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id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Morphology</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Morphology subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inflectional" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inflectional"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Inflectional</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inflectional-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Animacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1.1</span> <span>Animacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Obviation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Obviation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1.2</span> <span>Obviation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Obviation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Verb_categorization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verb_categorization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.1</span> <span>Verb categorization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verb_categorization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Initial_change" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Initial_change"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.2</span> <span>Initial change</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Initial_change-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Agreement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agreement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.3</span> <span>Agreement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agreement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preverbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preverbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2.4</span> <span>Preverbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preverbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivational" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivational"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>Derivational</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivational-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.1</span> <span>Nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.2</span> <span>Verbs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduplication" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduplication"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2.3</span> <span>Reduplication</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduplication-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Syntax</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Syntax subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Syntax-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Single_noun_phrase" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Single_noun_phrase"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Single noun phrase</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Single_noun_phrase-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Two_noun_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_noun_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2</span> <span>Two noun phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_noun_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Noun_phrase_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Noun_phrase_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.1</span> <span>Noun phrase hierarchy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Noun_phrase_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saliency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saliency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.2.2</span> <span>Saliency</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saliency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syntax_of_noun/verb_phrases" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syntax_of_noun/verb_phrases"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3</span> <span>Syntax of noun/verb phrases</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syntax_of_noun/verb_phrases-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modifying_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modifying_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.1</span> <span>Modifying nouns</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modifying_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particles_and_verb_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particles_and_verb_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.2</span> <span>Particles and verb stems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particles_and_verb_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adverbials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adverbials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.3.3</span> <span>Adverbials</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adverbials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Arapaho language</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 18 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-18" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">18 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahoeg" title="Arapahoeg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Arapahoeg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapa%C5%BE%C5%A1tina" title="Arapažština – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Arapažština" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho_(Sprache)" title="Arapaho (Sprache) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Arapaho (Sprache)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_arapaj%C3%B3" title="Idioma arapajó – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma arapajó" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho_(langue)" title="Arapaho (langue) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Arapaho (langue)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho_(taal)" title="Arapaho (taal) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Arapaho (taal)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_arapaho" title="Lingua arapaho – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua arapaho" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho_jezik" title="Arapaho jezik – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Arapaho jezik" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Arapaho" title="Bahasa Arapaho – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_arapaho" title="Lingua arapaho – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua arapaho" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Icyarapaho" title="Icyarapaho – Kinyarwanda" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Icyarapaho" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="Kinyarwanda" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A9%E3%83%91%E3%83%9B%E3%83%BC%E8%AA%9E" title="アラパホー語 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アラパホー語" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lenga_arapaho" title="Lenga arapaho – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Lenga arapaho" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/J%C4%99zyk_arapaho" title="Język arapaho – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Język arapaho" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%85%D0%BE_(%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA)" title="Арапахо (язык) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Арапахо (язык)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho_language" title="Arapaho language – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Arapaho language" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Arapaho" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arapahoca" title="Arapahoca – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Arapahoca" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q56417#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Plains Algonquian language of North America</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox vevent infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above above" style="font-size:125%; color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Arapaho</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size:110%; color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;"><span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hinónoʼeitíít</i></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Native to</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Region</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a href="/wiki/Wind_River_Indian_Reservation" title="Wind River Indian Reservation">Wind River Indian Reservation</a>, <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a>; <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Ethnicity</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">5,940 <a href="/wiki/Arapaho_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Arapaho people">Arapaho</a><sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Native speakers</div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;">1,100 (2015)<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><span class="wrap"><a href="/wiki/Language_family" title="Language family">Language family</a></span></div></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic</a> <ul style="line-height:100%; margin-left:1.35em;padding-left:0"><li> <a href="/wiki/Algonquian_languages" title="Algonquian languages">Algonquian</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><a href="/wiki/Arapahoan_languages" title="Arapahoan languages">Arapahoan</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li>Arapho–<a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_language" title="Gros Ventre language">Gros Ventre</a><ul style="line-height:100%;margin-left:0.45em;padding-left:0;"><li><b>Arapaho</b></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr class="plainlist"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;">Dialects</th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"> <ul><li>Besawunena</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: black; background-color: lightskyblue;">Language codes</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-2" title="ISO 639-2">ISO 639-2</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/standards/iso639-2/php/langcodes_name.php?code_ID=28">arp</a></span></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/ISO_639-3" title="ISO 639-3">ISO 639-3</a></span></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a href="https://iso639-3.sil.org/code/arp" class="extiw" title="iso639-3:arp">arp</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><i><a href="/wiki/Glottolog" title="Glottolog">Glottolog</a></i></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><code><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://glottolog.org/resource/languoid/id/arap1274">arap1274</a></code></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="white-space:nowrap;padding-right:0.65em;"><a href="/wiki/Endangered_Languages_Project" title="Endangered Languages Project">ELP</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.endangeredlanguages.com/lang/661">Arapaho</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="line-height:1.3em;"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Lang_Status_40-SE.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lang_Status_40-SE.svg/320px-Lang_Status_40-SE.svg.png" decoding="async" width="320" height="96" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lang_Status_40-SE.svg/480px-Lang_Status_40-SE.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Lang_Status_40-SE.svg/640px-Lang_Status_40-SE.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="153" /></a></span><div style="text-align:left;"><div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><span style="font-size:85%;">Arapaho is classified as Severely Endangered by the <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> <a href="/wiki/Atlas_of_the_World%27s_Languages_in_Danger" title="Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger">Atlas of the World's Languages in Danger</a></span></div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below noprint selfref" style="background-color:#E7E7FF;color:inherit;padding:0.3em 0.5em;text-align:left;line-height:1.3;"><b>This article contains <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> phonetic symbols.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA#Rendering_issues" title="Help:IPA">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> characters. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>.</td></tr></tbody></table><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236303919">@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-has-images-with-white-backgrounds img{background:white}}</style> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="infobox" style="background:#fff6d9"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Person</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho">Hinono'eino</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">People</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho">Hinono'eiteen</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Language</th><td class="infobox-data">Hinónoʼeitíít,<br /><a href="/wiki/Plains_Sign_Language" class="mw-redirect" title="Plains Sign Language">Bee3osohoot</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="background:#fee8ab">Country</th><td class="infobox-data">Hinono'eino' Biito'owu'</td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Arapaho</b> (Arapahoe) language (<b><span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">Hinónoʼeitíít</i></span></b>)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConathan2006'A'_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConathan2006'A'-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is one of the <a href="/wiki/Plains_Algonquian_languages" title="Plains Algonquian languages">Plains Algonquian languages</a>, closely related to <a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_language" title="Gros Ventre language">Gros Ventre</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Arapahoan_languages" title="Arapahoan languages">Arapahoan languages</a>. It is spoken by the <a href="/wiki/Arapaho" title="Arapaho">Arapaho</a> of <a href="/wiki/Wyoming" title="Wyoming">Wyoming</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a>. Speakers of Arapaho primarily live on the <a href="/wiki/Wind_River_Indian_Reservation" title="Wind River Indian Reservation">Wind River Indian Reservation</a> in Wyoming, though some have affiliation with the <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a> living in western Oklahoma. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification">Classification</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Classification"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arapaho is an Algonquian language of the <a href="/wiki/Algic_languages" title="Algic languages">Algic family</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>By the 1850s, Arapaho bands formed two tribes: the Northern Arapaho and Southern Arapaho. Since 1878 the Northern Arapaho have lived with the Eastern Shoshone on the Wind River Reservation in Wyoming and are federally recognized as the Arapahoe Tribe of the Wind River Reservation. The Southern Arapaho live with the Southern Cheyenne ind relatively less intermingling with other tribes and non-Native Americans compared to the Southern Arapaho who live amongst a predominantly non-Native American population.