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Darwin recognised that explaining the evolution of the honey-bee’s comb-building abilities was essential if his theory of natural selection was to be taken seriously, and in the 1850s he carried out" /> <meta name="generator" content="Drupal 7 (https://www.drupal.org)" /> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/life-sciences/evolution-honeycomb" /> <link rel="shortlink" href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/node/60" /> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Darwin Correspondence Project" /> <meta property="og:type" content="article" /> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/life-sciences/evolution-honeycomb" /> <meta property="og:title" content="The evolution of honeycomb" /> <meta property="og:description" content="Honeycombs are natural engineering marvels, using the least possible amount of wax to provide the greatest amount of storage space, with the greatest possible structural stability. Darwin recognised that explaining the evolution of the honey-bee’s comb-building abilities was essential if his theory of natural selection was to be taken seriously, and in the 1850s he carried out his own experiments at his home at Down House in Kent, and exchanged many letters on the subject. One correspondent even drew an ingenious analogy with a plum pie - you can try this at home!" /> <meta property="og:updated_time" content="2020-05-22T11:39:10+01:00" /> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/Bees-cells-image-1-300x225.jpg" /> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" /> <meta name="twitter:url" content="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/commentary/life-sciences/evolution-honeycomb" /> <meta name="twitter:title" content="The evolution of honeycomb" /> <meta property="article:published_time" content="2015-06-09T13:21:02+01:00" /> <meta property="article:modified_time" content="2015-06-09T13:21:02+01:00" /> <title>The evolution of honeycomb | Darwin Correspondence Project</title> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0"/> <style type="text/css" media="all"> @import url("https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/modules/system/system.base.css?sh7yfi"); @import 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easy-breadcrumb_segment-title" itemprop="title">The evolution of honeycomb</span></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> <h1 class="campl-page-title">Darwin Correspondence Project</h1> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="campl-row campl-page-header"> <div class="campl-wrap"> <div class="region region-horizontal-navigation"> <div id="block-menu-block-1" class="block block-menu-block"> <div> <div class="menu-block-wrapper menu-block-1 menu-name-main-menu parent-mlid-0 menu-level-1"> <div class="campl-wrap clearfix campl-local-navigation"><div class="campl-local-navigation-container"><ul class="campl-unstyled-list"><li class="first leaf menu-mlid-198"><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2309"><a href="/about-darwin">About Darwin</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2309"><a href="/about-darwin">About Darwin overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-869"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life">Family life</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-869"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life">Family life overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1125"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-childhood">Darwin on childhood</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1038"><a href="/tags/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-marriage">Darwin on marriage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1258"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-s-observations-his-children">Darwin’s observations on his children</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2295"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/darwin-and-fatherhood">Darwin and fatherhood</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1039"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/death-anne-elizabeth-darwin">The death of Annie Darwin</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1051"><a href="/people/about-darwin/family-life/visiting-darwins">Visiting the Darwins</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3416"><a href="/commentary/voyage-hms-beagle" title="">Voyage of HMS Beagle</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1035"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read">What Darwin read</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1035"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read">What Darwin read overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1130"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read/darwin-s-student-booklist">Darwin’s student booklist</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-933"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read/books-beagle">Books on the Beagle</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1036"><a href="/people/about-darwin/what-darwin-read/darwin-s-reading-notebooks">Darwin’s reading notebooks</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1059"><a href="/about-darwin/origin-species">On the Origin of Species</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1059"><a href="/about-darwin/origin-species">On the Origin of Species overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1060"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/writing-origin">The writing of "Origin"</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1084"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/abstract-darwin-s-theory">Abstract of Darwin’s theory</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1093"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/alfred-russel-wallace-s-essay-varieties">Alfred Russel Wallace’s essay on varieties</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1094"><a href="/charles-darwin-and-his-publisher">Charles Darwin and his publisher</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1147"><a href="/people/about-darwin/origin-species/review-origin-species">Review: The Origin of Species</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1126"><a href="/people/about-darwin/darwins-health">Darwin’s health</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first last leaf menu-mlid-2917"><a href="/tags/darwin/darwin-on-his-health">Darwin's notes for his physician, 1865</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1128"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-s-photographic-portraits">Darwin’s photographic portraits</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2896"><a href="/have-you-read-one-about">Have you read the one about....</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2654"><a href="/people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said">Six things Darwin never said – and one he did</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2654"><a href="/people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said">Six things Darwin never said – and one he did overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2892"><a href="/people/about-darwin/six-things-darwin-never-said/evolution-misquotation">The evolution of a misquotation</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3673"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue">Portraits of Charles Darwin: a catalogue</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3673"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue">Portraits of Charles Darwin: a catalogue overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3676"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/11-ellen-sharples-pastel">1.1 Ellen Sharples pastel</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3709"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/12-george-richmond-marriage-portrait">1.2 George Richmond, marriage portrait</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3718"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/13-thomas-herbert-maguire-lithograph">1.3 Thomas Herbert Maguire, lithograph</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3721"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/14-samuel-laurence-drawing-1">1.4 Samuel Laurence drawing 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3724"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/15-samuel-laurence-drawing-2">1.5 Samuel Laurence drawing 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3727"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/16-ouless-oil-portrait">1.6 Ouless oil portrait</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3730"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/17-ouless-replica">1.7 Ouless replica</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3733"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/18-anonymous-drawing-after-ouless">1.8 anonymous drawing, after Ouless</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3736"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/19-rajon-etching-after-ouless">1.9 Rajon, etching after Ouless</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3679"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/110-rajon-etching-variant-state">1.10 Rajon etching, variant state</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3682"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/111-laura-russell-oil">1.11 Laura Russell, oil</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3685"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/112-marian-huxley-drawing">1.12 Marian Huxley, drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3688"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/113-louisa-nash-drawing">1.13 Louisa Nash, drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3691"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/114-william-richmond-oil">1.14 William Richmond, oil</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3694"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/115-albert-goodwin-watercolour">1.15 Albert Goodwin, watercolour</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3697"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/116-alphonse-legros-drypoint">1.16 Alphonse Legros, drypoint</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3700"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/117-alphonse-legros-drawing">1.17 Alphonse Legros drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3703"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/118-john-collier-oil-linnean">1.18 John Collier, oil in Linnean</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3706"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/119-john-collier-oil-npg">1.19 John Collier, oil in NPG</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3712"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/120-leopold-flameng-etching-after-collier">1.20 Leopold Flameng etching, after Collier</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3715"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/121-window-christs-college-cambridge">1.21 window at Christ's College Cambridge</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3739"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/21-thomas-woolner-bust">2.1 Thomas Woolner bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3772"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/22-thomas-woolner-metal-plaque">2.2 Thomas Woolner metal plaque</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3802"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/23-wedgwood-medallions">2.3 Wedgwood medallions</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3805"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/24-wedgwood-plaque">2.4 Wedgwood plaque</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3808"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/25-wedgwood-medallions-2nd-type">2.5 Wedgwood medallions, 2nd type</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3811"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/26-adolf-von-hildebrand-bust">2.6 Adolf von Hildebrand bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3814"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/27-joseph-moore-midland-union-medal">2.7 Joseph Moore, Midland Union medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3817"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/28-alphonse-legros-medallion">2.8 Alphonse Legros medallion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3820"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/29-legros-medallion-plaster-model">2.9 Legros medallion, plaster model</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3742"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/210-moritz-klinkicht-print-legros">2.10 Moritz Klinkicht, print from Legros</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3745"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/211-christian-lehr-plaster-bust">2.11 Christian Lehr, plaster bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3748"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/212-allan-wyon-royal-society-medal">2.12 Allan Wyon, Royal Society medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3751"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/213-edgar-boehm-statue-nhm">2.13 Edgar Boehm, statue in the NHM</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3754"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/214-boehm-westminster-abbey-roundel">2.14 Boehm, Westminster Abbey roundel</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3757"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/215-boehm-terracotta-bust-npg">2.15 Boehm terracotta bust (NPG)</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3760"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/216-horace-montford-statue-shrewsbury">2.16 Horace Montford statue, Shrewsbury</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3763"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/217-montford-statuette">2.17 Montford, statuette</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3766"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/218-montford-carnegie-bust">2.18 Montford, Carnegie bust</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3769"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/219-montford-bust-royal-society">2.19 Montford, bust at the Royal Society</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3775"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/220-montford-terracotta-bust-npg">2.20 Montford, terracotta bust, NPG</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3778"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/221-montford-relief-christs-college">2.21 Montford, relief at Christ's College</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3781"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/222-l-j-chavalliaud-statue-liverpool">2.22 L.