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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Performance</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Performance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Exposure-time_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Exposure-time_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Exposure-time control</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exposure-time_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Color_separation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Color_separation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Color separation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Color_separation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Specialty_sensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Specialty_sensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Specialty sensors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Specialty_sensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Charge-coupled_device" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Charge-coupled_device"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Charge-coupled device</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Charge-coupled_device-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Active-pixel_sensor" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Active-pixel_sensor"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Active-pixel sensor</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Active-pixel_sensor-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_image_sensors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_image_sensors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Other image sensors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_image_sensors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Image sensor</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeldsensor" title="Beeldsensor – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Beeldsensor" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D8%AA%D8%B4%D8%B9%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%88%D8%B1%D8%A9" title="مستشعر الصورة – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مستشعر الصورة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor_d%27imatge" title="Sensor d'imatge – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Sensor d'imatge" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Obrazov%C3%BD_sn%C3%ADma%C4%8D" title="Obrazový snímač – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Obrazový snímač" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billedsensor" title="Billedsensor – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Billedsensor" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildsensor" title="Bildsensor – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Bildsensor" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pildisensor" title="Pildisensor – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Pildisensor" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor_de_imagen" title="Sensor de imagen – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sensor de imagen" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Irudi-sentsore" title="Irudi-sentsore – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Irudi-sentsore" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%B3%DA%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AA%D8%B5%D9%88%DB%8C%D8%B1" title="حسگر تصویر – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="حسگر تصویر" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capteur_photographique" title="Capteur photographique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Capteur photographique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9D%B4%EB%AF%B8%EC%A7%80_%EC%84%BC%EC%84%9C" title="이미지 센서 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="이미지 센서" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%9C_%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0" title="इमेज सेंसर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="इमेज सेंसर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensore_di_immagini" title="Sensore di immagini – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sensore di immagini" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Сликозафатник – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сликозафатник" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beeldsensor" title="Beeldsensor – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Beeldsensor" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BA%E4%BD%93%E6%92%AE%E5%83%8F%E7%B4%A0%E5%AD%90" title="固体撮像素子 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="固体撮像素子" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildesensor" title="Bildesensor – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Bildesensor" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fotomatritsa" title="Fotomatritsa – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Fotomatritsa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Matryca_%C5%9Bwiat%C5%82oczu%C5%82a" title="Matryca światłoczuła – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Matryca światłoczuła" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sensor_de_imagem" title="Sensor de imagem – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sensor de imagem" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC%D0%B0%D1%82%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B0" title="Фотоматрица – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Фотоматрица" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Image_sensor" title="Image sensor – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Image sensor" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sn%C3%ADma%C4%8D_obrazu" title="Snímač obrazu – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Snímač obrazu" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valoherkk%C3%A4_kenno" title="Valoherkkä kenno – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Valoherkkä kenno" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bildsensor" title="Bildsensor – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Bildsensor" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D" title="ఇమేజ్ సెన్సర్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="ఇమేజ్ సెన్సర్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A0%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9E" title="เซนเซอร์รูปภาพ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เซนเซอร์รูปภาพ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%B6r%C3%BCnt%C3%BC_sens%C3%B6r%C3%BC" title="Görüntü sensörü – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Görüntü sensörü" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%80_%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Сенсор зображення – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Сенсор зображення" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BA%A3m_bi%E1%BA%BFn_%E1%BA%A3nh" title="Cảm biến ảnh – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cảm biến ảnh" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9B%BE%E5%83%8F%E4%BC%A0%E6%84%9F%E5%99%A8" title="图像传感器 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="图像传感器" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Device that converts images into electronic signals</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ccd-sensor.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ccd-sensor.jpg/230px-Ccd-sensor.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ccd-sensor.jpg/345px-Ccd-sensor.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Ccd-sensor.jpg/460px-Ccd-sensor.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1192" data-file-height="1324" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> image sensor on a <a href="/wiki/Flexible_electronics" title="Flexible electronics">flexible circuit board</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cromemco_Cyclops_Camera_Board_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cromemco_Cyclops_Camera_Board_1.jpg/230px-Cromemco_Cyclops_Camera_Board_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cromemco_Cyclops_Camera_Board_1.jpg/345px-Cromemco_Cyclops_Camera_Board_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Cromemco_Cyclops_Camera_Board_1.jpg/460px-Cromemco_Cyclops_Camera_Board_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3220" data-file-height="2188" /></a><figcaption>An American Microsystems, Inc., (AMI) 1-kilobit <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">DRAM</a> chip (center chip with glass window) used as an image sensor by the <a href="/wiki/Cromemco_Cyclops" title="Cromemco Cyclops">Cromemco Cyclops</a></figcaption></figure> <p>An <b>image sensor</b> or <b>imager</b> is a <a href="/wiki/Sensor" title="Sensor">sensor</a> that detects and conveys information used to form an <a href="/wiki/Image" title="Image">image</a>. It does so by converting the variable <a href="/wiki/Attenuation" title="Attenuation">attenuation</a> of light <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">waves</a> (as they <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">pass through</a> or <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflect off</a> objects) into <a href="/wiki/Signal_(electrical_engineering)" class="mw-redirect" title="Signal (electrical engineering)">signals</a>, small bursts of <a href="/wiki/Electric_current" title="Electric current">current</a> that convey the information. The waves can be light or other <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>. Image sensors are used in <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronic</a> imaging devices of both <a href="/wiki/Analogue_electronics" title="Analogue electronics">analog</a> and <a href="/wiki/Digital_electronics" title="Digital electronics">digital</a> types, which include <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital cameras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camera_module" title="Camera module">camera modules</a>, <a href="/wiki/Camera_phones" class="mw-redirect" title="Camera phones">camera phones</a>, <a href="/wiki/Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">optical mouse</a> devices,<sup id="cite_ref-VLSI_Systems_and_Computations_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VLSI_Systems_and_Computations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Springer_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Medical_imaging" title="Medical imaging">medical imaging</a> equipment, <a href="/wiki/Night_vision" title="Night vision">night vision</a> equipment such as <a href="/wiki/Thermography" title="Thermography">thermal imaging</a> devices, <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">sonar</a>, and others. As <a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">technology changes</a>, electronic and <a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">digital imaging</a> tends to replace chemical and analog imaging. </p><p>The two main types of electronic image sensors are the <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) and the <a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (<a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> sensor). Both CCD and CMOS sensors are based on <a href="/wiki/Metal%E2%80%93oxide%E2%80%93semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="Metal–oxide–semiconductor">metal–oxide–semiconductor</a> (MOS) technology, with CCDs based on <a href="/wiki/MOS_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS capacitor">MOS capacitors</a> and CMOS sensors based on <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> (MOS field-effect transistor) <a href="/wiki/Amplifiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Amplifiers">amplifiers</a>. Analog sensors for invisible radiation tend to involve <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> of various kinds, while digital sensors include <a href="/wiki/Flat-panel_detector" title="Flat-panel detector">flat-panel detectors</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="CCD_vs._CMOS_sensors">CCD vs. CMOS sensors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: CCD vs. CMOS sensors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_micrograph_of_the_corner_of_the_photosensor_array_of_a_%E2%80%98webcam%E2%80%99.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/A_micrograph_of_the_corner_of_the_photosensor_array_of_a_%E2%80%98webcam%E2%80%99.jpeg/220px-A_micrograph_of_the_corner_of_the_photosensor_array_of_a_%E2%80%98webcam%E2%80%99.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="202" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/A_micrograph_of_the_corner_of_the_photosensor_array_of_a_%E2%80%98webcam%E2%80%99.jpeg/330px-A_micrograph_of_the_corner_of_the_photosensor_array_of_a_%E2%80%98webcam%E2%80%99.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/e/ef/A_micrograph_of_the_corner_of_the_photosensor_array_of_a_%E2%80%98webcam%E2%80%99.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="371" data-file-height="340" /></a><figcaption>A micrograph of the corner of the photosensor array of a <a href="/wiki/Webcam" title="Webcam">webcam</a> digital camera</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Image_sensor_and_motherbord_nikon_coolpix_l2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Image_sensor_and_motherbord_nikon_coolpix_l2.JPG/220px-Image_sensor_and_motherbord_nikon_coolpix_l2.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Image_sensor_and_motherbord_nikon_coolpix_l2.JPG/330px-Image_sensor_and_motherbord_nikon_coolpix_l2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Image_sensor_and_motherbord_nikon_coolpix_l2.JPG/440px-Image_sensor_and_motherbord_nikon_coolpix_l2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3072" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption>Image sensor (upper left) on the motherboard of a <span class="nowrap">Nikon Coolpix L2 6 MP</span></figcaption></figure> <p>The two main types of <a href="/wiki/Digital_image" title="Digital image">digital image</a> sensors are the <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) and the <a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (CMOS sensor), <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">fabricated</a> in <a href="/wiki/Complementary_MOS" class="mw-redirect" title="Complementary MOS">complementary MOS</a> (CMOS) or <a href="/wiki/N-type_semiconductor" class="mw-redirect" title="N-type semiconductor">N-type</a> MOS (<a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> or <a href="/wiki/Live_MOS" title="Live MOS">Live MOS</a>) technologies. Both CCD and CMOS sensors are based on the <a href="/wiki/MOS_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS technology">MOS technology</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with <a href="/wiki/MOS_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS capacitor">MOS capacitors</a> being the building blocks of a CCD,<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> amplifiers being the building blocks of a CMOS sensor.<sup id="cite_ref-fossum93_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fossum93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Cameras integrated in small consumer products generally use CMOS sensors, which are usually cheaper and have lower power consumption in battery powered devices than CCDs.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CCD sensors are used for high end broadcast quality video cameras, and CMOS sensors dominate in still photography and consumer goods where overall cost is a major concern. Both types of sensor accomplish the same task of capturing light and converting it into electrical signals. </p><p>Each cell of a <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a> image sensor is an analog device. When light strikes the chip it is held as a small electrical charge in each <a href="/wiki/Photo_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Photo sensor">photo sensor</a>. The charges in the line of pixels nearest to the (one or more) output amplifiers are amplified and output, then each line of pixels shifts its charges one line closer to the amplifiers, filling the empty line closest to the amplifiers. This process is then repeated until all the lines of pixels have had their charge amplified and output.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A CMOS image sensor has an amplifier for each pixel compared to the few amplifiers of a CCD. This results in less area for the capture of photons than a CCD, but this problem has been overcome by using microlenses in front of each photodiode, which focus light into the photodiode that would have otherwise hit the amplifier and not been detected.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some CMOS imaging sensors also use <a href="/wiki/Back-illuminated_sensor" title="Back-illuminated sensor">Back-side illumination</a> to increase the number of photons that hit the photodiode.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> CMOS sensors can potentially be implemented with fewer components, use less power, and/or provide faster readout than CCD sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are also less vulnerable to static electricity discharges. </p><p>Another design, a hybrid CCD/CMOS architecture (sold under the name "<a href="/wiki/SCMOS" title="SCMOS">sCMOS</a>") consists of CMOS readout integrated circuits (ROICs) that are bump bonded to a CCD imaging substrate – a technology that was developed for infrared <a href="/wiki/Staring_array" title="Staring array">staring arrays</a> and has been adapted to silicon-based detector technology.<sup id="cite_ref-test3_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test3-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another approach is to utilize the very fine dimensions available in modern CMOS technology to implement a CCD like structure entirely in CMOS technology: such structures can be achieved by separating individual poly-silicon gates by a very small gap; though still a product of research hybrid sensors can potentially harness the benefits of both CCD and CMOS imagers.