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b2_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b2-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Current_status">Current status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Current status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The exact number of Arapaho speakers is not precisely known; however it has been estimated that the language currently retains between 250 <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and 1,000<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> active users. Arapaho has limited development outside of the home; however, it is used in some films<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> was translated into the language in 1903.<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to one source, under 300 people over the age of 50 speak the language in Wyoming, and in Oklahoma the language is used by "only a handful of people . . . all near eighty or older".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 1996, there were approximately 1,000 speakers among the Northern Arapaho.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreymorning2001287_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreymorning2001287-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2008, the authors of a newly published grammar estimated that there were slightly over 250 fluent speakers, plus "quite a few near-fluent passive understanders".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2008, it was reported that a school had been opened to teach the language to children.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrosch2008_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrosch2008-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arapaho language camps were held in Summer 2015 at <a href="/wiki/Wind_River_Tribal_College" title="Wind River Tribal College">Wind River Tribal College</a> and in <a href="/wiki/St._Stephens,_Wyoming" title="St. Stephens, Wyoming">St. Stephens, Wyoming</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Currently, the language may be acquired by children, for a population estimate as recent as 2007 lists an increase to 1,000 speakers and notes that the language is in use in schools, bilingual education efforts begun on Wind River Reservation in the 1980s and the Arapaho Language Lodge, a successful immersion program, was established in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> "The Arapaho Project" is an effort made by the Arapaho people to promote and restore their traditional language and culture.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite hope for the language, its relatively few active users and the fact that it has seen recent population decreases render Arapaho an <a href="/wiki/Endangered_language" title="Endangered language">endangered language</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> deems it "moribund".<sup id="cite_ref-e25_1-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-e25-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dialects">Dialects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Dialects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Arapaho_language" title="Special:EditPage/Arapaho language">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2023</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Besawunena, only attested from a wordlist collected by Kroeber, differs only slightly from Arapaho, though a few of its sound changes resemble those seen in Gros Ventre. It had speakers among the Northern Arapaho as recently as the late 1920s. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonology">Phonology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Phonology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the sound changes in the evolution from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Algonquian_language" title="Proto-Algonquian language">Proto-Algonquian</a> to Arapaho are the loss of Proto-Algonquian *k, followed by *p becoming either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span>; the two Proto-Algonquian <a href="/wiki/Semivowel" title="Semivowel">semivowels</a> merging to either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span>; the change from *s to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> in word-initial position, and *m becoming <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/w/</span> depending on the following vowel. Arapaho is unusual among Algonquian languages in retaining the contrast between the reconstructed phonemes *r and *θ (generally as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span>, respectively).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHale2001283–284_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHale2001283–284-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard1974_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard1974-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard1990103_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard1990103-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These and other changes serve to give Arapaho a phonological system very divergent from that of Proto-Algonquian and other Algonquian languages, and even from languages spoken in the adjacent <a href="/wiki/Great_Basin" title="Great Basin">Great Basin</a>. Some examples comparing Arapaho words with their cognates in Proto-Algonquian can illustrate this:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard19741974:104,_106,_107,_108_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard19741974:104,_106,_107,_108-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard200175_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard200175-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard1990103_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard1990103-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Algonquian </th> <th>Arapaho </th> <th>Translation </th></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">erenyiwa</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hinén</span> </td> <td>'man' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">waꞏposwa</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nóːku</span> </td> <td>'hare' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">nepyi</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nétʃ</span> </td> <td>'water' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">weθkweni</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hís</span> </td> <td>'(his) liver' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">mexkaꞏči</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">wóʔoːθ</span> </td> <td>'leg' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">siꞏpiꞏwi</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">níːtʃíː</span> </td> <td>'river' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">sakimeꞏwa</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">nóúbeː</span> </td> <td>'mosquito' > 'fly' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">akweHmi</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hóú</span> </td> <td>'blanket, robe' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">kaꞏkaꞏkiwa</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">hóuu</span> </td> <td>'raven' > 'crow' </td></tr> <tr> <td><span title="Proto-Algonquian-language text">*<i lang="alg">aθemwa</i></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">héθ</span> </td> <td>'dog' </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the level of pronunciation, Arapaho words cannot begin with a vowel, so where the underlying form of a word begins with a vowel, a prothetic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[h]</span> is added.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Arapaho has a series of four short vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i<span class="wrap"> </span>e<span class="wrap"> </span>o<span class="wrap"> </span>u/</span> (pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ<span class="wrap"> </span>ɛ<span class="wrap"> </span>ɔ<span class="wrap"> </span>ʊ]</span>) and four long vowels <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː<span class="wrap"> </span>eː<span class="wrap"> </span>oː<span class="wrap"> </span>uː/</span> (customarily written <span class="nowrap">⟨ii ee oo uu⟩</span> and pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[iː<span class="wrap"> </span>ɛː<span class="wrap"> </span>ɔː<span class="wrap"> </span>uː]</span>). The difference in length is phonemically distinctive: compare <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hísiʼ</i></span>, 'tick' with <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">híísiʼ</i></span>, 'day', and <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hócoo</i></span>, 'steak' with <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hóócoo</i></span>, 'devil'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14_14-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/i/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> are mostly in complementary distribution, as, with very few exceptions, the former does not occur after <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar consonants</a>, and the latter only occurs after them. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/u/</span> does have some exceptions as in the free variants <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">kokíy</i></span> ~ <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">kokúy</i></span>, 'gun'; <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">kookiyón</i></span> ~ <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">kookuyón</i></span>, 'for no reason'; and <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">bííʼoxíyoo</i></span> ~ <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">bííʼoxúyoo</i></span>, 'Found in the Grass' (a mythological character). There is only one minimal pair to illustrate the contrast in distribution: <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">núhuʼ</i></span>, 'this' versus <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">níhiʼ-</i></span>, 'X was done with Y', in which <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">níhiʼ-</i></span> only occurs in bound form.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14–16_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14–16-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Remarkably, unlike more than 98% of the world's languages, Arapaho has no <a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">low vowels</a>, such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/a/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In addition, there are four diphthongs, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ei<span class="wrap"> </span>ou<span class="wrap"> </span>oe<span class="wrap"> </span>ie/</span>, and several triphthongs, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eii<span class="wrap"> </span>oee<span class="wrap"> </span>ouu/</span> as well as extended sequences of vowels such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eee/</span> with stress on either the first or the last vowel in the combination.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalzman_''et_al.''1998_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman_''et_al.''1998-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">High</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-front_unrounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-front unrounded vowel">ɪ</a></span> ⟨i⟩ </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Near-close_near-back_rounded_vowel" title="Near-close near-back rounded vowel">ʊ</a></span> ⟨u⟩ </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_mid_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Open mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_front_unrounded_vowel" title="Open-mid front unrounded vowel">ɛ</a></span> ⟨e⟩ </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Open-mid_back_rounded_vowel" title="Open-mid back rounded vowel">ɔ</a></span> ⟨o⟩ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The consonant inventory of Arapaho is given in the table below. When writing Arapaho, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/j/</span> is normally transcribed as <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t͡ʃ/</span> as <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʔ/</span> as <span class="nowrap">⟨ʼ⟩</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/θ/</span> as <span class="nowrap">⟨<a href="/wiki/3" title="3">3</a>⟩</span>. </p> <table class="wikitable IPA" style="text-align: center;"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labial_consonant" title="Labial consonant">Labial</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Dental_consonant" title="Dental consonant">Dental</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Glottal_consonant" title="Glottal consonant">Glottal</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_nasal" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar nasal">n</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Plosive" title="Plosive">Plosive</a> </th> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_plosive" title="Voiced bilabial plosive">b</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_plosive" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless alveolar plosive">t</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_postalveolar_affricate" title="Voiceless postalveolar affricate">t͡ʃ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨c⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_plosive" title="Voiceless velar plosive">k</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Glottal_stop" title="Glottal stop">ʔ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨ʼ⟩</span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Fricative" title="Fricative">Fricative</a> </th> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_dental_fricative" title="Voiceless dental fricative">θ</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨3⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_alveolar_fricative" title="Voiceless alveolar fricative">s</a></span> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_velar_fricative" title="Voiceless velar fricative">x</a></span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiceless_glottal_fricative" title="Voiceless glottal fricative">h</a></span> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Approximant" title="Approximant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_palatal_approximant" title="Voiced palatal approximant">j</a></span> <span class="nowrap">⟨y⟩</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Voiced_labial%E2%80%93velar_approximant" title="Voiced labial–velar approximant">w</a></span> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Allophony">Allophony</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Allophony"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> (the <a href="/wiki/Voiced_bilabial_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced bilabial stop">voiced bilabial stop</a>) has a voiceless allophone [p] that occurs before other consonants or at the end of a word. The