-J. Chavalliaud statue in Liverpool</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3784"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/223-hope-pinker-statue-oxford-museum">2.23 Hope Pinker statue, Oxford Museum</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3787"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/224-herbert-hampton-statue-lancaster">2.24 Herbert Hampton statue, Lancaster</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3790"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/225-henry-pegram-statue-birmingham">2.25 Henry Pegram statue, Birmingham</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3793"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/226-linnean-society-medal">2.26 Linnean Society medal</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3796"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/227-william-couper-bust-new-york">2.27 William Couper bust, New York</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3799"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/228-couper-bust-cambridge">2.28 Couper bust in Cambridge</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3823"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/31-antoine-claudet-daguerreotype">3.1 Antoine Claudet, daguerreotype</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3856"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/32-maull-and-polyblank-photo-1">3.2 Maull and Polyblank photo 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3865"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/33-maull-and-polyblank-photo-2">3.3 Maull and Polyblank photo 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3868"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/34-william-darwin-photo-1">3.4 William Darwin, photo 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3871"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/35-william-darwin-photo-2">3.5 William Darwin, photo 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3874"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/36-william-darwin-photo-3">3.6 William Darwin, photo 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3877"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/37-leonard-darwin-photo-verandah">3.7 Leonard Darwin, photo on verandah</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3880"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/38-leonard-darwin-interior-photo">3.8 Leonard Darwin, interior photo</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3883"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/39-leonard-darwin-photo-horseback">3.9 Leonard Darwin, photo on horseback</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3826"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/310-ernest-edwards-men-eminence">3.10 Ernest Edwards, 'Men of Eminence'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3829"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/311-edwards-illustrated-london-news">3.11 Edwards, in Illustrated London News</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3832"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/312-edwards-second-group-photos">3.12 Edwards, second group of photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3835"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/313-edwards-representative-men">3.13 Edwards 'Representative Men'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3838"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/314-julia-margaret-cameron-photos">3.14 Julia Margaret Cameron, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3841"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/315-george-charles-wallich-photo">3.15 George Charles Wallich, photo</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3844"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/316-oscar-rejlander-photos">3.16 Oscar Rejlander, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3847"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/317-lock-and-whitfield-men-mark">3.17 Lock and Whitfield, 'Men of Mark'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3850"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/318-elliott-and-fry-photos-c1869-1871">3.18 Elliott and Fry photos, c.1869-1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3853"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/319-elliott-and-fry-photos-c1880-1">3.19 Elliott and Fry photos c.1880-1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3859"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/320-elliott-and-fry-c1880-1-verandah">3.20 Elliott and Fry, c.1880-1, verandah</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3862"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/321-herbert-rose-barraud-photos">3.21 Herbert Rose Barraud, photos</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3886"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/41-albert-way-comic-drawings">4.1 Albert Way, comic drawings</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3919"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/42-augustus-earle-caricature-drawing">4.2 Augustus Earle, caricature drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3952"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/43-alfred-crowquill-caricature">4.3 Alfred Crowquill, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3985"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/44-thomas-huxley-caricature-sketch">4.4 Thomas Huxley, caricature sketch</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4018"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/45-william-beard-comic-painting">4.5 William Beard, comic painting</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4051"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/46-thomas-nast-cartoon">4.6 Thomas Nast, cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4054"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/47-vanity-fair-caricature">4.7 'Vanity Fair', caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4057"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/48-vanity-fair-preliminary-study">4.8 'Vanity Fair', preliminary study</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4060"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/49-graphic-cartoon">4.9 'Graphic', cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3889"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/410-hornet-caricature-darwin">4.10 'Hornet' caricature of Darwin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3892"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/411-fun-cartoon-little-lecture">4.11 'Fun' cartoon, 'A little lecture'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3895"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/412-fun-wedding-procession">4.12 'Fun', Wedding procession</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3898"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/413-fun-cartoon-griset-emotional">4.13 'Fun' cartoon by Griset, 'Emotional'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3901"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/414-fun-cartoon-troubles">4.14 'Fun' cartoon, 'That troubles'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3904"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/415-george-cruikshank-comic-drawing">4.15 George Cruikshank, comic drawing</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3907"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/416-joseph-simms-physiognomy">4.16 Joseph Simms, physiognomy</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3910"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/417-figaro-unidentifiable-1871">4.17 'Figaro', unidentifiable 1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3913"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/418-figaro-chromolithograph-1">4.18 'Figaro' chromolithograph 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3916"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/419-george-montbard-caricature">4.19 George Montbard, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3922"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/420-frederick-waddy-caricature">4.20 Frederick Waddy, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3925"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/421-gegeef-our-national-church-1">4.21 Gegeef, 'Our National Church', 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3928"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/422-gegeef-et-al-our-national-church-2">4.22 Gegeef et al., 'Our National Church', 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3931"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/423-gegeef-battle-field-science">4.23 Gegeef, 'Battle Field of Science'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3934"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/424-daily-graphic-nast-satire">4.24 'Daily Graphic', Nast satire</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3937"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/425-punch-1877-re-cambridge-doctorate">4.25 'Punch' 1877 re. Cambridge doctorate</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3940"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/426-christmas-card-caricature-monkeys">4.26 Christmas card caricature, monkeys</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3943"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/427-four-founders-darwinismus">4.27 'Four founders of Darwinismus'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3946"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/428-english-celebrities-montage">4.28 'English celebrities' montage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3949"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/429-richard-grant-white-fall-man">4.29 Richard Grant White, 'Fall of man'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3955"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/430-la-petite-lune-gill-cartoon">4.30 'La Petite Lune', Gill cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3958"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/431-la-lune-rousse-gill-cartoon">4.31 'La Lune Rousse', Gill cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3961"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/432-anis-liqueur-label">4.32 Anis liqueur label</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3964"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/433-harpers-weekly-bellew-caricature">4.33 'Harper's Weekly', Bellew caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3967"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/434-punch-sambourne-cartoon-1">4.34 'Punch', Sambourne cartoon 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3970"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/435-frederick-sem-caricature">4.35 Frederick Sem, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3973"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/436-sem-chistmas-card">4.36 Sem, Chistmas card</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3976"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/437-mosquito-satire">4.37 'Mosquito' satire</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3979"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/438-franz-goedecker-caricature">4.38 Franz Goedecker, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3982"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/439-moonshine-magazine-cartoon">4.39 'Moonshine' magazine cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3988"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/440-phrenological-magazine">4.40 'Phrenological Magazine'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3991"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/441-punch-sambourne-cartoon-2">4.41 'Punch', Sambourne cartoon 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3994"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/442-punch-sambourne-cartoon-3">4.42 'Punch' Sambourne cartoon 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3997"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/443-illustrated-london-news-article">4.43 'Illustrated London News' article</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4000"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/444-puck-cartoon-1">4.44 'Puck' cartoon 1</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4003"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/445-puck-cartoon-2">4.45 'Puck' cartoon 2</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4006"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/446-puck-cartoon-3">4.46 'Puck' cartoon 3</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4009"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/447-puck-cartoon-4">4.47 