<sup id="cite_ref-test4_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-test4-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Performance">Performance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Performance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/EMVA1288" title="EMVA1288">EMVA1288</a></div> <p>There are many parameters that can be used to evaluate the performance of an image sensor, including <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_range" title="Dynamic range">dynamic range</a>, <a href="/wiki/Signal-to-noise_ratio" title="Signal-to-noise ratio">signal-to-noise ratio</a>, and low-light sensitivity. For sensors of comparable types, the signal-to-noise ratio and dynamic range improve as the <a href="/wiki/Image_sensor_format#Sensor_size" title="Image sensor format">size</a> increases. It is because in a given integration (exposure) time, more photons hit the pixel with larger area. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exposure-time_control">Exposure-time control</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Exposure-time control"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Exposure_time" class="mw-redirect" title="Exposure time">Exposure time</a> of image sensors is generally controlled by either a conventional mechanical <a href="/wiki/Shutter_(photography)" title="Shutter (photography)">shutter</a>, as in film cameras, or by an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_shutter" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic shutter">electronic shutter</a>. Electronic shuttering can be "global," in which case the entire image sensor area's accumulation of photoelectrons starts and stops simultaneously, or "rolling" in which case the exposure interval of each row immediate precedes that row's readout, in a process that "rolls" across the image frame (typically from top to bottom in landscape format). Global electronic shuttering is less common, as it requires "storage" circuits to hold charge from the end of the exposure interval until the readout process gets there, typically a few milliseconds later.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Color_separation">Color separation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Color separation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bayer_pattern_on_sensor_profile.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Bayer_pattern_on_sensor_profile.svg/200px-Bayer_pattern_on_sensor_profile.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Bayer_pattern_on_sensor_profile.svg/300px-Bayer_pattern_on_sensor_profile.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/Bayer_pattern_on_sensor_profile.svg/400px-Bayer_pattern_on_sensor_profile.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="375" data-file-height="240" /></a><figcaption>Bayer pattern on sensor</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Absorption-X3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Absorption-X3.svg/200px-Absorption-X3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="93" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Absorption-X3.svg/300px-Absorption-X3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9d/Absorption-X3.svg/400px-Absorption-X3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="860" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Foveon's scheme of vertical filtering for color sensing</figcaption></figure> <p>There are several main types of color image sensors, differing by the type of color-separation mechanism: </p> <ul><li><b>Integral color sensors</b><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> use a <a href="/wiki/Color_filter_array" title="Color filter array">color filter array</a> fabricated on top of a single monochrome CCD or CMOS image sensor. The most common color filter array pattern, the <a href="/wiki/Bayer_pattern" class="mw-redirect" title="Bayer pattern">Bayer pattern</a>, uses a checkerboard arrangement of two green pixels for each red and blue pixel, although many other color filter patterns have been developed, including patterns using cyan, magenta, yellow, and white pixels.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Integral color sensors were initially manufactured by transferring colored dyes through photoresist windows onto a polymer receiving layer coated on top of a monochrome CCD sensor.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since each pixel provides only a single color (such as green), the "missing" color values (such as red and blue) for the pixel are interpolated using neighboring pixels.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This processing is also referred to as <a href="/wiki/Demosaicing" title="Demosaicing">demosaicing</a> or de-bayering.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></b>, using an array of layered pixel sensors, separating light via the inherent wavelength-dependent absorption property of silicon, such that every location senses all three color channels. This method is similar to how color film for photography works.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">3CCD</a></b>, using three discrete image sensors, with the color separation done by a <a href="/wiki/Dichroic_prism" title="Dichroic prism">dichroic prism</a>. The dichroic elements provide a sharper color separation, thus improving color quality. Because each sensor is equally sensitive within its <a href="/wiki/Passband" title="Passband">passband</a>, and at full resolution, 3-CCD sensors produce better color quality and better low light performance. 3-CCD sensors produce a full <a href="/wiki/Chroma_subsampling" title="Chroma subsampling">4:4:4</a> signal, which is preferred in <a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">television broadcasting</a>, <a href="/wiki/Video_editing" title="Video editing">video editing</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chroma_key" title="Chroma key">chroma key</a> visual effects.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specialty_sensors">Specialty sensors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Specialty sensors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_deep_infrared_view_of_the_Orion_Nebula_from_HAWK-I_-_Eso1625a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/A_deep_infrared_view_of_the_Orion_Nebula_from_HAWK-I_-_Eso1625a.jpg/220px-A_deep_infrared_view_of_the_Orion_Nebula_from_HAWK-I_-_Eso1625a.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/A_deep_infrared_view_of_the_Orion_Nebula_from_HAWK-I_-_Eso1625a.jpg/330px-A_deep_infrared_view_of_the_Orion_Nebula_from_HAWK-I_-_Eso1625a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/A_deep_infrared_view_of_the_Orion_Nebula_from_HAWK-I_-_Eso1625a.jpg/440px-A_deep_infrared_view_of_the_Orion_Nebula_from_HAWK-I_-_Eso1625a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="16373" data-file-height="12412" /></a><figcaption>Infrared view of the <a href="/wiki/Orion_Nebula" title="Orion Nebula">Orion Nebula</a> taken by <a href="/wiki/ESO" class="mw-redirect" title="ESO">ESO</a>'s HAWK-I, a cryogenic wide-field imager<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Special sensors are used in various applications such as creation of <a href="/wiki/Multi-spectral_image" class="mw-redirect" title="Multi-spectral image">multi-spectral images</a>, <a href="/wiki/Laryngoscopy" title="Laryngoscopy">video laryngoscopes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gamma_camera" title="Gamma camera">gamma cameras</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flat-panel_detector" title="Flat-panel detector">Flat-panel detectors</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Sensor_array" title="Sensor array">sensor arrays</a> for <a href="/wiki/X-ray" title="X-ray">x-rays</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microbolometer" title="Microbolometer">microbolometer</a> arrays in <a href="/wiki/Thermography" title="Thermography">thermography</a>, and other highly sensitive arrays for <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>While in general, digital cameras use a flat sensor, Sony prototyped a curved sensor in 2014 to reduce/eliminate <a href="/wiki/Petzval_field_curvature" title="Petzval field curvature">Petzval field curvature</a> that occurs with a flat sensor. Use of a curved sensor allows a shorter and smaller diameter of the lens with reduced elements and components with greater aperture and reduced light fall-off at the edge of the photo.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Digital_imaging" title="Digital imaging">Digital imaging</a></div> <p>Early analog sensors for visible light were <a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">video camera tubes</a>. They date back to the 1930s, and several types were developed up until the 1980s. By the early 1990s, they had been replaced by modern <a href="/wiki/Solid-state_electronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Solid-state electronic">solid-state</a> CCD image sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The basis for modern solid-state image sensors is MOS technology,<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ohta_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohta-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which originates from the invention of the MOSFET by <a href="/wiki/Mohamed_M._Atalla" title="Mohamed M. Atalla">Mohamed M. Atalla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dawon_Kahng" title="Dawon Kahng">Dawon Kahng</a> at <a href="/wiki/Bell_Labs" title="Bell Labs">Bell Labs</a> in 1959.