plosives <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tʃ/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/k/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> are pronounced without <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspiration</a> in most environments, but are aspirated before other consonants or at the end of a word, or when preceding a syllable-final sequence of short vowel + <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>. In this same environment <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/b/</span> is aspirated and devoiced. For example, the grammatical prefix <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">cih-</i></span> is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʃʰɪh]</span>, the grammatical prefix <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">tih-</i></span> is pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰɪh]</span>, and the word <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">héétbihʼínkúútiinoo</i></span>, 'I will turn out the lights' is <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">het</i></span><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b̥ʰ]</span><span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">ihʼínkúútiinoo</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14_14-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllable_structures">Syllable structures</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Syllable structures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Syllables tend to have the structure CV(C), where the final consonant, if it is present, is either a single consonant, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hC/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b45_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b45-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, consonant clusters in Arapaho can only be two consonants long. Consonant clusters do not occur word initially, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hC/</span> is the only that occurs word finally. The only consonant cluster that is "base generated" (exists in the most underlying representation of words) is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hC/</span>. At the "surface" (at the level of actual pronunciation), other clusters arise by phonological processes including vowel syncope, or by juxtaposition of morphemes.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Vowel-initial, onset-less syllables, however, can occur due to partitioning of vowel clusters. An example of partitioning a cluster of 3 identical vowels into syllables is <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">ní.ii.non</i></span>, 'tepee'. The vowel cluster is not always split into short vowel followed by long vowel; the location of the partition depends on Arapaho's complex pitch accent system. For example, another word with a sequence of three vowels, but with a different partitioning of vowels into syllables is <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hóo.ó.</i></span> 'bed'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b45_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b45-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, sometimes the vowel cluster does not divide and the whole cluster becomes the nucleus of the syllable. One example is <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hi.héio</i></span>, 'his/her aunt (obviative)'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b46_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b46-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prosody">Prosody</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Prosody"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arapaho is a <a href="/wiki/Pitch_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Pitch accent">pitch accent</a> language. There are two phonemic tones: high (marked with an acute accent) or "normal" (unmarked). The contrast can be illustrated with the pair <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hónoosóóʼ</i></span>, 'it is fancy' and <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">honoosóóʼ</i></span>, 'it is raining'. Long vowels and vowel sequences can carry a contour tone from high to low, as in <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hou3íne-</i></span>, 'to hang' (where the first syllable has a normal tone) versus <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hóu3íne-</i></span>, "to float" (where the first syllable has a high+normal, or falling, tone). Although tonal contrasts are distinctive in Arapaho, minimal pairs such as those listed above are rare.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a22–23_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a22–23-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Orthography">Orthography</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Orthography"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Arapaho alphabet<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruse198214_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruse198214-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <td>b</td> <td>c</td> <td>e</td> <td>h</td> <td>i</td> <td>k</td> <td>n</td> <td>o</td> <td>s</td> <td>З</td> <td>t</td> <td>u</td> <td>w</td> <td>y</td> <td>’ </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Morphology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arapaho is highly synthetic; verbs in particular take a large number of grammatical and semantic morphemes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b7_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b7-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Inflectional">Inflectional</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Inflectional"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nouns">Nouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Animacy">Animacy</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Animacy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Nouns in Arapaho come in two classes: <a href="/wiki/Animacy" title="Animacy">animate and inanimate</a>. Which category a noun belongs to is part of the lexicon. Being animate does not necessitate "aliveness" (but aliveness does mean animate): doors, planets, ghosts, etc. are considered animate. Some nouns can also be both animate and inanimate, but in these situations, the animate version is more "active" (e.g. a log is inanimate, but a rolling log is animate).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b51&ndash;53_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b51&ndash;53-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Obviation">Obviation</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Obviation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Animate nouns can be made <a href="/wiki/Obviative" title="Obviative">obviative or proximate</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When the underlying noun is consonant final, two general patterns can occur. One pattern occurs for the class of nouns that have <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ii/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uu/</span> (depending on <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">vowel harmony</a>) as their plural marker. These nouns reuse the plural marker to mark obviative singular and both obviative and proximate plural. For example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iwoxuuh/</span>, a stem meaning 'elk,' is <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hiwóxuu</i></span> in the proximate singular, but becomes <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hiwóxuuh-<b>uu</b></i></span> in obviative singular, proximate plural, and obviative plural.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b58_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b58-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other pattern occurs for most other consonant final noun stems and is summarized in the table below. C denotes the final consonant and the bracketed [C] denotes either consonant mutation of C or deletion of some number of stem-final phonemes. <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/siisiik/</span> is 'duck'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b57_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b57-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>Proximate </th> <th>Obviative </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Singular_(grammatical_number)" class="mw-redirect" title="Singular (grammatical number)">Singular</a> </th> <td>[C] (<span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">siisíí<b>c</b></i></span>) </td> <td>C (<span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">siisíí<b>k</b></i></span>) </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th><a href="/wiki/Plural" title="Plural">Plural</a> </th> <td>C-o' (<span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">siisíí<b>k-o’</b></i></span>) </td> <td>C-o (<span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">siisíí<b>k-o</b></i></span>) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>For vowel-final stems, the general pattern is a variation of the first consonant final pattern. Namely, a single marker is used to mark all plural forms and the obviative singular form. For example, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ote/</span>, a stem meaning 'sheep, bighorn sheep,' becomes <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hóte<b>-’</b></i></span> in proximate singular but <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hóte<b>-ii</b></i></span> in both plural forms and the obviative singular.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b59_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b59-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbs">Verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Verb_categorization">Verb categorization</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Verb categorization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Verbs are divided into classes depending on the transitivity and animacy of their argument(s). Transitivity of a verb affects how many arguments are affixed to the verb. Notice in the examples below the usage of the transitive form requires the addition of INAN, the inanimate marker for the object (the shoes). Verbal inflection also depends on "orders" like <a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74&ndash;75_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74&ndash;75-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><u>Intransitive, Animate Subject (AI)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b354_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b354-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></u></b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1209690778">.mw-parser-output .interlinear .bold{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .interlinear .smallcaps{text-transform:uppercase;font-size:smaller}</style><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hootóonéénoo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">otoonee-noo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="initial change" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IC</abbr>.buy(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wo’óhno.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wo’ohn-o</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shoe-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">hootóonéénoo wo’óhno.</p><p style="display: none;">otoonee-noo wo’ohn-o</p><p style="display: none;">IC.buy(AI)-1S shoe-PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'I am buying shoes.'/'I am shopping for shoes.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b><u>Transitive, Inanimate Object (TI)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b355_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b355-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></u></b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hootoonóótowoo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">otoonoot-<b>o</b>-woo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="initial change" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IC</abbr>.buy(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive verb, inanimate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TI</abbr>)-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inanimate gender" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INAN</abbr></b>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">wo’óhno.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">wo’ohn-o</p><p style="margin: 0px;">shoe-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">hootoonóótowoo wo’óhno.</p><p style="display: none;">otoonoot-<b>o</b>-woo wo’ohn-o</p><p style="display: none;">IC.buy(TI)-<b>INAN</b>-1S shoe-PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'I am buying [these] shoes.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Initial_change">Initial change</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Initial change"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Initial change (IC) can mark tense and aspect (in particular, "<a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present tense</a> and ongoing <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_aspect" title="Grammatical aspect">aspect</a> or <a href="/wiki/Present_perfect" title="Present perfect">present perfect</a> tense and aspect") under <a href="/wiki/Affirmative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Affirmative mood">affirmative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Conjunctive_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Conjunctive mood">conjunct</a> orders.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b73_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b73-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Differing phonological changes occur depending on the first vowel of the stem. If the vowel is short, it is lengthened. For example, <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">b<b>e</b>’éé-</i></span> 'to be red' becomes <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">b<b>ee</b>’éé’</i></span> 'it is red'.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b73_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b73-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Otherwise, an <a href="/wiki/Infix" title="Infix">infix</a> is placed before the first vowel. The infix is either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/en/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/on/</span> and is determined based on <a href="/wiki/Vowel_harmony" title="Vowel harmony">harmony</a> with the long vowel. For example, <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hoowúsee-</i></span> ('to walk downward') becomes <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">h<b>on</b>oowúseenoo</i></span> ('I am walking downward').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>If the first vowel is short and is followed by an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span>, some speakers treat the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> as a vowel and use the infix <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/en/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/on/</span> to mark initial change. Other speakers treat the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> as a consonant and perform the vowel lengthening process instead.