'Puck' cartoon 4</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4012"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/448-puck-cartoon-5">4.48 'Puck', cartoon 5</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4015"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/449-alfred-bryan-caricature">4.49 Alfred Bryan, caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4021"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/450-cigar-box-lid-design">4.50 Cigar box lid design</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4024"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/451-frederick-holder-life-and-work">4.51 Frederick Holder 'Life and Work'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4027"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/452-wasp-caricature">4.52 'Wasp' caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4030"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/453-claud-warren-outlines-hands">4.53 Claud Warren, 'Outlines of Hands'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4033"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/454-jubilees-queen-victoria">4.54 jubilees of Queen Victoria</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4036"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/455-harry-furniss-caricature">4.55 Harry Furniss caricature</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4039"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/456-larks-cartoon">4.56 'Larks' cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4042"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/457-silhouette-cartoon">4.57 silhouette cartoon</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4045"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/458-simian-savage-drawings">4.58 'Simian, savage' . . . drawings</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4048"><a href="/about-darwin/portraits-charles-darwin-catalogue/459-simplicissimus-cartoon">4.59 'Simplicissimus' cartoon</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4066"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life">Darwin and the experimental life</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4066"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life">Darwin and the experimental life overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4069"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/what-experiment">What is an experiment?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4081"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/morphology-movement-observation-and-experiment">From morphology to movement: observation and experiment</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4078"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/fools-experiments">Fool's experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4075"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/experimenting-emotions">Experimenting with emotions</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4072"><a href="/about-darwin/darwin-and-experimental-life/animals-ethics-and-progress-science">Animals, ethics, and the progress of science</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3366"><a href="/fake-darwin">Fake Darwin: myths and misconceptions</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3402"><a href="/darwins-bad-days">Darwin's bad days</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3644"><a href="/people/about-darwin/darwin-s-first-love">Darwin’s first love</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-800"><a href="/letters" title="">The letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-800"><a href="/letters" title="">The letters overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2080"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters">Darwin's life in letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2080"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters">Darwin's life in letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1097"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1821-1836-childhood-beagle-voyage">1821-1836: Childhood to the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1106"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1837-1843-london-years-natural-selection" title="Charles Darwin's life seen through his letters, 1837-43">1837-43: The London years to 'natural selection'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1107"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1844-1846-building-scientific-network">1844-1846: Building a scientific network</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1108"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1847-1850-microscopes-and-barnacles">1847-1850: Microscopes and barnacles</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1109"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1851-1855-death-daughter">1851-1855: Death of a daughter</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1110"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1856-1857-big-book">1856-1857: The 'Big Book'</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-936"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1858-1859-origin">1858-1859: Origin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-937"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1860-answering-critics">1860: Answering critics</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1111"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1861-gaining-allies">1861: Gaining allies</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1098"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1862-multiplicity-experiments">1862: A multiplicity of experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1099"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1863-quarrels-home-honours-abroad">1863: Quarrels at home, honours abroad</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1100"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1864-failing-health">1864: Failing health</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-935"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1865-delays-and-disappointments">1865: Delays and disappointments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1101"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1866-survival-fittest">1866: Survival of the fittest</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1102"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1867-civilised-dispute">1867: A civilised dispute</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1103"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1868-studying-sex">1868: Studying sex</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1104"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1869-forward-all-fronts">1869: Forward on all fronts</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1105"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters1870-human-evolution">1870: Human evolution</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1151"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1871-emptying-nest">1871: An emptying nest</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1152"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1872-job-done">1872: Job done?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1049"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwins-letters-1873-animal-or-vegetable">1873: Animal or vegetable?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1050"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1874-turbulent-year">1874: A turbulent year</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2275"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1875-pulling-strings">1875: Pulling strings</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2894"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1876-midst-life">1876: In the midst of life</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3363"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1877-flowers-and-honours">1877: Flowers and honours</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3383"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1878-movement-and-sleep">1878: Movement and sleep</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3394"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1879-tracing-roots">1879: Tracing roots</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3661"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1880-sensitivity-and-worms">1880: Sensitivity and worms</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4063"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1881-old-friends-and-new-admirers">1881: Old friends and new admirers</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4102"><a href="/letters/darwins-life-letters/darwin-letters-1882-nothing-too-great-or-too-small">1882: Nothing too great or too small</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3384"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters">Darwin's works in letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3384"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters">Darwin's works in letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3385"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/journal-researches">Journal of researches</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3386"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/living-and-fossil-cirripedia">Living and fossil cirripedia</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3400"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin-big-book">Before Origin: the ‘big book’</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3400"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin-big-book">Before Origin: the ‘big book’ overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3401"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin-big-book/dates-composition-darwins-manuscript-species">Dates of composition of Darwin's manuscript on species</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3406"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/origin">Origin</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3407"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions">Rewriting Origin - the later editions</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3407"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions">Rewriting Origin - the later editions overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3412"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions/how-old-earth">How old is the earth?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3411"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions/whale-bear">The whale-bear</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3413"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/rewriting-origin-later-editions/origin-lost-changes-second-german">Origin: the lost changes for the second German edition</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3404"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/orchids">Orchids</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3662"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/climbing-plants">Climbing plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3387"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/descent">Descent</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3388"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/expression">Expression</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3389"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/insectivorous-plants">Insectivorous plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3663"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/forms-flowers">Forms of flowers</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4084"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/cross-and-self-fertilisation">Cross and self fertilisation</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3405"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/life-erasmus-darwin">Life of Erasmus Darwin</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3665"><a href="/letters/darwins-works-letters/movement-plants">Movement in Plants</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2264"><a href="/letters/about-letters">About the letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2408"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film">Lifecycle of a letter film</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2408"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film">Lifecycle of a letter film overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2411"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film/editing-letter">Editing a Letter</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2409"><a href="/letters/lifecycle-letter-film/working-darwin-archive">Working in the Darwin archive</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2296"><a href="/letters/capturing-darwin-s-voice-audio-selected-letters">Capturing Darwin’s voice: audio of selected letters</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2266"><a href="/letters/correspondence-women">Correspondence with women</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-878"><a href="/hunt-new-letters">The hunt for new letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1136"><a href="/letters/editorial-policy-and-practice">Editorial policy and practice</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1136"><a href="/letters/editorial-policy-and-practice">Editorial policy and practice overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3646"><a href="/letters/editorial-policy-and-practice/full-notes-editorial-policy">Full notes on editorial policy</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2263"><a href="/letters/symbols-and-abbreviations">Symbols and abbreviations</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2905"><a href="/letters/darwins-letters-timeline">Darwin's letters: a timeline</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2909"><a href="/world-map">Darwin's letters: World Map</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3364"><a href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/have-you-read-one-about" title="">Have you read the one about...