<sup id="cite_ref-computerhistory_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-computerhistory-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Later research on MOS technology led to the development of solid-state <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> image sensors, including the <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) and later the <a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (<a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> sensor).<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Ohta_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ohta-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Passive-pixel_sensor" class="mw-redirect" title="Passive-pixel sensor">passive-pixel sensor</a> (PPS) was the precursor to the active-pixel sensor (APS).<sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A PPS consists of passive pixels which are read out without <a href="/wiki/Amplifier" title="Amplifier">amplification</a>, with each pixel consisting of a photodiode and a <a href="/wiki/MOSFET" title="MOSFET">MOSFET</a> switch.<sup id="cite_ref-Kozlowski_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kozlowski-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a type of <a href="/wiki/Photodiode_array" class="mw-redirect" title="Photodiode array">photodiode array</a>, with pixels containing a <a href="/wiki/P-n_junction" class="mw-redirect" title="P-n junction">p-n junction</a>, integrated <a href="/wiki/Capacitor" title="Capacitor">capacitor</a>, and MOSFETs as selection <a href="/wiki/Transistors" class="mw-redirect" title="Transistors">transistors</a>. A photodiode array was proposed by G. Weckler in 1968.<sup id="cite_ref-fossum93_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fossum93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was the basis for the PPS.<sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These early photodiode arrays were complex and impractical, requiring selection transistors to be fabricated within each pixel, along with <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">on-chip</a> <a href="/wiki/Multiplexer" title="Multiplexer">multiplexer</a> circuits. The <a href="/wiki/Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">noise</a> of photodiode arrays was also a limitation to performance, as the photodiode readout <a href="/wiki/Memory_bus" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory bus">bus</a> capacitance resulted in increased noise level. <a href="/wiki/Correlated_double_sampling" title="Correlated double sampling">Correlated double sampling</a> (CDS) could also not be used with a photodiode array without external <a href="/wiki/Computer_memory" title="Computer memory">memory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-fossum93_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fossum93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in 1914 Deputy Consul General Carl R. Loop, reported to the state department in a Consular Report on <a href="/wiki/Archibald_Low" title="Archibald Low">Archibald M. Low's</a> Televista system that "It is stated that the selenium in the transmitting screen may be replaced by any <a href="/wiki/Diamagnetism" title="Diamagnetism">diamagnetic material</a>".<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2022, Samsung Electronics announced that it had created a 200 million pixel image sensor. The 200MP ISOCELL HP3 has 0.56 micrometer pixels with Samsung reporting that previous sensors had 0.64 micrometer pixels, a 12% decrease since 2019. The new sensor contains 200 million pixels in a 1-by-1.4-inch (25 by 36 mm) lens.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Charge-coupled_device">Charge-coupled device</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Charge-coupled device"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">Charge-coupled device</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">charge-coupled device</a> (CCD) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Willard_S._Boyle" class="mw-redirect" title="Willard S. Boyle">Willard S. Boyle</a> and <a href="/wiki/George_E._Smith" title="George E. Smith">George E. Smith</a> at Bell Labs in 1969.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While researching MOS technology, they realized that an electric charge was the analogy of the magnetic bubble and that it could be stored on a tiny <a href="/wiki/MOS_capacitor" class="mw-redirect" title="MOS capacitor">MOS capacitor</a>. As it was fairly straightforward to <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">fabricate</a> a series of MOS capacitors in a row, they connected a suitable voltage to them so that the charge could be stepped along from one to the next.<sup id="cite_ref-Williams_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Williams-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The CCD is a semiconductor circuit that was later used in the first <a href="/wiki/Digital_video_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital video camera">digital video cameras</a> for <a href="/wiki/Television_broadcasting" class="mw-redirect" title="Television broadcasting">television broadcasting</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Early CCD sensors suffered from <a href="/wiki/Shutter_lag" title="Shutter lag">shutter lag</a>. This was largely resolved with the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Pinned_photodiode" class="mw-redirect" title="Pinned photodiode">pinned photodiode</a> (PPD).<sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was invented by <a href="/wiki/Nobukazu_Teranishi" title="Nobukazu Teranishi">Nobukazu Teranishi</a>, Hiromitsu Shiraki and Yasuo Ishihara at <a href="/wiki/NEC" title="NEC">NEC</a> in 1980.<sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a <a href="/wiki/Photodetector" title="Photodetector">photodetector</a> structure with low lag, low <a href="/wiki/Noise_(electronics)" title="Noise (electronics)">noise</a>, high <a href="/wiki/Quantum_efficiency" title="Quantum efficiency">quantum efficiency</a> and low <a href="/wiki/Dark_current_(physics)" title="Dark current (physics)">dark current</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1987, the PPD began to be incorporated into most CCD devices, becoming a fixture in <a href="/wiki/Consumer_electronic" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer electronic">consumer electronic</a> <a href="/wiki/Video_cameras" class="mw-redirect" title="Video cameras">video cameras</a> and then <a href="/wiki/Digital_still_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital still camera">digital still cameras</a>. Since then, the PPD has been used in nearly all CCD sensors and then CMOS sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Active-pixel_sensor">Active-pixel sensor</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Active-pixel sensor"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">Active-pixel sensor</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">active-pixel sensor</a> (APS) was invented by <a href="/wiki/Olympus_Corporation" title="Olympus Corporation">Olympus</a> in Japan during the mid-1980s. This was enabled by advances in MOS <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_device_fabrication" title="Semiconductor device fabrication">semiconductor device fabrication</a>, with <a href="/wiki/MOSFET_scaling" class="mw-redirect" title="MOSFET scaling">MOSFET scaling</a> reaching smaller <a href="/wiki/List_of_semiconductor_scale_examples" title="List of semiconductor scale examples">micron and then sub-micron</a> levels.<sup id="cite_ref-fossum93_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-fossum93-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first NMOS APS was fabricated by Tsutomu Nakamura's team at Olympus in 1985.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/CMOS" title="CMOS">CMOS</a> active-pixel sensor (CMOS sensor) was later improved by a group of scientists at the <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> <a href="/wiki/Jet_Propulsion_Laboratory" title="Jet Propulsion Laboratory">Jet Propulsion Laboratory</a> in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-Fossum2014_7-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fossum2014-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 2007, sales of CMOS sensors had surpassed CCD sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By the 2010s, CMOS sensors largely displaced CCD sensors in all new applications. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_image_sensors">Other image sensors</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Other image sensors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The first commercial <a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital camera</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Cromemco_Cyclops" title="Cromemco Cyclops">Cromemco Cyclops</a> in 1975, used a 32×32 MOS image sensor. It was a modified MOS dynamic <a href="/wiki/Random-access_memory" title="Random-access memory">RAM</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dynamic_random-access_memory" title="Dynamic random-access memory">DRAM</a>) <a href="/wiki/Memory_chip" class="mw-redirect" title="Memory chip">memory chip</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-hackaday_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hackaday-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>MOS image sensors are widely used in <a href="/wiki/Optical_mouse" title="Optical mouse">optical mouse</a> technology. The first optical mouse, invented by <a href="/wiki/Richard_F._Lyon" title="Richard F. Lyon">Richard F. Lyon</a> at <a href="/wiki/Xerox" title="Xerox">Xerox</a> in 1980, used a <a href="/wiki/6_%CE%BCm_process" title="6 μm process">5<span class="nowrap"> </span>μm</a> <a href="/wiki/NMOS_logic" title="NMOS logic">NMOS</a> <a href="/wiki/Integrated_circuit" title="Integrated circuit">integrated circuit</a> sensor chip.<sup id="cite_ref-Springer_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Springer-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-VLSI_Systems_and_Computations_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-VLSI_Systems_and_Computations-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since the first commercial optical mouse, the <a href="/wiki/IntelliMouse" title="IntelliMouse">IntelliMouse</a> introduced in 1999, most optical mouse devices use CMOS sensors.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In February 2018, researchers at <a href="/wiki/Dartmouth_College" title="Dartmouth College">Dartmouth College</a> announced a new image sensing technology that the researchers call QIS, for Quanta Image Sensor. Instead of pixels, QIS chips have what the researchers call "jots." Each jot can detect a single particle of light, called a <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sensors_used_in_digital_cameras" class="mw-redirect" title="List of sensors used in digital cameras">List of sensors used in digital cameras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contact_image_sensor" title="Contact image sensor">Contact image sensor</a> (CIS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electro-optical_sensor" title="Electro-optical sensor">Electro-optical sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_camera_tube" title="Video camera tube">Video camera tube</a>, used before image sensors for video</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiconductor_detector" title="Semiconductor detector">Semiconductor detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_factor_(image_sensor)" title="Fill factor (image sensor)">Fill factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Full-frame_digital_SLR" class="mw-redirect" title="Full-frame digital SLR">Full-frame digital SLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_resolution" title="Image resolution">Image resolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sensor_format" title="Image sensor format">Image sensor format</a>, the sizes and shapes of common image sensors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_filter_array" title="Color filter array">Color filter array</a>, mosaic of tiny color filters over color image sensors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensitometry" title="Sensitometry">Sensitometry</a>, the scientific study of light-sensitive materials</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_television" title="History of television">History of television</a>, the development of electronic imaging technology since the 1880s</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_large_sensor_interchangeable-lens_video_cameras" title="List of large sensor interchangeable-lens video cameras">List of large sensor interchangeable-lens video cameras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oversampled_binary_image_sensor" title="Oversampled binary image sensor">Oversampled binary image sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computer_vision" title="Computer vision">Computer vision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_broom_scanner" title="Push broom scanner">Push broom scanner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whisk_broom_scanner" title="Whisk broom scanner">Whisk broom scanner</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-VLSI_Systems_and_Computations-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-VLSI_Systems_and_Computations_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-VLSI_Systems_and_Computations_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">9 October</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HowStuffWorks&rft.atitle=How+Computer+Mice+Work&rft.date=2000-04-24&rft.aulast=Brain&rft.aufirst=Marshall&rft.au=Carmack%2C+Carmen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcomputer.howstuffworks.com%2Fmouse4.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImage+sensor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2018/02/13/585149644/super-sensitive-sensor-sees-what-you-cant">"Super Sensitive Sensor Sees What You Can't"</a>. <i>npr.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180324010947/https://www.npr.org/sections/alltechconsidered/2018/02/13/585149644/super-sensitive-sensor-sees-what-you-cant">Archived</a> from the original on 24 March 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=npr.org&rft.atitle=Super+Sensitive+Sensor+Sees+What+You+Can%27t&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npr.org%2Fsections%2Falltechconsidered%2F2018%2F02%2F13%2F585149644%2Fsuper-sensitive-sensor-sees-what-you-cant&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImage+sensor" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Image_sensor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clarkvision.com/imagedetail/digital.sensor.performance.summary/">Digital Camera Sensor Performance Summary</a> by Roger Clark</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark" class="citation web cs1">Clark, Roger. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://clarkvision.com/articles/does.pixel.size.matter/">"Does Pixel Size Matter?"</a>. <i>clarkvision.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=clarkvision.com&rft.atitle=Does+Pixel+Size+Matter%3F&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fclarkvision.com%2Farticles%2Fdoes.pixel.size.matter%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AImage+sensor" class="Z3988"></span> (with graphical buckets and rainwater analogies)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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href="/wiki/Template:Photography" title="Template:Photography"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Photography" title="Template talk:Photography"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Photography" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Photography"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Photography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Photography" title="Photography">Photography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">Camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_field_camera" title="Light field camera">light-field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">digital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_camera" title="Field camera">field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_camera" title="Instant camera">instant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_phone" title="Camera phone">phone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinhole_camera" title="Pinhole camera">pinhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Press_camera" title="Press camera">press</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rangefinder_camera" title="Rangefinder camera">rangefinder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">SLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera" title="Camera">still</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Twin-lens_reflex_camera" title="Twin-lens reflex camera">TLR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">toy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/View_camera" title="View camera">view</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Darkroom" title="Darkroom">Darkroom</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enlarger" title="Enlarger">enlarger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safelight" title="Safelight">safelight</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_film" title="Photographic film">Film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Film_base" title="Film base">base</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">format</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_holder" title="Film holder">holder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_stock" title="Film