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An irregular form of initial change affects some vowel-initial <a href="/wiki/Preverb" title="Preverb">preverbs</a> by appending an <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> before the first vowel, rather than the ordinary <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/h/</span> that would be prepended to avoid a vowel-initial word. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Imperfective_aspect" title="Imperfective aspect">imperfective</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ii/</span> morpheme becomes <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">nii-</i></span> instead of the expected <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hii-</i></span> when prefixing verbs that would undergo initial change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Agreement">Agreement</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Agreement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In sentences with an explicit noun phrase, separate from the verb, the verb agrees with the noun in terms of animacy, number, and whether the noun is proximate or obviative. The <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_category" title="Grammatical category">grammatical category</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">person</a>, of the noun also needs to agree with the verb.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b59_27-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b59-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Note that the categories of subject and object do not affect agreement inflection.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b349_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b349-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As an example of animacy agreement, the intransitive verb for 'to fall' has a form that takes an inanimate subject, <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">nihtéés<b>ceníse</b>'</i></span> (PAST-on top-fall(<i>II</i>)-0S)<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b53_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b53-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and a form that takes an animate subject, <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">nihtéés'<b>cenísi</b></i></span><b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b53_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b53-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nihtééscenísi’.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nih-teesi-cenisi-’</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr>-on top-fall(<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr></b>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">nihtééscenísi’.</p><p style="display: none;">nih-teesi-cenisi-’</p><p style="display: none;">{PAST-on top-fall(<b>AI</b>)-3}</p><p style="clear: left;">'It fell on [her].'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>If a verb has a single noun argument that is composed of two different types of noun, most speakers default to the obviative (over proximate) and inanimate (over animate) forms to refer to the composite noun argument in case of conflict. This can be seen in the example below where 'walk' takes an argument that is composed of a composite proximate and obviative noun. Both nouns are animate, but there is conflict regarding proximate or obviative. The verb thus defaults to the obviative plural (4PL). <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b60_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b60-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nési</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ne-si[h]</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr>-uncle(<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="proximate" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROX</abbr>)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">noh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">noh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">and</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">híbetebihów</p><p style="margin: 0px;">i-betebihew-o</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr>-wife-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">ceebíseení3i.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">cebisee-ni3i</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="initial change" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IC</abbr>.walk(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="4th person obviative, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">4PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">nési noh híbetebihów ceebíseení3i.</p><p style="display: none;">ne-si[h] noh i-betebihew-o cebisee-ni3i</p><p style="display: none;">1S-uncle(<abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="proximate" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PROX</abbr>) and 3S-wife-OBV IC.walk(AI)-4PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'My uncle and his wife are walking by.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Preverbs">Preverbs</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Preverbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Like all Algonquian languages, Arapaho has a rich arrary of preverbs expressing various meanings, in particular manner or aspect. It has the one of the richest system of periodic tense among the world's languages, and the only known system encoding four seasons in the verb morphology.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> hibernal <i>cecin-</i> 'during winter', vernal <i>benii’ow-</i> 'during the spring', estival <i>biicen-</i> 'during the summer' and autumnal <i>toyoun-'</i>during the fall' (Cowell and Moss 2006:217-218, Jacques 2023:545). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derivational">Derivational</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Derivational"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nouns_2">Nouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arapaho has a number of derivational affixes and processes. Some operate on nouns to form verb-like clauses. For example, the morpheme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/tohúút/</span> can prefix a noun to ask 'what kind of <noun>'. A specific example is <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">hoséíno’</i></span> ('meat') when prefixed becomes <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp"><b>tohúút</b>-oséíno’</i></span> ('What kind of meat is this?')<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b107_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b107-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Verbs_2">Verbs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Verbs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Derivational morphology on verbs can be grouped into abstract and concrete. Abstract morphemes mark transitivity and the animacy of subject/object for the verb. For example, the basic root <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/be'/</span> 'red' can be marked with abstract morphemes as follows<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b121&ndash;122_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b121&ndash;122-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/be'-ee/</span> 'to be red', intransitive and takes an inanimate subject</li> <li><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/be'-eihi/</span> 'to be red', intransitive and takes an animate subject</li></ol> <p>Concrete morphemes tend to add three types of meanings to the verb.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b167&ndash;168_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b167&ndash;168-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Patient_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patient (linguistics)">patients</a> and undergoers; attach particularly common nouns after a verb with a transitive meaning to give it an object, resulting in an intransitive verb <ul><li>Example: to add <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-oox-/</span> 'wood' as an object, transform it to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-ooxu-/</span> before appending to verb such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/no’<b>ooxu</b>-/</span> ('haul wood here') and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/cow<b>ooxu</b>-/</span> ('haul wood along')<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b169_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b169-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>topics concerning nouns that lack <a href="/wiki/Volition_(linguistics)" title="Volition (linguistics)">volition</a>; examples include body parts, weather and nature, sensations <ul><li>Example: the underlying noun <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">be-sonon</i></span> ('neck') becomes <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-isono-/</span> before attaching to a verb such as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/en<b>isono</b>-/</span> ('have a long neck')<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b170_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b170-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li> <li>methods of achieving action; examples include tools, means of transportation, non-manmade forces such as wind <ul><li>Example: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/-see/</span> ('walking') can be added to create an AI (animate subject, intransitive) verb such as <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">no’u<b>see</b>-</i></span> ('to arrive on foot') and <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">oowu<b>see</b>-</i></span> ('to descend on foot')<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b177_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b177-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></li></ol> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reduplication">Reduplication</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Reduplication"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reduplication is prefixal and is formed by taking the first consonant (if there is one) and the first vowel and then adding <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/:n/</span>, where the colon indicates that the preceding vowel is elongated. The <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span> is deleted in the presence of a subsequent consonant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b197&ndash;198_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b197&ndash;198-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">cebísee-</i></span> ('to walk past') after reduplication becomes <span title="Arapaho-language text"><i lang="arp">cé<b>e[n]</b>cebísee-</i></span> ('to walk back and forth past').<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b198_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b198-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are multiple usages of reduplication in Arapaho including pluralizing implied, secondary, and inanimate objects of (di)transitive verbs; indicating repeating and <a href="/wiki/Habitual_aspect" title="Habitual aspect">habitual</a> action (extend the space and time a verb occurs in general), and intensifying. One example of marking repeating action is as follows <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b201_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b201-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">tonooto’óótowoo.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">toon-to’oot-owoo</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="initial change" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reduplication" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REDUP</abbr>-hit(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive verb, inanimate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">1S</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">tonooto’óótowoo.</p><p style="display: none;">toon-to’oot-owoo</p><p style="display: none;">IC.REDUP-hit(TI)-1S</p><p style="clear: left;">'I am hitting it (over and over).'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p>There can be multiple reduplications in compound words, where each reduplication can have an independent effect. Some verbs appear to be only in a reduplicated form; these verbs tend to describe repeating, iterative action.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b203&ndash;204_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b203&ndash;204-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syntax">Syntax</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Syntax"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Arapaho has no canonical word order. Some sentences/clauses consist of only the verb like below. <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b194_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b194-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hoowéentóótiin.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ihoowu-entootiin-i</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="negation/negative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NEG</abbr>-be present(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="participle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PART</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, inanimate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">II</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="impersonal" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMPERS</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">hoowéentóótiin.</p><p style="display: none;">ihoowu-entootiin-i</p><p style="display: none;">{NEG-be present(AI.PART)-II.IMPERS}</p><p style="clear: left;">'No one is home.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Single_noun_phrase">Single noun phrase</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Single noun phrase"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When a sentence contains a verb and a single noun phrase, the noun phrase can either precede or follow the verb. Preposing the noun phrase, however, gives it more importance and <a href="/wiki/Salience_(language)" title="Salience (language)">salience</a>. Some instances where noun phrases are preposed include introducing a new <a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referent</a> (or reintroducing one that was inactive) and creating contrast.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b400_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b400-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><u>V-NP order</u></b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b331_49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b331-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hení’bebíistiit</p><p style="margin: 0px;">i’i-bebiisitii-t</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="initial change" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IC</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="instrument(al)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">INSTR</abbr>(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="preverb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PREVERB</abbr>)-fix(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">kohyóhoé.