</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4183"><a href="/letters/charles-darwin-life-letters">Charles Darwin: A Life in Letters</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4158"><a href="/darwin-conversation-exhibition">Darwin in Conversation exhibition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4099"><a href="/letters/diagrams-and-drawings-letters">Diagrams and drawings in letters</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4105"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters">Favourite Letters</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4105"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters">Favourite Letters overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4162"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/be-envious-ripe-oranges-w-d-fox-may-1832">Be envious of ripe oranges: To W. D. Fox, May 1832</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4111"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/monstrous-stain-j-m-herbert-2-june-1833">That monstrous stain: To J. M. Herbert, 2 June 1833</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4166"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/my-most-solemn-request-emma-darwin-5-july-1844">My most solemn request: To Emma Darwin, 5 July 1844</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4178"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/our-poor-dear-dear-child-emma-darwin-23-april-1851">Our poor dear dear child: To Emma Darwin, [23 April 1851]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4174"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/i-beg-million-pardons-john-lubbock-3-september-1862">I beg a million pardons: To John Lubbock, [3 September 1862]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4129"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/prize-possessions-henry-denny-17-january-1865">Prize possessions: To Henry Denny, 17 January [1865]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4114"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/how-manage-it-j-d-hooker-17-june-1865">How to manage it: To J. D. Hooker, [17 June 1865]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4117"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/fly-flower-hermann-m-ller-23-october-1867">A fly on the flower: From Hermann Müller, 23 October 1867</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4138"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/reading-my-roommate-s-illustrious-ancestor-t-h-huxley-10-june-1868">Reading my roommate’s illustrious ancestor: To T. H. Huxley, 10 June 1868</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4169"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/beginning-something-j-d-hooker-22-january-1869">A beginning, & that is something: To J. D. Hooker, [22 January 1869]</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4135"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/perfect-copper-plate-hand-adolf-reuter-30-may-1869">Perfect copper-plate hand: From Adolf Reuter, 30 May 1869</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4132"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/darwin-s-favourite-photographer-o-g-rejlander-30-april-1871">Darwin’s favourite photographer: From O. G. Rejlander, 30 April 1871</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4172"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/your-letter-eternalized-us-n-d-doedes-27-march-1873">Your letter eternalized before us: From N. D. Doedes, 27 March 1873</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4120"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/lost-translation-auguste-forel-12-november-1874">Lost in translation: From Auguste Forel, 12 November 1874</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4182"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/i-never-trusted-drosera-e-f-lubbock-after-2-july-1875">I never trusted Drosera: From E. F. Lubbock, [after 2 July] 1875</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4126"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/argus-pheasant-mivart-r-wallace-17-june-1876">From Argus pheasant to Mivart: To A. R. Wallace, 17 June 1876</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4141"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/wearing-his-knowledge-lightly-fritz-m-ller-5-april-1878">Wearing his knowledge lightly: From Fritz Müller, 5 April 1878</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4123"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/terms-engagement-julius-wiesner-25-october-1881">Terms of engagement: To Julius Wiesner, 25 October 1881</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-4108"><a href="/letters/favourite-letters/intellectual-capacities-caroline-kennard-26-december-1881">Intellectual capacities: From Caroline Kennard, 26 December 1881</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-4144"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays">Darwin plays</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-4144"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays">Darwin plays overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4150"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/emma-audio-play">'Emma' audio play</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4147"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/frank-audio-play">'Frank' audio play</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4153"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/confessing-murder-audio-play">'Like confessing a murder' audio play</a></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-2294"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/re-design-dramatisation">'Re: Design' dramatisation</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2294"><a href="/letters/darwin-plays/re-design-dramatisation">'Re: Design' dramatisation overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1134"><a href="/commentary/religion/re-design-dramatisation/dramatisation-script">Dramatisation script</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3377"><a href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/search?sort=date&keyword=darwin&f1-document-type=letter" title="">Browse all Darwin letters in date order</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3391"><a href="/letters/list-correspondents">List of correspondents</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded active-trail menu-mlid-824"><a href="/commentary" class="active-trail campl-selected">Commentary</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed active-trail menu-mlid-824"><a href="/commentary" class="active-trail">Commentary overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2269"><a href="/commentary/evolution" title="">Evolution</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2269"><a href="/commentary/evolution" title="">Evolution overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2262"><a href="/commentary/evolution/natural-selection">Natural selection</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2293"><a href="/commentary/evolution/sexual-selection">Sexual selection</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2299"><a href="/commentary/evolution/inheritance">Inheritance</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2298"><a href="/commentary/evolution/divergence">Divergence</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3410"><a href="/commentary/evolution/correlation-growth-deaf-blue-eyed-cats-pigs-and-poison">Correlation of growth: deaf blue-eyed cats, pigs, and poison</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3414"><a href="/commentary/evolution/natural-selection-trouble-terminology-part-i">Natural Selection: the trouble with terminology Part I</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3415"><a href="/commentary/evolution/survival-fittest-trouble-terminology-part-ii">Survival of the fittest: the trouble with terminology Part II</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3671"><a href="/commentary/evolution/darwin-s-species-notebooks-i-think">Darwin’s species notebooks: ‘I think . . .’</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-871"><a href="/commentary/geology" title="">Geology</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-871"><a href="/commentary/geology" title="">Geology overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2259"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-geology">Darwin and geology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1127"><a href="/topics/geology/darwin-s-introduction-geology">Darwin’s introduction to geology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1270"><a href="/commentary/geology/geology-beagle-voyage">The geology of the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1122"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-coral-reefs">Darwin and coral reefs</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2258"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-s-earthquakes">Darwin’s earthquakes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2257"><a href="/topics/geology/darwin-geological-society" title="">Darwin and the Geological Society</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1123"><a href="/commentary/geology/darwin-glen-roy">Darwin and Glen Roy</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1087"><a href="/topics/geology/bibliography-darwin-s-geological-publications">Bibliography of Darwin’s geological publications</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded active-trail menu-mlid-2247"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences" title="" class="active-trail">Life sciences</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed active-trail menu-mlid-2247"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences" title="" class="active-trail">Life sciences overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1117"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down">Darwin and Down</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1117"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down">Darwin and Down overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1149"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down/darwin-s-hothouse-and-lists-hothouse-plants">Darwin’s hothouse and lists of hothouse plants</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4087"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/species-and-varieties">Species and varieties</a></li> <li class="leaf active-trail active menu-mlid-1058 campl-current-page"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/evolution-honeycomb" class="active-trail active">The evolution of honeycomb</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1083"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/tale-two-bees">A tale of two bees</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1088"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed">Beauty and the seed</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1088"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed">Beauty and the seed overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1055"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed/mauro-galetti-profile-ecologist">Mauro Galetti: profile of an ecologist</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2261"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/casting-about-darwin-worms">Casting about: Darwin on worms</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1081"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/was-darwin-ecologist">Was Darwin an ecologist?