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class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Clones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anatomy_and_physiology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anatomy_and_physiology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Anatomy and physiology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Anatomy_and_physiology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Anatomy and physiology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Anatomy_and_physiology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Head" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Head"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Head </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Head-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Body" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Body"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Body </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Body-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_dimorphism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_dimorphism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Sexual dimorphism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_dimorphism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Locomotion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Locomotion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Locomotion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Locomotion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Vision </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Behavior" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Behavior"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Behavior </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Behavior-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Behavior subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Behavior-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Social_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Social systems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interspecific_associations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interspecific_associations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Interspecific associations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interspecific_associations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Communication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Communication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Communication </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Communication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Life_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Life history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Life_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diet_and_feeding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diet_and_feeding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Diet and feeding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diet_and_feeding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hunting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hunting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 Hunting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hunting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-As_prey" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#As_prey"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.6 As prey </div> </a> <ul id="toc-As_prey-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intelligence_and_cognition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intelligence_and_cognition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7 Intelligence and cognition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intelligence_and_cognition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tool_use_and_manufacture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tool_use_and_manufacture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.7.1 Tool use and manufacture </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tool_use_and_manufacture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interactions_between_humans_and_other_primates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interactions_between_humans_and_other_primates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Interactions between humans and other primates </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Interactions_between_humans_and_other_primates-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Interactions between humans and other primates subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Interactions_between_humans_and_other_primates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Disease_transmission" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Disease_transmission"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Disease transmission </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Disease_transmission-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legal_and_social_status" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legal_and_social_status"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Legal and social status </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legal_and_social_status-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Role_in_scientific_research" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Role_in_scientific_research"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Role in scientific research </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Role_in_scientific_research-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extinction_threats" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extinction_threats"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Extinction threats </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extinction_threats-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Footnotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Footnotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Footnotes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Footnotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature_cited" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature_cited"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Literature cited </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature_cited-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Primate</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 131 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-131" aria-hidden="true" > 131 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Acehnese" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="Acehnese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Acèh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaat" title="Primaat – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Primaat" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten" title="Primaten – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Primaten" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%88%B0%E1%89%A5%E1%8A%A0%E1%88%B5%E1%89%B0%E1%8A%94" title="ሰብአስተኔ – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ሰብአስተኔ" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="رئيسيات – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="رئيسيات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A7%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F" title="প্ৰাইমেট – Assamese" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="প্ৰাইমেট" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="Assamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">অসমীয়া</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatlar" title="Primatlar – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Primatlar" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1" title="پریماتلار – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="پریماتلار" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%9F" title="প্রাইমেট – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="প্রাইমেট" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%AAng-ti%C3%B3ng-l%C5%ABi" title="Lêng-tióng-lūi – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Lêng-tióng-lūi" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Приматтар – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Приматтар" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Прыматы – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Прыматы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Прыматы – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Прыматы" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Примати – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Примати" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat" title="Primat – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Primat" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primated" title="Primated – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Primated" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primats" title="Primats – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Primats" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%81%D0%B5%D0%BC" title="Приматсем – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Приматсем" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murag-unggoy" title="Murag-unggoy – Cebuano" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Murag-unggoy" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="Cebuano" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cebuano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prim%C3%A1ti" title="Primáti – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Primáti" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat" title="Primat – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Primat" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primater" title="Primater – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Primater" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten" title="Primaten – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Primaten" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nv mw-list-item"><a href="https://nv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mag%C3%AD_d%C3%B3%C3%B3_Mag%C3%AD_Ndahalin%C3%ADg%C3%AD%C3%AD" title="Magí dóó Magí Ndahalinígíí – Navajo" lang="nv" hreflang="nv" data-title="Magí dóó Magí Ndahalinígíí" data-language-autonym="Diné bizaad" data-language-local-name="Navajo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Diné bizaad</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esikloomalised" title="Esikloomalised – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Esikloomalised" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CF%81%CF%89%CF%84%CE%B5%CF%8D%CE%BF%CE%BD%CF%84%CE%B1" title="Πρωτεύοντα – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Πρωτεύοντα" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatoj" title="Primatoj – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Primatoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Primate" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D8%AE%D8%B3%D8%AA%DB%8C%E2%80%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="نخستی‌سانان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="نخستی‌سانان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Primate" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten" title="Primaten – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Primaten" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%ADomhach" title="Príomhach – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Príomhach" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%81%EC%9E%A5%EB%A5%98" title="영장류 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="영장류" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8A%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Պրիմատներ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Պրիմատներ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B0_%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%A3" title="नरवानर गण – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="नरवानर गण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primati" title="Primati – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Primati" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gor mw-list-item"><a href="https://gor.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Gorontalo" lang="gor" hreflang="gor" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Hulontalo" data-language-local-name="Gorontalo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Hulontalo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Primate" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ezibuchophokhulu" title="Ezibuchophokhulu – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ezibuchophokhulu" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target">IsiZulu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fremdard%C3%BDr" title="Fremdardýr – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Fremdardýr" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%98%D7%99%D7%9D" title="פרימטים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרימטים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%9F%E0%B3%8D" title="ಪ್ರೈಮೇಟ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪ್ರೈಮೇಟ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98" title="პრიმატები – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პრიმატები" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Приматтар – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Приматтар" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prymat" title="Prymat – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Prymat" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jidoldunol_(Primates)" title="Jidoldunol (Primates) – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Jidoldunol (Primates)" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kotava</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat" title="Primat – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Primat" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82" title="Примат – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Примат" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prim%C4%81ti" title="Primāti – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Primāti" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten" title="Primaten – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Primaten" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Приматар – Lezghian" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Приматар" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="Lezghian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Лезги</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatai" title="Primatai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Primatai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Ligurian" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="Ligurian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ligure</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aapechtege" title="Aapechtege – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Aapechtege" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Primate" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lingua Franca Nova</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C5%91eml%C5%91s%C3%B6k" title="Főemlősök – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Főemlősök" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Примати – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Примати" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%88%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%87%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B1%E0%B5%8D" title="പ്രൈമേറ്റ് – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പ്രൈമേറ്റ്" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98" title="პრიმატეფი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პრიმატეფი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="رئيسيات – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="رئيسيات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat" title="Primat – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Primat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-min mw-list-item"><a href="https://min.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Minangkabau" lang="min" hreflang="min" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Minangkabau" data-language-local-name="Minangkabau" class="interlanguage-link-target">Minangkabau</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%95%E1%80%9B%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%84%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%99%E1%80%AD%E1%80%90%E1%80%BA" title="ပရိုင်းမိတ် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ပရိုင်းမိတ်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten" title="Primaten – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Primaten" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97" title="प्राथमिकवर्ग – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="प्राथमिकवर्ग" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9C%8A%E9%95%B7%E7%9B%AE" title="霊長目 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="霊長目" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaaten" title="Primaaten – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Primaaten" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primater" title="Primater – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Primater" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatar" title="Primatar – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Primatar" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pr%C3%AEnma" title="Prînma – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Prînma" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nouormand</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target">Novial</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olaantiyyaa" title="Olaantiyyaa – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Olaantiyyaa" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatlar" title="Primatlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Primatlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%86%E0%A8%97%E0%A9%82_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%B8" title="ਆਗੂ ਮਾਨਸ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਆਗੂ ਮਾਨਸ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A2%DA%AF%D9%88_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%B3" title="آگو مانس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="آگو مانس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%8A%D9%85%D9%8A%D9%BC" title="پرايميټ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پرايميټ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-koi mw-list-item"><a href="https://koi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D1%8D%D0%B7" title="Приматтэз – Komi-Permyak" lang="koi" hreflang="koi" data-title="Приматтэз" data-language-autonym="Перем коми" data-language-local-name="Komi-Permyak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Перем коми</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primaten" title="Primaten – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Primaten" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naczelne" title="Naczelne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Naczelne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatas" title="Primatas – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Primatas" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Primate" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Makiyuq" title="Makiyuq – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Makiyuq" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Приматы – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Приматы" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8B" title="Приматы – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Приматы" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Примааттар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Примааттар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Primate" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat%C3%ABt" title="Primatët – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Primatët" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sicilianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primate" title="Primate – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Primate" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prim%C3%A1ty" title="Primáty – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Primáty" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prvaki" title="Prvaki – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Prvaki" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%DA%95%DB%95%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%86" title="گوانداری ڕەسەن – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گوانداری ڕەسەن" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Примати – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Примати" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primati" title="Primati – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Primati" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A4delliset" title="Kädelliset – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kädelliset" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primater" title="Primater – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Primater" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primates" title="Primates – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Primates" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%A9%E0%AE%BF" title="முதனி – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="முதனி" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Приматлар – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Приматлар" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%88%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%9F%E0%B1%8D" title="ప్రైమేట్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ప్రైమేట్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%9A%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%A3" title="อันดับวานร – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อันดับวานร" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat" title="Primat – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Primat" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-udm mw-list-item"><a href="https://udm.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%91%D1%81" title="Приматъёс – Udmurt" lang="udm" hreflang="udm" data-title="Приматъёс" data-language-autonym="Удмурт" data-language-local-name="Udmurt" class="interlanguage-link-target">Удмурт</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Примати – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Примати" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%DB%8C%D9%88%D8%A7%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%AA_%D8%B1%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%B3%DB%81" title="حیوانات رئیسہ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="حیوانات رئیسہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primatad" title="Primatad – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Primatad" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%E1%BB%99_Linh_tr%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Fng" title="Bộ Linh trưởng – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Bộ Linh trưởng" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vls mw-list-item"><a href="https://vls.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primoatn" title="Primoatn – West Flemish" lang="vls" hreflang="vls" data-title="Primoatn" data-language-autonym="West-Vlams" data-language-local-name="West Flemish" class="interlanguage-link-target">West-Vlams</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primata" title="Primata – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Primata" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%B5%E9%95%BF%E7%9B%AE" title="灵长目 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="灵长目" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%98" title="פרימאט – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פרימאט" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo mw-list-item"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ak%E1%BB%8D%CC%81di%C3%A8y%C3%A0n" title="Akọ́dièyàn – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Akọ́dièyàn" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%9D%88%E9%95%B7%E7%9B%AE" title="靈長目 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="靈長目" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat" title="Primat – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Primat" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target">Zazaki</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Primat%C4%81" title="Primatā – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Primatā" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%81%B5%E9%95%BF%E7%9B%AE" title="灵长目 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="灵长目" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q7380#sitelinks-wikipedia" 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For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Primate_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Primate (disambiguation)">Primate (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <table class="infobox biota" style="text-align: left; width: 200px; font-size: 100%"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Primates <div style="font-size: 85%;">Temporal range: 65.9–0 <a href="/wiki/Megaannum" class="mw-redirect" title="Megaannum">Ma</a> <div id="Timeline-row" style="margin: 4px auto 0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:18px; overflow:visible; white-space:nowrap; border:1px #666; border-style:solid none; position:relative; z-index:0; font-size:97%;"> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; left:0px; width:207.23076923077px; padding-left:5px; text-align:left; background-color:rgb(254,217,106); background-image: linear-gradient(to right, rgba(255,255,255,1), rgba(254,217,106,1) 15%, rgba(254,217,106,1));"><a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">PreꞒ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,160,86); left:37.636923076923px; width:18.073846153846px;"><a href="/wiki/Cambrian" title="Cambrian">Ꞓ</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(0,146,112); left:55.710769230769px; width:14.08px;"><a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">O</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(179,225,182); left:69.790769230769px; width:8.3261538461539px;"><a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">S</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(203,140,55); left:78.116923076923px; width:20.409230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Devonian" title="Devonian">D</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(103,165,153); left:98.526153846154px; width:20.307692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Carboniferous" title="Carboniferous">C</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(240,64,40); left:118.83384615385px; width:15.907015384615px;"><a href="/wiki/Permian" title="Permian">P</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(129,43,146); left:134.74086153846px; width:17.092984615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Triassic" title="Triassic">T</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(52,178,201); left:151.83384615385px; width:19.089230769231px;"><a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">J</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(127,198,78); left:170.92307692308px; width:26.738461538462px;"><a href="/wiki/Cretaceous" title="Cretaceous">K</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(253,154,82); left:197.66153846154px; width:14.543692307692px;"><a href="/wiki/Paleogene" title="Paleogene">Pg</a></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:100%; text-align:center; background-color:rgb(255,230,25); left:212.20523076923px; width:6.9215384615385px;"><a href="/wiki/Neogene" title="Neogene">N</a></div> <div id="end-border" style="position:absolute; height:100%; background-color:#666; width:1px; left:219px"></div><div style="margin:0 auto; line-height:0; clear:both; width:220px; padding:0px; height:8px; overflow:visible; background-color:transparent; position:relative; top:-4px; z-index:100;"><div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:191.23076923077px; width:28.769230769231px; background-color:#360; opacity:0.42;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:8px; left:197.69538461538px; width:22.304615384615px; background-color:#360; opacity:1;"></div> <div style="position:absolute; height:6px; top:1px; left:198.69538461538px; width:20.304615384615px; background-color:#6c3;"></div> </div> </div> <a href="/wiki/Early_Paleocene" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Paleocene">Early Paleocene</a> to <a href="/wiki/Holocene" title="Holocene">Present</a></div> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Loris_tardigradus_tardigradus_003.jpg/179px-Loris_tardigradus_tardigradus_003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e9/Loris_tardigradus_tardigradus_003.jpg/238px-Loris_tardigradus_tardigradus_003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2400" data-file-height="1637" /></a></div><div class="text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Red_slender_loris" title="Red slender loris">Red slender loris</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Garnett%27s_Galago_(Greater_Bushbaby).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Garnett%27s_Galago_%28Greater_Bushbaby%29.jpg/129px-Garnett%27s_Galago_%28Greater_Bushbaby%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Garnett%27s_Galago_%28Greater_Bushbaby%29.jpg/194px-Garnett%27s_Galago_%28Greater_Bushbaby%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Garnett%27s_Galago_%28Greater_Bushbaby%29.jpg/258px-Garnett%27s_Galago_%28Greater_Bushbaby%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1511" data-file-height="1194" /></a></div><div class="text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Northern_greater_galago" title="Northern greater galago">Northern greater galago</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:137px;max-width:137px"><div style="height:101px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Bohol_Tarsier.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Bohol_Tarsier.jpg/135px-Bohol_Tarsier.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="101" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Bohol_Tarsier.jpg/203px-Bohol_Tarsier.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Bohol_Tarsier.jpg/270px-Bohol_Tarsier.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></div><div class="text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_tarsier" title="Philippine tarsier">Philippine tarsier</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:137px;max-width:137px"><div style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Ateles_paniscus_-Brazil-8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Ateles_paniscus_-Brazil-8.jpg/135px-Ateles_paniscus_-Brazil-8.jpg" decoding="async" width="135" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Ateles_paniscus_-Brazil-8.jpg/203px-Ateles_paniscus_-Brazil-8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/Ateles_paniscus_-Brazil-8.jpg/270px-Ateles_paniscus_-Brazil-8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2005" data-file-height="1537" /></a></div><div class="text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Black_spider_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Black spider monkey">Black spider monkey</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:131px;max-width:131px"><div style="height:103px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Papio_hamadryas_(aka).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Papio_hamadryas_%28aka%29.jpg/129px-Papio_hamadryas_%28aka%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="129" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Papio_hamadryas_%28aka%29.jpg/194px-Papio_hamadryas_%28aka%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Papio_hamadryas_%28aka%29.jpg/258px-Papio_hamadryas_%28aka%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1600" /></a></div><div class="text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Hamadryas_baboon" title="Hamadryas baboon">Hamadryas baboon</a></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:189px;max-width:189px"><div style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:RickMurphy_graueri72.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/RickMurphy_graueri72.jpg/187px-RickMurphy_graueri72.jpg" decoding="async" width="187" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/RickMurphy_graueri72.jpg/281px-RickMurphy_graueri72.