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">kohuyohoen-i</p><p style="margin: 0px;">glue-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">hení’bebíistiit kohyóhoé.</p><p style="display: none;">i’i-bebiisitii-t kohuyohoen-i</p><p style="display: none;">IC.INSTR(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="preverb" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PREVERB</abbr>)-fix(AI)-3S glue-SG</p><p style="clear: left;">'He is fixing it with glue.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b><u>NP-V order</u></b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b401_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b401-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (additional context: a new referent, "stone monuments," is being introduced) </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>3í’eyóóno’</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">3i’eyoon-o’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">stone monument-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nihbí’eenéntóó3i’.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nih-bi’i-eenentoo-3i’</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr>-only-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reduplication" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REDUP</abbr>.be located(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><u>3í’eyóóno’</u> nihbí’eenéntóó3i’.</p><p style="display: none;">3i’eyoon-o’ nih-bi’i-eenentoo-3i’</p><p style="display: none;">{stone monument-PL} {PAST-only-REDUP.be located(AI)-3PL}</p><p style="clear: left;">'There were just some stone monuments located there.' [O:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Woman Captive, 4]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two_noun_phrases">Two noun phrases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Two noun phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>For a basic sentence with a single verb that takes two noun phrases as arguments, all orderings are possible, but having the verb final is less common.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b410_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b410-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Noun_phrase_hierarchy">Noun phrase hierarchy</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Noun phrase hierarchy"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A hierarchy exists in determining which noun phrase goes in which position. In the listing below, the first in the pair is treated as "higher" in the hierarchy and tends therefore to be the leftmost NP.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b411_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b411-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(grammar)" title="Subject (grammar)">subject</a> (<a href="/wiki/Object_(grammar)" title="Object (grammar)">object</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obviative" title="Obviative">proximate (obviative)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agent_(grammar)" title="Agent (grammar)">actor</a> (<a href="/wiki/Patient_(grammar)" title="Patient (grammar)">undergoer</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Markedness" title="Markedness">marked object (unmarked object)</a></li> <li>animate (inanimate)</li></ul> <p><b><u><a href="/wiki/Subject%E2%80%93verb%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject–verb–object">Subject-verb-object</a> order</u></b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b411_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b411-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>he’ííteihí3i</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">e’iiteihi3i</p><p style="margin: 0px;">someone</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">heebéhnótnoohóót</p><p style="margin: 0px;">eebeh-notinoohoot</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="potential mood" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">POTENT</abbr>-look for(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive verb, inanimate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TI</abbr>)</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>niitehéíbetíít</u>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">niiteheibetiiton-i</p><p style="margin: 0px;">help(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="participle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PART</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="singular number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">SG</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><u>he’ííteihí3i</u> heebéhnótnoohóót <u>niitehéíbetíít</u>.</p><p style="display: none;">e’iiteihi3i eebeh-notinoohoot niiteheibetiiton-i</p><p style="display: none;">someone {POTENT-look for(TI)} help(AI.PART)-SG</p><p style="clear: left;">'Someone might be looking for help.' [O:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Scouts, 64]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b><u><a href="/wiki/Verb%E2%80%93subject%E2%80%93object" class="mw-redirect" title="Verb–subject–object">Verb-subject-(implied) object</a> order</u></b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b412_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b412-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hé’ih’iixóoxookuséénino</p><p style="margin: 0px;">e’ih-ii-xooxookusee-nino</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="non-past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">NPAST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMPERF</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reduplication" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REDUP</abbr>.go through(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="4th person obviative, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">4PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>núhu’</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">nuhu’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">this</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>hó3ii</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">o3-ii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">arrow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nííne’ééno</p><p style="margin: 0px;">niine’ee-no</p><p style="margin: 0px;">here is-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr>?</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>híí3einóón</u>.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">ii3einoon-[in]</p><p style="margin: 0px;">buffalo-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="obviative" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">OBV</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">hé’ih’iixóoxookuséénino <u>núhu’</u> <u>hó3ii</u> nííne’ééno <u>híí3einóón</u>.</p><p style="display: none;">e’ih-ii-xooxookusee-nino nuhu’ o3-ii niine’ee-no ii3einoon-[in]</p><p style="display: none;">{NPAST-IMPERF-REDUP.go through(AI)-4PL} this arrow-PL {here is-PL.OBV?} buffalo-OBV.PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'Their arrows went right through the buffalos.' [O:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Scouts, 60]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Saliency">Saliency</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Saliency"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Saliency determines whether a noun phrase can precede its corresponding verb. Noun phrases are deemed salient if they are <a href="/wiki/Referent" title="Referent">referring</a> to something new, something that is being reintroduced, something contrastive, or something that is being emphasized.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b403_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b403-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><u>Preposed NP</u></b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b404_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b404-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (here, the noun phrase meaning 'where the attack was taking place' precedes the verb 'see' to create emphasis) </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>héetbisíítooni’</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">eetoh-bisiitooni-’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">where-attack.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="participle" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PART</abbr>.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="impersonal" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMPERS</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inanimate person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">0S</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nóonoohóotóú’u</p><p style="margin: 0px;">noonoohoot-o’u</p><p style="margin: 0px;">see.<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="reduplication" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">REDUP</abbr>(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive verb, inanimate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">téí’yoonóh’o’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">te’iyoonehe’-o’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">child-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">híseino’.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">isein-o’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">woman-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><u>héetbisíítooni’</u> nóonoohóotóú’u téí’yoonóh’o’ híseino’.</p><p style="display: none;">eetoh-bisiitooni-’ noonoohoot-o’u te’iyoonehe’-o’ isein-o’</p><p style="display: none;">where-attack.PART.IMPERS-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="inanimate person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">0S</abbr> see.REDUP(TI)-3PL child-PL woman-PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'Women and children watched where the attack was taking place.' [O:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Scouts, 70]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div><p><b><u>Both NPs preceding Verb (uncommon)</u><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b402_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b402-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></b> (additional context: occurs under "<a href="/wiki/Focus_(linguistics)" title="Focus (linguistics)">contrastive focus</a>") <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"></p><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>hoo3óó’o’</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">oo3oo’o’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">some</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;"><u>téce’ii</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;">tece’-ii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">night-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nih’éí’inóú’u.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nih-e’in-o’u</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr>-know(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive verb, inanimate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;"><u>hoo3óó’o’</u> <u>téce’ii</u> nih’éí’inóú’u.</p><p style="display: none;">oo3oo’o’ tece’-ii nih-e’in-o’u</p><p style="display: none;">some night-PL PAST-know(TI)-3PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'Some knew the nighttime' [O:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Eagles, 93]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syntax_of_noun/verb_phrases"><span id="Syntax_of_noun.2Fverb_phrases"></span>Syntax of noun/verb phrases</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Syntax of noun/verb phrases"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modifying_nouns">Modifying nouns</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Modifying nouns"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Generally, noun modifiers occur before the noun. These modifiers additionally tend to occur in a particular order relative each other. For example, in the example below, note that the <a href="/wiki/Presentative_(linguistics)" title="Presentative (linguistics)">presentative</a> 'here is' occurs before the <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> 'this'<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b324_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b324-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">’oh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">’oh</p><p style="margin: 0px;">but</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">howóó</p><p style="margin: 0px;">owoo</p><p style="margin: 0px;">also</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">niiyóúno</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>niiyou-no</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>here is-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nihíí</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nihii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">well</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">núhu’</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>nuhu’</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>this</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nihíí</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nihii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">well</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">yóókoxuu.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">yookox-ii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">willow-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">’oh howóó niiyóúno nihíí núhu’ nihíí yóókoxuu.</p><p style="display: none;">’oh owoo <b>niiyou-no</b> nihii <b>nuhu’</b> nihii yookox-ii</p><p style="display: none;">but also {<b>here is-PL</b>} well <b>this</b> well willow-PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'And then there are these, well . . . these, well . . . willows.' [O:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Apache Captive, 7]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Particles_and_verb_stems">Particles and verb stems</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Particles and verb stems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some particles are more closely linked to verbs; these particles generally precede the verb and are often neighboring the corresponding verb.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b328_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b328-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><b><u>Particle expressing potential</u></b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b329_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b329-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nooxéíhi’</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>nooxeihi’</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>maybe</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">heesówobéíht.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">esowobeihi-t</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="initial change" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IC</abbr>.be sick(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">nooxéíhi’ heesówobéíht.</p><p style="display: none;"><b>nooxeihi’</b> esowobeihi-t</p><p style="display: none;"><b>maybe</b> {IC.be sick(AI)-3S}</p><p style="clear: left;">'Maybe he’s sick.