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3641"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/dipsacus-and-drosera-frank-s-favourite-carnivores">Dipsacus and Drosera</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2318"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles">Darwin and barnacles</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2318"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles">Darwin and barnacles overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2317"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles/darwin-s-study-cirripedia">Darwin’s study of the Cirripedia</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2280"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection">Darwin and vivisection</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2280"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection">Darwin and vivisection overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2284"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-draft-petition">Vivisection: draft petition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2285"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-baas-committee-report">Vivisection: BAAS committee report</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2286"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-first-sketch-bill">Vivisection: first sketch of the bill</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2287"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/vivisection-darwins-testimony-royal-commission">Vivisection: Darwin's testimony</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2288"><a href="/topics/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection/appeal-against-animal-cruelty">'An Appeal' against animal cruelty</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2916"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/biodiversity-and-its-histories">Biodiversity and its histories</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-873"><a href="/commentary/human-nature" title="">Human nature</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-873"><a href="/commentary/human-nature" title="">Human nature overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2604"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/darwin-human-evolution">Darwin on human evolution</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1269"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions">The expression of emotions</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1269"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions">The expression of emotions overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1262"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment">Emotion experiment</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1262"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment">Emotion experiment overview</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1263"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/emotion-experiment/results-darwin-online-emotions">Results of the Darwin Online Emotions Experiment</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2256"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/face-emotion">Face of emotion</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2292"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/expression-emotions/darwin-s-queries-expression">Darwin’s queries on expression</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1052"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language">The origin of language</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1052"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language">The origin of language overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1053"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-key-letters">Language: key letters</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1153"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/origin-language/language-interview-gregory-radick">Language: Interview with Gregory Radick</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1140"><a href="/commentary/human-nature/darwin-and-human-nature-film-series">Film series podcasts</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-874"><a href="/commentary/religion" title="">Religion</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-874"><a href="/commentary/religion" title="">Religion overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1033"><a href="/commentary/religion/darwin-and-design">Darwin and design</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1288"><a href="/commentary/religion/what-did-darwin-believe">What did Darwin believe?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1034"><a href="/commentary/religion/darwin-and-church">Darwin and the Church</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1089"><a href="/commentary/religion/british-association-meeting-1860">British Association meeting 1860</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1121"><a href="/commentary/religion/darwin-and-religion-america">Darwin and religion in America</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1045"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray">Essays and reviews by Asa Gray</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1045"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray">Essays and reviews by Asa Gray overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2271"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/darwiniana-preface">Darwiniana – Preface</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2272"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-design-versus-necessity">Essay: Design versus necessity</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1046"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-natural-selection-natural-theology">Essay: Natural selection & natural theology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1146"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-evolution-theology">Essay: Evolution and theology</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2273"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-what-darwinism">Essay: What is Darwinism?</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2274"><a href="/commentary/religion/essays-reviews-asa-gray/essay-evolutionary-teleology">Essay: Evolutionary teleology</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-2249"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews">Science and religion Interviews</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2249"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews">Science and religion Interviews overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2250"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-emily-ballou">Interview with Emily Ballou</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2251"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-simon-conway-morris">Interview with Simon Conway Morris</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2252"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-john-hedley-brooke">Interview with John Hedley Brooke</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2253"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-randal-keynes">Interview with Randal Keynes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2254"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-tim-lewens">Interview with Tim Lewens</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2255"><a href="/commentary/religion/science-and-religion-interviews/interview-pietro-corsi">Interview with Pietro Corsi</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-3395"><a href="/commentary/curious" title="">For the curious...</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3395"><a href="/commentary/curious" title="">For the curious... overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4155"><a href="/commentary/curious/cordillera-beagle-expedition">Cordillera Beagle expedition</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4096"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-family">The Darwin family</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4093"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-s-plant-experiments">Darwin’s plant experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4090"><a href="/commentary/curious/behind-scenes">Behind the scenes</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3664"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-s-networks">Darwin’s Networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3643"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-and-beagle-voyage">Darwin and the Beagle voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3403"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-and-working-home">Darwin and working from home</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3409"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-cats-and-cat-shows">Darwin, cats and cat shows</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3396"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwin-and-dogs">Darwin and dogs</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3397"><a href="/commentary/curious/darwins-illness">Darwin's illness</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3398"><a href="/commentary/curious/plant-or-animal-or-don-t-try-home">Plant or animal? (Or: Don’t try this at home!)</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3399"><a href="/commentary/curious/strange-things-sent-darwin-post">Strange things sent to Darwin in the post</a></li> </ul></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-823"><a href="/people">People</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-823"><a href="/people">People overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2150"><a href="/commentary/key-correspondents" title="">Key correspondents</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2153"><a href="/commentary/beagle-voyage-networks" title="">Beagle voyage networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2152"><a href="/commentary/family-and-friends" title="">Family and friends</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2159"><a href="/commentary/darwins-scientific-network" title="">Darwin's scientific network</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2155"><a href="/tags/readers-and-critics" title="">Readers and critics</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2162"><a href="/tags/publishers-artists-and-illustrators" title="">Publishers, artists and illustrators</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3381"><a href="/correspondents-alphabetical" title="">People pages in alphabetical order</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-3367"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums">German and Dutch photograph albums</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-3367"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums">German and Dutch photograph albums overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3372"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums/photograph-album-german-and-austrian-scientists">Photograph album of German and Austrian scientists</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3371"><a href="/people/german-and-dutch-photograph-albums/photograph-album-dutch-admirers">Photograph album of Dutch admirers</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3370"><a href="/german-poems-presented-darwin">German poems presented to Darwin</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3380"><a href="https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/search?text=%22%22;f1-document-type=people;sort=name" title="">List of all people mentioned in letters</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-825"><a href="/learning-resources" title="">Learning</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-825"><a href="/learning-resources" title="">Learning overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1739"><a href="/learning/7-11">Ages 7-11</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1739"><a href="/learning/7-11">Ages 7-11 overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2601"><a href="/learning/7-11/darwin-the-collector">Darwin The Collector</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2602"><a href="/learning/7-11/detecting-darwin">Detecting Darwin</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2603"><a href="/learning/7-11/darwin-and-evolution">Darwin And Evolution</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2600"><a href="/learning/7-11/darwins-fantastical-voyage">Darwin's Fantastical Voyage</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-3408"><a href="/learning/7-11/home-learning-7-11-years">Home learning: 7-11 years</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1744"><a href="/learning/11-14">Ages 11-14</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1744"><a href="/learning/11-14">Ages 11-14 overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2899"><a href="/learning/11-14/darwin-and-religion">Darwin and Religion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2898"><a href="/learning/11-14/doing-darwins-experiments">Doing Darwin’s Experiments</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2900"><a href="/learning/11-14/how-dangerous-was-darwin">How dangerous was Darwin?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2901"><a href="/learning/11-14/offer-of-a-lifetime">Offer of a lifetime</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2903"><a href="/learning/11-14/darwin-and-slavery">Darwin and slavery</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2902"><a href="/learning/11-14/beagle-voyage">Beagle Voyage</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2904"><a href="/learning/11-14/darwins-scientific-women">Darwin’s scientific women</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1154"><a href="/case-studies-using-darwin%E2%80%99s-letters-classroom">Schools Gallery: Using Darwin’s letters in the classroom</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-833"><a href="/learning/universities">Universities</a><ul class="campl-unstyled-list local-dropdown-menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-833"><a href="/learning/universities">Universities overview</a></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1063"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source" title="">Letters as a primary source</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1063"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source" title="">Letters as a primary source overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2276"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/scientific-networks">Scientific networks</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2277"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/scientific-practice">Scientific practice</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2278"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/controversy">Controversy</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2279"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/religion">Religion</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1066"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/discussion-questions-and-essay-questions">Discussion questions and essay questions</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1286"><a href="/learning/universities/letters-primary-source/suggested-reading">Suggested reading</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-1550"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science">Getting