonica or common life, they became corporations recognized by the canon law, with free administration of their <a href="../cathen/12462a.htm">property</a>, chapter-meetings, autonomy, disciplinary authority, and the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to have and use a seal. That the members of the chapter (capitulars, canons) were the only counsellors and auxiliaries of the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a> helped to round out the position of the former, and to unite them as against the other <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> of the <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">cathedral</a>, all the more so as this right of the capitulars to co-government of the <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">diocese</a> (partly by counsel, concilium, and partly by consent, consensus) was constitutional and recognized by the canon law. The <a href="../cathen/03438a.htm">cathedral</a> chapters reached their fullest development as corporations early in the thirteenth century, when they obtained the exclusive <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">rights</a> of episcopal elections. In a similar way the cardinal-bishops, cardinal-priests, and cardinal-deacons came to form a corporation, by the fact that since <a href="../cathen/01287a.htm">Alexander III</a> (1159-1181) they alone had the <a href="../cathen/13055c.htm">right</a> to elect the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, they alone were his immediate assistants at Mass, and were his only counsellors in all important matters. Since 1150 the corporation of the cardinals becomes more and more known as a collegium, though such synonymous terms as universitas, conventus, cætus, capitulum are occasionally used. The dean or head of the College of Cardinals is the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia</a>; the sub-dean is the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of Porto. The dean is the successor of the former <a href="../cathen/01697b.htm">archpriest</a>, the first of the cardinal-priests, known since the twelfth century as prior cardinalium presbyterarum; he is also to some extent the successor of the <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>, known since the thirteenth century as prior diaconarum cardinalium. The <a href="../cathen/01697b.htm">archpriest</a> was the immediate assistant of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a> at <a href="../cathen/03744a.htm">ecclesiastical</a> functions. The <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>, as supervisor of the discipline of the Roman <a href="../cathen/04049b.htm">clergy</a> and administrator of the possessions of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Roman Church</a>, was, after the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, the most important <a href="../cathen/11726a.htm">person</a> in the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> court. During a vacancy, as above stated, both <a href="../cathen/01697b.htm">archpriest</a> and <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a>, together with the chief notary (<a href="../cathen/12426a.htm">primicerius notariorum</a>), governed the <a href="../cathen/01640c.htm">Apostolic See</a>. When later on the cardinals became a corporation that included <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> among its members, one of these <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> must naturally assume the headship; it could be no other than the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia</a>, whose immemorial right it was to bear the <a href="../cathen/11427a.htm">pallium</a> at the <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecration</a> of the newly-elected <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, in case the latter were not yet a <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishop</a>, and to whom fell later the privilege of anointing the Roman Emperor, and of taking in <a href="../cathen/04423f.htm">general councils</a> the first place after the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>. As president of the college it is the <a href="../cathen/05215a.htm">duty</a> of the dean to convoke the same, to conduct its deliberations, and to represent it abroad. As a legal corporation the cardinals have their own revenues, which are administered by a camerlengo (camerarius) chosen from their own body (not to be confounded with the cardinal camerlengo, administrator of the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> estate), and to some extent the successor of the former <a href="../cathen/01693a.htm">archdeacon</a> or prior diaconorum cardinalium. In the <a