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/RickMurphy_graueri72.jpg/374px-RickMurphy_graueri72.jpg 2x" data-file-width="648" data-file-height="443" /></a></div><div class="text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_gorilla" title="Eastern gorilla">Eastern gorilla</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:79px;max-width:79px"><div style="height:128px;overflow:hidden"><a href="/wiki/File:Akha_cropped_hires.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Akha_cropped_hires.JPG/77px-Akha_cropped_hires.JPG" decoding="async" width="77" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Akha_cropped_hires.JPG/116px-Akha_cropped_hires.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/68/Akha_cropped_hires.JPG/154px-Akha_cropped_hires.JPG 2x" data-file-width="331" data-file-height="554" /></a></div><div class="text-align-center"><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Humans</a></div></div></div></div></div> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; min-width:15em; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Taxonomy_(biology)" title="Taxonomy (biology)">Scientific classification</a> <a href="/wiki/Template:Taxonomy/Primates" title="Edit this classification"><img alt="Edit this classification" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/23px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg/30px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a> </th></tr> <tr> <td>Domain: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">Eukaryota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Kingdom: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Phylum: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Class: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Mirorder: </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Primatomorpha" title="Primatomorpha">Primatomorpha</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Order: </td> <td><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Primates</a> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Linnaeus</a>, 1758<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)">Suborders </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a></li> <li>†<a href="/wiki/Altiatlasius" title="Altiatlasius">Altiatlasius</a></li></ul> sister: <a href="/wiki/Dermoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermoptera">Dermoptera</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center"><a href="/wiki/File:Primate_SpeciesDensity.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Primate_SpeciesDensity.png/220px-Primate_SpeciesDensity.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Primate_SpeciesDensity.png/330px-Primate_SpeciesDensity.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Primate_SpeciesDensity.png/440px-Primate_SpeciesDensity.png 2x" data-file-width="2995" data-file-height="1650" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: center; font-size: 88%">Range and density of non-human primates. </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2" style="color:inherit; text-align: center; background-color: rgb(235,235,210)"><a href="/wiki/Synonym_(taxonomy)" title="Synonym (taxonomy)">Synonyms</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2" style="text-align: left"> <a href="/wiki/Plesiadapiformes" title="Plesiadapiformes">Plesiadapiformes</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cladistically" class="mw-redirect" title="Cladistically">cladistically</a> including crown primates<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a>) </td></tr> </tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238732961">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:transparent}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota tr{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox.biota img{background:white}}.mw-parser-output .infobox.biota .taxobox-edit-taxonomy img{background:transparent!important}body.skin-vector .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox{margin-top:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output table.biota.infobox tr.taxonrow td{padding:2px 10px}</style> Primates is an <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">order</a> of <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>, which is further divided into the <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">strepsirrhines</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Lemurs" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemurs">lemurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Galagos" class="mw-redirect" title="Galagos">galagos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lorisid" class="mw-redirect" title="Lorisid">lorisids</a>; and the <a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">haplorhines</a>, which include <a href="/wiki/Tarsiiformes" title="Tarsiiformes">tarsiers</a> and <a href="/wiki/Simiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Simiiformes">simians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Monkey" title="Monkey">monkeys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">apes</a>). Primates arose 85–55 million years ago first from small <a href="/wiki/Terrestrial_animal" title="Terrestrial animal">terrestrial</a> mammals, which adapted for life in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_forest" title="Tropical forest">tropical forests</a>: many primate characteristics represent adaptations to the challenging environment among <a href="/wiki/Canopy_(biology)" title="Canopy (biology)">tree tops</a>, including large <a href="/wiki/Brain_size" title="Brain size">brain sizes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">binocular vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Color_vision" title="Color vision">color vision</a>, <a href="/wiki/Animal_communication" title="Animal communication">vocalizations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shoulder_girdle" title="Shoulder girdle">shoulder girdles</a> allowing a large degree of movement in the <a href="/wiki/Upper_limb" title="Upper limb">upper limbs</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Opposable_thumb" class="mw-redirect" title="Opposable thumb">opposable thumbs</a> (in most but not all) that enable better <a href="/wiki/Grasping" class="mw-redirect" title="Grasping">grasping</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dexterity" class="mw-redirect" title="Dexterity">dexterity</a>. Primates range in size from <a href="/wiki/Madame_Berthe%27s_mouse_lemur" title="Madame Berthe's mouse lemur">Madame Berthe's mouse lemur</a>, which weighs 30 g (1 oz), to the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_gorilla" title="Eastern gorilla">eastern gorilla</a>, weighing over 200 kg (440 lb). There are 376–524 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of living primates, depending on which classification is used. New primate species continue to be discovered: over 25 species were described in the 2000s, 36 in the 2010s, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_primates_described_in_the_2020s" title="List of primates described in the 2020s">six in the 2020s</a>. Primates have large <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brains</a> (relative to body size) compared to other mammals, as well as an increased reliance on <a href="/wiki/Visual_acuity" title="Visual acuity">visual acuity</a> at the expense of the <a href="/wiki/Sense_of_smell" title="Sense of smell">sense of smell</a>, which is the dominant sensory system in most mammals. These features are more developed in monkeys and apes, and noticeably less so in lorises and lemurs. Some primates, including <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baboon" title="Baboon">baboons</a>, are primarily ground-dwelling rather than arboreal, but all species have adaptations for climbing trees. <a href="/wiki/Arboreal_locomotion" title="Arboreal locomotion">Arboreal locomotion</a> techniques used include leaping from tree to tree and swinging between branches of trees (<a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">brachiation</a>); terrestrial locomotion techniques include walking on two <a href="/wiki/Hindlimb" title="Hindlimb">hindlimbs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bipedal" class="mw-redirect" title="Bipedal">bipedalism</a>) and modified walking on four limbs (<a href="/wiki/Quadripedalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadripedalism">quadripedalism</a>) via <a href="/wiki/Knuckle-walking" title="Knuckle-walking">knuckle-walking</a>. Primates are among the most <a href="/wiki/Social_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Social animal">social</a> of all animals, forming pairs or family groups, uni-male harems, and multi-male/multi-female groups. Non-human primates have at least four types of <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social systems</a>, many defined by the amount of movement by adolescent females between groups. Primates have slower rates of development than other similarly sized mammals, reach maturity later, and have longer lifespans. Primates are also the most <a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">cognitively</a> advanced animals, with humans (genus <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a>) capable of creating complex <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">languages</a> and sophisticated <a href="/wiki/Civilization" title="Civilization">civilizations</a>, and non-human primates are recorded to <a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Tool use by animals">use tools</a>. They may communicate using facial and hand gestures, smells and vocalizations. Close interactions between humans and non-human primates (NHPs) can create opportunities for the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonotic diseases</a>, especially virus diseases including <a href="/wiki/Herpes" title="Herpes">herpes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">ebola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hepatitis" title="Hepatitis">hepatitis</a>. Thousands of non-human primates are used in research around the world because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction. Common threats include <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">forest fragmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monkey_drive" title="Monkey drive">monkey drives</a>, and primate hunting for use in medicines, as pets, and for food. Large-scale tropical forest clearing for agriculture most threatens primates. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2></div> The English name <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/primate#English" class="extiw" title="wikt:primate">primates</a> is derived from <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Old French</a> or French primat, from a noun use of Latin primat-, from primus ('prime, first rank').<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> The name was given by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> because he thought this the "highest" order of animals.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> The relationships among the different groups of primates were not clearly understood until relatively recently, so the commonly used terms are somewhat confused. For example, ape has been used either as an alternative for monkey or for any tailless, relatively human-like primate.<a href="#cite_note-EB11Ape-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20240323-6">[6]</a> Sir <a href="/wiki/Wilfrid_Le_Gros_Clark" title="Wilfrid Le Gros Clark">Wilfrid Le Gros Clark</a> was one of the <a href="/wiki/Primatologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Primatologists">primatologists</a> who developed the idea of trends in primate evolution and the methodology of arranging the living members of an order into an "ascending series" leading to humans.<a href="#cite_note-Dixson1981-7">[7]</a> Commonly used names for groups of primates such as <a href="/wiki/Prosimian" title="Prosimian">prosimians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monkey" title="Monkey">monkeys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Lesser ape">lesser apes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a> reflect this methodology. According to our current understanding of the evolutionary history of the primates, several of these groups are <a href="/wiki/Paraphyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Paraphyletic">paraphyletic</a>, or rather they do not include all the descendants of a common ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In contrast with Clark's methodology, modern classifications typically identify (or name) only those groupings that are <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a>; that is, such a named group includes all the descendants of the group's common ancestor.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cladogram" title="Cladogram">cladogram</a> below shows one possible classification sequence of the living primates:<a href="#cite_note-Cartmill2011-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-PT-11">[11]</a> groups that use common (traditional) names are shown on the right. <table border="0" style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0em;margin-right:0em;font-size:90%;"> <tbody><tr> <td> <div class="clade"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1258728058">body.skin-vector-2022 .mw-parser-output div.clade,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade{overflow-x:auto;overflow-y:hidden}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output div.clade p{font-size:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade{border-spacing:0;margin:0;font-size:100%;line-height:100%;border-collapse:separate;width:auto}.mw-parser-output table.clade table.clade{width:100%;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label{min-width:0.2em;width:0.2em;padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:bottom;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;border-bottom:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label::before,.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel::before{content:"\2060 "}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-fixed-width:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.first{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-label.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel{padding:0.1em 0.25em;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;border-left:1px solid;white-space:nowrap}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel:hover{overflow:visible}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.last{border-left:none;border-right:none}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-slabel.reverse{border-left:none;border-right:1px solid}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar{vertical-align:middle;text-align:left;padding:0 0.5em;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-bar.reverse{text-align:right;position:relative}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf{border:0;padding:0;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leafR{border:0;padding:0;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade td.clade-leaf.reverse{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkA{background-color:yellow}.mw-parser-output table.clade:hover span.linkB{background-color:green}</style> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Primatomorpha" title="Primatomorpha">Primatomorpha</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Dermoptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Dermoptera">Dermoptera</a><a href="/wiki/File:Cynocephalus_volans_Brehm1883_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cynocephalus_volans_Brehm1883_%28white_background%29.jpg/50px-Cynocephalus_volans_Brehm1883_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cynocephalus_volans_Brehm1883_%28white_background%29.jpg/75px-Cynocephalus_volans_Brehm1883_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Cynocephalus_volans_Brehm1883_%28white_background%29.jpg/100px-Cynocephalus_volans_Brehm1883_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1128" data-file-height="938" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">Primates </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhini</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Lemuriformes" title="Lemuriformes">Lemuriformes</a><a href="#cite_note-Lemuriformes-12">[a]</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid purple;border-bottom:0;border-top:2px solid purple;"> <a href="/wiki/Lemur" title="Lemur">lemurs</a> (superfamily Lemuroidea)<a href="/wiki/File:FMIB_46849_Primates_Maki_Moccoe_Lemur_catta_(white_background).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/FMIB_46849_Primates_Maki_Moccoe_Lemur_catta_%28white_background%29.jpeg/35px-FMIB_46849_Primates_Maki_Moccoe_Lemur_catta_%28white_background%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="35" height="53" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/FMIB_46849_Primates_Maki_Moccoe_Lemur_catta_%28white_background%29.jpeg/53px-FMIB_46849_Primates_Maki_Moccoe_Lemur_catta_%28white_background%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/FMIB_46849_Primates_Maki_Moccoe_Lemur_catta_%28white_background%29.jpeg/70px-FMIB_46849_Primates_Maki_Moccoe_Lemur_catta_%28white_background%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="566" data-file-height="850" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid purple;border-bottom:0;border-top:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Lorisoidea" title="Lorisoidea">lorises and allies</a> (superfamily Lorisoidea)<a href="/wiki/File:Nycticebus_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nycticebus_%28white_background%29.jpg/25px-Nycticebus_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nycticebus_%28white_background%29.jpg/38px-Nycticebus_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/Nycticebus_%28white_background%29.jpg/50px-Nycticebus_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="582" data-file-height="380" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Tarsiiformes" title="Tarsiiformes">Tarsiiformes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid purple;border-bottom:2px solid purple;border-top:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">tarsiers</a> (superfamily Tarsioidea)<a href="/wiki/File:S%C3%A4ugethiere_vom_Celebes-_und_Philippinen-Archipel_(Taf._III)_(white_background)_(1).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/S%C3%A4ugethiere_vom_Celebes-_und_Philippinen-Archipel_%28Taf._III%29_%28white_background%29_%281%29.jpg/25px-S%C3%A4ugethiere_vom_Celebes-_und_Philippinen-Archipel_%28Taf._III%29_%28white_background%29_%281%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="25" height="42" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/S%C3%A4ugethiere_vom_Celebes-_und_Philippinen-Archipel_%28Taf._III%29_%28white_background%29_%281%29.jpg/38px-S%C3%A4ugethiere_vom_Celebes-_und_Philippinen-Archipel_%28Taf._III%29_%28white_background%29_%281%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/S%C3%A4ugethiere_vom_Celebes-_und_Philippinen-Archipel_%28Taf._III%29_%28white_background%29_%281%29.jpg/50px-S%C3%A4ugethiere_vom_Celebes-_und_Philippinen-Archipel_%28Taf._III%29_%28white_background%29_%281%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="288" data-file-height="484" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Simiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Simiiformes">Simiiformes</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid crimson;border-bottom:0;border-top:2px solid crimson;"> <a href="/wiki/New_World_monkey" title="New World monkey">New World monkeys</a> (parvorder Platyrrhini)<a href="/wiki/File:Die_S%C3%A4ugthiere_in_Abbildungen_nach_der_Natur,_mit_Beschreibungen_(Plate_8)_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Die_S%C3%A4ugthiere_in_Abbildungen_nach_der_Natur%2C_mit_Beschreibungen_%28Plate_8%29_%28white_background%29.jpg/50px-Die_S%C3%A4ugthiere_in_Abbildungen_nach_der_Natur%2C_mit_Beschreibungen_%28Plate_8%29_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Die_S%C3%A4ugthiere_in_Abbildungen_nach_der_Natur%2C_mit_Beschreibungen_%28Plate_8%29_%28white_background%29.jpg/75px-Die_S%C3%A4ugthiere_in_Abbildungen_nach_der_Natur%2C_mit_Beschreibungen_%28Plate_8%29_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Die_S%C3%A4ugthiere_in_Abbildungen_nach_der_Natur%2C_mit_Beschreibungen_%28Plate_8%29_%28white_background%29.jpg/100px-Die_S%C3%A4ugthiere_in_Abbildungen_nach_der_Natur%2C_mit_Beschreibungen_%28Plate_8%29_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="883" data-file-height="384" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Catarrhini" title="Catarrhini">Catarrhini</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid crimson;border-bottom:2px solid crimson;border-top:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Old_World_monkey" title="Old World monkey">Old World monkeys</a> (superfamily Cercopithecoidea)<a href="/wiki/File:Cynocephalus_doguera_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_(white_background).tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cynocephalus_doguera_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_%28white_background%29.tiff/lossless-page1-60px-Cynocephalus_doguera_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_%28white_background%29.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="48" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cynocephalus_doguera_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_%28white_background%29.tiff/lossless-page1-90px-Cynocephalus_doguera_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_%28white_background%29.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Cynocephalus_doguera_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_%28white_background%29.tiff/lossless-page1-120px-Cynocephalus_doguera_-_1700-1880_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_%28white_background%29.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="982" data-file-height="780" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Hominoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoidea">Hominoidea</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid green;border-bottom:2px solid green;border-top:2px solid green;"> <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbons</a> (family Hylobatidae)<a href="/wiki/File:Le_gibbon_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Le_gibbon_%28white_background%29.jpg/50px-Le_gibbon_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="55" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Le_gibbon_%28white_background%29.jpg/75px-Le_gibbon_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Le_gibbon_%28white_background%29.jpg/100px-Le_gibbon_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="905" data-file-height="999" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid darkgreen;border-bottom:0;border-top:2px solid darkgreen;"> <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a> (subfamily Ponginae)<a href="/wiki/File:Simia_satyrus_-_1837_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_White_Background.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Simia_satyrus_-_1837_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_White_Background.jpg/60px-Simia_satyrus_-_1837_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_White_Background.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="72" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Simia_satyrus_-_1837_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_White_Background.jpg/90px-Simia_satyrus_-_1837_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_White_Background.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Simia_satyrus_-_1837_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_White_Background.jpg/120px-Simia_satyrus_-_1837_-_Print_-_Iconographia_Zoologica_-_Special_Collections_University_of_Amsterdam_-_White_Background.jpg 2x" data-file-width="416" data-file-height="498" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Homininae" title="Homininae">Homininae</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid darkgreen;border-bottom:0;border-top:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a> (tribe Gorillini)<a href="/wiki/File:Gorila_de_llanura_occidental._Gorilla_gorilla_-_Blanca_Mart%C3%AD_de_Ahumada_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Gorila_de_llanura_occidental._Gorilla_gorilla_-_Blanca_Mart%C3%AD_de_Ahumada_%28white_background%29.jpg/60px-Gorila_de_llanura_occidental._Gorilla_gorilla_-_Blanca_Mart%C3%AD_de_Ahumada_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="60" height="71" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Gorila_de_llanura_occidental._Gorilla_gorilla_-_Blanca_Mart%C3%AD_de_Ahumada_%28white_background%29.jpg/90px-Gorila_de_llanura_occidental._Gorilla_gorilla_-_Blanca_Mart%C3%AD_de_Ahumada_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Gorila_de_llanura_occidental._Gorilla_gorilla_-_Blanca_Mart%C3%AD_de_Ahumada_%28white_background%29.jpg/120px-Gorila_de_llanura_occidental._Gorilla_gorilla_-_Blanca_Mart%C3%AD_de_Ahumada_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="393" data-file-height="468" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Hominini" title="Hominini">Hominini</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid darkgreen;border-bottom:0;border-top:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">humans</a> (g. Homo)<a href="/wiki/File:Silhouette_of_a_woman_walking.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Silhouette_of_a_woman_walking.svg/60px-Silhouette_of_a_woman_walking.svg.png" decoding="async" width="60" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Silhouette_of_a_woman_walking.svg/90px-Silhouette_of_a_woman_walking.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Silhouette_of_a_woman_walking.svg/120px-Silhouette_of_a_woman_walking.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="1052" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf" style="border-right:2px solid darkgreen;border-bottom:2px solid darkgreen;border-top:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">chimpanzees, bonobos</a> (g. Pan)<a href="/wiki/File:PanTroglodytesSmit_(white_background).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/PanTroglodytesSmit_%28white_background%29.jpg/50px-PanTroglodytesSmit_%28white_background%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="50" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/PanTroglodytesSmit_%28white_background%29.jpg/75px-PanTroglodytesSmit_%28white_background%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3f/PanTroglodytesSmit_%28white_background%29.jpg/100px-PanTroglodytesSmit_%28white_background%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="633" data-file-height="505" /></a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td> <td><div style="position:relative;margin-top:0.742em;height:19.08em;width:6em"> <div style="position:absolute;top:-9.42em;color:purple;white-space:nowrap">prosimians</div> <div style="position:absolute;top:0.756em;color:crimson;white-space:nowrap">monkeys</div> <div style="position:absolute;top:7.54em;color:darkgreen;white-space:nowrap">lesser apes</div> <div style="position:absolute;top:23.44em;color:green;white-space:nowrap">great apes</div></div> </td></tr></tbody></table> All groups with scientific names are <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clades</a>, or monophyletic groups, and the sequence of scientific classification reflects the evolutionary history of the related lineages. Groups that are traditionally named are shown on the right; they form an "ascending series" (per Clark, see above), and several groups are paraphyletic: <ul><li>Prosimians contain two monophyletic groups (the suborder Strepsirrhini, or lemurs, lorises and allies, as well as the tarsiers of the suborder Haplorhini); it is a paraphyletic grouping because it excludes the Simiiformes, which also are descendants of the common ancestor Primates.</li> <li>Monkeys comprise two monophyletic groups, New World monkeys and Old World monkeys, but is paraphyletic because it excludes hominoids, superfamily Hominoidea, also descendants of the common ancestor Simiiformes.</li> <li>Apes as a whole, and the <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a>, are paraphyletic if the terms are used such that they exclude humans.</li></ul> Thus, the members of the two sets of groups, and hence names, do not match, which causes problems in relating scientific names to common (usually traditional) names. Consider the superfamily Hominoidea: In terms of the common names on the right, this group consists of apes and humans and there is no single common name for all the members of the group. One remedy is to create a new common name, in this case hominoids. Another possibility is to expand the use of one of the traditional names. For example, in his 2005 book, the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Palaeontology" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeontology">palaeontologist</a> Benton wrote, "The apes, Hominoidea, today include the <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbons</a> and <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutan</a> ... the <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorilla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> ... and <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>";<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton2005371-13">[12]</a> thereby Benton was using apes to mean hominoids. In that case, the group heretofore called apes must now be identified as the non-human apes. As of 2021<a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Primate&action=edit">[update]</a>, there is no consensus as to whether to accept traditional (that is, common), but paraphyletic, names or to use monophyletic names only; or to use 'new' common names or adaptations of old ones. Both competing approaches can be found in biological sources, often in the same work, and sometimes by the same author. Thus, Benton defines apes to include humans, then he repeatedly uses ape-like to mean 'like an ape rather than a human'; and when discussing the reaction of others to a new fossil he writes of "claims that <a href="/wiki/Orrorin" title="Orrorin">Orrorin</a> ... was an ape rather than a human".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton2005378–380-14">[13]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_of_living_primates">Classification of living primates</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primates-drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Primates-drawing.jpg/170px-Primates-drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Primates-drawing.jpg/255px-Primates-drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Primates-drawing.jpg/340px-Primates-drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="2340" /></a><figcaption>A 1927 drawing of <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">gibbon</a> (top right) and two <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a> (center and bottom center): The chimpanzee in the upper left is <a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">brachiating</a>; the orangutan at the bottom center is <a href="/wiki/Knuckle-walking" title="Knuckle-walking">knuckle-walking</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:AFR_V4_D225_Kafir_man_and_woman.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/AFR_V4_D225_Kafir_man_and_woman.png/170px-AFR_V4_D225_Kafir_man_and_woman.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="249" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/AFR_V4_D225_Kafir_man_and_woman.png/255px-AFR_V4_D225_Kafir_man_and_woman.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/AFR_V4_D225_Kafir_man_and_woman.png/340px-AFR_V4_D225_Kafir_man_and_woman.png 2x" data-file-width="2054" data-file-height="3006" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Homo_sapiens" class="mw-redirect" title="Homo sapiens">Homo sapiens</a> is the only living primate species that is fully bipedal</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NILGIRI_LANGUR_(Trachypithecus_johnii).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/NILGIRI_LANGUR_%28Trachypithecus_johnii%29.jpg/170px-NILGIRI_LANGUR_%28Trachypithecus_johnii%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/NILGIRI_LANGUR_%28Trachypithecus_johnii%29.jpg/255px-NILGIRI_LANGUR_%28Trachypithecus_johnii%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/NILGIRI_LANGUR_%28Trachypithecus_johnii%29.jpg/340px-NILGIRI_LANGUR_%28Trachypithecus_johnii%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3240" data-file-height="4320" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Nilgiri_langur" title="Nilgiri langur">Nilgiri langur</a> (Trachypithecus johnii), an <a href="/wiki/Old_World_monkey" title="Old World monkey">Old World monkey</a></figcaption></figure> A list of the families of the living primates is given below, together with one possible classification into ranks between order and family.