to know Darwin's science</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1550"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science">Getting to know Darwin's science overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2144"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/early-days">Early days</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1086"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/barnacles">Barnacles</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-932"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1287"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/variation-under-domestication">Variation under domestication</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1259"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/orchids">Orchids</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1150"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/instinct-and-evolution-mind">Instinct and the evolution of mind</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1048"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/insectivorous-plants">Insectivorous plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1095"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/climbing-plants">Climbing plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1141"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/floral-dimorphism">Floral dimorphism</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1260"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/power-movement-plants">Power of movement in plants</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1135"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/earthworms">Earthworms</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1132"><a href="/learning/universities/getting-know-darwins-science/dining-down-house">Dining at Down House</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="expanded menu-mlid-2314"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature">Darwin and human nature</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-2314"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature">Darwin and human nature overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1155"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature/moral-nature">Moral nature</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-1261"><a href="/learning/universities/darwin-and-human-nature/race-civilization-and-progress">Race, civilization, and progress</a></li> </ul></li> <li class="last expanded menu-mlid-1289"><a href="/learning/universities/women-and-science">Women and science</a><ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1289"><a href="/learning/universities/women-and-science">Women and science overview</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2281"><a href="/learning/universities/women-and-science/women-s-scientific-participation">Women’s scientific participation</a></li> <li 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property="content:encoded"><p>Honey-bees construct wax combs inside their nests. The combs are made of hexagonal prisms – cells – built back to back, and are used to store honey, nectar, and pollen, and to provide a nursery for bee larvae. The combs are natural engineering marvels, using the least possible amount of wax to provide the greatest amount of storage space, with the greatest possible structural stability. Darwin recognised that explaining the evolution of the honey-bee’s comb-building abilities was essential if his theory of natural selection was to be taken seriously, and in the 1850s he carried out his own experiments at his home at Down House in Kent, and wrote many letters on the subject.</p> <p>For natural theologians, who looked on nature as showing the workings of providence, the bee cell was a favourite subject. The question of how little insects could solve correctly a design problem that challenged even expert human geometers, and implement it practically, pointed, they thought, to a governing intelligence. In Lord Brougham’s <em>Dissertations on subjects connected with natural theology</em> (1839), Brougham commented that bees acted with a discipline that in men could only be effected by a superintendent with a design. The bee chose the most advantageous shape for her cells, he wrote, ‘as indeed we might well suppose when we recollect who is her teacher’ (Brougham 1839, 1: 35, 77). William Kirby wrote of the bees as ‘those Heaven-instructed mathematicians, who before any geometer could calculate under what form a cell would occupy the least space without diminishing its capacity, and before any chemist existed to discover how wax might be elaborated from vegetable sweets, instructed by the Fountain of Wisdom, had built their hexagonal cells of that pure material, had closed them at the bottom with three rhomboidal pieces, and were enabled, without study, so to construct the opposite story of combs, that each of these rhomboids should form one of those of three opposed cells, thus giving strength to the structure, that in no other place, could have been given to it’ (Kirby 1852, 2: 246).</p> <p>Darwin’s copy of Brougham’s <em>Dissertations</em> is heavily annotated. He recognised that the problem of the bee cell was important for his theory. On page 77, he scribbled, ‘very wonderful – it is as wonderful in the mind as certain adaptations in the body – the eye for instance, if my theory explains one it may explain other.’ Darwin, and others working on naturalistic explanations, needed to show how bee cells could arise from simple processes. The theory of evolution by natural selection was supposed to be a comprehensive theory of life on earth: if it could not explain bee cells, it was radically flawed. Darwin needed to show two things: first, how the bees’ abilities had evolved over time, and second, how the bees built their combs using only the instincts and intelligence they had evolved.</p> <p>The first point was relatively straightforward. Brougham, rejecting the suggestion that hexagonal cells could have arisen from cylindrical cells, asserted that no bee in the world ever made cylindrical cells (Brougham 1839, 1: 32). However, Darwin knew that humble bees made roughly cylindrical or near spherical cells for holding honey and larvae, and was delighted to discover a Mexican bee, <em>Melipona domestica</em>, that made a rough comb of cylindrical or nearly spherical cells, with flat sides where cells happened to meet. Most naturalists accepted that circular structures were the easiest for animals to construct: for example, birds’ nests are usually circular. Darwin argued that if the <em>Melipona</em> put its cells together in a more regular fashion, it would probably develop a structure like that of the honey-bee (<em>Origin</em>, p. 226). Further, there were advantages to a more regular, hexagonal-celled, structure: it used less wax to store more honey. Thus, when under environmental pressure (cold winters, lack of food), bee colonies with the more efficient structure would be more likely to survive and prosper.</p> <p>The second point, how bees actually built the comb, involved Darwin in a great deal of correspondence and experimentation. When he began working in earnest on the subject for a projected book on the species question, Darwin wrote to George Robert Waterhouse. Waterhouse had written the article on bees for the <em>Penny Cyclopaedia</em> in 1835. He suggested that bees acted according to two antagonistic principles: one causing them to deposit and excavate the wax, the other limiting the degree of excavation. In his view, bees set out to make circular cells, which became hexagonal due to their working under the constraints of the two antagonistic principles and the proximity of other cells. Darwin’s letter has not been found, but from Waterhouse’s reply, it is clear that Darwin was asking for examples of honey-bees making cylindrical structures, either free-standing or at the edges of combs where the cells were not subject to the space constraints of other cells. (Letter from G. R. Waterhouse, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2078.xml">14 April 1857</a>.)</p> <p>In a later letter Waterhouse gave a detailed account of his observations of a leaf-cutter bee making a circular structure out of clay. After giving the matter due consideration he had realised that the repetitive motions of the bee, which he had at first thought ‘stupid’, were in fact guaranteed to produce a regular circular structure. ‘By keeping the body fixed in one position for some time & by working in all directions as far as she could reach, in her excavating, she would necessarily form a cavity in segments of circles <em>and of definite size</em>— —the diameter being determined by her power of reaching.’ (Letter from G. R. Waterhouse, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2213.xml">10 February 1858</a>.)</p> <p>By now not only Waterhouse but William Bernhard Tegetmeier (who had helped Darwin with his work on pigeons) and other members of the Entomological Society of London were exercising their minds on the problem. In his next letter, Waterhouse described wasps’ nests exhibited at a meeting of the society. It had been objected to his theory of cell-building that wasps also built combs of hexagonal cells, even though to begin with only one wasp (the queen) worked on the comb. Waterhouse responded that the wasp working alone always worked on several cells at once, and so was subjected to the same formal constraints as a group of bees working together. (Letter from G. R. Waterhouse, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2216.xml">13 February 1858</a>.)</p> <p>In April 1858, Darwin went to London to meet William Hallowes Miller, a crystallographer, to discuss the geometry of bee cells. Miller had developed a system of crystallography that was ‘far more simple, symmetrical, and adapted to mathematical calculations than any which had yet been devised’ (<em>ODNB</em>). Possibly Darwin consulted Miller simply on geometry, but his choice of expert suggests an interest in how a complex pattern may arise from natural forces. Darwin made notes for their discussion in a memorandum to W. H. Miller, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2255A.xml">[15 April 1858]</a>, summarising his position as follows:</p> <blockquote><p><em>Bees can make apparently true cylinders & spheres. (2) They never begin one cell at time always several (3) they can judge distance to certain extent, & (4) those that make their spheres or cylinders so that if completed, would intersect make an </em><em>intermediate flat</em><em> wall. Then assume perfect judge of distance, I thought that all angles might follow, for I cd see they would in hexagonal prism.–— My notion modification of Waterhouses. Ld. Brougham sneers at it.</em></p> </blockquote> <p>Meanwhile, Waterhouse was still exercising his mind on the subjects of wasp’s nests. He sent another long letter to Darwin on the subject, this time arguing that where the sides of wasp cells that were not bounded by other cells were straight, this was because of the cues taken by the wasps from the other straight sides that were bounded by other cells (letter from G. R. Waterhouse, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2258.xml">17 April 1858</a>).</p> <p>Waterhouse also told Darwin of a meeting at the Entomological Society of London on 5 April. Since the notes he promised to send Darwin have not been found, the account given in the <em>Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London</em> n.s. 5: 17–18 is reproduced here:</p> <blockquote><p>Some discussion having arisen relating to the construction of the cells of the hive bee, Mr. Waterhouse stated that he was of opinion that the hexagonal form of cell was accidental, so far as the constructors of the cell were concerned; and having been called upon to explain his views, he proceeded, in the first place, to call attention to the fact that if a number of cylinders of equal size were packed close together, side by side, each cylinder would be surrounded by six others; that, assuming the cylindrical form (or at least a form of cell approaching more or less to the cylindrical, and having a circular section) was the type form of isolated cells constructed by different kinds of bees, and that, in the case of the hive bee, a number of insects worked together, first depositing a small portion of wax, then excavating a small circular cavity in the same, for the commencement of a cell; this then being followed by the deposition of more wax and the excavation of more cavities, and these being placed close to the first; then neither of the cells could be constructed of their natural diameter, provided the first cavity formed had not attained the full diameter of the complete cell. The diameters of the cells would intersect each other; but if partitions be left between them, the cell must be six-sided, if the cells remain equal in size. In order to make the idea more clear, he . . . would assume for a moment that it were a law that a number of equal-sized circles, being packed closely together, side by side, and that each circle was then surrounded by seven others; he believed that the cell of the hive bee would, in that case, have been seven-sided. Such were the views entertained many years back by Mr. W., and published by him in the ‘Penny Cyclopaedia;’ and having subsequently had his attention particularly directed to the subject, whilst examining the nests of a vast number of Hymenopterous insects, he still believes those views to be essentially correct. He now, however, has reason to believe that it is not absolutely necessary for the supposed natural diameters of the cells to intersect before an angular-formed cell would be produced. The instinct which leads an insect to excavate, in order to form a cell, may lead it to excavate beyond what would be necessary to form a sufficiently large cell, in the case of an insect, which, under ordinary circumstances, burrows until it comes in contact with an adjoining cell. Contact with other cells was the essential condition which influenced the angular form of any particular cell. . . . Mr. Waterhouse said he had possessed a very small nest of a hornet which consisted of three cells only; it was built in a small cavity adjoining a large nest, and where there was not room for more than three cells; they were circular externally and angular internally,–—that is to say, each cell had two straight sides where it came in contact with two other cells, and was rounded elsewhere. Mr. Tegetmeier remarked that he possessed a small piece of honey-comb which presented the same peculiarities.