stock">stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_films" title="List of photographic films">available films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_discontinued_photographic_films" title="List of discontinued photographic films">discontinued films</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_filter" title="Photographic filter">Filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_(photography)" title="Flash (photography)">Flash</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beauty_dish" title="Beauty dish">beauty dish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucoloris" title="Cucoloris">cucoloris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gobo_(lighting)" title="Gobo (lighting)">gobo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hot_shoe" title="Hot shoe">hot shoe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_hood" title="Lens hood">lens hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monolight" title="Monolight">monolight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reflector_(photography)" title="Reflector (photography)">reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snoot" title="Snoot">snoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Softbox" title="Softbox">softbox</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_lens" title="Camera lens">Lens</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Long-focus_lens" title="Long-focus lens">long-focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_lens" title="Prime lens">prime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_lens" title="Zoom lens">zoom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wide-angle_lens" title="Wide-angle lens">wide-angle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fisheye_lens" title="Fisheye lens">fisheye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swivel_lens" title="Swivel lens">swivel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telephoto_lens" title="Telephoto lens">telephoto</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_equipment_makers" title="List of photographic equipment makers">Manufacturers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monopod" title="Monopod">Monopod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Movie_projector" title="Movie projector">Movie projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slide_projector" title="Slide projector">Slide projector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_(photography)" title="Tripod (photography)">Tripod</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripod_head" title="Tripod head">head</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_plate" title="Zone plate">Zone plate</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Terminology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/35_mm_equivalent_focal_length" title="35 mm equivalent focal length">35 mm equivalent focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle_of_view_(photography)" title="Angle of view (photography)">Angle of view</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aperture" title="Aperture">Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backscatter_(photography)" title="Backscatter (photography)">Backscatter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black-and-white" title="Black-and-white">Black-and-white</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromatic_aberration" title="Chromatic aberration">Chromatic aberration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circle_of_confusion" title="Circle of confusion">Circle of confusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clipping_(photography)" title="Clipping (photography)">Clipping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_balance" title="Color balance">Color balance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_temperature" title="Color temperature">Color temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_field" title="Depth of field">Depth of field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_of_focus" title="Depth of focus">Depth of focus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_(photography)" title="Exposure (photography)">Exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_compensation" title="Exposure compensation">Exposure compensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposure_value" title="Exposure value">Exposure value</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zebra_patterning" title="Zebra patterning">Zebra patterning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-number" title="F-number">F-number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_format" title="Film format">Film format</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_format" title="Large format">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medium_format" title="Medium format">medium</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_speed" title="Film speed">Film speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Focal_length" title="Focal length">Focal length</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guide_number" title="Guide number">Guide number</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperfocal_distance" title="Hyperfocal distance">Hyperfocal distance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lens_flare" title="Lens flare">Lens flare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metering_mode" title="Metering mode">Metering mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perspective_distortion" title="Perspective distortion">Perspective distortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photograph" title="Photograph">Photograph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_printing" title="Photographic printing">Photographic printing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albumen_print" title="Albumen print">Albumen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographic_processes" title="List of photographic processes">Photographic processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reciprocity_(photography)" title="Reciprocity (photography)">Reciprocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red-eye_effect" title="Red-eye effect">Red-eye effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_photography" title="Science of photography">Science of photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shutter_speed" title="Shutter speed">Shutter speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flash_synchronization" title="Flash synchronization">Sync</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_System" title="Zone System">Zone System</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Genres</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_photography" title="Abstract photography">Abstract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_spotting" title="Aircraft spotting">Aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_photography" title="Architectural photography">Architectural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrophotography" title="Astrophotography">Astrophotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banquet_photography" title="Banquet photography">Banquet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candid_photography" title="Candid photography">Candid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conceptual_photography" title="Conceptual photography">Conceptual</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_photography" title="Conservation photography">Conservation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloudscape_photography" title="Cloudscape photography">Cloudscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Documentary_photography" title="Documentary photography">Documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclipse_photography" title="Eclipse photography">Eclipse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_anthropology" title="Visual anthropology">Ethnographic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erotic_photography" title="Erotic photography">Erotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_photography" title="Fashion photography">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fine-art_photography" title="Fine-art photography">Fine-art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_photography" title="Fire photography">Fire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forensic_photography" title="Forensic photography">Forensic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glamour_photography" title="Glamour photography">Glamour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_photography" title="Landscape photography">Landscape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monochrome_photography" title="Monochrome photography">Monochrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_photography" title="Nature photography">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neues_Sehen" title="Neues Sehen">Neues Sehen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nude_photography" title="Nude