<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cartmill2011-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mittermeier2008-15">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-SAP-16">[15]</a> Other classifications are also used. For example, an alternative classification of the living Strepsirrhini divides them into two infraorders, Lemuriformes and Lorisiformes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwig201120–21-17">[16]</a> <ul><li>Order Primates <ul><li>Suborder <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhini</a>: lemurs, galagos and lorisids <ul><li>Infraorder <a href="/wiki/Lemuriformes" title="Lemuriformes">Lemuriformes</a><a href="#cite_note-Lemuriformes-12">[a]</a> <ul><li>Superfamily <a href="/wiki/Lemuroidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemuroidea">Lemuroidea</a> <ul><li>Family <a href="/wiki/Cheirogaleidae" title="Cheirogaleidae">Cheirogaleidae</a>: dwarf lemurs and mouse-lemurs (41 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Aye-aye" title="Aye-aye">Daubentoniidae</a>: aye-aye (1 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Lemuridae" title="Lemuridae">Lemuridae</a>: ring-tailed lemur and allies (21 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Lepilemuridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Lepilemuridae">Lepilemuridae</a>: sportive lemurs (26 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Indriidae" title="Indriidae">Indriidae</a>: woolly lemurs and allies (19 species)</li></ul></li> <li>Superfamily <a href="/wiki/Lorisoidea" title="Lorisoidea">Lorisoidea</a> <ul><li>Family <a href="/wiki/Lorisidae" title="Lorisidae">Lorisidae</a>: lorisids (16 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Galagidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Galagidae">Galagidae</a>: galagos (23 species)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li>Suborder <a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a>: tarsiers, monkeys and apes <ul><li>Infraorder <a href="/wiki/Tarsiiformes" title="Tarsiiformes">Tarsiiformes</a> <ul><li>Family <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">Tarsiidae</a>: tarsiers (14 species)</li></ul></li> <li>Infraorder <a href="/wiki/Simiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Simiiformes">Simiiformes</a> (or Anthropoidea) <ul><li>Parvorder <a href="/wiki/Platyrrhini" class="mw-redirect" title="Platyrrhini">Platyrrhini</a>: New World monkeys <ul><li>Family <a href="/wiki/Callitrichidae" title="Callitrichidae">Callitrichidae</a>: marmosets and tamarins (49 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Cebidae" title="Cebidae">Cebidae</a>: capuchins and squirrel monkeys (29 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Aotidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Aotidae">Aotidae</a>: night or owl monkeys (douroucoulis) (11 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Pitheciidae" title="Pitheciidae">Pitheciidae</a>: titis, sakis and uakaris (56 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Atelidae" title="Atelidae">Atelidae</a>: howler, spider, woolly spider and woolly monkeys (26 species)</li></ul></li> <li>Parvorder <a href="/wiki/Catarrhini" title="Catarrhini">Catarrhini</a> <ul><li>Superfamily <a href="/wiki/Old_World_monkey" title="Old World monkey">Cercopithecoidea</a> <ul><li>Family <a href="/wiki/Old_World_monkey" title="Old World monkey">Cercopithecidae</a>: Old World monkeys (165 species)</li></ul></li> <li>Superfamily <a href="/wiki/Hominoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoidea">Hominoidea</a> <ul><li>Family <a href="/wiki/Hylobatidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Hylobatidae">Hylobatidae</a>: gibbons or "lesser apes" (20 species)</li> <li>Family <a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a>: great apes, including humans (8 species)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> Order Primates was established by <a href="/wiki/Carl_Linnaeus" title="Carl Linnaeus">Carl Linnaeus</a> in 1758, in the <a href="/wiki/10th_edition_of_Systema_Naturae" title="10th edition of Systema Naturae">tenth edition</a> of his book <a href="/wiki/Systema_Naturae" title="Systema Naturae">Systema Naturae</a>,<a href="#cite_note-20">[19]</a> for the genera <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a> (humans), <a href="/wiki/Simia" title="Simia">Simia</a> (other apes and monkeys), <a href="/wiki/Lemur_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Lemur (genus)">Lemur</a> (prosimians) and <a href="/wiki/Vespertilio" title="Vespertilio">Vespertilio</a> (bats). In the first edition of the same book (1735), he had used the name <a href="/wiki/Anthropomorpha" title="Anthropomorpha">Anthropomorpha</a> for Homo, Simia and <a href="/wiki/Bradypus" class="mw-redirect" title="Bradypus">Bradypus</a> (sloths).<a href="#cite_note-21">[20]</a> In 1839, <a href="/wiki/Henri_Marie_Ducrotay_de_Blainville" title="Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville">Henri Marie Ducrotay de Blainville</a>, following Linnaeus and aping his nomenclature, established the orders <a href="/wiki/Secundates" title="Secundates">Secundates</a> (including the suborders <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">Chiroptera</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insectivora" title="Insectivora">Insectivora</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">Carnivora</a>), <a href="/wiki/Tertiates" title="Tertiates">Tertiates</a> (or <a href="/wiki/Glires" title="Glires">Glires</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Quaternates" title="Quaternates">Quaternates</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Gravigrada" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravigrada">Gravigrada</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pachydermata" title="Pachydermata">Pachydermata</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ruminantia" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruminantia">Ruminantia</a>),<a href="#cite_note-22">[21]</a> but these new taxa were not accepted. Before Anderson and Jones introduced the classification of Strepsirrhini and Haplorhini in 1984,<a href="#cite_note-23">[22]</a> (followed by McKenna and Bell's 1997 work <a href="/wiki/Mammal_classification#McKenna/Bell_classification" title="Mammal classification">Classification of Mammals: Above the species level</a>),<a href="#cite_note-24">[23]</a> Primates was divided into two superfamilies: <a href="/wiki/Prosimii" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosimii">Prosimii</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anthropoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropoidea">Anthropoidea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-25">[24]</a> Prosimii included all of the <a href="/wiki/Prosimian" title="Prosimian">prosimians</a>: Strepsirrhini plus the <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">tarsiers</a>. Anthropoidea contained all of the <a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">simians</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phylogeny_and_genetics">Phylogeny and genetics</h2></div> <table style="border: 1px solid #ccc; vertical-align: middle; width: 248px; margin:0.2em 0 0.2em 1em; float:right; clear:right;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="padding: 5px"> <div class="clade"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade" style="font-size:85%; width:35em;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a>   </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"><a href="/wiki/Glires" title="Glires">Glires</a>  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodentia</a> (rodents) </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Lagomorpha" title="Lagomorpha">Lagomorpha</a> (rabbits, hares, pikas) </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> <a href="/wiki/Euarchonta" title="Euarchonta">Euarchonta</a>  </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Treeshrew" title="Treeshrew">Scandentia</a> (treeshrews) </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"><a href="/wiki/Primatomorpha" title="Primatomorpha">Primatomorpha</a> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <a href="/wiki/Colugo" title="Colugo">Dermoptera</a> (colugos) </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label">Primates </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> <div><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1258728058"> <table class="clade"> <tbody><tr> <td class="clade-label first" style="border-left:none;border-right:none;border-bottom:3px double;"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> †<a href="/wiki/Plesiadapiformes" title="Plesiadapiformes">Plesiadapiformes</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel" style="border-right:none;border-left:1px solid;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-label"> </td> <td rowspan="2" class="clade-leaf"> crown primates </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> <tr> <td class="clade-slabel last"> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <a href="/wiki/Order_(biology)" title="Order (biology)">Order</a> Primates is part of the clade <a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a>, which is nested within the clade <a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">Eutheria</a> of Class <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a>. Recent molecular genetic research on primates, <a href="/wiki/Colugo" title="Colugo">colugos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treeshrew" title="Treeshrew">treeshrews</a> has shown that the two species of colugos are more closely related to primates than to treeshrews,<a href="#cite_note-26">[25]</a> even though treeshrews were at one time considered primates.<a href="#cite_note-27">[26]</a> These three orders make up the <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> <a href="/wiki/Euarchonta" title="Euarchonta">Euarchonta</a>. The combination of this clade with the clade <a href="/wiki/Glires" title="Glires">Glires</a> (composed of <a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodentia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lagomorpha" title="Lagomorpha">Lagomorpha</a>) forms the clade Euarchontoglires. Variously, both Euarchonta and Euarchontoglires are ranked as superorders. Some scientists consider Dermoptera to be a suborder of Primates and use the suborder Euprimates for the "true" primates.<a href="#cite_note-28">[27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evolutionary_history">Evolutionary history</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_primates" title="Evolution of primates">Evolution of primates</a></div> The primate lineage is thought to go back at least near the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_boundary" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary">Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary</a> or around 63–74 (<a href="/wiki/Mya_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mya (unit)">mya</a>).<a href="#cite_note-2010Williams-29">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-StanyonSpringer2012-30">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-JamesonHou2011-31">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-PozziHodgson2014-32">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-StanyonFinstermeier2013-33">[32]</a> The earliest possible primate/proto-primate may be <a href="/wiki/Purgatorius" title="Purgatorius">Purgatorius</a>, which dates back to <a href="/wiki/Danian" title="Danian">Early Paleocene</a> of North America ~66mya.<a href="#cite_note-placental_radiation-34">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[34]</a> The oldest known primates from the fossil record date to the Late Paleocene of Africa, c.57 mya (<a href="/wiki/Altiatlasius" title="Altiatlasius">Altiatlasius</a>)<a href="#cite_note-BAWilliams_2010-36">[35]</a> or the Paleocene-Eocene transition in the northern continents, c. 55 mya (<a href="/wiki/Cantius" title="Cantius">Cantius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donrussellia" title="Donrussellia">Donrussellia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Altanius" title="Altanius">Altanius</a>, <a href="/wiki/Plesiadapis" title="Plesiadapis">Plesiadapis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teilhardina" title="Teilhardina">Teilhardina</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Miller_2005-37">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChatterjeeEtal2009-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-placental_radiation-34">[33]</a> Other studies, including molecular clock studies, have estimated the origin of the primate branch to have been in the mid-Cretaceous period, around 85 mya.<a href="#cite_note-39">[38]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-41">[40]</a> By modern <a href="/wiki/Cladistics" title="Cladistics">cladistic</a> reckoning, the order Primates is <a href="/wiki/Monophyletic" class="mw-redirect" title="Monophyletic">monophyletic</a>. The suborder <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhini</a>, the "<a href="/wiki/Rhinarium" title="Rhinarium">wet-nosed</a>" primates, is generally thought to have split off from the primitive primate line about 63 mya,<a href="#cite_note-42">[41]</a> although earlier dates are also supported.<a href="#cite_note-genome-43">[42]</a> The seven strepsirrhine families are the five related <a href="/wiki/Lemur" title="Lemur">lemur</a> families and the two remaining families that include the <a href="/wiki/Lorisidae" title="Lorisidae">lorisids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Galago" title="Galago">galagos</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mittermeier2008-15">[14]</a> Older classification schemes wrap <a href="/wiki/Sportive_lemur" title="Sportive lemur">Lepilemuridae</a> into <a href="/wiki/Lemuridae" title="Lemuridae">Lemuridae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galago" title="Galago">Galagidae</a> into <a href="/wiki/Lorisidae" title="Lorisidae">Lorisidae</a>, yielding a four-one family distribution instead of five-two as presented here.<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>, most of the northern continents were dominated by two groups, the <a href="/wiki/Adapiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Adapiform">adapiforms</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Omomyid" class="mw-redirect" title="Omomyid">omomyids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sellers-44">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-evolution-45">[44]</a> The former are considered members of Strepsirrhini, but did not have a <a href="/wiki/Toothcomb" title="Toothcomb">toothcomb</a> like modern lemurs; recent analysis has demonstrated that <a href="/wiki/Darwinius" title="Darwinius">Darwinius masillae</a> fits into this grouping.<a href="#cite_note-Williams2010-46">[45]</a> The latter was closely related to tarsiers, monkeys, and apes. How these two groups relate to extant primates is unclear. Omomyids perished about 30 mya,<a href="#cite_note-evolution-45">[44]</a> while adapiforms survived until about 10 mya.<a href="#cite_note-47">[46]</a> According to genetic studies, the lemurs of Madagascar diverged from the lorisoids approximately 75 mya.<a href="#cite_note-genome-43">[42]</a> These studies, as well as chromosomal and molecular evidence, also show that lemurs are more closely related to each other than to other strepsirrhine primates.<a href="#cite_note-genome-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Garbutt-48">[47]</a> However, Madagascar split from Africa 160 mya and from India 90 mya.<a href="#cite_note-Lemurs-49">[48]</a> To account for these facts, a founding lemur population of a few individuals is thought to have reached Madagascar from Africa via a single <a href="/wiki/Rafting_event" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafting event">rafting event</a> between 50 and 80 mya.<a href="#cite_note-genome-43">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-Garbutt-48">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lemurs-49">[48]</a> Other colonization options have been suggested, such as multiple colonizations from Africa and India,<a href="#cite_note-Sellers-44">[43]</a> but none are supported by the genetic and molecular evidence.<a href="#cite_note-genome-43">[42]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brown_Lemur_in_Andasibe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Brown_Lemur_in_Andasibe.jpg/220px-Brown_Lemur_in_Andasibe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Brown_Lemur_in_Andasibe.jpg/330px-Brown_Lemur_in_Andasibe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b5/Brown_Lemur_in_Andasibe.jpg/440px-Brown_Lemur_in_Andasibe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3129" data-file-height="2235" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Common_brown_lemur" title="Common brown lemur">Common brown lemur</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">strepsirrhine</a> primate</figcaption></figure> Until recently, the <a href="/wiki/Aye-aye" title="Aye-aye">aye-aye</a> has been difficult to place within Strepsirrhini.<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a> Theories had been proposed that its family, Daubentoniidae, was either a lemuriform primate (meaning its ancestors split from the lemur line more recently than lemurs and lorises split) or a sister group to all the other strepsirrhines. In 2008, the aye-aye family was confirmed to be most closely related to the other Malagasy lemurs, likely having descended from the same ancestral population that colonized the island.<a href="#cite_note-genome-43">[42]</a> Suborder <a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a>, the simple-nosed or "dry-nosed" primates, is composed of two sister clades.<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prosimian" title="Prosimian">Prosimian</a> tarsiers in the family Tarsiidae (monotypic in its own infraorder Tarsiiformes), represent the most <a href="/wiki/Basal_(phylogenetics)" title="Basal (phylogenetics)">basal</a> division, originating about 58 mya.<a href="#cite_note-50">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-51">[50]</a> The earliest known haplorhine skeleton, that of 55 MA old tarsier-like <a href="/wiki/Archicebus" title="Archicebus">Archicebus</a>, was found in central China,<a href="#cite_note-SCN-20130605-52">[51]</a> supporting an already suspected Asian origin for the group.<a href="#cite_note-Kay2012-53">[52]</a> The infraorder <a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">Simiiformes</a> (simian primates, consisting of monkeys and apes) emerged about 40 mya,<a href="#cite_note-evolution-45">[44]</a> possibly also in Asia; if so, they <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_dispersal" title="Oceanic dispersal">dispersed</a> across the <a href="/wiki/Tethys_Ocean" title="Tethys Ocean">Tethys Sea</a> from Asia to Africa soon afterwards.<a href="#cite_note-Chaimanee-54">[53]</a> There are two simian clades, both <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/parvorder" class="extiw" title="wikt:parvorder">parvorders</a>: <a href="/wiki/Catarrhini" title="Catarrhini">Catarrhini</a>, which developed in Africa, consisting of <a href="/wiki/Old_World_monkey" title="Old World monkey">Old World monkeys</a>, humans and the other apes, and Platyrrhini, which developed in South America, consisting of <a href="/wiki/New_World_monkey" title="New World monkey">New World monkeys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a> A third clade, which included the <a href="/wiki/Eosimiids" class="mw-redirect" title="Eosimiids">eosimiids</a>, developed in Asia, but became extinct millions of years ago.<a href="#cite_note-55">[54]</a> As in the case of lemurs, the origin of New World monkeys is unclear. Molecular studies of concatenated nuclear sequences have yielded a widely varying estimated date of divergence between platyrrhines and catarrhines, ranging from 33 to 70 mya, while studies based on mitochondrial sequences produce a narrower range of 35 to 43 mya.<a href="#cite_note-ChatterjeeEtal2009-38">[37]</a><a href="#cite_note-Schrago-56">[55]</a> The anthropoid primates possibly traversed the Atlantic Ocean from Africa to South America during the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a> by <a href="/wiki/Island_hopping" class="mw-redirect" title="Island hopping">island hopping</a>, facilitated by <a href="/wiki/Mid-Atlantic_Ridge" title="Mid-Atlantic Ridge">Atlantic Ocean ridges</a> and a lowered sea level.<a href="#cite_note-Sellers-44">[43]</a> Alternatively, a single <a href="/wiki/Oceanic_dispersal" title="Oceanic dispersal">rafting event</a> may explain this transoceanic colonization. Due to <a href="/wiki/Continental_drift" title="Continental drift">continental drift</a>, the Atlantic Ocean was not nearly as wide at the time as it is today.<a href="#cite_note-Sellers-44">[43]</a> Research suggests that a small 1 kg (2.2 lb) primate could have survived 13 days on a raft of vegetation.<a href="#cite_note-Houle-57">[56]</a> Given estimated current and wind speeds, this would have provided enough time to make the voyage between the continents. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tamarin_portrait_2_edit3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tamarin_portrait_2_edit3.jpg/220px-Tamarin_portrait_2_edit3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tamarin_portrait_2_edit3.jpg/330px-Tamarin_portrait_2_edit3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Tamarin_portrait_2_edit3.jpg/440px-Tamarin_portrait_2_edit3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1067" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Emperor_tamarin" title="Emperor tamarin">Emperor tamarin</a>, a <a href="/wiki/New_World_monkey" title="New World monkey">New World monkey</a></figcaption></figure> Apes and monkeys spread from Africa into Europe and Asia starting in the <a href="/wiki/Miocene" title="Miocene">Miocene</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Andrews-58">[57]</a> Soon after, the lorises and tarsiers made the same journey. The first hominin fossils were discovered in northern Africa and date back 5–8 mya.<a href="#cite_note-evolution-45">[44]</a> Old World monkeys disappeared from Europe about 1.8 mya.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> Molecular and fossil studies generally show that modern humans originated in Africa 100,000–200,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-60">[59]</a> Although primates are well studied in comparison to other animal groups, several new species have <a href="/wiki/Primates_discovered_in_the_2000s" class="mw-redirect" title="Primates discovered in the 2000s">been discovered recently</a>, and genetic tests have revealed previously unrecognised species in known populations. Primate Taxonomy listed about 350 species of primates in 2001;<a href="#cite_note-PT-11">[11]</a> the author, <a href="/wiki/Colin_Groves" title="Colin Groves">Colin Groves</a>, increased that number to 376 for his contribution to the third edition of <a href="/wiki/Mammal_Species_of_the_World" title="Mammal Species of the World">Mammal Species of the World</a> (MSW3).<a href="#cite_note-MSW3-1">[1]</a> However, publications since the taxonomy in MSW3 was compiled in 2003 have pushed the number to 522 species, or 708 including subspecies.<a href="#cite_note-IUCN_SSC-61">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hybrids">Hybrids</h3></div> Primate <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_(biology)" title="Hybrid (biology)">hybrids</a> usually arise in captivity,<a href="#cite_note-songs-62">[61]</a> but there have also been examples in the wild.<a href="#cite_note-natoccur-63">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[63]</a> Hybridization occurs where two species' range overlap to form <a href="/wiki/Hybrid_zone" title="Hybrid zone">hybrid zones</a>; hybrids may be created by humans when animals are placed in zoos or due to environmental pressures such as predation.<a href="#cite_note-natoccur-63">[62]</a> Intergeneric hybridizations, hybrids of different genera, have also been found in the wild. Although they belong to genera that have been distinct for several million years, interbreeding still occurs between the <a href="/wiki/Gelada" title="Gelada">gelada</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hamadryas_baboon" title="Hamadryas baboon">hamadryas baboon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[64]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clones">Clones</h3></div> On 24 January 2018, scientists in China reported in the journal <a href="/wiki/Cell_(journal)" title="Cell (journal)">Cell</a> the creation of two <a href="/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque" title="Crab-eating macaque">crab-eating macaque</a> <a href="/wiki/Clone_(cell_biology)" title="Clone (cell biology)">clones</a>, named <a href="/wiki/Zhong_Zhong_and_Hua_Hua" title="Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua">Zhong Zhong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Zhong_Zhong_and_Hua_Hua" title="Zhong Zhong and Hua Hua">Hua Hua</a>, using the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_transfer" title="Nuclear transfer">complex DNA transfer method</a> that produced <a href="/wiki/Dolly_(sheep)" title="Dolly (sheep)">Dolly the sheep</a>, for the first time.<a href="#cite_note-CELL-20180124-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20180124-67">[66]</a><a href="#cite_note-NAT-20180124-68">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-BBC-20180124-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20180124-70">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Anatomy_and_physiology">Anatomy and physiology</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Head">Head</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Primate_skull_series_with_legend_cropped.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Primate_skull_series_with_legend_cropped.png/220px-Primate_skull_series_with_legend_cropped.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Primate_skull_series_with_legend_cropped.png/330px-Primate_skull_series_with_legend_cropped.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Primate_skull_series_with_legend_cropped.png/440px-Primate_skull_series_with_legend_cropped.png 2x" data-file-width="1748" data-file-height="1431" /></a><figcaption>Primate skulls showing <a href="/wiki/Postorbital_bar" title="Postorbital bar">postorbital bar</a>, and increasing brain sizes</figcaption></figure> The primate skull has a large, domed <a href="/wiki/Skull" title="Skull">cranium</a>, which is particularly prominent in <a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">anthropoids</a>. The cranium protects the large brain, a distinguishing characteristic of this group.<a href="#cite_note-pough-71">[70]</a> The endocranial volume (the volume within the skull) is three times greater in <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> than in the greatest nonhuman primate, reflecting a larger brain size.<a href="#cite_note-aiello-72">[71]</a> The mean endocranial volume is 1,201 cubic centimeters in humans, 469 cm3 in <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a>, 400 cm3 in <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a> and 397 cm3 in <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a>.<a href="#cite_note-aiello-72">[71]</a> The primary evolutionary trend of primates has been the elaboration of the brain, in particular the <a href="/wiki/Neocortex" title="Neocortex">neocortex</a> (a part of the <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_cortex" title="Cerebral cortex">cerebral cortex</a>), which is involved with <a href="/wiki/Sense" title="Sense">sensory perception</a>, generation of <a href="/wiki/Motor_cortex" title="Motor cortex">motor commands</a>, spatial reasoning, <a href="/wiki/Consciousness" title="Consciousness">conscious thought</a> and, in humans, <a href="/wiki/Language" title="Language">language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-73">[72]</a> While other mammals rely heavily on their <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">sense of smell</a>, the arboreal life of primates has led to a <a href="/wiki/Somatosensory_system" title="Somatosensory system">tactile</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visual_perception" title="Visual perception">visually</a> dominant sensory system,<a href="#cite_note-britannica-73">[72]</a> a reduction in the olfactory region of the brain and increasingly complex social behavior.<a href="#cite_note-adw-74">[73]</a> The visual acuity of <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Hominid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominid">hominids</a> is exceptional; they have the most <a href="/wiki/Spatial_resolution" title="Spatial resolution">acute vision</a> known among all vertebrates, with the exception of certain species of <a href="/wiki/Bird_of_prey" title="Bird of prey">predatory birds</a>.<a href="#cite_note-75">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-76">[75]</a> Primates have forward-facing eyes on the front of the skull; <a href="/wiki/Binocular_vision" title="Binocular vision">binocular vision</a> allows accurate distance perception, useful for the <a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">brachiating</a> ancestors of all great apes.<a href="#cite_note-pough-71">[70]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Supraorbital_ridge" class="mw-redirect" title="Supraorbital ridge">bony ridge</a> above the eye sockets reinforces weaker bones in the face, which are put under strain during chewing. <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhines</a> have a <a href="/wiki/Postorbital_bar" title="Postorbital bar">postorbital bar</a>, a bone around the eye socket, to protect their eyes; in contrast, the higher primates, <a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">haplorhines</a>, have evolved fully enclosed sockets.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell-77">[76]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PrimateFeet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/PrimateFeet.jpg/170px-PrimateFeet.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/PrimateFeet.jpg/255px-PrimateFeet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/PrimateFeet.jpg/340px-PrimateFeet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="677" data-file-height="1077" /></a><figcaption>An 1893 drawing of the hands and feet of various primates</figcaption></figure> Primates show an evolutionary trend towards a reduced <a href="/wiki/Snout" title="Snout">snout</a>.<a href="#cite_note-palaeos-78">[77]</a> Technically, Old World monkeys are distinguished from New World monkeys by the structure of the nose, and from apes by the <a href="/wiki/Dentition" title="Dentition">arrangement of their teeth</a>.<a href="#cite_note-adw-74">[73]</a> In New World monkeys, the nostrils face sideways; in Old World monkeys, they face downwards.<a href="#cite_note-adw-74">[73]</a> Dental pattern in primates vary considerably; although some have lost most of their <a href="/wiki/Incisor" title="Incisor">incisors</a>, all retain at least one lower incisor.<a href="#cite_note-adw-74">[73]</a> In most strepsirrhines, the lower incisors form a <a href="/wiki/Toothcomb" title="Toothcomb">toothcomb</a>, which is used in grooming and sometimes foraging.<a href="#cite_note-adw-74">[73]</a><a href="#cite_note-EncycMammals-79">[78]</a> Old World monkeys have eight <a href="/wiki/Premolar" title="Premolar">premolars</a>, compared with 12 in New World monkeys. The Old World species are divided into apes and monkeys depending on the number of <a href="/wiki/Cusp_(dentistry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusp (dentistry)">cusps</a> on their <a href="/wiki/Molar_(tooth)" title="Molar (tooth)">molars</a>: monkeys have four, apes have five<a href="#cite_note-adw-74">[73]</a> - although humans may have four or five.<a href="#cite_note-80">[79]</a> The main hominid molar cusp (<a href="/wiki/Hypocone" class="mw-redirect" title="Hypocone">hypocone</a>) evolved in early primate history, while the cusp of the corresponding primitive lower molar (paraconid) was lost. Prosimians are distinguished by their immobilized upper lips, the moist tip of their noses and forward-facing lower front teeth. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Body">Body</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chlorocebus_pygerythrus01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chlorocebus_pygerythrus01.jpg/220px-Chlorocebus_pygerythrus01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chlorocebus_pygerythrus01.jpg/330px-Chlorocebus_pygerythrus01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Chlorocebus_pygerythrus01.jpg/440px-Chlorocebus_pygerythrus01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>Vervet hindfoot showing fingerprint ridges on the sole</figcaption></figure> Primates generally have five digits on each limb (<a href="/wiki/Dactyly#Pentadactyly" title="Dactyly">pentadactyly</a>), with a characteristic type of keratin <a href="/wiki/Nail_(anatomy)" title="Nail (anatomy)">fingernail</a> on the end of each finger and toe. The bottom sides of the hands and feet have <a href="/wiki/Tactile_pad" title="Tactile pad">sensitive pads</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Distal_phalanges" class="mw-redirect" title="Distal phalanges">fingertips</a>. Most have <a href="/wiki/Thumb" title="Thumb">opposable thumbs</a>, a characteristic primate feature most developed in <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a>, though not limited to this order (<a href="/wiki/Opossum" title="Opossum">opossums</a> and <a href="/wiki/Koala" title="Koala">koalas</a>, for example, also have them).<a href="#cite_note-pough-71">[70]</a> Thumbs allow some species to use <a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Tool use by animals">tools</a>. In primates, the combination of opposing thumbs, short fingernails (rather than claws) and long, inward-closing fingers is a <a href="/wiki/Relict" title="Relict">relict</a> of the ancestral practice of gripping branches, and has, in part, allowed some species to develop <a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">brachiation</a> (swinging by the arms from tree limb to tree limb) as a significant means of locomotion. <a href="/wiki/Prosimians" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosimians">Prosimians</a> have clawlike nails on the second toe of each foot, called <a href="/wiki/Toilet-claw" class="mw-redirect" title="Toilet-claw">toilet-claws</a>, which they use for grooming.<a href="#cite_note-pough-71">[70]</a> The primate <a href="/wiki/Clavicle" title="Clavicle">collar bone</a> is a prominent element of the <a href="/wiki/Pectoral_girdle" class="mw-redirect" title="Pectoral girdle">pectoral girdle</a>; this allows the <a href="/wiki/Glenohumeral_joint" class="mw-redirect" title="Glenohumeral joint">shoulder joint</a> broad mobility.<a href="#cite_note-palaeos-78">[77]</a> Compared to Old World monkeys, apes have more mobile shoulder joints and arms due to the dorsal position of the <a href="/wiki/Scapula" title="Scapula">scapula</a>, broad ribcages that are flatter front-to-back, a shorter, less mobile spine, and with lower <a href="/wiki/Vertebra" title="Vertebra">vertebrae</a> greatly reduced - resulting in tail loss in some species.<a href="#cite_note-CNN-20240323-6">[6]</a> <a href="/wiki/Prehensile_tail" title="Prehensile tail">Prehensile tails</a> are found in the New World <a href="/wiki/Atelidae" title="Atelidae">atelids</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Howler_monkey" title="Howler monkey">howler</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spider_monkey" title="Spider monkey">spider</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woolly_spider_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Woolly spider monkey">woolly spider</a>, <a href="/wiki/Woolly_monkey" title="Woolly monkey">woolly monkeys</a>; and in <a href="/wiki/Capuchin_monkey" title="Capuchin monkey">capuchins</a>.<a href="#cite_note-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[81]</a> Male primates have a <a href="/wiki/Penis#Primates" title="Penis">low-hanging penis</a> and testes descended into a scrotum.<a href="#cite_note-Ankel-Simons2010-83">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-EncycMammals-79">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sexual_dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism_in_non-human_primates" title="Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates">Sexual dimorphism in non-human primates</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silverback.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Silverback.JPG/220px-Silverback.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Silverback.JPG/330px-Silverback.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Silverback.JPG/440px-Silverback.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="960" /></a><figcaption>Distinct sexual size dimorphism can be seen between the male and female mountain gorilla.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dimorphism" title="Sexual dimorphism">Sexual dimorphism</a> is often exhibited in <a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">simians</a>, though to a greater degree in Old World species (apes and some monkeys) than New World species. Recent studies involve comparing DNA to examine both the variation in the expression of the dimorphism among primates and the fundamental causes of sexual dimorphism. Primates usually have dimorphism in <a href="/wiki/Body_weight" class="mw-redirect" title="Body weight">body mass</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-85">[84]</a> and canine tooth size<a href="#cite_note-86">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[86]</a> along with <a href="/wiki/Pelage" class="mw-redirect" title="Pelage">pelage</a> and skin color.<a href="#cite_note-88">[87]</a> The dimorphism can be attributed to and affected by different factors, including <a href="/wiki/Mating_system" title="Mating system">mating system</a>,<a href="#cite_note-cheverud-89">[88]</a> size,<a href="#cite_note-cheverud-89">[88]</a> habitat and diet.<a href="#cite_note-leutenegger-90">[89]</a> Comparative analyses have generated a more complete understanding of the relationship between <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>, and mating systems in primates. Studies have shown that dimorphism is the product of changes in both male and female traits.<a href="#cite_note-plavcan-91">[90]</a> Ontogenetic scaling, where relative extension of a common growth trajectory occurs, may give some insight into the relationship between sexual dimorphism and growth patterns.<a href="#cite_note-ohiggins-92">[91]</a> Some evidence from the fossil record suggests that there was <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">convergent evolution</a> of dimorphism, and some extinct <a href="/wiki/Hominid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominid">hominids</a> probably had greater dimorphism than any living primate.<a href="#cite_note-plavcan-91">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Locomotion">Locomotion</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Diademed_ready_to_push_off.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Diademed_ready_to_push_off.jpg/220px-Diademed_ready_to_push_off.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Diademed_ready_to_push_off.jpg/330px-Diademed_ready_to_push_off.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6c/Diademed_ready_to_push_off.jpg/440px-Diademed_ready_to_push_off.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2736" data-file-height="2096" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Diademed_sifaka" title="Diademed sifaka">Diademed sifaka</a>, a lemur that is a vertical clinger and leaper</figcaption></figure> Primate species move by <a href="/wiki/Brachiation" title="Brachiation">brachiation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bipedalism" title="Bipedalism">bipedalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Jumping" title="Jumping">leaping</a>, arboreal and terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Quadruped" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadruped">quadrupedalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arboreal_locomotion" title="Arboreal locomotion">climbing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Knuckle-walking" title="Knuckle-walking">knuckle-walking</a> or by a combination of these methods. Several prosimians are primarily vertical clingers and leapers. These include many <a href="/wiki/Galago" title="Galago">bushbabies</a>, all <a href="/wiki/Indriidae" title="Indriidae">indriids</a> (i.e., <a href="/wiki/Sifaka" title="Sifaka">sifakas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Avahi_(genus)" class="mw-redirect" title="Avahi (genus)">avahis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indri" title="Indri">indris</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sportive_lemur" title="Sportive lemur">sportive lemurs</a>, and all <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">tarsiers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman1999-93">[92]</a> Other prosimians are arboreal quadrupeds and climbers. Some are also terrestrial quadrupeds, while some are leapers. Most monkeys are both arboreal and terrestrial quadrupeds and climbers. <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">Gibbons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muriqui" title="Muriqui">muriquis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spider_monkey" title="Spider monkey">spider monkeys</a> all brachiate extensively,<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> with gibbons sometimes doing so in remarkably acrobatic fashion. <a href="/wiki/Woolly_monkey" title="Woolly monkey">Woolly monkeys</a> also brachiate at times.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman2003-94">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutans</a> use a similar form of locomotion called quadramanous climbing, in which they use their arms and legs to carry their heavy bodies through the trees.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzees</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a> knuckle walk,<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> and can move bipedally for short distances. Although numerous species, such as <a href="/wiki/Australopithecine" title="Australopithecine">australopithecines</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">early hominids</a>, have exhibited fully bipedal locomotion, humans are the only extant species with this trait.<a href="#cite_note-GlazierFlowerday2003-95">[94]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vision">Vision</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GarnettsGalago_CincinnatiZoo.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/GarnettsGalago_CincinnatiZoo.jpg/220px-GarnettsGalago_CincinnatiZoo.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/GarnettsGalago_CincinnatiZoo.jpg/330px-GarnettsGalago_CincinnatiZoo.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/GarnettsGalago_CincinnatiZoo.jpg/440px-GarnettsGalago_CincinnatiZoo.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1418" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Tapetum_lucidum" title="Tapetum lucidum">tapetum lucidum</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Northern_greater_galago" title="Northern greater galago">northern greater galago</a>, typical of prosimians, reflects the light of the photographer's flash.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_color_vision_in_primates" title="Evolution of color vision in primates">evolution of color vision in primates</a> is unique among most <a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">eutherian</a> <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a>. While the remote <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> ancestors of the primates possessed <a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">three color vision</a> (trichromaticism), the <a href="/wiki/Nocturnality" title="Nocturnality">nocturnal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Warm-blooded" title="Warm-blooded">warm-blooded</a>, mammalian ancestors lost one of three cones in the <a href="/wiki/Retina" title="Retina">retina</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> era. Fish, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a> and birds are therefore trichromatic or <a href="/wiki/Tetrachromacy" title="Tetrachromacy">tetrachromatic</a>, while all mammals, with the exception of some primates and <a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">marsupials</a>,<a href="#cite_note-96">[95]</a> are dichromats or <a href="/wiki/Monochromacy" title="Monochromacy">monochromats</a> (totally color blind).<a href="#cite_note-EncycMammals-79">[78]</a> Nocturnal primates, such as the <a href="/wiki/Night_monkey" title="Night monkey">night monkeys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Galago" title="Galago">bush babies</a>, are often monochromatic. Catarrhines are routinely trichromatic due to a <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a> of the red-green <a href="/wiki/Opsin" title="Opsin">opsin</a> gene at the base of their lineage, 30 to 40 million years ago.<a href="#cite_note-EncycMammals-79">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bowmaker1991-97">[96]</a> Platyrrhines, on the other hand, are trichromatic in a few cases only.<a href="#cite_note-Surridge2003-98">[97]</a> Specifically, individual females must be <a href="/wiki/Zygosity#Heterozygous" title="Zygosity">heterozygous</a> for two <a href="/wiki/Allele" title="Allele">alleles</a> of the opsin gene (red and green) located on the same <a href="/wiki/Locus_(genetics)" title="Locus (genetics)">locus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/X_chromosome" title="X chromosome">X chromosome</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EncycMammals-79">[78]</a> Males, therefore, can only be dichromatic, while females can be either dichromatic or trichromatic. Color vision in strepsirrhines is not as well understood; however, research indicates a range of color vision similar to that found in platyrrhines.<a href="#cite_note-EncycMammals-79">[78]</a> Like catarrhines, howler monkeys (a family of platyrrhines) show routine trichromatism that has been traced to an evolutionarily recent <a href="/wiki/Gene_duplication" title="Gene duplication">gene duplication</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lucas2003-99">[98]</a> Howler monkeys are one of the most specialized leaf-eaters of the New World monkeys; fruits are not a major part of their diets,<a href="#cite_note-Sussman2003-94">[93]</a> and the type of leaves they prefer to consume (young, nutritive, and digestible) are detectable only by a red-green signal. Field work exploring the dietary preferences of howler monkeys suggests that routine trichromaticism was selected by environment.<a href="#cite_note-Surridge2003-98">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Behavior">Behavior</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Social_systems">Social systems</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Wrangham" title="Richard Wrangham">Richard Wrangham</a> stated that <a href="/wiki/Social_structure" title="Social structure">social systems</a> of primates are best classified by the amount of movement by females occurring between groups.<a href="#cite_note-social-100">[99]</a> He proposed four categories: <ul><li>Female transfer systems – females move away from the group in which they were born. Females of a group will not be closely related whereas males will have remained with their natal groups, and this close association may be influential in social behavior. The groups formed are generally quite small.<a href="#cite_note-social-100">[99]</a> This organization can be seen in <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, where the males, who are typically related, will cooperate in defense of the group's territory.<a href="#cite_note-101">[100]</a> Evidence of this social system has also been found among <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> remains in <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a><a href="#cite_note-102">[101]</a> and in remains of <a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paranthropus_robustus" title="Paranthropus robustus">Paranthropus robustus</a> groups in southern Africa.<a href="#cite_note-CavewomenBBC2011-103">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-Copeland2011-104">[103]</a> Among New World Monkeys, <a href="/wiki/Spider_monkey" title="Spider monkey">spider monkeys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muriqui" title="Muriqui">muriquis</a> use this system.<a href="#cite_note-105">[104]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ringstaartmakis_-_Ring-tailed_Lemur.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Ringstaartmakis_-_Ring-tailed_Lemur.jpg/220px-Ringstaartmakis_-_Ring-tailed_Lemur.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Ringstaartmakis_-_Ring-tailed_Lemur.jpg/330px-Ringstaartmakis_-_Ring-tailed_Lemur.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Ringstaartmakis_-_Ring-tailed_Lemur.jpg/440px-Ringstaartmakis_-_Ring-tailed_Lemur.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>A social huddle of <a href="/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur" title="Ring-tailed lemur">ring-tailed lemurs</a>. The two individuals on the right exposing their white ventral surface are sunning themselves.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Male transfer systems – while the females remain in their natal groups, the males will emigrate as adolescents. <a href="/wiki/Polygyny_in_nature" class="mw-redirect" title="Polygyny in nature">Polygynous</a> and multi-male societies are classed in this category. Group sizes are usually larger.<a href="#cite_note-social-100">[99]</a> This system is common among the <a href="/wiki/Ring-tailed_lemur" title="Ring-tailed lemur">ring-tailed lemur</a>, <a href="/wiki/Capuchin_monkey" title="Capuchin monkey">capuchin monkeys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cercopithecinae" title="Cercopithecinae">cercopithecine monkeys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a></li> <li>Monogamous species – a male–female bond, sometimes accompanied by a juvenile offspring. There is shared responsibility of parental care and territorial defense. The offspring leaves the parents' territory during adolescence.<a href="#cite_note-social-100">[99]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">Gibbons</a> essentially use this system, although "monogamy" in this context does not necessarily mean absolute sexual fidelity.<a href="#cite_note-106">[105]</a> These species do not live in larger groups.</li> <li>Solitary species – often males who defend territories that include the home ranges of several females.<a href="#cite_note-social-100">[99]</a> This type of organization is found in the prosimians such as the <a href="/wiki/Slow_loris" title="Slow loris">slow loris</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutans</a> do not defend their territory but effectively have this organization.<a href="#cite_note-108">[107]</a></li></ul> Other systems are known to occur as well. For example, with <a href="/wiki/Howler_monkey" title="Howler monkey">howler monkeys</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a> both the males and females typically transfer from their natal group on reaching sexual maturity, resulting in groups in which neither the males nor females are typically related.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman2003-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Watts_1996-109">[108]</a> Some prosimians, <a href="/wiki/Colobinae" title="Colobinae">colobine</a> monkeys and <a href="/wiki/Callitrichinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Callitrichinae">callitrichid</a> monkeys also use this system.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> The transfer of females or males from their native group is likely an adaptation for avoiding inbreeding.<a href="#cite_note-Charpentier-110">[109]</a> An analysis of breeding records of captive primate colonies representing numerous different species indicates that the infant mortality of inbred young is generally higher than that of non-inbred young.<a href="#cite_note-Charpentier-110">[109]</a><a href="#cite_note-111">[110]</a> This effect of inbreeding on infant mortality is probably largely a result of increased expression of deleterious recessive alleles (see <a href="/wiki/Inbreeding_depression" title="Inbreeding depression">Inbreeding depression</a>). <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg/220px-Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg/330px-Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg/440px-Three_chimpanzees_with_apple.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3521" data-file-height="2347" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzees</a> are social great apes.</figcaption></figure> Primatologist <a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a>, who studied in the <a href="/wiki/Gombe_Stream_National_Park" title="Gombe Stream National Park">Gombe Stream National Park</a>, noted <a href="/wiki/Fission-fusion_society" class="mw-redirect" title="Fission-fusion society">fission-fusion societies</a> in chimpanzees.<a href="#cite_note-112">[111]</a> There is fission when the main group splits up to forage during the day, then fusion when the group returns at night to sleep as a group. This social structure can also be observed in the <a href="/wiki/Hamadryas_baboon" title="Hamadryas baboon">hamadryas baboon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Rowe1996-113">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Spider_monkey" title="Spider monkey">spider monkeys</a><a href="#cite_note-Sussman2003-94">[93]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rowe1996-113">[112]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gelada" title="Gelada">gelada</a> has a similar social structure in which many smaller groups come together to form temporary herds of up to 600 monkeys.<a href="#cite_note-Rowe1996-113">[112]</a> <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Humans</a> also form fission-fusion societies. In hunter-gatherer societies, humans form groups which are made up of several individuals that may split up to obtain different resources.<a href="#cite_note-114">[113]</a> These social systems are affected by three main ecological factors: distribution of resources, <a href="/wiki/Group_size_measures" title="Group size measures">group size</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vertlife-115">[114]</a> Within a social group there is a balance between cooperation and competition. Cooperative behaviors in many primates species include <a href="/wiki/Social_grooming" title="Social grooming">social grooming</a> (removing <a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">skin parasites</a> and cleaning wounds), food sharing, and collective defense against predators or of a territory. Aggressive behaviors often signal competition for food, sleeping sites or mates. Aggression is also used in establishing <a href="/wiki/Dominance_hierarchy" title="Dominance hierarchy">dominance hierarchies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-vertlife-115">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-116">[115]</a> In November 2023, scientists reported, for the first time, evidence that groups of primates, particularly <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobos</a>, are capable of cooperating with each other.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20231116-117">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20231116-118">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interspecific_associations">Interspecific associations</h3></div> Several species of primates are known to associate in the wild. Some of these associations have been extensively studied. In the <a href="/wiki/Ta%C3%AF_National_Park" title="Taï National Park">Tai Forest</a> of Africa several species coordinate anti-predator behavior. These include the <a href="/wiki/Diana_monkey" title="Diana monkey">Diana monkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Campbell%27s_mona_monkey" title="Campbell's mona monkey">Campbell's mona monkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lesser_spot-nosed_monkey" title="Lesser spot-nosed monkey">lesser spot-nosed monkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Western_red_colobus" title="Western red colobus">western red colobus</a>, <a href="/wiki/King_colobus" title="King colobus">king colobus</a> (western <a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_colobus" title="Black-and-white colobus">black and white colobus</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Sooty_mangabey" title="Sooty mangabey">sooty mangabey</a>, which coordinate anti-predator alarm calls.<a href="#cite_note-tai-119">[118]</a> Among the predators of these monkeys is the <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">common chimpanzee</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tai2007-120">[119]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Red-tailed_monkey" title="Red-tailed monkey">red-tailed monkey</a> associates with several species, including the western red colobus, <a href="/wiki/Blue_monkey" title="Blue monkey">blue monkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wolf%27s_mona_monkey" title="Wolf's mona monkey">Wolf's mona monkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mantled_guereza" title="Mantled guereza">mantled guereza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_crested_mangabey" title="Black crested mangabey">black crested mangabey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allen%27s_swamp_monkey" title="Allen's swamp monkey">Allen's swamp monkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rowe1996-113">[112]</a> Several of these species are preyed upon by the common chimpanzee.<a href="#cite_note-chimpcolobus-121">[120]</a> In South America, <a href="/wiki/Squirrel_monkey" title="Squirrel monkey">squirrel monkeys</a> associate with <a href="/wiki/Capuchin_monkey" title="Capuchin monkey">capuchin monkeys</a>.<a href="#cite_note-move-122">[121]</a> This may have more to do with foraging benefits to the squirrel monkeys than anti-predation benefits.<a href="#cite_note-move-122">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Communication">Communication</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1096940132">.mw-parser-output .listen .side-box-text{line-height:1.1em}.mw-parser-output .listen-plain{border:none;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded{width:100%;margin:0;border-width:1px 0 0 0;background:transparent}.mw-parser-output .listen-header{padding:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen-embedded .listen-header{padding:2px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen-file-header{padding:4px 0}.mw-parser-output .listen .description{padding-top:2px}.mw-parser-output .listen .mw-tmh-player{max-width:100%}@media(max-width:719px){.mw-parser-output .listen{clear:both}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .listen:not(.listen-noimage){width:320px}.mw-parser-output .listen-left{overflow:visible;float:left}.mw-parser-output .listen-center{float:none;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right listen noprint"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><figure class="mw-halign-center" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/50px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/75px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg/100px-Gnome-mime-sound-openclipart.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Roep_Indri_Indri.ogg" title="File:Roep Indri Indri.ogg">Indri lemur wailing</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="17" data-mwtitle="Roep_Indri_Indri.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/44/Roep_Indri_Indri.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/44/Roep_Indri_Indri.ogg/Roep_Indri_Indri.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Indri lemur wailing, <a href="/wiki/Ogg" title="Ogg">ogg</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vorbis" title="Vorbis">Vorbis</a> format.</div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Howler_monkey.ogg" title="File:Howler monkey.ogg">Howler monkey roaring</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="25" data-mwtitle="Howler_monkey.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b8/Howler_monkey.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/b/b8/Howler_monkey.ogg/Howler_monkey.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AHowler_monkey.ogg&lang=en&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="en" label="English ‪(en)‬" data-dir="ltr" /><track src="https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/api.php?action=timedtext&title=File%3AHowler_monkey.ogg&lang=tr&trackformat=vtt&origin=%2A" kind="subtitles" type="text/vtt" srclang="tr" label="Türkçe ‪(tr)‬" data-dir="ltr" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Howler monkey roaring, <a href="/wiki/Ogg" title="Ogg">ogg</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vorbis" title="Vorbis">Vorbis</a> format.</div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Vervet_Monkey_(Chlorocebus_pygerythrus)_(W_CERCOPITHECUS_AETHIOPS_R2_C2).ogg" title="File:Vervet Monkey (Chlorocebus pygerythrus) (W CERCOPITHECUS AETHIOPS R2 C2).ogg">Vervet monkey alarm call</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="38" data-mwtitle="Vervet_Monkey_(Chlorocebus_pygerythrus)_(W_CERCOPITHECUS_AETHIOPS_R2_C2).ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3c/Vervet_Monkey_%28Chlorocebus_pygerythrus%29_%28W_CERCOPITHECUS_AETHIOPS_R2_C2%29.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/3c/Vervet_Monkey_%28Chlorocebus_pygerythrus%29_%28W_CERCOPITHECUS_AETHIOPS_R2_C2%29.ogg/Vervet_Monkey_%28Chlorocebus_pygerythrus%29_%28W_CERCOPITHECUS_AETHIOPS_R2_C2%29.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Vervet monkey alarm call, <a href="/wiki/Ogg" title="Ogg">ogg</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vorbis" title="Vorbis">Vorbis</a> format.</div></div><hr /><div class="haudio"> <div class="listen-file-header"><a href="/wiki/File:Symphalangus_syndactylus_20170623_Dou%C3%A9-la-Fontaine.ogg" title="File:Symphalangus syndactylus 20170623 Doué-la-Fontaine.ogg">Siamang singing</a></div> <div><audio id="mwe_player_3" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="232" style="width:232px;" data-durationhint="35" data-mwtitle="Symphalangus_syndactylus_20170623_Doué-la-Fontaine.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/79/Symphalangus_syndactylus_20170623_Dou%C3%A9-la-Fontaine.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/7/79/Symphalangus_syndactylus_20170623_Dou%C3%A9-la-Fontaine.ogg/Symphalangus_syndactylus_20170623_Dou%C3%A9-la-Fontaine.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></div> <div class="description">Siamang singing, <a href="/wiki/Ogg" title="Ogg">ogg</a>/<a href="/wiki/Vorbis" title="Vorbis">Vorbis</a> format.</div></div></div></div> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"><hr />Problems playing these files? See <a href="/wiki/Help:Media" title="Help:Media">media help</a>.</div> </div> <a href="/wiki/Lemur" title="Lemur">Lemurs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Loris" title="Loris">lorises</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">tarsiers</a>, and New World monkeys rely on <a href="/wiki/Olfaction" class="mw-redirect" title="Olfaction">olfactory signals</a> for many aspects of social and reproductive behavior.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-73">[72]</a> Specialized glands are used to <a href="/wiki/Mark_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Mark territories">mark territories</a> with <a href="/wiki/Pheromone" title="Pheromone">pheromones</a>, which are detected by the <a href="/wiki/Vomeronasal_organ" title="Vomeronasal organ">vomeronasal organ</a>; this process forms a large part of the communication behavior of these primates.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-73">[72]</a> In Old World monkeys and apes this ability is mostly <a href="/wiki/Vestigiality" title="Vestigiality">vestigial</a>, having regressed as <a href="/wiki/Trichromacy" title="Trichromacy">trichromatic</a> eyes evolved to become the main sensory organ.<a href="#cite_note-123">[122]</a> Primates also use vocalizations, gestures, and facial expressions to convey psychological state.<a href="#cite_note-124">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-Pollick-125">[124]</a> Facial musculature is very developed in primates, particularly in monkeys and apes, allowing for complex facial communication. Like humans, chimpanzees can distinguish the faces of familiar and unfamiliar individuals.<a href="#cite_note-126">[125]</a> Hand and arm gestures are also important forms of communication for great apes and a single gesture can have multiple functions.<a href="#cite_note-Pollick-125">[124]</a> Primates are a particularly vocal group of mammals.<a href="#cite_note-Ankel-Simons2010-83">[82]</a> <a href="/wiki/Indri" title="Indri">Indris</a> and <a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_ruffed_lemur" title="Black-and-white ruffed lemur">black-and-white ruffed lemurs</a> make distinctive, loud songs and choruses which maintain territories and act as <a href="/wiki/Alarm_call" class="mw-redirect" title="Alarm call">alarm calls</a>.