</p> </blockquote> <p>Darwin quickly arranged to look at Tegetmeier’s piece of honeycomb (letter to W. B. Tegetmeier, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2260.xml">[21 April 1858]</a>); however, it had been mislaid. Nevertheless, Darwin asked Tegetmeier to keep an eye out for the first beginnings of the comb (letter to W. B. Tegetmeier, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2271.xml">9 May [1858]</a>). He suspected that the first cells, built without the constraints of neighbouring cells, would not be hexagonal.</p> <p>At this time Darwin was much exercised by the work of François Huber. In his copy of Huber 1814, 2: 143, he scribbled a note: ‘If the sides of separate cell one are angular before other cells formed fatal to my theory.’ He wrote to his son William, ‘I am come to heavy grief about my Bees-cells & my only hope is that Huber has not correctly described their manner of building’ (letter to W. E. Darwin, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2266.xml">[26 May 1858]</a>.) To Tegetmeier, he explained in more detail:</p> <blockquote><p><em>Huber says that first, a very thin & very low little ridge is made; & then on one face the </em><em>base</em><em> of a single cell is hollowed out, & on the opposite face, the bases of two cells. He states that first the outlines of these 3 primordial cells are arched, (</em><em>section</em><em> [DIAGRAM OF CURVED ARCH] ) & then made angular ( [DIAGRAM OF POINTED ARCH] ). Now what I what I want so much to see is this rudiment of the comb in this state. I believe when the arched bases of the cells are made angular, the bases of other adjoining cells have just been commenced. The hexagonal tube or prism has not been at this period hardly been begun; & all must be very minute. (</em><a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2271.xml">See the letter</a><em>)</em></p> </blockquote> <p>Darwin was probably particularly concerned about the pentagonal cell wall that is constructed out of the original curved arch, since Huber’s diagrams show this transition clearly. Darwin thought that the arch was not made angular until the hexagonal cells of the second row had been begun by the bees making further hemispherical scrapes. However, he may also have been concerned about the angular bottoms of the cells that were excavated out of the original hemispherical scrapes. The bottom of a hexagonal cell is a pyramidal structure that fits neatly against the bottoms of three cells on the other side of the wall. Darwin thought that this angular structure too was only formed as a result of the presence of other cells.</p> <p>Challenging Huber was a serious business; he had laid the scientific foundations of the study of the honey-bee, despite being blind from the age of 15. His work was carried on with the help of his wife and manservant, and depended on minute, repeated observations. He too was sceptical about the view of the bee as master geometrician; explaining how the necessary angles might arise from the initial circular workings of the bee, he asked, ‘May we not deduce from the preceding facts, that the geometry, which apparently embellishes the productions of these insects, is rather the necessary result than the principle of their proceedings?’ (Huber 1841, p. 269.)</p> <p>Darwin asked Tegetmeier to observe the beginning of the comb and, having been lent a glass hive by a friend, did the same himself; he also asked Tegetmeier to look out for isolated cylindrical cells (letter to W. B. Tegetmeier, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2280.xml">5 June [1858]</a>). Tegetmeier suggested putting a piece of wax in the hive for the bees to work on. Using this method, Darwin ‘got some excavated hemispherical bases in artificial wax—hurrah!’ and was thinking of ordering another hive from Tegetmeier, and buying a swarm (letter to W. B. Tegetmeier, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2281.xml">8 [June 1858]</a>). (Articial wax is probably beeswax, but a block of wax added to the hive rather than wax that the bees in hive were producing and working themselves.)</p> <p>Darwin tried three different experiments with bees’ cells at Down that he reported in <em>Origin</em>. In one, he put a thick block of wax into the hive. ‘The bees instantly began to excavate minute circular pits in it: and as they deepened these little pits, they made them wider and wider until they were converted into shallow basins, appearing to the eye perfectly true or parts of a sphere, and of about the diameter of a cell. It was most interesting to me to observe that wherever several bees had begun to excavate these basins near together, they had begun their work at such a distance from each other, that by the time the basins had acquired the above stated width (<em>i.e.</em> about the width of an ordinary cell), and were in depth about one sixth of the diameter of the sphere of which they formed a part, the rims of the basins intersected or broke into each other. As soon as this occurred, the bees ceased to excavate, and began to build up flat walls of wax on the lines of intersection between the basins, so that each hexagonal prism was built upon the festooned edge of a smooth basin, instead of on the straight edges of a three-sided pyramid as in the case of ordinary cells.’ (<em>Origin</em>, p. 223.) The cells were built up in a hexagonal shape when their bases intersected with those of other cells; but the pyramidal bases were apparently not built, since there was no pressure to accomodate cells on the other side of the wax, which was a thick block.</p> <p>These experiments were repeated in 2009 by John Williams, a master beekeeper who maintains an observation hive at Down House during the summer. In these photographs, it is possible to see how the bees tended to clump their cells and build them up into hexagons; but the circular foundations of seven adjacent unfinished cells are also visible in the second photograph next to the left-hand clump of cells.</p> <p>Secondly, Darwin put a thin piece of vermilion wax in the hive, a ‘narrow, knife-edged ridge’.</p> <blockquote><p><em>The bees instantly began on both sides to excavate little basins near to each other . . . ; but the ridge of wax was so thin, that the bottoms of the basins, if they had been excavated to the same depth as in the former experiments, would have broken into each other from the opposite sides. The bees, however, did not suffer this to happen, and they stopped their excavations in due time; so that the basins, as soon as they had been a little deepened, came to have flat bottoms; and these flat bottoms, formed by thin little plates of the vermilion wax having been left ungnawed, were situated, as far as the eye could judge, exactly along the planes of imaginary intersection between the basins on the opposite sides of the ridge of wax. In parts, only little bits, in other parts, large portions of a rhombic plate had been left between the opposed basins, but the work, for the unnatural state of things, had not been neatly performed. (</em><em>Origin</em><em>, pp. 229–30.)</em></p> </blockquote> <p>In other words, by starting their excavations in the correct places, the bees produced an approximation to the pyramidal bottoms of cells simply by ceasing to excavate when they were about to break through into another cell.</p> <p>In his third experiment, Darwin covered edges of the walls of a hexagonal cell, or the extreme margin of a growing comb – the place in which the cells are furthest from hexagonal – with a thin layer of vermilion wax.</p> <blockquote><p>‘I invariably found that the colour was most delicately diffused by the bees . . . by atoms of the coloured wax having been taken from the spot on which it had been placed, and worked into the growing edges of cells all around’ (<em>Origin</em>, p. 232).</p> </blockquote> <p>The bees were continually rebuilding unsatisfactory cells as the comb grew outwards.</p> <p>The experiments with vermilion wax have also been repeated by John Williams. A ‘knife-edge’ ridge of wax is sometimes applied to the top bar of a hive to encourage the bees to build in the right place, and it is likely that the ‘knife-edged ridge’ used by Darwin was a similar arrangement. The results of this experiment show something that Darwin does not mention, but that beekeepers would no doubt take for granted: the bees add their own wax to the vermilion wax as they work to extend it. The vermilion (as Darwin found in his third experiment) becomes thoroughly mixed with uncoloured beeswax over most of the resulting comb. This is now an on-going experiment and can be seen in the observation hive at Down House during the summer. The result is shown in the photograph below.</p> <p>In August 1858, Waterhouse’s remarks at the 5 April meeting of the Entomological Society (see extended quotation, above) were reprinted in the<em>Zoologist</em>. He no doubt began to regret the wording of his suggestion that hexagonal cells were a necessary consequence of <em>packing</em> cylinders in a small space, as some readers may have understood him to mean that the hexagons were formed as a result of lateral pressure on the comb, a theory that had been current and that had been dismissed by Lord Brougham. At a meeting of the Entomological Society on 7 July 1858 (<em>Proceedings of the Entomological Society of London</em> n.s. 5 (1858–61): 34–5), the issue was discussed. John Edward Gray, the president, using vermicelli as an analogy, supported the idea that compressed cylinders became hexagonal prisms, and added, with characteristic acerbity, that he ‘considered the attempt made by Natural Theologians to prove that the formation of an hexagonal rather than a cylindrical cell indicated the possession of a greater degree of Divine wisdom bestowed on the insect, was the greatest piece of humbug they had ever brought forward.’<em> </em>Frederick Smith however had apparently made paper cylinders and failed to compress them into hexagons. Waterhouse reviewed the latest controversies in his letter to Darwin of <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2317.xml">2 August 1858</a>. The notion that the theory of hexagonal bee cells being formed from cylinders depended on actual physical compression was to dog responses to Darwin’s own theory as well.</p> <p>Also in August Darwin received a hive from Jamaica, and observed that the cells were larger than those made by European bees. He at once sent for specimens of the actual bees, probably curious to see whether the size of the cell was proportionate to the size of the bee. This would suggest that the famous regularity of bee cell sizes might have a simple explanation. (Letter to Richard Hill, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2479A.xml">8 August [1859]</a>.) Much later, Jeffries Wyman wrote to Darwin from Cambridge, Massachusetts, that he found that bee cells were not as regular as some had supposed them to be; their measurements varied, the pyramidal bases of the cells sometimes had four, not three rhombs, and the transition from worker to drone cells (these are different sizes) was carried out in different ways (letter from Jeffries Wyman, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-4974.xml">11 January 1866</a>).</p> <p>Concurrently with his work on cell formation, Darwin was thinking about why the hexagonal structure was advantageous to bees. It was already well known that the hexagonal cells stored the greatest possible amount of honey and pollen with the least possible expenditure of wax, but in September 1858 Tegetmeier was able to give Darwin figures for just how costly wax production was to bees. He calculated that 15lb of sugar was consumed in the secretion of 1lb of wax. Tegetmeier also confirmed Darwin’s conclusions about the building of cells. (Letter to W. B. Tegetmeier, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-2325.xml">8 September [1858]</a>.)</p> <p>In <em>Origin</em>, in November 1859, Darwin published a theory of cell-building that differed from both Huber’s and Waterhouse’s. Huber had believed that although the bees began by making curved arches in the wax partly following the outline of the first hemispherical depressions that they dug into the wall of wax, these were swiftly converted into angular (pentagonal) structures and followed in the second row by hexagonal structures. Waterhouse believed that the bee built the cells up in circles, and that when the circle of one bee threatened to break into the circle of another, they both stopped excavating at the nearest point and switched their attention to excavating the wax where there was no imminent danger of breaking through, thus making hexagons. Darwin, however, had observed that the bees began by making hemispherical scrapes in the wax, and that where the scrapes intersected, they built or excavated straight walls, thus building up hexagonal prisms. Cells at the edge of the comb tended to have roughly curved walls until further cells were built and they were transformed into more regular hexagons.