photography">Nude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photojournalism" title="Photojournalism">Photojournalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictorialism" title="Pictorialism">Pictorialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pornography" title="Pornography">Pornography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portrait_photography" title="Portrait photography">Portrait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-mortem_photography" title="Post-mortem photography">Post-mortem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ruins_photography" title="Ruins photography">Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Selfie" title="Selfie">Selfie</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">space selfie</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_documentary_photography" title="Social documentary photography">Social documentary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sports_photography" title="Sports photography">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Still_life_photography" title="Still life photography">Still life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stock_photography" title="Stock photography">Stock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Straight_photography" title="Straight photography">Straight photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Street_photography" title="Street photography">Street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera" title="Toy camera">Toy camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_photography" title="Underwater photography">Underwater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vernacular_photography" title="Vernacular photography">Vernacular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wedding_photography" title="Wedding photography">Wedding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_photography" title="Wildlife photography">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Techniques</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afocal_photography" title="Afocal photography">Afocal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bokeh" title="Bokeh">Bokeh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brenizer_method" title="Brenizer method">Brenizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burst_mode_(photography)" title="Burst mode (photography)">Burst mode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contre-jour" title="Contre-jour">Contre-jour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exposing_to_the_right" title="Exposing to the right">ETTR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fill_flash" title="Fill flash">Fill flash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireworks_photography" title="Fireworks photography">Fireworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hand-colouring_of_photographs" title="Hand-colouring of photographs">Hand-colouring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harris_shutter" title="Harris shutter">Harris shutter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-speed_photography" title="High-speed photography">High-speed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holography" title="Holography">Holography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_photography" title="Infrared photography">Infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intentional_camera_movement" title="Intentional camera movement">Intentional camera movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kirlian_photography" title="Kirlian photography">Kirlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kite_aerial_photography" title="Kite aerial photography">Kite aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lo-fi_photography" title="Lo-fi photography">Lo-fi photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long-exposure_photography" title="Long-exposure photography">Long-exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luminogram" title="Luminogram">Luminogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macro_photography" title="Macro photography">Macro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mordan%C3%A7age" title="Mordançage">Mordançage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multiple_exposure" title="Multiple exposure">Multiple exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-exposure_HDR_capture" title="Multi-exposure HDR capture">Multi-exposure HDR capture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Night_photography" title="Night photography">Night</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panning_(camera)" title="Panning (camera)">Panning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panoramic_photography" title="Panoramic photography">Panoramic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photogram" title="Photogram">Photogram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_print_toning" title="Photographic print toning">Print toning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigeon_photography" title="Pigeon photography">Pigeon photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redscale" title="Redscale">Redscale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rephotography" title="Rephotography">Rephotography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rollout_photography" title="Rollout photography">Rollout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scanography" title="Scanography">Scanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schlieren_photography" title="Schlieren photography">Schlieren photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabattier_effect" title="Sabattier effect">Sabattier effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slow_motion" title="Slow motion">Slow motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stopping_down" title="Stopping down">Stopping down</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strip_photography" title="Strip photography">Strip</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slit-scan_photography" title="Slit-scan photography">Slit-scan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_printing" title="Sun printing">Sun printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilt%E2%80%93shift_photography" title="Tilt–shift photography">Tilt–shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Miniature_faking" title="Miniature faking">Miniature faking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-lapse_photography" title="Time-lapse photography">Time-lapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photography" title="Ultraviolet photography">Ultraviolet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vignetting" title="Vignetting">Vignetting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerox_art" title="Xerox art">Xerography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoom_burst" title="Zoom burst">Zoom burst</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Composition_(visual_arts)" title="Composition (visual arts)">Composition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diagonal_method" title="Diagonal method">Diagonal method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Framing_(visual_arts)" title="Framing (visual arts)">Framing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headroom_(photographic_framing)" title="Headroom (photographic framing)">Headroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lead_room" title="Lead room">Lead room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_thirds" title="Rule of thirds">Rule of thirds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simplicity_(photography)" title="Simplicity (photography)">Simplicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_triangle_(composition)" title="Golden triangle (composition)">Golden triangle (composition)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_photography" title="History of photography">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_photography_technology" title="Timeline of photography technology">Timeline of photography technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambrotype" title="Ambrotype">Ambrotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analog_photography" title="Analog photography">Analog photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autochrome_Lumi%C3%A8re" title="Autochrome Lumière">Autochrome Lumière</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Box_camera" title="Box camera">Box camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calotype" title="Calotype">Calotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camera_obscura" title="Camera obscura">Camera obscura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daguerreotype" title="Daguerreotype">Daguerreotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dufaycolor" title="Dufaycolor">Dufaycolor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heliography" title="Heliography">Heliography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lippmann_plate" title="Lippmann