<a href="#cite_note-127">[126]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Philippine_tarsier" title="Philippine tarsier">Philippine tarsier</a>, has a high-frequency limit of auditory sensitivity of approximately 91 kHz with a dominant frequency of 70 kHz, among the highest recorded for any terrestrial mammal. For Philippine tarsiers, these ultrasonic vocalizations might represent a private channel of communication that subverts detection by predators, prey and competitors, enhances energetic efficiency, or improves detection against low-frequency background noise.<a href="#cite_note-Ramsier_etal.,_(2012)-128">[127]</a> Male <a href="/wiki/Howler_monkey" title="Howler monkey">howler monkeys</a> are among the loudest land mammals as their roars can be heard up to 4.8 km (3.0 mi), and relate to intergroup spacing, territorial protection and possibly mate-guarding.<a href="#cite_note-129">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[129]</a> Roars are produced by a modified <a href="/wiki/Larynx" title="Larynx">larynx</a> and enlarged <a href="/wiki/Hyoid_bone" title="Hyoid bone">hyoid bone</a> which contains an air sac.<a href="#cite_note-131">[130]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Vervet_monkey" title="Vervet monkey">vervet monkey</a> gives a distinct alarm call for each of at least four different predators, and the reactions of other monkeys vary according to the call.<a href="#cite_note-Seyfarth-132">[131]</a> Furthermore, many primate species including <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>,<a href="#cite_note-133">[132]</a> <a href="/wiki/Campbell%27s_mona_monkey" title="Campbell's mona monkey">Campbell's mona monkeys</a><a href="#cite_note-134">[133]</a> or <a href="/wiki/Diana_monkey" title="Diana monkey">Diana monkeys</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[134]</a> have been shown to combine vocalizations in sequences, suggesting <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[135]</a> may not be uniquely humans as previously thought but rather evolutionary ancient, and its origins may be deeply rooted in the primate lineage. Male and female <a href="/wiki/Siamang" title="Siamang">siamangs</a> both possess inflatable pouches in the throat with which pair -bonds use to sing "duets" to each other.<a href="#cite_note-137">[136]</a> Many non-human primates have the vocal anatomy to produce human speech but lack the proper brain wiring.<a href="#cite_note-138">[137]</a> Vowel-like vocal patterns have been recorded in baboons which has implications for the origin of speech in humans.<a href="#cite_note-139">[138]</a> Consonant- and vowel-like sounds exist in some orangutan calls and they maintain their meaning over great distances.<a href="#cite_note-140">[139]</a> The time range for the evolution of human language and/or its anatomical prerequisites extends, at least in principle, from the phylogenetic divergence of <a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a> (2.3 to 2.4 million years ago) from <a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a> (5 to 6 million years ago) to the emergence of full <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">behavioral modernity</a> some 50,000–150,000 years ago. Few dispute that <a href="/wiki/Australopithecus" title="Australopithecus">Australopithecus</a> probably lacked vocal communication significantly more sophisticated than that of <a href="/wiki/Great_ape" class="mw-redirect" title="Great ape">great apes</a> in general.<a href="#cite_note-Arcadi_2000-141">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Life_history">Life history</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bonnet_macaque_nursing,_Bangalore.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bonnet_macaque_nursing%2C_Bangalore.jpg/220px-Bonnet_macaque_nursing%2C_Bangalore.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bonnet_macaque_nursing%2C_Bangalore.jpg/330px-Bonnet_macaque_nursing%2C_Bangalore.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/06/Bonnet_macaque_nursing%2C_Bangalore.jpg/440px-Bonnet_macaque_nursing%2C_Bangalore.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3491" data-file-height="1633" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque" title="Crab-eating macaque">crab-eating macaque</a> breastfeeding her baby</figcaption></figure> Primates have slower rates of development than other mammals.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> All primate infants are <a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">breastfed</a> by their mothers (with the exception of some human cultures and various zoo raised primates which are fed formula) and rely on them for grooming and transportation.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> In some species, infants are protected and transported by males in the group, particularly males who may be their fathers.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> Other relatives of the infant, such as siblings and aunts, may participate in its care as well.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> Most primate mothers cease <a href="/wiki/Ovulation" title="Ovulation">ovulation</a> while breastfeeding an infant; once the infant is <a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">weaned</a> the mother can reproduce again.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> This often leads to weaning conflict with infants who attempt to continue breastfeeding.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Infanticide_in_primates" title="Infanticide in primates">Infanticide</a> is common in polygynous species such as <a href="/wiki/Gray_langur" class="mw-redirect" title="Gray langur">gray langurs</a> and gorillas. Adult males may kill dependent offspring that are not theirs so the female will return to estrus and thus they can sire offspring of their own. Social monogamy in some species may have evolved to combat this behavior.<a href="#cite_note-142">[141]</a> <a href="/wiki/Promiscuity#Other_animals" title="Promiscuity">Promiscuity</a> may also lessen the risk of infanticide since paternity becomes uncertain.<a href="#cite_note-143">[142]</a> Primates have a longer <a href="/wiki/Juvenile_(organism)" title="Juvenile (organism)">juvenile</a> period between weaning and sexual maturity than other mammals of similar size.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> Some primates such as <a href="/wiki/Galago" title="Galago">galagos</a> and <a href="/wiki/New_World_monkey" title="New World monkey">New World monkeys</a> use tree-holes for <a href="/wiki/Nest-building_in_primates" title="Nest-building in primates">nesting</a>, and park juveniles in leafy patches while foraging. Other primates follow a strategy of "riding", i.e. carrying individuals on the body while feeding. Adults may construct or use nesting sites, sometimes accompanied by juveniles, for the purpose of resting, a behavior which has developed secondarily in the great apes.<a href="#cite_note-Kappeler1998-144">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ross2001-145">[144]</a> During the juvenile period, primates are more susceptible than adults to <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Starvation" title="Starvation">starvation</a>; they gain experience in feeding and avoiding predators during this time.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> They learn social and fighting skills, often through playing.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> Primates, especially females, have longer lifespans than other similarly sized mammals,<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> this may be partially due to their slower metabolisms.<a href="#cite_note-146">[145]</a> Late in life, female catarrhine primates appear to undergo a cessation of reproductive function known as <a href="/wiki/Menopause" title="Menopause">menopause</a>; other groups are less studied.<a href="#cite_note-MLWalker2-147">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diet_and_feeding">Diet and feeding</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Colubusmonkey.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Colubusmonkey.JPG/220px-Colubusmonkey.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Colubusmonkey.JPG/330px-Colubusmonkey.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Colubusmonkey.JPG/440px-Colubusmonkey.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1381" data-file-height="1036" /></a><figcaption>Leaf eating <a href="/wiki/Mantled_guereza" title="Mantled guereza">mantled guereza</a>, a species of <a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_colobus" title="Black-and-white colobus">black-and-white colobus</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Microcebus_murinus_-Artis_Zoo,_Amsterdam,_Netherlands-8c.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Microcebus_murinus_-Artis_Zoo%2C_Amsterdam%2C_Netherlands-8c.jpg/220px-Microcebus_murinus_-Artis_Zoo%2C_Amsterdam%2C_Netherlands-8c.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Microcebus_murinus_-Artis_Zoo%2C_Amsterdam%2C_Netherlands-8c.jpg/330px-Microcebus_murinus_-Artis_Zoo%2C_Amsterdam%2C_Netherlands-8c.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ed/Microcebus_murinus_-Artis_Zoo%2C_Amsterdam%2C_Netherlands-8c.jpg/440px-Microcebus_murinus_-Artis_Zoo%2C_Amsterdam%2C_Netherlands-8c.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mouse_lemur" title="Mouse lemur">mouse lemur</a> holds a cut piece of fruit in its hands and eats.</figcaption></figure> Primates exploit a variety of food sources. It has been said that many characteristics of modern primates, including humans, derive from an early ancestor's practice of taking most of its food from the tropical canopy.<a href="#cite_note-148">[147]</a> Most primates include fruit in their diets to obtain easily digested nutrients including <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrate" title="Carbohydrate">carbohydrates</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipids</a> for energy.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> Primates in the suborder <a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhini</a> (non-tarsier prosimians) are able to synthesize <a href="/wiki/Vitamin_C" title="Vitamin C">vitamin C</a>, like most other mammals, while primates of the suborder <a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a> (tarsiers, monkeys and apes) have lost this ability, and require the vitamin in their diet.<a href="#cite_note-149">[148]</a> Many primates have anatomical specializations that enable them to exploit particular foods, such as fruit, leaves, gum or <a href="/wiki/Insect" title="Insect">insects</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> For example, leaf eaters such as howler monkeys, <a href="/wiki/Black-and-white_colobus" title="Black-and-white colobus">black-and-white colobuses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sportive_lemur" title="Sportive lemur">sportive lemurs</a> have extended digestive tracts which enable them to absorb nutrients from leaves that can be difficult to digest.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marmoset" title="Marmoset">Marmosets</a>, which are gum eaters, have strong <a href="/wiki/Incisor" title="Incisor">incisor</a> teeth, enabling them to open tree bark to get to the gum, and claws rather than nails, enabling them to cling to trees while feeding.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Aye-aye" title="Aye-aye">aye-aye</a> combines rodent-like teeth with a long, thin middle finger to fill the same ecological niche as a woodpecker. It taps on trees to find insect larvae, then gnaws holes in the wood and inserts its elongated middle finger to pull the larvae out.<a href="#cite_note-150">[149]</a> Some species have additional specializations. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Grey-cheeked_mangabey" title="Grey-cheeked mangabey">grey-cheeked mangabey</a> has thick <a href="/wiki/Tooth_enamel" title="Tooth enamel">enamel</a> on its teeth, enabling it to open hard fruits and seeds that other monkeys cannot.<a href="#cite_note-Strier2007-59">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gelada" title="Gelada">gelada</a> is the only primate species that feeds primarily on grass.<a href="#cite_note-Hiller-151">[150]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hunting">Hunting</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Dajak_jager_op_Borneo_met_een_gevangen_zwijn_over_de_schouder_TMnr_60043389.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Portrait of a Dayak hunter in Borneo with a boar over his shoulder" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Dajak_jager_op_Borneo_met_een_gevangen_zwijn_over_de_schouder_TMnr_60043389.jpg/170px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Dajak_jager_op_Borneo_met_een_gevangen_zwijn_over_de_schouder_TMnr_60043389.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Dajak_jager_op_Borneo_met_een_gevangen_zwijn_over_de_schouder_TMnr_60043389.jpg/255px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Dajak_jager_op_Borneo_met_een_gevangen_zwijn_over_de_schouder_TMnr_60043389.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Dajak_jager_op_Borneo_met_een_gevangen_zwijn_over_de_schouder_TMnr_60043389.jpg/340px-COLLECTIE_TROPENMUSEUM_Portret_van_een_Dajak_jager_op_Borneo_met_een_gevangen_zwijn_over_de_schouder_TMnr_60043389.jpg 2x" data-file-width="508" data-file-height="700" /></a><figcaption>Humans have traditionally hunted prey for subsistence.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">Tarsiers</a> are the only <a href="/wiki/Extant_taxon" class="mw-redirect" title="Extant taxon">extant</a> <a href="/wiki/Obligate_carnivore" class="mw-redirect" title="Obligate carnivore">obligate carnivorous</a> primates, exclusively eating insects, crustaceans, small vertebrates and snakes (including <a href="/wiki/Venomous_snake" title="Venomous snake">venomous</a> species).<a href="#cite_note-152">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Capuchin_monkey" title="Capuchin monkey">Capuchin monkeys</a> can exploit many different types of plant matter, including fruit, leaves, flowers, buds, nectar and seeds, but also eat insects and other <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>, bird eggs, and small vertebrates such as birds, <a href="/wiki/Lizard" title="Lizard">lizards</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squirrel" title="Squirrel">squirrels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">bats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Sussman2003-94">[93]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Common_chimpanzee" class="mw-redirect" title="Common chimpanzee">common chimpanzee</a> eats an <a href="/wiki/Omnivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnivorous">omnivorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Frugivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Frugivorous">frugivorous</a> diet. It prefers fruit above all other food items and even seeks out and eats them when they are not abundant. It also eats leaves and leaf buds, seeds, blossoms, stems, pith, bark and resin. Insects and meat make up a small proportion of their diet, estimated as 2%.<a href="#cite_note-Goodall1986-153">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-154">[153]</a> The meat consumption includes predation on other primate species, such as the <a href="/wiki/Western_red_colobus" title="Western red colobus">western red colobus</a> monkey.<a href="#cite_note-tai2007-120">[119]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobo</a> is an <a href="/wiki/Omnivorous" class="mw-redirect" title="Omnivorous">omnivorous</a> <a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">frugivore</a> – the majority of its diet is fruit, but it supplements this with leaves, meat from small <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrates</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Anomalure" title="Anomalure">anomalures</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flying_squirrel" title="Flying squirrel">flying squirrels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duiker" title="Duiker">duikers</a>,<a href="#cite_note-155">[154]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">invertebrates</a>.<a href="#cite_note-156">[155]</a> In some instances, bonobos have been shown to consume lower-order primates.<a href="#cite_note-157">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-Surbeck-158">[157]</a> Until the development of agriculture approximately 10,000 years ago, Homo sapiens employed a hunter-gatherer method as their sole means of food collection. This involved combining stationary food sources (such as fruits, grains, tubers, and mushrooms, insect larvae and aquatic mollusks) with <a href="/wiki/Game_(food)" class="mw-redirect" title="Game (food)">wild game</a>, which must be hunted and killed in order to be consumed.<a href="#cite_note-159">[158]</a> It has been proposed that humans have used fire to prepare and <a href="/wiki/Cooking" title="Cooking">cook</a> food since the time of <a href="/wiki/Homo_erectus" title="Homo erectus">Homo erectus</a>.<a href="#cite_note-160">[159]</a> Around ten thousand years ago, <a href="/wiki/History_of_agriculture" title="History of agriculture">humans developed agriculture</a>,<a href="#cite_note-161">[160]</a> which substantially altered their diet. This change in diet may also have altered human biology; with the spread of <a href="/wiki/Dairy_farming" title="Dairy farming">dairy farming</a> providing a new and rich source of food, leading to the evolution of the ability to digest <a href="/wiki/Lactose" title="Lactose">lactose</a> in some adults.<a href="#cite_note-162">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[162]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="As_prey">As prey</h3></div> Predators of primates include various species of <a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">carnivorans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Birds_of_prey" class="mw-redirect" title="Birds of prey">birds of prey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reptile" title="Reptile">reptiles</a>, and other primates. Even gorillas have been recorded as prey. Predators of primates have diverse hunting strategies and as such, primates have evolved several different <a href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">antipredator adaptations</a> including <a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">crypsis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alarm_signal" title="Alarm signal">alarm calls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mobbing_(animal_behavior)" title="Mobbing (animal behavior)">mobbing</a>. Several species have separate alarm calls for different predators such as air-borne or ground-dwelling predators. Predation may have shaped group size in primates as species exposed to higher predation pressures appear to live in larger groups.<a href="#cite_note-164">[163]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intelligence_and_cognition">Intelligence and cognition</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Primate_cognition" title="Primate cognition">Primate cognition</a></div> Primates have advanced cognitive abilities: some make tools and use them to acquire food and for social displays;<a href="#cite_note-165">[164]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[165]</a> some can perform tasks requiring cooperation, influence and rank;<a href="#cite_note-167">[166]</a> they are status conscious, manipulative and capable of deception;<a href="#cite_note-168">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-Byrne_and_Corp-169">[168]</a> they can recognise <a href="/wiki/Kinship" title="Kinship">kin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conspecific" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspecific">conspecifics</a>;<a href="#cite_note-170">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[170]</a> and they can learn to use symbols and understand aspects of human language including some relational syntax and concepts of number and numerical sequence.<a href="#cite_note-172">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-173">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[173]</a> Research in primate cognition explores problem solving, memory, social interaction, a <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_mind#Non-human" title="Theory of mind">theory of mind</a>, and numerical, spatial, and abstract concepts.<a href="#cite_note-175">[174]</a> Comparative studies show a trend towards higher intelligence going from prosimians to New World monkeys to Old World monkeys, and significantly higher average cognitive abilities in the great apes.<a href="#cite_note-Deaner-176">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reader-177">[176]</a> However, there is a great deal of variation in each group (e.g., among New World monkeys, both <a href="/wiki/Spider_monkey" title="Spider monkey">spider</a><a href="#cite_note-Deaner-176">[175]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Capuchin_monkey" title="Capuchin monkey">capuchin monkeys</a><a href="#cite_note-Reader-177">[176]</a> have scored highly by some measures), as well as in the results of different studies.<a href="#cite_note-Deaner-176">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reader-177">[176]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tool_use_and_manufacture">Tool use and manufacture</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tool_use_by_animals" class="mw-redirect" title="Tool use by animals">Tool use by animals</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><video id="mwe_player_4" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv/220px--Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="124" data-durationhint="20" data-mwtitle="Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv.480p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="480p.vp9.webm" data-width="854" data-height="480" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora, vorbis"" data-width="960" data-height="540" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="256" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="426" data-height="240" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/31/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv/Cultural-differences-in-ant-dipping-tool-length-between-neighbouring-chimpanzee-communities-at-srep12456-s2.ogv.360p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="360p.vp9.webm" data-width="640" data-height="360" /></video><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzees</a> using twigs to dip for ants</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_stone_tools_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_stone_tools_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002.png/220px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_stone_tools_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_stone_tools_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002.png/330px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_stone_tools_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_stone_tools_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002.png/440px-Macaca_fascicularis_aurea_stone_tools_-_journal.pone.0072872.g002.png 2x" data-file-width="2075" data-file-height="1629" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque" title="Crab-eating macaque">Crab-eating macaques</a> with <a href="/wiki/Stone_tool" title="Stone tool">stone tools</a></figcaption></figure> In 1960, <a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a> observed a <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzee</a> poking pieces of grass into a <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termite</a> mound and then raising the grass to his mouth. After he left, Goodall approached the mound and repeated the behaviour because she was unsure what the chimpanzee was doing. She found that the termites bit onto the grass with their jaws. The chimpanzee had been using the grass as a tool to "fish" or "dip" for termites.<a href="#cite_note-The_Jane_Goodall_Institute1-178">[177]</a> There are more limited reports of the closely related <a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">bonobo</a> using tools in the wild; it has been claimed they rarely use tools in the wild although they use tools as readily as chimpanzees when in captivity.<a href="#cite_note-ApeTag-179">[178]</a> It has been reported that females, both chimpanzee and bonobo, use tools more avidly than males.<a href="#cite_note-180">[179]</a> <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutans</a> in <a href="/wiki/Borneo" title="Borneo">Borneo</a> scoop catfish out of small ponds. Over two years, anthropologist Anne Russon observed orangutans learning to jab sticks at catfish to scare them out of the ponds and in to their waiting hands.<a href="#cite_note-181">[180]</a> There are few reports of <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a> using tools in the wild. An adult female <a href="/wiki/Western_lowland_gorilla" title="Western lowland gorilla">western lowland gorilla</a> used a branch as a walking stick apparently to test water depth and to aid her in crossing a pool of water. Another adult female used a detached trunk from a small shrub as a stabilizer during food gathering, and another used a log as a bridge.<a href="#cite_note-182">[181]</a> The first direct observation of a non-ape primate using a tool in a wild environment occurred in 1988. Primatologist Sue Boinski watched an adult male white-faced capuchin beat a <a href="/wiki/Bothrops_asper" title="Bothrops asper">fer-de-lance</a> snake to death with a dead branch.<a href="#cite_note-Boinski1988-183">[182]</a> The black-striped capuchin was the first non-ape primate for which routine tool use was documented in the wild; individuals were observed <a href="/wiki/Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">cracking nuts</a> by placing them on a stone anvil and hitting them with another large stone.<a href="#cite_note-Fragaszy-184">[183]</a> In Thailand and Myanmar, <a href="/wiki/Crab-eating_macaque" title="Crab-eating macaque">crab-eating macaques</a> use stone tools to open nuts, oysters and other bivalves, and various types of sea snails.<a href="#cite_note-185">[184]</a> Chacma baboons use stones as weapons; stoning by these baboons is done from the rocky walls of the canyon where they sleep and retreat to when they are threatened. Stones are lifted with one hand and dropped over the side whereupon they tumble down the side of the cliff or fall directly to the canyon floor.<a href="#cite_note-186">[185]</a> Although they have not been observed to use tools in the wild, lemurs in controlled settings have been shown to be capable of understanding the functional properties of the objects they had been trained to use as tools, performing as well as tool-using haplorhines.<a href="#cite_note-187">[186]</a> Soon after her initial discovery of tool use, Goodall observed other chimpanzees picking up leafy twigs, stripping off the leaves and using the stems to fish for insects. This change of a leafy twig into a tool was a major discovery. Prior to this, scientists thought that only <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> manufactured and used tools, and that this ability was what separated humans from other animals.<a href="#cite_note-The_Jane_Goodall_Institute1-178">[177]</a> Chimpanzees have also been observed making "sponges" out of leaves and moss that suck up water.<a href="#cite_note-188">[187]</a> Sumatran orangutans have been observed making and using tools. They will break off a tree branch that is about 30 cm long, snap off the twigs, fray one end and then use the stick to dig in tree holes for termites.<a href="#cite_note-OrangutanIslands-189">[188]</a><a href="#cite_note-190">[189]</a> In the wild, mandrills have been observed to clean their ears with modified tools. Scientists filmed a large male mandrill at <a href="/wiki/Chester_Zoo" title="Chester Zoo">Chester Zoo</a> (UK) stripping down a twig, apparently to make it narrower, and then using the modified stick to scrape dirt from underneath its toenails.<a href="#cite_note-Gill2011-191">[190]</a> Captive gorillas have made a variety of tools.<a href="#cite_note-Vancatova-192">[191]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ecology">Ecology</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_primates_by_population" title="List of primates by population">List of primates by population</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Macaque_India_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Macaque_India_3.jpg/170px-Macaque_India_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Macaque_India_3.jpg/255px-Macaque_India_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Macaque_India_3.jpg/340px-Macaque_India_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2024" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">Rhesus macaque</a> at <a href="/wiki/Agra_Fort" title="Agra Fort">Agra Fort</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a></figcaption></figure> Non-human primates primarily live in the <a href="/wiki/Tropics" title="Tropics">tropical</a> latitudes of Africa, Asia, and the Americas. Species that live outside of the tropics include the <a href="/wiki/Japanese_macaque" title="Japanese macaque">Japanese macaque</a> which lives in the Japanese islands of <a href="/wiki/Honsh%C5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Honshū">Honshū</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hokkaido" title="Hokkaido">Hokkaido</a>; the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_macaque" title="Barbary macaque">Barbary macaque</a> which lives in North Africa and several species of langur which live in China. Primates tend to live in <a href="/wiki/Tropical_and_subtropical_moist_broadleaf_forests" title="Tropical and subtropical moist broadleaf forests">tropical rainforests</a> but are also found in <a href="/wiki/Temperate_forest" title="Temperate forest">temperate forests</a>, <a href="/wiki/Savanna" title="Savanna">savannas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Desert" title="Desert">deserts</a>, mountains and coastal areas.<a href="#cite_note-MacDonald-193">[192]</a> The number of primate species within tropical areas has been shown to be positively <a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">correlated</a> to the amount of rainfall and the amount of rain forest area.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> Accounting for 25% to 40% of the <a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">fruit-eating animals</a> (by <a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">weight</a>) within tropical rainforests, primates play an important <a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">ecological</a> role by dispersing seeds of many tree species.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> Primate habitats span a range of altitudes: the <a href="/wiki/Black_snub-nosed_monkey" class="mw-redirect" title="Black snub-nosed monkey">black snub-nosed monkey</a> has been found living in the <a href="/wiki/Hengduan_Mountains" title="Hengduan Mountains">Hengduan Mountains</a> at altitudes of 4,700 meters (15,400 ft),<a href="#cite_note-Long94-196">[195]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_gorilla" title="Mountain gorilla">mountain gorilla</a> can be found at 4,200 meters (13,200 ft) crossing the <a href="/wiki/Virunga_Mountains" title="Virunga Mountains">Virunga Mountains</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Schaller-197">[196]</a> and the gelada has been found at elevations of up to 5,000 m (16,000 ft) in the <a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Highlands" title="Ethiopian Highlands">Ethiopian Highlands</a>.<a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> Some species interact with aquatic environments and may swim or even dive, including the <a href="/wiki/Proboscis_monkey" title="Proboscis monkey">proboscis monkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/De_Brazza%27s_monkey" title="De Brazza's monkey">De Brazza's monkey</a> and <a href="/wiki/Allen%27s_swamp_monkey" title="Allen's swamp monkey">Allen's swamp monkey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a> Some primates, such as the <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaque</a> and gray langurs, can exploit human-modified environments and even <a href="/wiki/Urban_wildlife" title="Urban wildlife">live in cities</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Rowe1996-113">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interactions_between_humans_and_other_primates">Interactions between humans and other primates</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Disease_transmission">Disease transmission</h3></div> Close interactions between humans and non-human primates (NHPs) can create pathways for the transmission of <a href="/wiki/Zoonosis" title="Zoonosis">zoonotic diseases</a>. Viruses such as <a href="/wiki/Herpesviridae" title="Herpesviridae">Herpesviridae</a> (most notably <a href="/wiki/Herpes_B_Virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Herpes B Virus">Herpes B Virus</a>), <a href="/wiki/Poxviridae" title="Poxviridae">Poxviridae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Measles" title="Measles">measles</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ebola" title="Ebola">ebola</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rabies" title="Rabies">rabies</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Marburg_virus" title="Marburg virus">Marburg virus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Viral_hepatitis" title="Viral hepatitis">viral hepatitis</a> can be transmitted to humans; in some cases the viruses produce potentially fatal diseases in both humans and non-human primates.