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <p><b><u>Particle expressing recent past</u></b><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b329_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b329-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">téébe</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>teebe</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><b>just now</b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nihno’úseet.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nih-no’usee-t</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr>-arrive(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, singular" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3S</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">téébe nihno’úseet.</p><p style="display: none;"><b>teebe</b> nih-no’usee-t</p><p style="display: none;">{<b>just now</b>} PAST-arrive(AI)-3S</p><p style="clear: left;">'He just now arrived.'</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adverbials">Adverbials</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Adverbials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Adverbials are a type of particle. Unlike other particles in Arapaho, however, they are not a <a href="/wiki/Closed_class" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed class">closed class</a> and are instead derived from or composed of other morphemes. One purpose of adverbial construction is to emphasize a morpheme by extracting it from a verb and having it stand alone. Another purpose is to convey meaning outside of what can normally be attached to a verb.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b330&ndash;332_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b330&ndash;332-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Adverbials are constructed by appending <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iihi'/</span> (which can become <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="arp-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uuhu'/</span> after vowel harmony) to the end of the root.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b333_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b333-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A common usage of adverbials is to modify verbs. Adverbials can also act like prepositions and modify noun phrases; such adverbials can occur before or after the noun phrase and are thus exceptions to the rule that nominal modifiers prepose the noun (see example below).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b334_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b334-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1209690778"><div class="interlinear" style="margin-left:3em"><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">"nih’iicebéso’onóóno’</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nih-ii-cebeso’on-oono’</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr>-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="imperfect" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">IMPERF</abbr>-chase(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="transitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">TA</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person inclusive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">12</abbr>/<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">sósoní’ii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">sosoni’-ii</p><p style="margin: 0px;">Shoshone-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="plural number" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PL</abbr></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">néeyóu</p><p style="margin: 0px;">neeyou</p><p style="margin: 0px;">there it is</p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">hoh’éni’</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><u>ohe’en-i’</u></p><p style="margin: 0px;"><u>mountain-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="locative case" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">LOC</abbr></u></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">niihííhi’"</p><p style="margin: 0px;">niih-<b>iihi’</b></p><p style="margin: 0px;">along-<b><abbr class="gloss-abbr gloss-abbr-ambiguous" title="adverb(ial)" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">ADV</abbr></b></p></div><div style="float: left; margin-bottom: 0.3em;margin-right: 1em;"><p lang="arp" style="margin: 0px;font-style: italic;">nih’íí3i’.</p><p style="margin: 0px;">nih-ii-3i’</p><p style="margin: 0px;"><abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="past tense" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">PAST</abbr>-say(<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="intransitive verb, animate subject" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">AI</abbr>)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="third person, plural" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">3PL</abbr></p></div><p style="display: none;">"nih’iicebéso’onóóno’ sósoní’ii néeyóu hoh’éni’ niihííhi’" nih’íí3i’.</p><p style="display: none;">nih-ii-cebeso’on-oono’ sosoni’-ii neeyou <u>ohe’en-i’</u> niih-<b>iihi’</b> nih-ii-3i’</p><p style="display: none;">PAST-IMPERF-chase(TA)-<abbr class="gloss-abbr" title="first person inclusive" style="font-variant: small-caps; font-variant-numeric: lining-nums; text-transform: lowercase;">12</abbr>/3 Shoshone-PL {there it is} <u>mountain-LOC</u> along-<b>ADV</b> PAST-say(AI)-3PL</p><p style="clear: left;">'“We were chasing the Shoshones along the mountain there,” they said.' [O:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Shade Trees, 15]</p><div style="clear: left; display: block;"></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div style="display:none;"> <p>AI:intransitive verb, animate subject TA:transitive verb, animate subject TI:transitive verb, inanimate subject II:intransitive verb, inanimate subject IMPERS:impersonal PART:participle POTENT:potential mood 4PL:4th person obviative, plural PART:participle IMPERS:impersonal IC:initial change </p> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-e25-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-e25_1-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ethnologue.com/25/language/arp">Arapaho</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Ethnologue" title="Ethnologue">Ethnologue</a></i> (25th ed., 2022) <span style="position:relative; top: -2px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Paywall" title="closed access publication – behind paywall"><img alt="Closed access icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/9px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/14px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg/18px-Closed_Access_logo_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="1000" /></a></span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEConathan2006'A'-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEConathan2006'A'_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFConathan2006">Conathan 2006</a>, 'A'.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b2-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b2_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1_4-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1_4-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a1_4-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008a">Cowell & Moss 2008a</a>, p. 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreymorning2001287-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGreymorning2001287_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGreymorning2001">Greymorning 2001</a>, p. 287.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrosch2008-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFrosch2008_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFFrosch2008">Frosch 2008</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFOver" class="citation web cs1">Over, Ernie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151004190552/http://county10.com/2015/08/13/northern-arapaho-language-camp-wrapped-up-wednesday-at-st-stephens/">"Northern Arapaho Language Camp wrapped up Wednesday at St. Stephens"</a>. <i>County 10</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://county10.com/2015/08/13/northern-arapaho-language-camp-wrapped-up-wednesday-at-st-stephens/">the original</a> on 2015-10-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-10-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=County+10&rft.atitle=Northern+Arapaho+Language+Camp+wrapped+up+Wednesday+at+St.+Stephens&rft.aulast=Over&rft.aufirst=Ernie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcounty10.com%2F2015%2F08%2F13%2Fnorthern-arapaho-language-camp-wrapped-up-wednesday-at-st-stephens%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140220005125/http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/linguistics/csilw/newarapproj2.htm">"The Arapaho Project"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/UCB/AcademicAffairs/ArtsSciences/linguistics/csilw/newarapproj2.htm">the original</a> on 2014-02-20.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Arapaho+Project&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2FUCB%2FAcademicAffairs%2FArtsSciences%2Flinguistics%2Fcsilw%2Fnewarapproj2.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHale2001283–284-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHale2001283–284_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHale2001">Hale 2001</a>, pp. 283–284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard1974-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard1974_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoddard1974">Goddard 1974</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard1990103-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard1990103_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard1990103_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoddard1990">Goddard 1990</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard19741974:104,_106,_107,_108-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard19741974:104,_106,_107,_108_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoddard1974">Goddard 1974</a>, pp. 1974:104, 106, 107, 108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoddard200175-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoddard200175_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFGoddard2001">Goddard 2001</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14_14-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14_14-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14_14-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008a">Cowell & Moss 2008a</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14–16-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a14–16_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008a">Cowell & Moss 2008a</a>, pp. 14–16.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/upsid_find.html">"UPSID sound selection"</a>. <i>web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190804114949/http://web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de/upsid_find.html">Archived</a> from the original on August 4, 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">Aug 1,</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=web.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de&rft.atitle=UPSID+sound+selection&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweb.phonetik.uni-frankfurt.de%2Fupsid_find.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman_''et_al.''1998-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESalzman_''et_al.''1998_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSalzman_et_al.1998">Salzman <i>et al.</i> 1998</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b45-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b45_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b45_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 45.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b46-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b46_19-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a22–23-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008a22–23_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008a">Cowell & Moss 2008a</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKruse198214-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKruse198214_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKruse1982">Kruse 1982</a>, p. 14.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b7-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b7_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 7.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b51&ndash;53-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b51&ndash;53_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 51–53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b58-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b58_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 58.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b57-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b57_26-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b59-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b59_27-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b59_27-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74&ndash;75-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74&ndash;75_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 74–75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b354-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b354_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 354.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b355-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b355_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 355.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b73-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b73_31-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b73_31-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 73.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74_32-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74_32-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b74_32-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 74.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b349-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b349_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 349.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b53-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b53_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b53_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 53.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b60-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b60_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuillaume_Jacques2023" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Guillaume_Jacques" title="Guillaume Jacques">Guillaume Jacques</a> (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://shs.hal.science/halshs-04239547">"Periodic tense markers in the world's languages and their sources"</a>. <i>Folia Linguistica</i>. <b>57</b> (3): 539–562. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1515%2Fflin-2023-2013">10.1515/flin-2023-2013</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Folia+Linguistica&rft.atitle=Periodic+tense+markers+in+the+world%E2%80%99s+languages+and+their+sources.