plate">Lippmann plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_photography_backdrops" title="Painted photography backdrops">Painted photography backdrops</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_and_the_law" title="Photography and the law">Photography and the law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">Glass plate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tintype" title="Tintype">Tintype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_arts" title="Visual arts">Visual arts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Albania" title="Photography in Albania">Albania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Bangladesh" title="Photography in Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Canada" title="Photography in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_China" title="Photography in China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Denmark" title="Photography in Denmark">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Greece" title="Photography in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_India" title="Photography in India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Japan" title="Photography in Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Korea" title="Photography in Korea">Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Luxembourg" title="Photography in Luxembourg">Luxembourg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Norway" title="Photography in Norway">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_Philippines" title="Photography in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Serbia" title="Photography in Serbia">Serbia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Slovenia" class="mw-redirect" title="Photography in Slovenia">Slovenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Sudan" title="Photography in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Taiwan" title="Photography in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Turkey" title="Photography in Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Ukraine" title="Photography in Ukraine">Ukraine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_the_United_States" title="Photography in the United States">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Uzbekistan" title="Photography in Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photography_in_Vietnam" title="Photography in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Digital_photography" title="Digital photography">Digital photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera" title="Digital camera">Digital camera</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Digital_single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Digital single-lens reflex camera">D-SLR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_SLRs" title="Comparison of digital SLRs">comparison</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirrorless_camera" title="Mirrorless camera">MILC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_camera_back" title="Digital camera back">camera back</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digiscoping" title="Digiscoping">Digiscoping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_digital_and_film_photography" title="Comparison of digital and film photography">Comparison of digital and film photography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Film_scanner" title="Film scanner">Film scanner</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Image sensor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Active-pixel_sensor" title="Active-pixel sensor">CMOS APS</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge-coupled_device" title="Charge-coupled device">CCD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-CCD_camera" title="Three-CCD camera">Three-CCD camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foveon_X3_sensor" title="Foveon X3 sensor">Foveon X3 sensor</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Image_sharing" title="Image sharing">Image sharing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pixel" title="Pixel">Pixel</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Color_photography" title="Color photography">Color photography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_print_film" title="Color print film">Print film</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chromogenic_print" title="Chromogenic print">Chromogenic print</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversal_film" title="Reversal film">Reversal film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Color_management" title="Color management">Color management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Color_space" title="Color space">color space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_color" title="Primary color">primary color</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CMYK_color_model" title="CMYK color model">CMYK color model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">RGB color model</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Photographic_processing" title="Photographic processing">Photographic<br />processing</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bleach_bypass" title="Bleach bypass">Bleach bypass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C-41_process" title="C-41 process">C-41 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">Collodion process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_processing" title="Cross processing">Cross processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyanotype" title="Cyanotype">Cyanotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_developer" title="Photographic developer">Developer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_image_processing" title="Digital image processing">Digital image processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dye_coupler" title="Dye coupler">Dye coupler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/E-6_process" title="E-6 process">E-6 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photographic_fixer" title="Photographic fixer">Fixer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gelatin_silver_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatin silver process">Gelatin silver process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gum_printing" title="Gum printing">Gum printing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instant_film" title="Instant film">Instant film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-14_process" title="K-14 process">K-14 process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Print_permanence" title="Print permanence">Print permanence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Push_processing" title="Push processing">Push processing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stop_bath" title="Stop bath">Stop bath</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_photographs" title="List of largest photographs">Largest photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_most_expensive_photographs" title="List of most expensive photographs">Most expensive photographs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_museums_devoted_to_one_photographer" title="List of museums devoted to one photographer">Museums devoted to one photographer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographs_considered_the_most_important" title="List of photographs considered the most important">Photographs considered the most important</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photographers" title="List of photographers">Photographers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Norwegian_photographers" title="List of Norwegian photographers">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Polish_photographers" title="List of Polish photographers">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_street_photographers" title="List of street photographers">street</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_women_photographers" title="List of women photographers">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_photography_periodicals" title="List of photography periodicals">Photography periodicals</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographs" title="Conservation and restoration of photographs">Conservation and restoration of photographs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_film" title="Conservation and restoration of film">film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conservation_and_restoration_of_photographic_plates" title="Conservation and restoration of photographic plates">photographic plates</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toy_camera#Lomography" title="Toy camera">Lomography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polaroid_art" title="Polaroid art">Polaroid art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stereoscopy" title="Stereoscopy">Stereoscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Photography" 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