<a href="#cite_note-Renquist1987-201">[200]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legal_and_social_status">Legal and social status</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Great_ape_personhood" title="Great ape personhood">Great ape personhood</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slow_Loris_Female.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Slow_Loris_Female.jpg/220px-Slow_Loris_Female.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Slow_Loris_Female.jpg/330px-Slow_Loris_Female.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Slow_Loris_Female.jpg/440px-Slow_Loris_Female.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Slow_loris" title="Slow loris">Slow lorises</a> are popular in the <a href="/wiki/Exotic_pet" title="Exotic pet">exotic pet</a> trade, which threatens wild populations.</figcaption></figure> Only <a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">humans</a> are recognized as persons and protected in law by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[b]</a> The legal status of NHPs, on the other hand, is the subject of much debate, with organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a> (GAP) campaigning to <a href="/wiki/Great_ape_personhood" title="Great ape personhood">award at least some of them legal rights</a>.<a href="#cite_note-GA-204">[202]</a> In June 2008, Spain became the first country in the world to recognize the rights of some NHPs, when its parliament's cross-party environmental committee urged the country to comply with GAP's recommendations, which are that <a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">chimpanzees</a>, <a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">orangutans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">gorillas</a> are not to be used for animal experiments.<a href="#cite_note-205">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-206">[204]</a> Many species of NHP are kept as pets by humans. The Allied Effort to Save Other Primates (AESOP) estimates that around 15,000 NHPs live as exotic pets in the United States.<a href="#cite_note-Mott2003-207">[205]</a> The expanding Chinese middle class has increased demand for NHPs as exotic pets in recent years.<a href="#cite_note-Workman-208">[206]</a> Although NHP import for the pet trade was banned in the U.S. in 1975, smuggling still occurs along the <a href="/wiki/United_States_%E2%80%93_Mexico_border" class="mw-redirect" title="United States – Mexico border">United States – Mexico border</a>, with prices ranging from <a href="/wiki/United_States_dollar" title="United States dollar">US$</a>3000 for monkeys to $30,000 for apes.<a href="#cite_note-ippl-209">[207]</a> Primates are used as <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organisms</a> in laboratories and have been used in <a href="/wiki/Monkeys_in_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Monkeys in space">space missions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-210">[208]</a> They serve as <a href="/wiki/Service_animal" title="Service animal">service animals</a> for disabled humans. <a href="/wiki/Capuchin_monkey" title="Capuchin monkey">Capuchin monkeys</a> can be <a href="/wiki/Monkey_helper" class="mw-redirect" title="Monkey helper">trained</a> to assist <a href="/wiki/Quadriplegic" class="mw-redirect" title="Quadriplegic">quadriplegic</a> humans; their intelligence, memory, and manual dexterity make them ideal helpers.<a href="#cite_note-211">[209]</a> NHPs are kept in <a href="/wiki/Zoo" title="Zoo">zoos</a> around the globe. Historically, zoos were primarily a form of entertainment, but more recently have shifted their focus towards conservation, education and research. GAP does not insist that all NHPs should be released from zoos, primarily because captive-born primates lack the knowledge and experience to survive in the wild if released.<a href="#cite_note-212">[210]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Role_in_scientific_research">Role in scientific research</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a> and <a href="/wiki/International_trade_in_primates" class="mw-redirect" title="International trade in primates">International trade in primates</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg/170px-Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="189" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg/255px-Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg/340px-Monkey_Sam_Before_The_Flight_On_Little_Joe_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="398" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Sam, a <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaque</a>, was flown to the edge of space by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> in the 1959 <a href="/wiki/Little_Joe_2" title="Little Joe 2">Little Joe 2</a> flight of <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>.</figcaption></figure> Thousands of non-human primates are used around the world in research because of their psychological and physiological similarity to humans.<a href="#cite_note-ebra-213">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-ChenLi-214">[212]</a> In particular, the brains and eyes of NHPs more closely parallel human anatomy than those of any other animals. NHPs are commonly used in <a href="/wiki/Clinical_trial#Pre-clinical_studies" title="Clinical trial">preclinical trials</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">ophthalmology</a> studies, and toxicity studies. <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">Rhesus macaques</a> are often used, as are other <a href="/wiki/Macaque" title="Macaque">macaques</a>, African <a href="/wiki/Chlorocebus" title="Chlorocebus">green monkeys</a>, chimpanzees, <a href="/wiki/Baboon" title="Baboon">baboons</a>, <a href="/wiki/Squirrel_monkey" title="Squirrel monkey">squirrel monkeys</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Marmoset" title="Marmoset">marmosets</a>, both wild-caught and purpose-bred.<a href="#cite_note-ebra-213">[211]</a><a href="#cite_note-Conlee2004-215">[213]</a> In 2005, GAP reported that 1,280 of the 3,100 NHPs living in captivity in the United States were used for experiments.<a href="#cite_note-GA-204">[202]</a> In 2004, the <a href="/wiki/European_Union" title="European Union">European Union</a> used around 10,000 NHPs in such experiments; in 2005 in Great Britain, 4,652 experiments were conducted on 3,115 NHPs.<a href="#cite_note-216">[214]</a> Governments of many nations have strict care requirements of NHPs kept in captivity. In the US, federal guidelines extensively regulate aspects of NHP housing, feeding, enrichment, and breeding.<a href="#cite_note-usda_nhpresearch-217">[215]</a> European groups such as the <a href="/wiki/European_Coalition_to_End_Animal_Experiments" title="European Coalition to End Animal Experiments">European Coalition to End Animal Experiments</a> are seeking a ban on all NHP use in experiments as part of the European Union's review of animal testing legislation.<a href="#cite_note-218">[216]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Extinction_threats">Extinction threats</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hunted_Silky_Sifakas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Hunted_Silky_Sifakas.jpg/220px-Hunted_Silky_Sifakas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Hunted_Silky_Sifakas.jpg/330px-Hunted_Silky_Sifakas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Hunted_Silky_Sifakas.jpg/440px-Hunted_Silky_Sifakas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="962" data-file-height="694" /></a><figcaption>Humans are known to hunt other primates for food, called <a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">bushmeat</a>. Pictured are two men who have killed a number of <a href="/wiki/Silky_sifaka" title="Silky sifaka">silky sifaka</a> and <a href="/wiki/White-headed_lemur" title="White-headed lemur">white-headed brown</a> lemurs.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/International_Union_for_Conservation_of_Nature" title="International Union for Conservation of Nature">International Union for Conservation of Nature</a> (IUCN) lists more than a third of primates as critically endangered or vulnerable. About 60% of primate species are threatened with extinction, including: 87% of species in Madagascar, 73% in Asia, 37% in Africa, and 36% in South and Central America.<a href="#cite_note-Estrada-2017-219">[217]</a> Additionally, 75% of primate species have decreasing populations.<a href="#cite_note-Estrada-2017-219">[217]</a> Trade is regulated, as all species are listed by <a href="/wiki/CITES" title="CITES">CITES</a> in <a href="/wiki/CITES#Appendix_II" title="CITES">Appendix II</a>, except 50 species and subspecies listed in <a href="/wiki/CITES#Appendix_I" title="CITES">Appendix I</a>, which gain full protection from trade.<a href="#cite_note-IFAW-220">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-CITES-221">[219]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lemur_poaching_004.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="White-fronted Brown Lemur (Eulemur albifrons) killed in northeast Madagascar for bushmeat." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Lemur_poaching_004.jpg/220px-Lemur_poaching_004.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Lemur_poaching_004.jpg/330px-Lemur_poaching_004.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Lemur_poaching_004.jpg/440px-Lemur_poaching_004.jpg 2x" data-file-width="728" data-file-height="1072" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/White-headed_lemur" title="White-headed lemur">White-headed lemur</a> (Eulemur albifrons) killed in northeast <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a> for bushmeat.</figcaption></figure> Common threats to primate species include <a href="/wiki/Deforestation" title="Deforestation">deforestation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Forest_fragmentation" class="mw-redirect" title="Forest fragmentation">forest fragmentation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monkey_drive" title="Monkey drive">monkey drives</a> (resulting from primate crop raiding),<a href="#cite_note-222">[220]</a> and primate hunting for use in medicines, as pets, and for food. Large-scale tropical forest clearing is widely regarded as the process that most threatens primates.<a href="#cite_note-Chapman-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mittermeier-224">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Southwick-225">[223]</a> More than 90% of primate species occur in tropical forests.<a href="#cite_note-Mittermeier-224">[222]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cowlishaw-226">[224]</a> The main cause of forest loss is clearing for agriculture, although commercial logging, <a href="/wiki/Subsistence_agriculture" title="Subsistence agriculture">subsistence</a> harvesting of timber, mining, and dam construction also contribute to tropical forest destruction.<a href="#cite_note-Cowlishaw-226">[224]</a> In Indonesia large areas of lowland forest have been cleared to increase <a href="/wiki/Palm_oil" title="Palm oil">palm oil</a> production, and one analysis of satellite imagery concluded that during 1998 and 1999 there was a loss of 1,000 <a href="/wiki/Sumatran_orangutan" title="Sumatran orangutan">Sumatran orangutans</a> per year in the <a href="/wiki/Leuser_Ecosystem" title="Leuser Ecosystem">Leuser Ecosystem</a> alone.<a href="#cite_note-227">[225]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silky_Sifaka_Pink_Face_Closeup.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Silky_Sifaka_Pink_Face_Closeup.JPG/220px-Silky_Sifaka_Pink_Face_Closeup.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Silky_Sifaka_Pink_Face_Closeup.JPG/330px-Silky_Sifaka_Pink_Face_Closeup.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4f/Silky_Sifaka_Pink_Face_Closeup.JPG/440px-Silky_Sifaka_Pink_Face_Closeup.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>The critically endangered <a href="/wiki/Silky_sifaka" title="Silky sifaka">silky sifaka</a></figcaption></figure> Primates with a large body size (over 5 kg) are at increased extinction risk due to their greater profitability to <a href="/wiki/Poaching" title="Poaching">poachers</a> compared to smaller primates.<a href="#cite_note-Cowlishaw-226">[224]</a> They reach sexual maturity later and have a longer period between births. Populations therefore recover more slowly after being depleted by poaching or the pet trade.<a href="#cite_note-228">[226]</a> Data for some African cities show that half of all protein consumed in urban areas comes from the <a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">bushmeat</a> trade.<a href="#cite_note-Fa-229">[227]</a> Endangered primates such as <a href="/wiki/Guenon" title="Guenon">guenons</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Drill_(mammal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Drill (mammal)">drill</a> are hunted at levels that far exceed sustainable levels.<a href="#cite_note-Fa-229">[227]</a> This is due to their large body size, ease of transport and profitability per animal.<a href="#cite_note-Fa-229">[227]</a> As farming encroaches on forest habitats, primates feed on the crops, causing the farmers large economic losses.<a href="#cite_note-230">[228]</a> Primate crop raiding gives locals a negative impression of primates, hindering conservation efforts.<a href="#cite_note-231">[229]</a> <a href="/wiki/Madagascar" title="Madagascar">Madagascar</a>, home to five endemic primate families, has experienced the greatest extinction of the recent past; since human settlement 1,500 years ago, at least eight classes and fifteen of the larger species have become extinct due to hunting and habitat destruction.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-73">[72]</a> Among the primates wiped out were <a href="/wiki/Archaeoindris" title="Archaeoindris">Archaeoindris</a> (a lemur larger than a silverback gorilla) and the families <a href="/wiki/Palaeopropithecidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeopropithecidae">Palaeopropithecidae</a> and <a href="/wiki/Archaeolemuridae" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeolemuridae">Archaeolemuridae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-britannica-73">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Man_of_the_woods.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Man_of_the_woods.JPG/220px-Man_of_the_woods.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Man_of_the_woods.JPG/330px-Man_of_the_woods.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Man_of_the_woods.JPG/440px-Man_of_the_woods.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="1284" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Critically_endangered" class="mw-redirect" title="Critically endangered">critically endangered</a> Sumatran orangutan</figcaption></figure> In Asia, <a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> prohibit eating primate meat; however, primates are still hunted for food.<a href="#cite_note-Cowlishaw-226">[224]</a> Some smaller traditional religions allow the consumption of primate meat.<a href="#cite_note-232">[230]</a><a href="#cite_note-233">[231]</a> The pet trade and traditional medicine also increase demand for illegal hunting.<a href="#cite_note-Workman-208">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-234">[232]</a><a href="#cite_note-235">[233]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Rhesus_macaque" title="Rhesus macaque">rhesus macaque</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Model_organism" title="Model organism">model organism</a>, was protected after excessive trapping threatened its numbers in the 1960s; the program was so effective that they are now viewed as a pest throughout their range.<a href="#cite_note-Southwick-225">[223]</a> In Central and South America forest fragmentation and hunting are the two main problems for primates. Large tracts of forest are now rare in Central America.<a href="#cite_note-Chapman-223">[221]</a><a href="#cite_note-236">[234]</a> This increases the amount of forest vulnerable to <a href="/wiki/Edge_effect" class="mw-redirect" title="Edge effect">edge effects</a> such as farmland encroachment, lower levels of humidity and a change in plant life.<a href="#cite_note-237">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-238">[236]</a> Movement restriction results in a greater amount of inbreeding, which can cause deleterious effects leading to a <a href="/wiki/Population_bottleneck" title="Population bottleneck">population bottleneck</a>, whereby a significant percentage of the population is lost.<a href="#cite_note-239">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-240">[238]</a> There are 21 critically endangered primates, 7 of which have remained on the IUCN's "<a href="/wiki/The_World%27s_25_Most_Endangered_Primates" title="The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates">The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates</a>" list since the year 2000: the <a href="/wiki/Silky_sifaka" title="Silky sifaka">silky sifaka</a>, <a href="/wiki/Delacour%27s_langur" title="Delacour's langur">Delacour's langur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/White-headed_langur" title="White-headed langur">white-headed langur</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Gray-shanked_douc" title="Gray-shanked douc">gray-shanked douc</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Tonkin_snub-nosed_monkey" title="Tonkin snub-nosed monkey">Tonkin snub-nosed monkey</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cross_River_gorilla" title="Cross River gorilla">Cross River gorilla</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sumatran_orangutan" title="Sumatran orangutan">Sumatran orangutan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-241">[239]</a> <a href="/wiki/Miss_Waldron%27s_red_colobus" title="Miss Waldron's red colobus">Miss Waldron's red colobus</a> was recently declared extinct when no trace of the subspecies could be found from 1993 to 1999.<a href="#cite_note-242">[240]</a> A few hunters have found and killed individuals since then, but the subspecies' prospects remain bleak.<a href="#cite_note-243">[241]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" aria-label="Portals" class="noprint portalbox portalborder portalright"> <li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg/32px-Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="22" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg/48px-Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/44/Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg/64px-Wapiti_from_Wagon_Trails.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2064" data-file-height="1413" /></a><a href="/wiki/Portal:Animals" title="Portal:Animals">Animals portal</a></li><li class="portalbox-entry"><a href="/wiki/File:Okapi2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Okapi2.jpg/32px-Okapi2.jpg" decoding="async" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 18em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arboreal_theory" title="Arboreal theory">Arboreal theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Primate_Day" title="International Primate Day">International Primate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_primates" title="List of primates">List of primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fossil_primates" title="List of fossil primates">List of fossil primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_Day" title="Monkey Day">Monkey Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primatology" title="Primatology">Primatology</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Footnotes">Footnotes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Lemuriformes-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lemuriformes_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lemuriformes_12-1">b</a> Although the <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyletic relationship</a> between lemurs and lorisoids is widely accepted, their clade name is not. The term "lemuriform" is used here because it derives from one popular taxonomy that clumps the <a href="/wiki/Clade" title="Clade">clade</a> of toothcombed primates into one <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">infraorder</a> and the extinct, non-toothcombed <a href="/wiki/Adapiformes" title="Adapiformes">adapiforms</a> into another, both within the <a href="/wiki/Taxonomic_rank" title="Taxonomic rank">suborder</a> Strepsirrhini.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESzalayDelson1980149-18">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECartmill201015-19">[18]</a> However, another popular alternative taxonomy places the <a href="/wiki/Lorisoidea" title="Lorisoidea">lorisoids</a> in their own infraorder, Lorisiformes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwig201120–21-17">[16]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> Article 6: Everyone has the right to recognition everywhere as a person before the law.<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-MSW3-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSW3_1-7">h</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFGroves2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Colin_Groves" title="Colin Groves">Groves, C. P.</a> (2005). <a href="/wiki/Don_E._Wilson" title="Don E. Wilson">Wilson, D. E.</a>; Reeder, D. M. (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?id=12100001">Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference</a> (3rd ed.). Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 111–184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-801-88221-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-801-88221-4"><bdi>0-801-88221-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/62265494">62265494</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mammal+Species+of+the+World%3A+A+Taxonomic+and+Geographic+Reference&rft.place=Baltimore&rft.pages=111-184&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F62265494&rft.isbn=0-801-88221-4&rft.aulast=Groves&rft.aufirst=C.+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.departments.bucknell.edu%2Fbiology%2Fresources%2Fmsw3%2Fbrowse.asp%3Fid%3D12100001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSilcoxBlochBoyerChester2017" class="citation journal cs1">Silcox, Mary T.; Bloch, Jonathan I.; Boyer, Doug M.; Chester, Stephen G. B.; López-Torres, Sergi (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fevan.21526">"The evolutionary radiation of plesiadapiforms"</a>. Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews. 26 (2): 74–94. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fevan.21526">10.1002/evan.21526</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1520-6505">1520-6505</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28429568">28429568</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Evolutionary+Anthropology%3A+Issues%2C+News%2C+and+Reviews&rft.atitle=The+evolutionary+radiation+of+plesiadapiforms&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=74-94&rft.date=2017&rft.issn=1520-6505&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28429568&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fevan.21526&rft.aulast=Silcox&rft.aufirst=Mary+T.&rft.au=Bloch%2C+Jonathan+I.&rft.au=Boyer%2C+Doug+M.&rft.au=Chester%2C+Stephen+G.+B.&rft.au=L%C3%B3pez-Torres%2C+Sergi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1002%252Fevan.21526&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/primate">"Primate"</a>. Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a>. Retrieved 2008-07-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Primate&rft.btitle=Merriam-Webster+Online+Dictionary&rft.pub=Merriam-Webster&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.merriam-webster.com%2Fdictionary%2Fprimate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qNtjfh57ipsC&q=primate+carl+linnaeus+highest">The Book of Popular Science</a>. 1963. p. 257.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Book+of+Popular+Science&rft.pages=257&rft.date=1963&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqNtjfh57ipsC%26q%3Dprimate%2Bcarl%2Blinnaeus%2Bhighest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB11Ape-5"><a href="#cite_ref-EB11Ape_5-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Ape">"Ape" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 02 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 160.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ape&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=160&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CNN-20240323-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CNN-20240323_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CNN-20240323_6-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeisberger2024" class="citation news cs1">Weisberger, Mindy (March 23, 2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/23/world/humans-tails-genetic-mutation-junk-dna-scn/index.html">"Why don't humans have tails? Scientists find answers in an unlikely place"</a>. <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20240324031927/https://www.cnn.com/2024/03/23/world/humans-tails-genetic-mutation-junk-dna-scn/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2024. Retrieved March 24, 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Why+don%27t+humans+have+tails%3F+Scientists+find+answers+in+an+unlikely+place&rft.date=2024-03-23&rft.aulast=Weisberger&rft.aufirst=Mindy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2024%2F03%2F23%2Fworld%2Fhumans-tails-genetic-mutation-junk-dna-scn%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dixson1981-7"><a href="#cite_ref-Dixson1981_7-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDixson1981" class="citation cs2">Dixson, A.F. (1981), The Natural History of the Gorilla, London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-297-77895-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-297-77895-0"><bdi>978-0-297-77895-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+History+of+the+Gorilla&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Weidenfeld+%26+Nicolson&rft.date=1981&rft.isbn=978-0-297-77895-0&rft.aulast=Dixson&rft.aufirst=A.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Definitions of <a href="/wiki/Paraphyly" title="Paraphyly">paraphyly</a> vary; for the one used here see e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStace2010" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Clive_A._Stace" title="Clive A. Stace">Stace, Clive A.</a> (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110726104027/https://www.watsonia.org.uk/Wats28p103.pdf">"Classification by molecules: What's in it for field botanists?"</a> (PDF), Watsonia, 28: 103–122, archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.watsonia.org.uk/Wats28p103.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2011-07-26, retrieved 2010-02-07</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Watsonia&rft.atitle=Classification+by+molecules%3A+What%27s+in+it+for+field+botanists%3F&rft.volume=28&rft.pages=103-122&rft.date=2010&rft.aulast=Stace&rft.aufirst=Clive+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.watsonia.org.uk%2FWats28p103.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Definitions of <a href="/wiki/Monophyly" title="Monophyly">monophyly</a> vary; for the one used here see e.g. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMishler2009" class="citation cs2">Mishler, Brent D (2009), "Species are not Uniquely Real Biological Entities", in Ayala, F.J. & Arp, R. (eds.), Contemporary Debates in Philosophy of Biology, pp. 110–122, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2F9781444314922.ch6">10.1002/9781444314922.ch6</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1492-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4443-1492-2"><bdi>978-1-4443-1492-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Species+are+not+Uniquely+Real+Biological+Entities&rft.btitle=Contemporary+Debates+in+Philosophy+of+Biology&rft.pages=110-122&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2F9781444314922.ch6&rft.isbn=978-1-4443-1492-2&rft.aulast=Mishler&rft.aufirst=Brent+D&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988">. </li> <li id="cite_note-Cartmill2011-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cartmill2011_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cartmill2011_10-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartmillSmith2011" class="citation book cs1">Cartmill, M.; Smith, F. H. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=X058kYnhxC0C&pg=PA90">The Human Lineage</a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-21145-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-21145-8"><bdi>978-1-118-21145-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Human+Lineage&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-118-21145-8&rft.aulast=Cartmill&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Smith%2C+F.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DX058kYnhxC0C%26pg%3DPA90&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-PT-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-PT_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-PT_11-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGroves,_C._P.2001" class="citation book cs1">Groves, C. P. (2001). Primate Taxonomy. Smithsonian Institution Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-56098-872-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-56098-872-X"><bdi>1-56098-872-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primate+Taxonomy&rft.pub=Smithsonian+Institution+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=1-56098-872-X&rft.au=Groves%2C+C.+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton2005371-13"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton2005371_13-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenton2005">Benton 2005</a>, p. 371. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBenton2005378–380-14"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBenton2005378–380_14-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBenton2005">Benton 2005</a>, pp. 378–380. </li> <li id="cite_note-Mittermeier2008-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mittermeier2008_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mittermeier2008_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMittermeier,_R.Ganzhorn,_J.Konstant,_W.Glander,_K.2008" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Russell_Mittermeier" title="Russell Mittermeier">Mittermeier, R.</a>; Ganzhorn, J.; Konstant, W.; Glander, K.; Tattersall, I.; Groves, C.; Rylands, A.; Hapke, A.; Ratsimbazafy, J.; Mayor, M.; Louis, E.; Rumpler, Y.; Schwitzer, C.; Rasoloarison, R. (December 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210215163911/https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/handle/10161/6237/08">"Lemur Diversity in Madagascar"</a>. International Journal of Primatology. 29 (6): 1607–1656. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10764-008-9317-y">10.1007/s10764-008-9317-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:17614597">17614597</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dukespace.lib.duke.edu/dspace/bitstream/10161/6237/1/08%20lemur%20diversity.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2021-02-15. Retrieved 2019-09-24.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Primatology&rft.atitle=Lemur+Diversity+in+Madagascar&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=1607-1656&rft.date=2008-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10764-008-9317-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A17614597%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Mittermeier%2C+R.&rft.au=Ganzhorn%2C+J.&rft.au=Konstant%2C+W.&rft.au=Glander%2C+K.&rft.au=Tattersall%2C+I.&rft.au=Groves%2C+C.&rft.au=Rylands%2C+A.&rft.au=Hapke%2C+A.&rft.au=Ratsimbazafy%2C+J.&rft.au=Mayor%2C+M.&rft.au=Louis%2C+E.&rft.au=Rumpler%2C+Y.&rft.au=Schwitzer%2C+C.&rft.au=Rasoloarison%2C+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdukespace.lib.duke.edu%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F10161%2F6237%2F1%2F08%2520lemur%2520diversity.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SAP-16"><a href="#cite_ref-SAP_16-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRylands,_A._B.Mittermeier,_R._A.2009" class="citation book cs1">Rylands, A. B. & Mittermeier, R. A. (2009). "The Diversity of the New World Primates (Platyrrhini)". In Garber, P. A.; Estrada, A.; Bicca-Marques, J. C.; Heymann, E. W. & <a href="/wiki/Karen_B._Strier" title="Karen B. Strier">Strier, K. B.