href="../cathen/10285c.htm">Middle Ages</a> the revenues of the College of cardinals were considerable. They were jointly entitled, among other dues, to a share of the moneys paid into the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">papal</a> treasury on such occasions as the conferring of the <a href="../cathen/11427a.htm">pallium</a>, confirmation of <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, also by nations and fiefs that acknowledged the sovereignty or protection of the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a>. Therefore, since the thirteenth century, the cardinals have had their own treasury (F. Schneider, "Zur älteren päpstlichen Finanzgeschichte" in "Quellen und Forschungen aus italien. Archiv und Bibl.", IX, 1 sqq.). <a href="../cathen/11057a.htm">Nicholas IV</a> allotted to the College of Cardinals (18 July, 1289) one half the revenues of the <a href="../cathen/01640c.htm">Apostolic See</a>, i.e. of the <a href="../cathen/11427a.htm">pallium</a> taxes, the dues for confirmation of <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> (servilit communio), the "census" or tribute from the countries subject to the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, the <a href="../cathen/11774a.htm">Peter's-pence</a>, the visitation dues (paid in on the occasion of their visits to <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, visitatio liminum apostolorum, by all <a href="../cathen/01691a.htm">archbishops</a>, by <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a> <a href="../cathen/05706a.htm">immediately subject</a> to the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a> or confirmed and <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecrated</a> by the <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">pope</a>, and by <a href="../cathen/01015c.htm">abbots</a> freed from episcopal <a href="../cathen/08567a.htm">jurisdiction</a> and <a href="../cathen/05706a.htm">immediately subject</a> to the <a href="../cathen/07424b.htm">Holy See</a>), besides other sources of revenues (J. P. Kirsch, "Die Finanzverwaltung des Kardinalkollegiums im 13. und 14. Jahrhundert", Münster, 1895); Baumgarten, "Untersuchungen und Urkunden über die Camera collegii cardinalium für die Zeit von 1295-1437", Leipzig, 1889; A. Gottlob, "Die Servitientaxe im 13. Jahrhundert", Stuttgart, 1905; E. Göller, "Der Liber taxarum der päpstlichen Kammer", Rome, 1905). The common revenue of the College of Cardinals is now inconsiderable; hence the rotulus cardinalicius, or dividend paid yearly to the cardinals resident in <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a>, is comparatively small. Precedence or rank among the cardinals is regulated according to the three orders above described, and in each order according to seniority. In the order of <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">bishops</a>, however, seniority is not according to date of reception in the cardinalitial body, but according to the <a href="../cathen/04636c.htm">date</a> of episcopal <a href="../cathen/04276a.htm">consecration</a> (<a href="../cathen/04030a.htm">Clement XII</a>, "Pastorale officium", § 5, 10 Jan., 1731, in "Bullar. Roman.", XXIII, 226). According to an ancient custom <a href="../cathen/04636c.htm">dating</a> from the thirteenth century, cardinals resident in <a href="../cathen/13164a.htm">Rome</a> enjoy what is known as jus optionis or the right of option (Sägmüller, "Die Tätigkeit und Stellung der Kardinäle", 179 sqq.; Baumgarten, "Die Translation der Kardinale von Innocenz III bis Martin V", in "Hist. Jahrbuch", XXII, 85 sqq.). This means that when a cardinalitial office is vacant, the cardinal next in rank of seniority can choose (optare) the vacant office. Thus the oldest of the cardinal-bishops can choose the office of Dean of the College; he becomes at the same time <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia</a>, since according to ancient custom the Dean of the <a href="../cathen/03333b.htm#x">Sacred College</a> is always the <a href="../cathen/02581b.htm">Bishop</a> of <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia</a>. However, in the interest of their <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">dioceses</a>, and apart from the <a href="../cathen/05001a.htm">bishoprics</a> of <a href="../cathen/11346a.htm">Ostia</a> and Porto, the cardinal-bishops are allowed to make such option but once. The jus optionis is also customary for the other two orders, both within each order, and from one to the other, given the <a href="../cathen/10733a.htm">necessary</a> qualifications for such elevation. A cardinal-deacon, already ten years in the <a href="../cathen/03333b.htm#x">Sacred College</a>, holds the jus optionis ahead of a cardinal-priest