</p> <p>Thus, in <em>Origin</em>, Darwin explained the development of the honey-bee’s cell-building instinct from simpler forms (the less organised, round cells of other insects), and explained their method of building based on the repetition of simple actions and feedback from simple sensations, rather than on the application of geometry. His observations, and those of Tegetmeier and others, had proved that bees did not build angular structures except at the intersections between cells; that they continually rebuilt the roughly finished cells at the margins of the comb into more regular structures as the comb grew outwards; that there were measurable advantages to the regular structures of the honey-bee over the more haphazard structures of other bees in times of scarcity; and that the unfailing regularity and precision of the bee cell was, when precise measurement was bought to bear, a myth.</p> <p>In 1865, Darwin received a letter from Edward Cresy (letter from Edward Cresy, <a href="/letter/DCP-LETT-4892.xml">10 September 1865</a>), in which Cresy sent as an illustration of Darwin’s bee-cell theory a description of a plum pie, the crust of which came out of the oven ‘completely mapped out with hexagonal articulations’. ‘By guesswork each plumb should have punched just a swelling & then a round hole for itself like a round shot through a plank but I suppose the strain came to equally on all part of the crust so the spherical plumbs laid the foundation, without any instinctive knowledge of a series of regular hexagonal combs’, Cresy concluded: the plums didn’t need to know how to do it any more than the bees did.</p> <p class="rtecenter"><img alt="Plum pie baked by Rosemary Clarkson to replicate Cresy's finding. Note the near hexagonal shape of the darker area near the top left corner. Photograph © Rosemary Clarkson." height="225" src="https://web.archive.org/web/20101007042740im_/http://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/wp-content/uploads/2009/11/plumpiesmall2-300x225.jpg" title="plumpiesmall" width="300" /></p> <h6 class="rtecenter">Plum pie baked to replicate Cresy's findings. Note the near hexagonal shape of the darker area near the top left corner.</h6> <h6 class="rtecenter">Photograph © Rosemary Clarkson.</h6> </div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-terms field-type-taxonomy-term-reference field-label-above"><div class="field-label">Terms: </div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Life sciences</a></div><div class="field-item odd"><a href="/taxonomy/term/64" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Featured</a></div><div class="field-item even"><a href="/commentary/natural-selections-longer-read" typeof="skos:Concept" property="rdfs:label skos:prefLabel" datatype="">Natural selections: a longer read</a></div></div></div><div class="field field-name-field-term-related-letters field-type-text field-label-above"><div class="field-label">Related letters: </div><div class="field-items"><div class="field-item even">2078</div><div class="field-item odd">2213</div><div class="field-item even">2216</div><div class="field-item odd">2255A</div><div class="field-item even">2258</div><div class="field-item odd">2260</div><div class="field-item even">2271</div><div class="field-item odd">2266</div><div class="field-item even">2280</div><div class="field-item odd">2281</div><div class="field-item even">2317</div><div class="field-item odd">2479A</div><div class="field-item even">4974</div><div class="field-item odd">2325</div><div class="field-item even">4892</div></div></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="campl-column3 campl-secondary-content "> <div class="region region-sidebar"> <div id="block-menu-block-3" class="block block-menu-block"> <div class="campl-content-container campl-no-bottom-padding"> <div class="campl-heading-container"> <h2>In this section:</h2> </div> </div> <div class="campl-content-container"> <div class="menu-block-wrapper menu-block-3 menu-name-main-menu parent-mlid-0 menu-level-3"> <ul class="menu"><li class="first collapsed menu-mlid-1117 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Down-house1_4.jpg?itok=4_rtOp2x)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-down">Darwin and Down</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-4087 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Origin_1859_Title%20page_c.jpg?itok=7naCGxR8)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/species-and-varieties">Species and varieties</a></li> <li class="leaf active-trail active menu-mlid-1058 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Bees-cells-image-1-300x225.jpg?itok=Ha7HVE-3)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/evolution-honeycomb" class="active-trail active">The evolution of honeycomb</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1083 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Bombus-hypnorum.jpg?itok=K-XkShjF)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/tale-two-bees">A tale of two bees</a></li> <li class="collapsed menu-mlid-1088 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/CAMPBELL-G-D-01-00802.jpg?itok=37yjHVqZ)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/beauty-and-seed">Beauty and the seed</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-2261 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/PR-T-00992-B-00001-00045_worm.jpg?itok=QpmPFG6c)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/casting-about-darwin-worms">Casting about: Darwin on worms</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-1081 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/PR-Q-00340-00001-C-00007-00004-000-p471.jpg?itok=amNzEpLQ)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/was-darwin-ecologist">Was Darwin an ecologist?</a></li> <li class="leaf menu-mlid-3641 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/%28Dipsacus%20sylvestris%29-plate-1.jpg?itok=nYJvk7OO)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/dipsacus-and-drosera-frank-s-favourite-carnivores">Dipsacus and Drosera</a></li> <li class="collapsed menu-mlid-2318 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/MS-DAR-00029-00003-000-00272-crop.jpg?itok=REk6Bi3J)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-barnacles">Darwin and barnacles</a></li> <li class="collapsed menu-mlid-2280 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/COBBE-F-P-01-00984.jpg?itok=Mw540KZZ)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/darwin-and-vivisection">Darwin and vivisection</a></li> <li class="last leaf menu-mlid-2916 with-rh-icon" style="background-image:url(https://www.darwinproject.ac.uk/sites/default/files/styles/rh-icon/public/Hall%20of%20Biodiversity.jpg?itok=Hd9QNgWM)"><a href="/commentary/life-sciences/biodiversity-and-its-histories">Biodiversity and its histories</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> <div id="block-cudl-related-letters" class="block block-cudl"> <div class="campl-content-container campl-no-bottom-padding"> <div class="campl-heading-container"> <h2>Related letters</h2> </div> </div> <div class="campl-content-container"> <div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2078.xml">From George Robert Waterhouse 14 April 1857</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Has found no reference to construction of bees’ cells in works referred to by CD. Describes cell of <i>Osmia atricapilla</i>. Hive-bees’ cell was described at Entomological Society.</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2213.xml">From George Robert Waterhouse 10 February 1858</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Bees’ cells. Observations on <i>Osmia atricapilla</i>.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2216.xml">From G. R. Waterhouse 13 February 1858</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>GRW’s observations of and ideas on bees’ and wasps’ cells.</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2255A.xml">To W. H. Miller [15 April 1858]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>A set of questions CD prepared for his meeting with WHM to discuss the geometry of bees’ cells.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2258.xml">From G. R. Waterhouse 17 April 1858</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Bees’ cells; GRW thinks hexagonal shape is accidental. Encloses notes on cells of <i>Icaria</i>.</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2260.xml">To W. B. Tegetmeier [21 April 1858]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>"<i>Excessively</i>" interested in theory of bees’ cell formation.</p><p>Fears few of his pigeons will be of any use to WBT.</p><p>Hopes WBT will describe foreign poultry breeds.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2271.xml">To W. B. Tegetmeier 9 May [1858]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Inquires about the structure and formation of bees’ comb; is interested in seeing its form at the commencement of building.</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2266.xml">To W. E. Darwin [26 May 1858]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Has come to heavy grief about bees’ cells, unless Huber is wrong [François Huber, <i>New observations on the natural history of bees</i>, new ed. (1841)].</p><p>Discusses cart-horses and stripes on a Belgiman [Belgian?].</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2280.xml">To W. B. Tegetmeier 5 June [1858]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Hopes to begin pigeon MS in a week.</p><p>Has lately been working on bees’ cells and wishes very much to examine a cylindrical one.</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2281.xml">To W. B. Tegetmeier 8 [June 1858]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Discusses bees’ cells. Wants hive and swarm; would be glad to have WBT’s box with commenced cells. "I am partly a disciple of Waterhouse, but not wholly."</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2317.xml">From G. R. Waterhouse 2 August 1858</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Bees’ cells; is the hexagonal shape deliberate or merely the result of lateral pressure on cylinders?</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2325.xml">To W. B. Tegetmeier 8 September [1858]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Has finished with and is disposing of his pigeons.</p><p>Invites WBT to Down; would like to see his bees’ cells.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-2479A.xml">To Richard Hill 8 August [1859]</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Compares Jamaican with British and European honey combs.</p><p>Requests one-half dozen dead bees and 2 or 3 drones from Mr Wilkie’s stock.</p><p>His admiration for RH’s varied accomplishments and service "in the sacred cause of humanity" [the abolition of slavery].</p><p>Asks whether it is believed that domestic animals long bred in Jamaica tend to assume a particular colour or character.</p><p>Are differences observed in the West Indies in the liability of pure Europeans of light complexion and hair to take the yellow fever or other tropical complaints?</p></div> </div><div class="letter odd"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-4892.xml">From Edward Cresy 10 September 1865</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Reading Carl Vogt [<i>Lectures on man</i> (1864)].</p><p>Vogt, though anti-Lamarck, is converted to Darwinism.</p></div> </div><div class="letter even"> <h3><a href="/letter/?docId=letters/DCP-LETT-4974.xml">From Jeffries Wyman 11 January 1866</a></h3> <div class="summary"><p>Has made observations on bees’ cells. Their dimensions are not constant, nor do single bees make single cells; each one is a result of co-operation.</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="block-views-my-sidebar-block" class="block block-views"> <div> <div class="view view-my-sidebar view-id-my_sidebar view-display-id-block view-dom-id-2426098afcccce1222a91f2697798038"> <div class="view-content"> <div class="views-row views-row-1 views-row-odd views-row-first views-row-last"> <div class="views-field views-field-field-side-text"> <div class="field-content"><p><em>With grateful acknowledgments to John Williams, Gene Kritsky, and Randal Keynes for their generous assistance and patience.</em></p> <h3><em>References and further reading</em></h3> <ul> <li>Brougham, Henry Peter. 1839.<em>Dissertations on subjects of science connected with natural theology: being the concluding volumes of the new edition of Paley’s work</em>. 2 vols. London: C. Knight.</li> <li>Brougham, Henry Peter. 1858. Recherches analytiques et expérimentales sur les alvéoles des abeilles. <em>Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires des Séances de l’Académie des Sciences</em> 46: 1024–9.</li> <li>Darwin, Charles. 1859. <em>On the origin of species by means of natural selection or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life</em>. London: John Murray.</li> <li>Davis, Sarah. 2004. Darwin, Tegetmeier and the bees. <em>Studies in History and Philosophy of Biological and Biomedical Sciences</em>35: 65–92.</li> <li>Huber, François. 1841. <em>New observations on the natural history of bees. </em>Translated from the original French. London: Thomas Tegg.</li> <li>Huber, François. 1814. <em>Nouvelles observations sur les abeilles</em>. 2d edition. 2 vols. Paris and Geneva: J. J. Paschoud.</li> <li>Kirby, William. 1852. <em>On</em> <em>the power, wisdom, and goodness of God : as manifested in the creation of animals, and in their history, habits, and instincts</em>. New edition, edited by Thomas Rymer Jones. 2 vols. London: Henry G. Bohn.</li> <li>Kritsky, Gene. <em>The quest for the perfect hive. </em>Oxford: Oxford University Press. Forthcoming.</li> <li>Seeley, Thomas D. 1985.<em>Honeybee ecology. A study of adaptation in social life.</em> Princeton: Princeton University Press.</li> <li>[Waterhouse, George Robert.] 1835. Bee. In <em>The penny cyclopaedia of the Society for the Diffusion of Useful Knowledge</em>, edited by Charles Knight, vol. 4, pp. 149–56. London: Charles Knight.</li> <li>Williams, John. 2009. <em>Darwin</em><em>’s bees</em>. The Central Association of Bee-Keepers.</li> <li>Winston, Mark L. 1987. <em>The biology of the honey bee</em>. 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