</a> (eds.). South American Primates: Comparative Perspectives in the Study of Behavior, Ecology, and Conservation. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-78704-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-78704-6"><bdi>978-0-387-78704-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Diversity+of+the+New+World+Primates+%28Platyrrhini%29&rft.btitle=South+American+Primates%3A+Comparative+Perspectives+in+the+Study+of+Behavior%2C+Ecology%2C+and+Conservation&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-387-78704-6&rft.au=Rylands%2C+A.+B.&rft.au=Mittermeier%2C+R.+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHartwig201120–21-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwig201120–21_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHartwig201120–21_17-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHartwig2011">Hartwig 2011</a>, pp. 20–21. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESzalayDelson1980149-18"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESzalayDelson1980149_18-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSzalayDelson1980">Szalay & Delson 1980</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECartmill201015-19"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECartmill201015_19-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCartmill2010">Cartmill 2010</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus,_C.1758" class="citation book cs1">Linnaeus, C. (1758). Sistema naturae per regna tria Naturae, secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, cum characteribus differentiis, synonimis locis. Tomus I. Impensis direct. Laurentii Salvii, Holmia. pp. 20–32.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sistema+naturae+per+regna+tria+Naturae%2C+secundum+classes%2C+ordines%2C+genera%2C+species%2C+cum+characteribus+differentiis%2C+synonimis+locis.+Tomus+I&rft.pages=20-32&rft.pub=Impensis+direct.+Laurentii+Salvii%2C+Holmia&rft.date=1758&rft.au=Linnaeus%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLinnaeus,_C.1735" class="citation book cs1">Linnaeus, C. (1735). Sistema naturae sive regna tria Naturae systematice proposita per classes, ordines, genera, & species. apud Theodorum Haak, Lugduni Batavorum. pp. s.p.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sistema+naturae+sive+regna+tria+Naturae+systematice+proposita+per+classes%2C+ordines%2C+genera%2C+%26+species&rft.pages=s.p&rft.pub=apud+Theodorum+Haak%2C+Lugduni+Batavorum&rft.date=1735&rft.au=Linnaeus%2C+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlainville,_H.1839" class="citation book cs1">Blainville, H. (1839). "Nouvelle classification des Mammifères". Annales Françaises et Etrangères d'Anatomie et de Physiologie Appliquées à la Médicine et à l'Histoire Naturelle, 3. pp. 268–269.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nouvelle+classification+des+Mammif%C3%A8res&rft.btitle=Annales+Fran%C3%A7aises+et+Etrang%C3%A8res+d%27Anatomie+et+de+Physiologie+Appliqu%C3%A9es+%C3%A0+la+M%C3%A9dicine+et+%C3%A0+l%27Histoire+Naturelle%2C+3&rft.pages=268-269&rft.date=1839&rft.au=Blainville%2C+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThorington,_R._W.Anderson,_S.1984" class="citation book cs1">Thorington, R. W. & Anderson, S. (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ordersfamiliesof0000unse/page/187">"Primates"</a>. In Anderson, S. & Jones, J. K. (eds.). Orders and Families of Recent Mammals of the World. New York: John Wiley and Sons. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ordersfamiliesof0000unse/page/187">187–217</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-08493-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-08493-8"><bdi>978-0-471-08493-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Primates&rft.btitle=Orders+and+Families+of+Recent+Mammals+of+the+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=187-217&rft.pub=John+Wiley+and+Sons&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=978-0-471-08493-8&rft.au=Thorington%2C+R.+W.&rft.au=Anderson%2C+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fordersfamiliesof0000unse%2Fpage%2F187&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKenna,_M._C.Bell,_S._K.1997" class="citation book cs1">McKenna, M. C. & Bell, S. K. (1997). Classification of Mammals: Above the species level. New York: Columbia University Press. p. 631. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-231-11013-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-231-11013-8"><bdi>0-231-11013-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Classification+of+Mammals%3A+Above+the+species+level&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=631&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-231-11013-8&rft.au=McKenna%2C+M.+C.&rft.au=Bell%2C+S.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStrier,_K.2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karen_B._Strier" title="Karen B. Strier">Strier, K.</a> (2007). Primate Behavioral Ecology (Third ed.). Pearson Allyn and Bacon. pp. 50–53. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-205-44432-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-205-44432-8"><bdi>978-0-205-44432-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primate+Behavioral+Ecology&rft.pages=50-53&rft.edition=Third&rft.pub=Pearson+Allyn+and+Bacon&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-205-44432-8&rft.au=Strier%2C+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJanečkaMillerPringleWiens2007" class="citation journal cs1">Janečka, J. E.; Miller, W.; Pringle, T. H.; Wiens, F.; Zitzmann, A.; Helgen, K. M.; Springer, M. S.; Murphy, W. J. (2 November 2007). "Molecular and Genomic Data Identify the Closest Living Relative of Primates". Science. 318 (5851): 792–794. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007Sci...318..792J">2007Sci...318..792J</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.1147555">10.1126/science.1147555</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/17975064">17975064</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:12251814">12251814</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Molecular+and+Genomic+Data+Identify+the+Closest+Living+Relative+of+Primates&rft.volume=318&rft.issue=5851&rft.pages=792-794&rft.date=2007-11-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.1147555&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A12251814%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17975064&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007Sci...318..792J&rft.aulast=Jane%C4%8Dka&rft.aufirst=J.+E.&rft.au=Miller%2C+W.&rft.au=Pringle%2C+T.+H.&rft.au=Wiens%2C+F.&rft.au=Zitzmann%2C+A.&rft.au=Helgen%2C+K.+M.&rft.au=Springer%2C+M.+S.&rft.au=Murphy%2C+W.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKavanagh,_M.1983" class="citation book cs1">Kavanagh, M. 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Oxford University Press. p. 283. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517133-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517133-4"><bdi>978-0-19-517133-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Hylobatidae&rft.btitle=Primates+in+Perspective&rft.pages=283&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517133-4&rft.au=Bartlett%2C+T.+Q.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWiens2002" class="citation thesis cs1">Wiens, Frank (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120309212455/http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=966021282&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=966021282.pdf">Behavior and ecology of wild slow lorises (Nycticebus coucang): social organization, infant care system, and diet</a> (PDF) (Ph.D. thesis). Bayreuth University. pp. 31–32. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://deposit.ddb.de/cgi-bin/dokserv?idn=966021282&dok_var=d1&dok_ext=pdf&filename=966021282.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 9 March 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Behavior+and+ecology+of+wild+slow+lorises+%28Nycticebus+coucang%29%3A+social+organization%2C+infant+care+system%2C+and+diet&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=Bayreuth+University&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Wiens&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdeposit.ddb.de%2Fcgi-bin%2Fdokserv%3Fidn%3D966021282%26dok_var%3Dd1%26dok_ext%3Dpdf%26filename%3D966021282.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnott,_C._D.Kahlenberg,_S._M.2007" class="citation book cs1">Knott, C. D. & Kahlenberg, S. 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L.; Ashley, M. V.; Goodall, J.; Pusey, A. E. (May 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sim_molecular-ecology_2001-05_10_5/page/1279">"Noninvasive paternity assignment in Gombe chimpanzees"</a>. Molecular Ecology. 10 (5): 1279–300. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001MolEc..10.1279C">2001MolEc..10.1279C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-294X.2001.01262.x">10.1046/j.1365-294X.2001.01262.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11380884">11380884</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:46604532">46604532</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Molecular+Ecology&rft.atitle=Noninvasive+paternity+assignment+in+Gombe+chimpanzees&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1279-300&rft.date=2001-05&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1365-294X.2001.01262.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A46604532%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11380884&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001MolEc..10.1279C&rft.aulast=Constable&rft.aufirst=J.+L.&rft.au=Ashley%2C+M.+V.&rft.au=Goodall%2C+J.&rft.au=Pusey%2C+A.+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsim_molecular-ecology_2001-05_10_5%2Fpage%2F1279&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rowe1996-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe1996_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe1996_113-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe1996_113-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe1996_113-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rowe1996_113-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRowe,_N.1996" class="citation book cs1">Rowe, N. 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Current Biology. 19 (15): R633–R635. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009CBio...19.R633C">2009CBio...19.R633C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.cub.2009.05.034">10.1016/j.cub.2009.05.034</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0960-9822">0960-9822</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19674541">19674541</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13549970">13549970</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Biology&rft.atitle=Fission%E2%80%93fusion+populations&rft.volume=19&rft.issue=15&rft.pages=R633-R635&rft.date=2009-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13549970%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009CBio...19.R633C&rft.issn=0960-9822&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.cub.2009.05.034&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F19674541&rft.aulast=Couzin&rft.aufirst=Iain+D.&rft.au=Laidre%2C+Mark+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1016%252Fj.cub.2009.05.034&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-vertlife-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-vertlife_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-vertlife_115-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoughJanisHeiser2005" class="citation book cs1">Pough, F. W.; Janis, C. M.; Heiser, J. B. (2005) [1979]. "Primate Societies". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/vertebratelife0000poug">Vertebrate Life</a> (7th ed.). 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Chicago: University of Chicago Press for articles on the structure and function of various primate societies. </li> <li id="cite_note-NYT-20231116-117"><a href="#cite_ref-NYT-20231116_117-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZimmer2023" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</a> (16 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/16/science/bonobos-cooperation-study.html">"Scientists Find First Evidence That Groups of Apes Cooperate - Some bonobos are challenging the notion that humans are the only primates capable of group-to-group alliances"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20231116194259/https://www.nytimes.com/2023/11/16/science/bonobos-cooperation-study.html">Archived</a> from the original on 16 November 2023. 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(16 November 2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg0844">"Cooperation across social borders in bonobos"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a>. 382 (6672): 805–809. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2023Sci...382..805S">2023Sci...382..805S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.adg0844">10.1126/science.adg0844</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/37972165">37972165</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20231117125744/https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.adg0844">Archived</a> from the original on 17 November 2023. Retrieved 17 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Cooperation+across+social+borders+in+bonobos&rft.volume=382&rft.issue=6672&rft.pages=805-809&rft.date=2023-11-16&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F37972165&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.adg0844&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2023Sci...382..805S&rft.au=Samuni%2C+Liran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.science.org%2Fdoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.adg0844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tai-119"><a href="#cite_ref-tai_119-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShultz,_S.Thomsett,_S.2007" class="citation book cs1">Shultz, S. & Thomsett, S. (2007). "Interactions between African Crowned Eagles and Their Prey Community". In McGraw, W.; Zuberbuhler, K. & Noe, R. (eds.). Monkeys of Tai Forest, An African Primate Community. Cambridge University Press. p. 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81633-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81633-5"><bdi>978-0-521-81633-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interactions+between+African+Crowned+Eagles+and+Their+Prey+Community&rft.btitle=Monkeys+of+Tai+Forest%2C+An+African+Primate+Community&rft.pages=181&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81633-5&rft.au=Shultz%2C+S.&rft.au=Thomsett%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tai2007-120">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tai2007_120-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tai2007_120-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBshary,_R.2007" class="citation book cs1">Bshary, R. (2007). 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 155–170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81633-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-81633-5"><bdi>978-0-521-81633-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Interactions+between+Red+Colobus+Monkeys+and+Chimpanzees&rft.btitle=Monkeys+of+Tai+Forest%2C+An+African+Primate+Community&rft.pages=155-170&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-521-81633-5&rft.au=Bshary%2C+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-chimpcolobus-121"><a href="#cite_ref-chimpcolobus_121-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStanford,_C.1998" class="citation book cs1">Stanford, C. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chimpanzeeredcol0000stan">Chimpanzee and Red Colobus : the ecology of predator and prey</a>. Harvard University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/chimpanzeeredcol0000stan/page/130">130</a>–138, 233. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-674-00722-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-674-00722-0"><bdi>0-674-00722-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chimpanzee+and+Red+Colobus+%3A+the+ecology+of+predator+and+prey&rft.pages=130-138%2C+233&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-674-00722-0&rft.au=Stanford%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fchimpanzeeredcol0000stan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-move-122">^ <a href="#cite_ref-move_122-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-move_122-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoinski,_S.2000" class="citation book cs1">Boinski, S. 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University of Chicago Press. pp. 447–448. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-06340-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-06340-2"><bdi>0-226-06340-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Social+Manipulation+Within+and+Between+Troops+Mediates+Primate+Group+Movement&rft.btitle=On+the+Move+%3A+how+and+why+animals+travel+in+groups&rft.pages=447-448&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-226-06340-2&rft.au=Boinski%2C+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLimanInnan2003" class="citation journal cs1">Liman, E. R.; Innan, H. (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pnas.org/cgi/reprint/100/6/3328.pdf">"Relaxed selective pressure on an essential component of pheromone transduction in primate evolution"</a> (PDF). Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 100 (6): 3328–3332. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2003PNAS..100.3328L">2003PNAS..100.3328L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.0636123100">10.1073/pnas.0636123100</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC152292">152292</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12631698">12631698</a>. 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Encyclopedia of Language and Linguistics (2nd ed.). Elsevier. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-08-044299-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-08-044299-4"><bdi>0-08-044299-4</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.wjh.harvard.edu/~mnkylab/publications/animalcommunication/PrimateComm_ElsevierEncy.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2008-09-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Nonhuman+Primate+Communication&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Language+and+Linguistics&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=0-08-044299-4&rft.aulast=Egnor&rft.aufirst=R.&rft.au=Miller%2C+C.&rft.au=Hauser%2C+M.D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.wjh.harvard.edu%2F~mnkylab%2Fpublications%2Fanimalcommunication%2FPrimateComm_ElsevierEncy.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pollick-125">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Pollick_125-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Pollick_125-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPollickde_Waal2007" class="citation journal cs1">Pollick, A. 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Primates; Journal of Primatology. 47 (4): 393–6. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10329-006-0189-5">10.1007/s10329-006-0189-5</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16736264">16736264</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:1586657">1586657</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Primates%3B+Journal+of+Primatology&rft.atitle=Diurnal+Distribution+of+Loud+Calls+in+Sympatric+Wild+Indris+%28Indri+indri%29+and+Ruffed+Lemurs+%28Varecia+variegata%29%3A+Implications+for+Call+Functions&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=393-6&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A1586657%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F16736264&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10329-006-0189-5&rft.au=Geissmann%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Mutschler%2C+Thomas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgibbons.de%2Fmain%2Fnon-gibbon%2Fpdf_files%2F2006indri_varecia.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ramsier_etal.,_(2012)-128"><a href="#cite_ref-Ramsier_etal.,_(2012)_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamsierCunninghamMoritzFinneran2012" class="citation journal cs1">Ramsier, M.A.; Cunningham, A.J.; Moritz, G.L.; Finneran, J.J.; Williams, C.V.; Ong, P.S.; Gursky-Doyen, S.L.; Dominy, N.J. 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(2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.primate-sg.org/storage/PDF/Primates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf">Primates in Peril: The World's 25 Most Endangered Primates 2008–2010</a> (PDF). Illustrated by S.D. Nash. Arlington, VA.: IUCN/SSC Primate Specialist Group (PSG), International Primatological Society (IPS), and Conservation International (CI). pp. 23–26. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-934151-34-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-934151-34-1"><bdi>978-1-934151-34-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Primates+in+Peril%3A+The+World%27s+25+Most+Endangered+Primates+2008%E2%80%932010&rft.place=Arlington%2C+VA.&rft.pages=23-26&rft.pub=IUCN%2FSSC+Primate+Specialist+Group+%28PSG%29%2C+International+Primatological+Society+%28IPS%29%2C+and+Conservation+International+%28CI%29&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-934151-34-1&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.primate-sg.org%2Fstorage%2FPDF%2FPrimates.in.Peril.2008-2010.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOatesAbedi-LarteyMcGrawStruhsaker2000" class="citation journal cs1">Oates, J. F.; Abedi-Lartey, M.; McGraw, W. S.; Struhsaker, T. T.; Whitesides, G. H. (October 2000). "Extinction of a West African Red Colobus Monkey". Conservation Biology. 14 (5): 1526–1532. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2000ConBi..14.1526O">2000ConBi..14.1526O</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.2000.99230.x">10.1046/j.1523-1739.2000.99230.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:84336872">84336872</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Conservation+Biology&rft.atitle=Extinction+of+a+West+African+Red+Colobus+Monkey&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=1526-1532&rft.date=2000-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A84336872%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1046%2Fj.1523-1739.2000.99230.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2000ConBi..14.1526O&rft.aulast=Oates&rft.aufirst=J.+F.&rft.au=Abedi-Lartey%2C+M.&rft.au=McGraw%2C+W.+S.&rft.au=Struhsaker%2C+T.+T.&rft.au=Whitesides%2C+G.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-243"><a href="#cite_ref-243">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGraw,_W._S.2005" class="citation journal cs1">McGraw, W. S. (June 2005). "Update on the Search for Miss Waldron's Red Colobus Monkey". International Journal of Primatology. 26 (3): 605–619. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10764-005-4368-9">10.1007/s10764-005-4368-9</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:861418">861418</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Primatology&rft.atitle=Update+on+the+Search+for+Miss+Waldron%27s+Red+Colobus+Monkey&rft.volume=26&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=605-619&rft.date=2005-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10764-005-4368-9&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A861418%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=McGraw%2C+W.+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature_cited">Literature cited</h3></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBenton2005" class="citation book cs1">Benton, Michael J. (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=SyJO3vpCk8AC">"Chapter 3: Primate evolution"</a>. Vertebrate palaeontology. Wiley-Blackwell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-632-05637-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-632-05637-8"><bdi>978-0-632-05637-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2011-07-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Primate+evolution&rft.btitle=Vertebrate+palaeontology&rft.pub=Wiley-Blackwell&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-632-05637-8&rft.aulast=Benton&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DSyJO3vpCk8AC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCartmill2010" class="citation book cs1">Cartmill, M. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=hv28p1tCnnEC&pg=PA15">"Primate Classification and Diversity"</a>. In Platt, M.; Ghazanfar, A (eds.). Primate Neuroethology. Oxford University Press. pp. 10–30. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532659-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-532659-8"><bdi>978-0-19-532659-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Primate+Classification+and+Diversity&rft.btitle=Primate+Neuroethology&rft.pages=10-30&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-532659-8&rft.aulast=Cartmill&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dhv28p1tCnnEC%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHartwig2011" class="citation book cs1">Hartwig, W. (2011). "Chapter 3: Primate evolution". In Campbell, C. J.; Fuentes, A.; MacKinnon, K. C.; Bearder, S. K.; Stumpf, R. M (eds.). Primates in Perspective (2nd ed.). Oxford University Press. pp. 19–31. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539043-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-539043-8"><bdi>978-0-19-539043-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Chapter+3%3A+Primate+evolution&rft.btitle=Primates+in+Perspective&rft.pages=19-31&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-19-539043-8&rft.aulast=Hartwig&rft.aufirst=W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSzalayDelson1980" class="citation book cs1">Szalay, F.S.; Delson, E. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jE7gBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA149">Evolutionary History of the Primates</a>. <a href="/wiki/Academic_Press" title="Academic Press">Academic Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0126801507" title="Special:BookSources/978-0126801507"><bdi>978-0126801507</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/893740473">893740473</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+History+of+the+Primates&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1980&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F893740473&rft.isbn=978-0126801507&rft.aulast=Szalay&rft.aufirst=F.S.&rft.au=Delson%2C+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjE7gBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA149&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-abovebelow"> <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:The_Wikipedia_Library" title="Wikipedia:The Wikipedia Library">Library resources</a> about Primates <hr /></div> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><ul><li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Primates&library=OLBP">Online books</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Primates">Resources in your library</a></li> <li><a class="external text" href="https://ftl.toolforge.org/cgi-bin/ftl?st=&su=Primates&library=0CHOOSE0">Resources in other libraries</a></li> </ul></div></div> </div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_J._ChiversBernard_A._WoodAlan_Bilsborough1984" class="citation book cs1">David J. Chivers; Bernard A. Wood; Alan Bilsborough, eds. (1984). Food Acquisition and Processing in Primates. New York & London: Plenum Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-306-41701-4" title="Special:BookSources/0-306-41701-4"><bdi>0-306-41701-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Food+Acquisition+and+Processing+in+Primates&rft.place=New+York+%26+London&rft.pub=Plenum+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=0-306-41701-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APrimate" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has the text of the <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">1911 Encyclopædia Britannica</a> article "<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Primates" class="extiw" title="wikisource:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Primates">Primates</a>".