&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=539-562&rft.date=2023&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1515%2Fflin-2023-2013&rft.au=Guillaume+Jacques&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fshs.hal.science%2Fhalshs-04239547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b107-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b107_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 107.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b121&ndash;122-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b121&ndash;122_38-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 121–122.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b167&ndash;168-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b167&ndash;168_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 167–168.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b169-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b169_40-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 169.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b170-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b170_41-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b177-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b177_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b197&ndash;198-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b197&ndash;198_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 197–198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b198-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b198_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 198.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b201-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b201_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 201.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b203&ndash;204-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b203&ndash;204_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 203–204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b194-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b194_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 194.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b400-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b400_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 400.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b331-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b331_49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 331.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b401-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b401_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 401.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2005_51-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2005">Cowell & Moss 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b410-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b410_52-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b411-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b411_53-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b411_53-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 411.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b412-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b412_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 412.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b403-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b403_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 403.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b404-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b404_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 404.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b402-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b402_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 402.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b324-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b324_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b328-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b328_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b329-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b329_60-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b329_60-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 329.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b330&ndash;332-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b330&ndash;332_61-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 330–332.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b333-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b333_62-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 333.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b334-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowellMoss2008b334_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFCowellMoss2008b">Cowell & Moss 2008b</a>, p. 334.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lyle_Campbell" title="Lyle Campbell">Campbell, Lyle</a> (1997). <i>American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-514050-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-514050-8"><bdi>0-19-514050-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=American+Indian+Languages%3A+The+Historical+Linguistics+of+Native+America&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-19-514050-8&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConathan2006" class="citation web cs1">Conathan, Lisa (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://linguistics.berkeley.edu/~arapaho/english_arapaho.html">"English-Arapaho dictionary (draft)"</a>. <i>The Arapaho Language: Documentation and Revitalization Project</i>. University of California at Berkeley<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">8 March</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Arapaho+Language%3A+Documentation+and+Revitalization+Project&rft.atitle=English-Arapaho+dictionary+%28draft%29&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Conathan&rft.aufirst=Lisa&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flinguistics.berkeley.edu%2F~arapaho%2Fenglish_arapaho.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowellMoss2008a" class="citation book cs1">Cowell, Andrew; Moss, Alonzo Sr. (2008a). <i>The Arapaho Language</i>. University Press of Colorado. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-901-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87081-901-8"><bdi>978-0-87081-901-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arapaho+Language&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-87081-901-8&rft.aulast=Cowell&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Moss%2C+Alonzo+Sr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowellMoss2008b" class="citation book cs1">Cowell, Andrew; Moss, Alonzo Sr. (2008b). <i>The Arapaho language</i>. Moss, Alonzo Sr. Boulder: University Press of Colorado. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780870819940" title="Special:BookSources/9780870819940"><bdi>9780870819940</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/506069183">506069183</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arapaho+language&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Colorado&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F506069183&rft.isbn=9780870819940&rft.aulast=Cowell&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Moss%2C+Alonzo+Sr.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowellMoss2005" class="citation book cs1">Cowell, Andrew; Moss, Alonzo Sr. (24 August 2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=r43SPzdJJWUC"><i>Arapaho Historical Traditions: Hinono'einoo3itoono</i></a>. Univ. of Manitoba Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88755-312-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88755-312-7"><bdi>978-0-88755-312-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/940673249">940673249</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arapaho+Historical+Traditions%3A+Hinono%27einoo3itoono&rft.pub=Univ.+of+Manitoba+Press&rft.date=2005-08-24&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F940673249&rft.isbn=978-0-88755-312-7&rft.aulast=Cowell&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft.au=Moss%2C+Alonzo+Sr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dr43SPzdJJWUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrosch2008" class="citation news cs1">Frosch, Dan (16 October 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2008/10/17/us/17arapaho.html?em">"Its Native Tongue Facing Extinction, Arapaho Tribe Teaches the Young"</a>. <i>New York Times</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Its+Native+Tongue+Facing+Extinction%2C+Arapaho+Tribe+Teaches+the+Young&rft.date=2008-10-16&rft.aulast=Frosch&rft.aufirst=Dan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2F2008%2F10%2F17%2Fus%2F17arapaho.html%3Fem&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddard1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ives_Goddard" title="Ives Goddard">Goddard, Ives</a> (1974). "An Outline of the Historical Phonology of Arapaho and Atsina". <i>International Journal of American Linguistics</i>. <b>40</b> (2): 102–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F465292">10.1086/465292</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144253507">144253507</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+American+Linguistics&rft.atitle=An+Outline+of+the+Historical+Phonology+of+Arapaho+and+Atsina&rft.volume=40&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=102-16&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F465292&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144253507%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Goddard&rft.aufirst=Ives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddard1990" class="citation book cs1">Goddard, Ives (1990). "Algonquian Linguistic Change and Reconstruction". In <a href="/wiki/Philip_Baldi" title="Philip Baldi">Philip Baldi</a> (ed.). <i>Linguistic Change and Reconstruction Methodology</i>. Trends in Linguistics, Studies and Monographs 45. Berlin: Mouton de Gruyter. pp. 99–114.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Algonquian+Linguistic+Change+and+Reconstruction&rft.btitle=Linguistic+Change+and+Reconstruction+Methodology&rft.place=Berlin&rft.series=Trends+in+Linguistics%2C+Studies+and+Monographs+45.&rft.pages=99-114&rft.pub=Mouton+de+Gruyter&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Goddard&rft.aufirst=Ives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGoddard2001" class="citation book cs1">Goddard, Ives (2001). "The Algonquian Languages of the Plains". <a href="/wiki/Handbook_of_North_American_Indians" title="Handbook of North American Indians"><i>Handbook of North American Indians</i></a>. Vol. 13. Washington: the Smithsonian Institution. pp. 71–79.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Algonquian+Languages+of+the+Plains&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+North+American+Indians&rft.place=Washington&rft.pages=71-79&rft.pub=the+Smithsonian+Institution&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Goddard&rft.aufirst=Ives&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGreymorning2001" class="citation book cs1">Greymorning, Steven (2001). "Reflections on the Arapaho Language Project". In Ken Hale; Leanne Hinton (eds.). <i>The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice</i>. San Diego, California: Academic Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Reflections+on+the+Arapaho+Language+Project&rft.btitle=The+Green+Book+of+Language+Revitalization+in+Practice&rft.place=San+Diego%2C+California&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Greymorning&rft.aufirst=Steven&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHale2001" class="citation book cs1">Hale, Ken (2001). "The Arapaho Language". In Ken Hale; Leanne Hinton (eds.). <i>The Green Book of Language Revitalization in Practice</i>. San Diego, California: Academic Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Arapaho+Language&rft.btitle=The+Green+Book+of+Language+Revitalization+in+Practice&rft.place=San+Diego%2C+California&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Hale&rft.aufirst=Ken&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKroeber1917" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alfred_L_Kroeber" class="mw-redirect" title="Alfred L Kroeber">Kroeber, Alfred Louis</a> (1917). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z04UAAAAYAAJ"><i>Arapaho dialects</i></a>. University of California Press<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">24 August</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arapaho+dialects&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1917&rft.aulast=Kroeber&rft.aufirst=Alfred+Louis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz04UAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKruse1982" class="citation book cs1">Kruse, Babs (1982). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/ERIC_ED231559"><i>Arapaho alphabet</i></a>. Arapaho language. Vol. 3. Wyoming Indian High School.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arapaho+alphabet&rft.series=Arapaho+language&rft.pub=Wyoming+Indian+High+School&rft.date=1982&rft.aulast=Kruse&rft.aufirst=Babs&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FERIC_ED231559&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Salzmann, Zdeněk and The Northern Arapaho Tribe and Anderson, Jeffrey. 1998.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman_et_al.1998" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120214162719/http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/arapahoproject/language/dictionary/dic_frame2.html">"Dictionary of the Northern Arapaho Language"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/arapahoproject/language/dictionary/dic_frame2.html">the original</a> on 14 February 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Northern+Arapaho+Language&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.colorado.edu%2Fcsilw%2Farapahoproject%2Flanguage%2Fdictionary%2Fdic_frame2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AArapaho+language" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Goddard, Ives. 1998. "Recovering Arapaho etymologies by reconstructing forwards". In Melchert, Craig & Jasanoff, Jay H. (eds.) <i>Mír Curad: Studies in Honor of Calvert Watkins</i>, Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachwissenschaftder Universität Innsbruck, Innsbrucker Beiträge zur Sprachwissenschaft, pp. 183–200.</li> <li>Jacques, Guillaume 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/2107195/The_sound_change_s_n_in_Arapaho">"The sound change s>n in Arapaho"</a>, <i>Folia Linguistica Historica</i> 34:43-57</li> <li>Pentland, David. 1997. [review of] <i>Principles and Methods in Historical Phonology: From Proto-Algonkian to Arapaho</i>, by Marc Picard, 1994. <i>Diachronica</i> 14.2: 383–386.</li> <li>Pentland, David. 1998. "Initial *s > n in Arapaho-Atsina". <i>Diachronica</i> 15.2:309–321.</li> <li>Picard, Marc. 1994. <i>Principles and Methods in Historical Phonology: From Proto-Algonkian to Arapaho</i>. Montreal and Kingston: McGill—Queen's University Press.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marianne_Mithun" title="Marianne Mithun">Mithun, Marianne</a>. 