of later creation, provided, however, that there remain in the college ten cardinal-deacons (<a href="../cathen/11581a.htm">Paul IV</a>, "Cum venerabiles", 22 Aug., 1555, in "Bullar. Rom.", VI, 502 sqq.; <a href="../cathen/14033a.htm">Sixtus V</a>, "Postquam verus", § 7, 8, 3 Dec., 1587, ibid., VIII, 810 sqq.; <a href="../cathen/02431a.htm">Benedict XIII</a>, "Romani Pontifices", § 5, 7, 7 Sept., 1724, ibid., XXII, 94 sq.; <a href="../cathen/04030a.htm">Clement XII</a>, "Pastorale Officium", § 8, 10 Jan., 1731, ibid., XII, 226; <a href="../cathen/02738a.htm">L. Brancatius</a>, "Dissertatio de optione sex episcopatuum", Rome, 1692). (See <a href="../cathen/13136a.htm"> ROMAN CONGREGATIONS </a>; <a href="../cathen/04192a.htm">CONCLAVE </a>; <a href="../cathen/12260a.htm">POPE</a>.) <div class='catholicadnet-728x90' id='cathen-728x90-bottom' style='display: flex; height: 100px; align-items: center; justify-content: center; '></div> <div class="cenotes"><h2>Sources</h2>PANVINIUS, De episcopatibus, titulis et diaconiis cardinalium (Venice, 1567); BARBATIA, De præstantiâ cardinalium; MANFRIDUS, De cardinalibus S. R. E.: De sacrosancto collegio; ALBANUS, De cardinalatu; VILLADIEGO, De origine ac dignitate et potestate S. R. E. cardinalium. These treatises are to be found in Tractatus iuris universi (Venice, 1587), XIII, 2, 63 sqq. See also BOTERO, Dell' ufficio del cardinale (Rome, 1599); PLATUS, De cardinalis dignitate et officio tractatus (Rome, 1602); CONTELORIUS, Elenchus cardinalium ab anno 1294 ad annum 1430 (Rome, 1641); AUBÉRY, Histoire générale des cardinaux (Paris, 1642 sqq.); COHELLIUS, Notitia cardinalatus (Paris, 1653); PARIS GRASSI, De cæremoniis cardinalium et episcoporum in eorum diæcesibus (Rome, 1654); DUCHESNE, Hist. de tous les cardinaux français de naissance (Paris, 1660). For Irish cardinals, see Saturday Review (1882), LIII, 323; and for English cardinals, WILLIAMS, Lives of the English Cardinals, etc., from Adrian IV to Wolsey (London, 1868); also Dubl. Rev. (1874), LXXVI, 258, and BAXTER, England's Cardinals (London, 1903); see also D'ATTICHY, Flores historiæ sacri collegi S. R. E. cardinalium (Paris, 1690); DU PEYRAT, Traité de l'origine des cardinaux (Cologne, 1665); LETI, Il cardinatismo di Santa Chiesa (s. l, 1668); Der Kardinalhut oder Bericht von den Kardinälen wie auch von dem Conclave (s. l, 1667); MATHIAS A CORONA, Tractatus posthumus di potestate et dignitate S. R. E. cardinalium, nuntiorum, legatorum Apostolicorum et inquisitiorum fidei (Liège, 1677); CIACONIUS, Historia Pontificum romanorum et S. R. E. cardinalium, ed. OLDUINUS (Rome, 1677); DE LUCA, Il Cardinale di S. Chiesa pratico (Rome, 1680); THOMASSINUS, Vetus et nova ecclesiæ disciplina circa beneficia (Paris, 1688), pt. I, lib. II, cc. cxiii-cxvi; BUDDEUS, De origine cardinaliciæ dignitatis (Jena, 1693); PALATIUS, Fasti cardinalium omnium S. R. E. (Venice, 1701); PIAZZA, La gerarchia cardinalizia ('Rome, 1793); EGGS, Purpura docta seu vitæ, legationes, res gesta, obitus, S. R. E. cardinalium (Munich, 1714); MURATORI, De cardinalium institutione in Antiquitates Italicæ (Milan, 1741), V, 153 sqq.; ANDREUCCI, Dissertatio de dignitate, officio et privilegiis cardinalium (Rome, 1766); KLEINER, Dissertatio de origine et antiquitate S. R. E. cardinalium (Heidelberg, 1767); TAMAGNA, Origini e prerogative dei cardinali (Rome, 1790); CARDELLA, Memorie storiche de' cardinali della S. R. Chiesa (Rome, 1792 sqq.); VALIERI, Della dignità dei cardinalato (Venice, 1833); FERRARIS, Prompta bibliotheca canonica, s.v. Cardinalis: Dignité des cardinaux; in Analecta juris pontifici, II, 1918 sqq.; CRISTOFORI, Storia dei cardinali di S. R. Chiesa dal secolo V all'anno 1888 (Rome, 1888); SETON, The Cardinalate in The Catholic World (1875), XXI, 359, 473; HUMPHREY, Urbis et Orbis (London, 1899); CROSTAROSA, Dei titoli della chiesa Romana (Rome, 1893); KEHR, Regesta Pontificum Romanorum: Italia Pontificia (Berlin, 1906), I; also CHEVALIER, Rép. des sources hist.: topo-bibl. (Paris, 1894-99), s.v.</div> <div class="pub"><h2>About this page</h2>APA citation. Sägmüller, J.B. (1908). Cardinal. In The Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03333b.htmMLA citation. Sägmüller, Johannes Baptist. "Cardinal." The Catholic Encyclopedia. Vol. 3. New York: Robert Appleton Company, 1908. <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/03333b.htm>.Transcription. This article was transcribed for New Advent by WGKofron. With thanks to Fr. John Hilkert, Akron, Ohio.Ecclesiastical approbation. Nihil Obstat. November 1, 1908. Remy Lafort, S.T.D., Censor. Imprimatur. +John Cardinal Farley, Archbishop of New York.Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is webmaster at newadvent.org. 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