</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://primate.wisc.edu/primate-info-net/">Primate Info Net</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/site/accounts/information/Primates.html">Primates</a> at <a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">Animal Diversity Web</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pri.kyoto-u.ac.jp/">Primate Research Institute</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kyoto_University" title="Kyoto University">Kyoto University</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191011040440/http://primate-brain.org/">High-Resolution Cytoarchitectural Primate Brain Atlases</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.euprim-net.eu">EUPRIM-Net: European Primate Network</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.library.wisc.edu/digital/APCLNatHist">PrimateImages: Natural History Collection</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eskeletons.org/">Interactive views</a> of various primate skeletons at eSkeletons.org (associated with the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_at_Austin" title="University of Texas at Austin">University of Texas at Austin</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://tolweb.org/Primates/15963">Tree of Life web project</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110426005553/http://tolweb.org/Primates/15963">Archived</a> 2011-04-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mammals" title="Template:Mammals"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mammals" title="Template talk:Mammals"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mammals" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mammals"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_mammal_orders" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammal</a> orders</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a></li> <li>Subphylum <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vertebrata</a></li> <li>(unranked) <a href="/wiki/Amniote" title="Amniote">Amniota</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Yinotheria" title="Yinotheria">Yinotheria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Australosphenida" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australosphenida" title="Australosphenida">Australosphenida</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Monotreme" title="Monotreme">Monotremata (Platypus and echidnas)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Theria" title="Theria">Theria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metatheria" title="Metatheria">Metatheria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Marsupial" title="Marsupial">Marsupial</a> inclusive)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ameridelphia" title="Ameridelphia">Ameridelphia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paucituberculata" title="Paucituberculata">Paucituberculata (Shrew opossums)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opossum" title="Opossum">Didelphimorphia (Opossums)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Australidelphia" title="Australidelphia">Australidelphia</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbiotheria" title="Microbiotheria">Microbiotheria (Monito del monte)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Notoryctidae" title="Notoryctidae">Notoryctemorphia (Marsupial moles)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasyuromorphia" title="Dasyuromorphia">Dasyuromorphia (Quolls and dunnarts)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peramelemorphia" title="Peramelemorphia">Peramelemorphia (Bilbies and bandicoots)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diprotodontia" title="Diprotodontia">Diprotodontia (Kangaroos and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">Eutheria</a> (<a href="/wiki/Placentalia" title="Placentalia">Placental</a> inclusive)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Xenarthra" title="Xenarthra">Xenarthra</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cingulata" title="Cingulata">Cingulata (Armadillos)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pilosa" title="Pilosa">Pilosa (Anteaters and sloths)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Afrotheria" title="Afrotheria">Afrotheria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afrosoricida" title="Afrosoricida">Afrosoricida (Tenrecs and golden moles)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elephant_shrew" title="Elephant shrew">Macroscelidea (Elephant shrews)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orycteropodidae" title="Orycteropodidae">Tubulidentata (Aardvarks)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyrax" title="Hyrax">Hyracoidea (Hyraxes)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proboscidea" title="Proboscidea">Proboscidea (Elephants)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sirenia" title="Sirenia">Sirenia (Dugongs and manatees)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Boreoeutheria" title="Boreoeutheria">Boreoeutheria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Laurasiatheria" title="Laurasiatheria">Laurasiatheria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eulipotyphla" title="Eulipotyphla">Eulipotyphla (Hedgehogs, shrews, moles and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bat" title="Bat">Chiroptera (Bats)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pangolin" title="Pangolin">Pholidota (Pangolins)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivora" title="Carnivora">Carnivora (Dogs, cats and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odd-toed_ungulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Odd-toed ungulate">Perissodactyla (Horses, zebras, donkeys, rhinoceroses and tapirs)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artiodactyl" title="Artiodactyl">Artiodactyla (Pigs, camels, hippos, deer, buffalo, gazelles, giraffes, whales, dolphins and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rodent" title="Rodent">Rodentia (Rats, guinea pigs, squirrels, beavers, chinchillas, porcupines, capybaras and relatives)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagomorpha" title="Lagomorpha">Lagomorpha (Rabbits, hares and pikas)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treeshrew" title="Treeshrew">Scandentia (Treeshrews)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colugo" title="Colugo">Dermoptera (Colugos)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Primates (Lorises, lemurs, tarsiers, monkeys, apes (including humans) and relatives)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Extant_primate_families" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Primates" title="Template:Primates"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Primates" title="Template talk:Primates"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Primates" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Primates"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Extant_primate_families" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Extant <a class="mw-selflink selflink">primate</a> families</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li>Kingdom <a href="/wiki/Animal" title="Animal">Animalia</a></li> <li>Phylum <a href="/wiki/Chordate" title="Chordate">Chordata</a></li> <li>Class <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">Mammalia</a></li> <li>Infraclass <a href="/wiki/Eutheria" title="Eutheria">Eutheria</a></li> <li>Superorder <a href="/wiki/Euarchontoglires" title="Euarchontoglires">Euarchontoglires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Strepsirrhini" title="Strepsirrhini">Strepsirrhini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lorisoidea" title="Lorisoidea">Lorisoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lorisidae" title="Lorisidae">Lorisidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galago" title="Galago">Galagidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lemur" title="Lemur">Lemuroidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Chiromyiformes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Chiromyiformes" title="Chiromyiformes">Chiromyiformes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aye-aye" title="Aye-aye">Daubentoniidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cheirogaleidae" title="Cheirogaleidae">Cheirogaleidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lemuridae" title="Lemuridae">Lemuridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sportive_lemur" title="Sportive lemur">Lepilemuridae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indriidae" title="Indriidae">Indriidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Haplorhini" title="Haplorhini">Haplorhini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tarsier" title="Tarsier">Tarsiidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Simian" title="Simian">Simian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/New_World_monkey" title="New World monkey">Platyrrhini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cebidae" title="Cebidae">Cebidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Callitrichidae" title="Callitrichidae">Callitrichidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_monkey" title="Night monkey">Aotidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitheciidae" title="Pitheciidae">Pitheciidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atelidae" title="Atelidae">Atelidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Catharrhini" class="mw-redirect" title="Catharrhini">Catharrhini</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_World_monkey" title="Old World monkey">Cercopithecidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Hominoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hominoidea">Hominoidea</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">Hylobatidae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Hominidae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Apes" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Apes" title="Template:Apes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Apes" title="Template talk:Apes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Apes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Apes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Apes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ape" title="Ape">Apes</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_hominoids" title="List of hominoids">Extant ape species</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Homo" title="Homo">Homo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human" title="Human">Human</a> (H. sapiens)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_(genus)" title="Pan (genus)">Pan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonobo" title="Bonobo">Bonobo</a> (P. paniscus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee" title="Chimpanzee">Chimpanzee</a> (P. troglodytes)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla" title="Gorilla">Gorilla</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_gorilla" title="Eastern gorilla">Eastern gorilla</a> (G. beringei)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_gorilla" title="Western gorilla">Western gorilla</a> (G. gorilla)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan" title="Orangutan">Orangutan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sumatran_orangutan" title="Sumatran orangutan">Sumatran orangutan</a> (P. abelii)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bornean_orangutan" title="Bornean orangutan">Bornean orangutan</a> (P. pygmaeus)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tapanuli_orangutan" title="Tapanuli orangutan">Tapanuli orangutan</a> (P. tapanuliensis)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon" title="Gibbon">Gibbon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">family</a>: Hylobatidae)</li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/100px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/150px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg/200px-Evidence_as_to_Man%27s_Place_in_Naturep2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1509" data-file-height="706" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Study of apes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_language" title="Great ape language">Great ape language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dian_Fossey" title="Dian Fossey">Dian Fossey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birut%C4%97_Galdikas" title="Birutė Galdikas">Birutė Galdikas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jane_Goodall" title="Jane Goodall">Jane Goodall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee_genome_project" title="Chimpanzee genome project">Chimpanzee genome project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_Genome_Project" title="Human Genome Project">Human Genome Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gladys_Kalema-Zikusoka" title="Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka">Gladys Kalema-Zikusoka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neanderthal_genome_project" title="Neanderthal genome project">Neanderthal genome project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willie_Smits" title="Willie Smits">Willie Smits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lone_Dr%C3%B8scher_Nielsen" title="Lone Drøscher Nielsen">Lone Drøscher Nielsen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Redmond" title="Ian Redmond">Ian Redmond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elgin_Center" class="mw-redirect" title="Elgin Center">Elgin Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ape_Cognition_and_Conservation_Initiative" title="Ape Cognition and Conservation Initiative">Iowa Primate Learning Sanctuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borneo_Orangutan_Survival" title="Borneo Orangutan Survival">Borneo Orangutan Survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primate_archaeology" title="Primate archaeology">Primate archaeology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Legal_and_social_status">Legal and social status</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_ape_personhood" title="Great ape personhood">Personhood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Countries_banning_non-human_ape_experimentation" title="Countries banning non-human ape experimentation">Research ban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinshasa_Declaration_on_Great_Apes" title="Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes">Kinshasa Declaration on Great Apes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Ape_Project" title="Great Ape Project">Great Ape Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Apes_Survival_Partnership" title="Great Apes Survival Partnership">Great Apes Survival Partnership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Primate_Day" title="International Primate Day">International Primate Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonhuman_Rights_Project" title="Nonhuman Rights Project">Nonhuman Rights Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Primate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_individual_apes" title="List of individual apes">List of individual apes</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Apes in space</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bigfoot" title="Bigfoot">Bigfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bushmeat" title="Bushmeat">Bushmeat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chimpanzee%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor">Chimpanzee–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gorilla%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gorilla–human last common ancestor">Gorilla–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orangutan%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Orangutan–human last common ancestor">Orangutan–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbon%E2%80%93human_last_common_ancestor" title="Gibbon–human last common ancestor">Gibbon–human last common ancestor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_primates" title="List of fictional primates">List of fictional primates</a> (non-human)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hominidae" title="Hominidae">Great apes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_evolution" title="Human evolution">Human evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkey_Day" title="Monkey Day">Monkey Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mythic_humanoids" title="Mythic humanoids">Mythic humanoids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeren" title="Yeren">Yeren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yeti" title="Yeti">Yeti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yowie" title="Yowie">Yowie</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Apes" title="Category:Apes">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Taxon_identifiers" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Taxon_identifiers" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Taxon_identifiers" title="Help:Taxon identifiers">Taxon identifiers</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: left;">Primates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wikidata" title="Wikidata">Wikidata</a>: <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q7380" class="extiw" title="wikidata:Q7380">Q7380</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wikispecies" title="Wikispecies">Wikispecies</a>: <a href="https://species.wikimedia.org/wiki/Primates" class="extiw" title="wikispecies:Primates">Primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_Diversity_Web" title="Animal Diversity Web">ADW</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://animaldiversity.org/accounts/Primates/">Primates</a></li> <li>BioLib: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biolib.cz/en/taxon/id20550">20550</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barcode_of_Life_Data_System" title="Barcode of Life Data System">BOLD</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.boldsystems.org/index.php/TaxBrowser_TaxonPage?taxid=281">281</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catalogue_of_Life" title="Catalogue of Life">CoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.catalogueoflife.org/data/taxon/8ZXYB">8ZXYB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Life" title="Encyclopedia of Life">EoL</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eol.org/pages/1645">1645</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EPPO_Code" title="EPPO Code">EPPO</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gd.eppo.int/taxon/1PRIMO">1PRIMO</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eu-nomen.eu/portal/taxon.php?GUID=urn:lsid:faunaeur.org:taxname:12630">12630</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fauna_Europaea" title="Fauna Europaea">Fauna Europaea (new)</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://fauna-eu.org/cdm_dataportal/taxon/9b23b480-4240-4e9a-80af-cb2ebac2fd82">9b23b480-4240-4e9a-80af-cb2ebac2fd82</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_Biodiversity_Information_Facility" title="Global Biodiversity Information Facility">GBIF</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gbif.org/species/798">798</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/INaturalist" title="INaturalist">iNaturalist</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://inaturalist.org/taxa/43367">43367</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Register_of_Marine_and_Nonmarine_Genera" title="Interim Register of Marine and Nonmarine Genera">IRMNG</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.irmng.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=11338">11338</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_Taxonomic_Information_System" title="Integrated Taxonomic Information System">ITIS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itis.gov/servlet/SingleRpt/SingleRpt?search_topic=TSN&search_value=180089">180089</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mammal_Species_of_the_World" title="Mammal Species of the World">MSW</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.departments.bucknell.edu/biology/resources/msw3/browse.asp?s=y&id=12100001">12100001</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Biodiversity_Network" title="National Biodiversity Network">NBN</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.nbn.org.uk/Taxa/NHMSYS0000377147">NHMSYS0000377147</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Center_for_Biotechnology_Information" title="National Center for Biotechnology Information">NCBI</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/Taxonomy/Browser/wwwtax.cgi?mode=Info&id=9443">9443</a></li> <li>NZOR: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nzor.org.nz/names/af3cc580-3803-4a0e-8ac2-f3c7c011705b">af3cc580-3803-4a0e-8ac2-f3c7c011705b</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open_Tree_of_Life" title="Open Tree of Life">Open Tree of Life</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tree.opentreeoflife.org/taxonomy/browse?id=913935">913935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleobiology_Database" title="Paleobiology Database">Paleobiology Database</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://paleobiodb.org/classic/basicTaxonInfo?taxon_no=40700">40700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plazi" title="Plazi">Plazi</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://treatment.plazi.org/id/B2747325-88D2-8430-09CC-541DE6EFCB03">B2747325-88D2-8430-09CC-541DE6EFCB03</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Register_of_Marine_Species" title="World Register of Marine Species">WoRMS</a>: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.marinespecies.org/aphia.php?p=taxdetails&id=1455974">1455974</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output 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[\"CITEREFBoë_L.-J.Berthommier,_F.Legou,_T.Captier,_G.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreuerNdoundou-HockembaFishlock2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBriggs2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBshary,_R.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurrows,_A._M.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBushnell,_D.1958\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFByrneCorp,_Nadia2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCITES2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCall2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell,_B._G.Loy,_J._D.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartmill2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCartmillSmith2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCavalieri,_P.Singer,_P.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCaves2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChaimaneeChavasseauBeardKyaw2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapman,_C.Russo,_S.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChapmanPeres2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCharpentierWiddigAlberts2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChatterjeeHoBarnesGroves2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChenLi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheverudDowLeutenegger1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChiarello,_A.G.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoudhury,_A.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCiochon,_R.Fleagle,_J.1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConleeHoffeldStephens2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstableAshleyGoodallPusey2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCopeland2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCordain_LEaton_SBSebastian_AMann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCouzinLaidre2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowlishaw,_G.Clutton-Brock,_T.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowlishaw,_G.Dunbar,_R.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoyeOuattaraZuberbuhlerLemasson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoyeZuberbuhlerLemasson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrook,_J._H.1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCyranoski2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_J._ChiversBernard_A._WoodAlan_Bilsborough1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Ruiter,_Jan_R.Van_Hooff,_Jan_A._R._A._M.Scheffrahn,_Wolfgang1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeanervan_SchaikJohnson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixson1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEgnorMillerHauser2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEstradaCoates-EstradaMeritt1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEstradaGarberRylandsRoos2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFaJustePerez_de_ValCastroviejo1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFichtel,_Claudia2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFichtelKappeler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFiore,_A._D.Campbell,_C._J.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFitchde_BoerMathurGhazanfar2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFragaszyIzarVisalberghiOttoni2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFriderun_Ankel-Simons2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrisch,_J._E.1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFujitaWatanabeWidartoSuryobroto1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarberRehg1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarbutt2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGeissmann,_ThomasMutschler,_Thomas2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGill2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlazierFlowerday2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlendinning,_L.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoldberg,_T._L.Wrangham,_R._W.1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodall1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGouteuxThinus-BlancVauclair2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGroves,_C._P.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrubb,_P.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGruberClayZuberbühler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuernsey\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGumertKluckMalaivijitnond2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaimoff1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamiltonBuskirkBuskirk1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartwig,_W.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHartwig2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill,_C._M.1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill,_C._M.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHiller2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoldenMace1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorvath,_J.WeisrockEmbryFiorentino2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoule,_A.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIFAW2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIUCN/SSC_Primate_Specialist_Group2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIhobe_H1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFItakuraTanaka1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJamesonHouSternerWeckle2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJanečkaMillerPringleWiens2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJollyWoolley-BarkerBeyeneDisotell1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKappeler1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKavanagh,_M.1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKay,_R._F.1975\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKay2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelemen,_G.Sade,_J.1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKemp,_E.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirkKay2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlonisch,_T.Froehlich,_C.Tetens,_F.Fischer,_B.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKnott,_C._D.Kahlenberg,_S._M.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKrebs_JR2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKumaraSingh2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLameira2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLee,_M.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLerouxSchelWilkeChandia2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLerouxTownsend2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeuteneggerCheverud1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLimanInnan2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindstedtand_\u0026amp;_BoyceBoyce1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinnaeus,_C.1735\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLinnaeus,_C.1758\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLiu2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongKirkpatrickZhongXiao1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLucasDominyRiba-HernandezStoner2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacdonald2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarivaux,_L.AntoineBaqriBenammi2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarsh,_L._K.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGraw,_W._S.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcKenna,_M._C.Bell,_S._K.1997\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMillerGunnellMartin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMillikenWardErickson1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilton1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMintz2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMishler2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittermeier,_R.Ganzhorn,_J.Konstant,_W.Glander,_K.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittermeier,_R._A.Cheney,_D._L.1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittermeier2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMittermeierWallisRylandsGanzhorn2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMott2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMyers,_P.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewman,_James_L.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNijman,_V.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNormile2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;BrienKinnairdNurcahyoIqbal2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;HigginsCollard2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Leary,_M._A.2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOatesAbedi-LarteyMcGrawStruhsaker2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOpie,_ChristopherAtkinson,_Quentin_D.Dunbarc,_Robin_I._M.Shultz,_Susanne2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaarWinslowHopkinsde_Waal2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPaarde_Waal1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlavcan,_J._M.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollickde_Waal2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollockMullin1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPope,_T.R.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPough,_F._W.Janis,_C._M.Heiser,_J._B.2005\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFPoughJanisHeiser2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPozziHodgsonBurrellSterner2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPresented_to_Parliament_by_the_Secretary_of_State_for_the_Home_Department_by_Command_of_Her_Majesty2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPurvisGittlemanCowlishawMace2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRafertVineberg1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRalls,_K.1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRallsBallou1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRamsierCunninghamMoritzFinneran2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReaderHagerLaland2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReedFleagle1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRenquist,_D._M.Whitney,_R._A.1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoss1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRowe,_N.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRussoYoung2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRylands,_A._B.Mittermeier,_R._A.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSamuni,_Liran2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaller,_G._B.1963\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchmidt,_T.WildmanUddinOpazo2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchrago,_C.G.Russo,_C.A.M.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSellers2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeyfarthCheneyMarler1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShekelle,_M.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShultz,_S.Thomsett,_S.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSilcoxBlochBoyerChester2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinger,_P.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthwick,_C._H.Siddiqi,_M._F.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStace2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStammbach,_E.1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanford,_C.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanyonFinstermeierZinnerBrameier2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStanyonSpringerMeredithGatesy2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrier,_K.2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFSugawara,_K.1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSugiyama,_Y.1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurbeckFowlerDeimelHohmann2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurbeck_M,_Hohmann_GHohmann2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSurridge,_A._K.D._Osorio2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSussman,_R._W.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSussman,_R._W.2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSzalayDelson1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTavaré,_S.Marshall,_C._R.Will,_O.Soligo,_C.2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTenaza,_R.1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThorington,_R._W.Anderson,_S.1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTomasello,_M.Call,_J.1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTurner,_I._M.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUlijaszek_SJ2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_SchaikMonkRobertson2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVancatova,_M.2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWade2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalker_ML,_Herndon_JGHerndon2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWatts_D._P.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeisberger2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestergaardLundquistHaynieKuhn1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite,_T.Kazlev,_A.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWiens2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsKayChristopher_KirkRoss2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliamsKayKirk2010\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFWilson_MantillaChesterClemensMoore2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolfe,_L._D.Fuentes,_A.2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWorkman,_C.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrangham,_R._W.1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWrightSimmonsGursky2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZimmer2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFda_CunhaByrne2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_WaalDavis2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFvan_SchaikFoxSitompul1996\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Apes\"] = 1,\n [\"As of\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Automatic taxobox\"] = 1,\n [\"Barlabel\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 65,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 128,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 9,\n [\"Cite thesis\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 23,\n [\"Clade\"] = 18,\n [\"Cladogram\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 5,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col\"] = 1,\n [\"Div col end\"] = 1,\n [\"EB1911 poster\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Featured article\"] = 1,\n [\"Fossil range\"] = 1,\n [\"Further\"] = 4,\n [\"Lang\"] = 3,\n [\"Library resources box\"] = 1,\n [\"Listen\"] = 1,\n [\"MSW3 Groves\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 3,\n [\"Mammals\"] = 1,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-move\"] = 1,\n [\"Primates\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 2,\n [\"Refn\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Taxonbar\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 4,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","360","18.4"],["?","200","10.2"],["type","160","8.2"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","140","7.1"],["dataWrapper 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