1999. <i>The Languages of Native North America</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Arapaho_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Arapaho language, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Arapaho_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Arapaho language"><i><b>Arapaho language</b></i> category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/32px-Incubator-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/48px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Incubator-logo.svg/64px-Incubator-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="799" data-file-height="1000" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://incubator.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wp/arp" class="extiw" title="incubator:Wp/arp">Arapaho language test</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia" title="Wikipedia">Wikipedia</a> at <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Wikimedia_Incubator" class="extiw" title="meta:Wikimedia Incubator">Wikimedia Incubator</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has more on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Arapaho_language" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Arapaho language">Arapaho language</a></b></i></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><i><b><a href="https://wikisource.org/wiki/Category:Arapaho" class="extiw" title="oldwikisource:Category:Arapaho"> Arapaho language repository</a></b></i> of <a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a>, the free library</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/arapahoproject/language/">The Arapaho Language (U. of Colo. Arapaho Project)</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.colorado.edu/csilw/archives/archives.htm">Arapaho Language Archives (U. of Colo. Arapaho Project)</a>, with many dialogues and narratives in Arapaho with glosses</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mammana.org/bcp/arapaho/">Nun-na-a-in-ah Ve-vith-ha Hin-nen-nau Hin-nen-it-dah-need (1895)</a> Portions of the <i>Book of Common Prayer</i> in Arapaho</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.language-archives.org/language/arp">OLAC resources in and about the Arapaho language</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.colorado.edu/center/csilw/sites/default/files/attached-files/lets_learn.pdf">Let's Learn Arapaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_Scollen" title="Constantine Scollen">Constantine Scollen</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://elar.soas.ac.uk/Collection/MPI106093">Arapaho Text Corpus</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://homewitharapaho.files.wordpress.com/2015/03/arapaho-dictionary1.pdf">Dictionary of the Arapaho Language</a>, 2012, 4th Edition, by Andrew Cowell, Alonzo Moss Sr., William and Wayne C'Hair, Arapahoe Immersion School, and the elders of the Northern Arapaho Tribe, Ethete, Wyoming</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doreco.huma-num.fr/languages/arap1274">Arapaho DoReCo corpus</a> compiled by Andrew Cowell. Audio recordings of narrative texts with transcriptions time-aligned at the phone level, translations, and time-aligned morphological annotations.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output 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class="mw-redirect" title="Languages of Oklahoma">Languages</a> of <a href="/wiki/Oklahoma" title="Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><i>Italics</i> indicate extinct languages * indicates extinct language in Oklahoma but still spoken elsewhere</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alabama_language" title="Alabama language">Alabama</a>*</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Arapaho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caddo_language" title="Caddo language">Caddo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuga_language" title="Cayuga language">Cayuga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_language" title="Cherokee language">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_language" title="Cheyenne language">Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chickasaw_language" title="Chickasaw language">Chickasaw</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Chiwere_language" title="Chiwere language">Chiwere (Iowa and Otoe)</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Choctaw_language" title="Choctaw language">Choctaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comanche_language" title="Comanche language">Comanche</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unami_language" title="Unami language">Delaware</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mikasuki_language" title="Mikasuki language">Hitchiti-Mikasuki</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kansa_language" title="Kansa language">Kansa</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Koasati_language" title="Koasati language">Koasati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mescalero-Chiricahua_language" title="Mescalero-Chiricahua language">Mescalero-Chiricahua Apache</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Mesquakie (Fox, Kickapoo, and Sauk)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muscogee_language" title="Muscogee language">Muscogee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_language" title="Osage language">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottawa language">Ottawa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pawnee_language" title="Pawnee language">Pawnee</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Plains_Apache_language" title="Plains Apache language">Plains Apache</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omaha-Ponca_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Omaha-Ponca language">Ponca</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quapaw_language" title="Quapaw language">Quapaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seneca_language" title="Seneca language">Seneca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawnee_language" title="Shawnee language">Shawnee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tonkawa_language" title="Tonkawa language">Tonkawa</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wichita_language" title="Wichita language">Wichita</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Wyandot_language" title="Wyandot language">Wyandot</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuchi_language" title="Yuchi language">Yuchi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sign languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Sign_Language" title="American Sign Language">American Sign Language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_American_Sign_Language" title="Black American Sign Language">Black American Sign Language</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indian_Sign_Language" title="Plains Indian Sign Language">Plains Sign Talk</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-Indigenous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_language" title="German language">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_language" title="Vietnamese language">Vietnamese</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <b><a href="/wiki/Category:Languages_of_Oklahoma" title="Category:Languages of Oklahoma">Category</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Algic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Algic_languages" title="Template:Algic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Algic_languages" title="Template talk:Algic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li 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<ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Besawunena_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Besawunena language">Besawunena</a></i></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gros_Ventre_language" title="Gros Ventre language">Gros Ventre</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Nawathinehena_language" title="Nawathinehena language">Nawathinehena</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree–Montagnais–Naskapi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cree_language" title="Cree language">Cree</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Cree" title="East Cree">East Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moose_Cree_language" title="Moose Cree language">Moose Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Cree_language" title="Plains Cree language">Plains Cree</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Michif" title="Michif">Michif</a><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swampy_Cree_language" title="Swampy Cree language">Swampy Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woods_Cree" title="Woods Cree">Woods Cree</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atikamekw_language" title="Atikamekw language">Atikamekw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innu-aimun" class="mw-redirect" title="Innu-aimun">Innu-aimun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naskapi_language" title="Naskapi language">Naskapi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Algonquian_languages" title="Eastern Algonquian languages">Eastern Algonquian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Southern New England</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Loup_language" title="Loup language">Loup</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_language" title="Massachusett language">Massachusett</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_Pidgin" title="Massachusett Pidgin">Massachusett Pidgin</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Massachusett_Pidgin_English" title="Massachusett Pidgin English">Massachusett Pidgin English</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mohegan-Pequot_language" title="Mohegan-Pequot language">Mohegan–Pequot</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Narragansett_language" title="Narragansett language">Narragansett</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Quiripi_language" title="Quiripi language">Quiripi–Naugatuck–Unquachog</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Delawaran</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Delaware_languages" title="Delaware languages">Delaware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Munsee_language" title="Munsee language">Munsee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Unami_language" title="Unami language">Unami</a></i> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Pidgin_Delaware" title="Pidgin Delaware">Pidgin Delaware</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mohican_language" title="Mohican language">Mahican</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><i>Nanticockan</i></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nanticoke_language" title="Nanticoke language">Nanticoke</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Piscataway_language" title="Piscataway language">Piscataway</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abenaki_language" title="Abenaki language">Abenaki</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Carolina_Algonquian_language" title="Carolina Algonquian language">Carolina Algonquian</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Etchemin_language" title="Etchemin language">Etchemin</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maliseet-Passamaquoddy_language" title="Maliseet-Passamaquoddy language">Maliseet–Passamaquoddy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_language" title="Mi'kmaq language">Mi'kmaq</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Powhatan_language" title="Powhatan language">Powhatan</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Mesquakie–Sauk–Kickapoo</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language" title="Fox language">Mesquakie–Sauk</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sauk_language" title="Sauk language">Sauk</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kickapoo_language" title="Kickapoo language">Kickapoo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwa</a>–<a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_language" title="Ojibwe language">Ojibwa</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Algonquin_language" title="Algonquin language">Algonquin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Berens_River_Ojibwe_dialect" title="Berens River Ojibwe dialect">Berens River Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_Lakes_Ojibwe_dialect" title="Border Lakes Ojibwe dialect">Border Lakes Ojibwa</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Broken_Oghibbeway" title="Broken Oghibbeway">Broken Oghibbeway</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Ojibwa_language" title="Central Ojibwa language">Central Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chippewa_language" title="Chippewa language">Chippewa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ojibwa_language" title="Eastern Ojibwa language">Eastern Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipissing_Ojibwe_dialect" title="Nipissing Ojibwe dialect">Nipissing Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_of_Superior_Ojibwe_dialect" title="North of Superior Ojibwe dialect">North of Superior Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwestern_Ojibwa" title="Northwestern Ojibwa">Northwestern Ojibwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oji-Cree_language" title="Oji-Cree language">Oji-Cree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottawa_dialect" title="Ottawa dialect">Ottawa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Ojibwa_language" title="Western Ojibwa language">Western Ojibwa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Potawatomi_language" title="Potawatomi language">Potawatomi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Algonquian%E2%80%93Basque_pidgin" title="Algonquian–Basque pidgin">Algonquian–Basque pidgin</a></i><sup><small>1</small></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_language" title="Cheyenne language">Cheyenne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menominee_language" title="Menominee language">Menominee</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Miami%E2%80%93Illinois_language" title="Miami–Illinois language">Miami–Illinois</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shawnee_language" title="Shawnee language">Shawnee</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Wiyot_language" title="Wiyot language">Wiyot</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yurok_language" title="Yurok language">Yurok</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Uncertain</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Nansemond_language" title="Nansemond language">Nansemond</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Pamunkey_language" title="Pamunkey language">Pamunkey</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Proto-languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Algic_language" title="Proto-Algic language">Proto-Algic</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Algonquian_language" title="Proto-Algonquian language">Proto-Algonquian</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span style="position: relative; top: 0.2em;"><sup><small>1</small></sup></span> <a href="/wiki/Creole_language" title="Creole language">Creole</a>/<a href="/wiki/Pidgin" title="Pidgin">Pidgin</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a> language •  <i>Italics</i> indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style 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