CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of slavery in the Muslim world - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"62c30a47-6835-471d-968b-7a25b2b42dd5","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world","wgTitle":"History of slavery in the Muslim world","wgCurRevisionId":1259168496,"wgRevisionId":1259168496,"wgArticleId":47674564,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Pages with reference errors","Webarchive template wayback links","Pages with duplicate reference names","CS1: long volume value","Pages with broken reference names","CS1 Persian-language sources (fa)","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2023","All articles with dead external links","Articles with dead external links from October 2023","Articles with permanently dead external links", "Pages containing links to subscription-only content","CS1 maint: archived copy as title","CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Articles containing Arabic-language text","All articles with unsourced statements","Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024","Articles with unsourced statements from April 2022","All articles lacking reliable references","Articles lacking reliable references from December 2023","All articles with incomplete citations","Articles with incomplete citations from November 2022","Articles with incomplete citations from September 2015","All articles with vague or ambiguous time","Vague or ambiguous time from November 2020","Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2015","Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2015","Islam-related controversies","History of slavery in the Muslim world", "Islam and government"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world","wgRelevantArticleId":47674564,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":200000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true, "wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q22905910","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site", "mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="655"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="437"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="350"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of slavery in the Muslim world - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world rootpage-History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Slavery in pre-Islamic Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_Islamic_Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Islamic_Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Slavery in Islamic Arabia </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery_in_Islamic_Arabia-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Slavery in Islamic Arabia subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Islamic_Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_Islamic_history" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Islamic_history"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early Islamic history </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Islamic_history-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Slave trade </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Roles_of_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Roles_of_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Roles of slaves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Roles_of_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Arab_views_of_African_peoples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_views_of_African_peoples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Arab views of African peoples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_views_of_African_peoples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geography_of_the_slave_trade" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geography_of_the_slave_trade"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Geography of the slave trade </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Geography_of_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Geography of the slave trade subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Geography_of_the_slave_trade-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-"Supply"_zones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#"Supply"_zones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 "Supply" zones </div> </a> <ul id="toc-"Supply"_zones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barter" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barter"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Barter </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barter-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slave_markets_and_fairs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slave_markets_and_fairs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Slave markets and fairs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slave_markets_and_fairs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Africa:_8th_through_19th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa:_8th_through_19th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Africa: 8th through 19th centuries </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa:_8th_through_19th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Racial_dimension_of_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Racial_dimension_of_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Racial dimension of slavery </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Racial_dimension_of_slavery-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Racial dimension of slavery subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Racial_dimension_of_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-European_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 European slaves </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Female_slaves" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Female_slaves"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Female slaves </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Female_slaves-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Female slaves subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Female_slaves-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Concubinage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Concubinage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Concubinage </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Concubinage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prostitution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prostitution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Prostitution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prostitution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ibn_Battuta's_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ibn_Battuta's_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Ibn Battuta's accounts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ibn_Battuta's_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_uprisings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_uprisings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Political uprisings </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Political_uprisings-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Political uprisings subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Political_uprisings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Rebellion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_power" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_power"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Political power </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_power-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_country" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_country"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 By country </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_country-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle By country subsection </button> <ul id="toc-By_country-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_India" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_India"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Slavery in India </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_India-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_Iran" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Iran"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Slavery in Iran </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Iran-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Seljuk_and_Ottoman_Empires" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_Seljuk_and_Ottoman_Empires"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Slavery in the Seljuk and Ottoman Empires </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Seljuk_and_Ottoman_Empires-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_sultanates_of_Southeast_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_sultanates_of_Southeast_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Slavery in the sultanates of Southeast Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_sultanates_of_Southeast_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-By_region" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#By_region"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 By region </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-By_region-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle By region subsection </button> <ul id="toc-By_region-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Arab_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Arab_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Arab world </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Arab_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_Central_Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_Central_Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Slavery in Central Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_Central_Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Kazakh_Khanate_slave_trade_on_Russian_settlement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kazakh_Khanate_slave_trade_on_Russian_settlement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2.1 Kazakh Khanate slave trade on Russian settlement </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kazakh_Khanate_slave_trade_on_Russian_settlement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Maghreb" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_Maghreb"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 Slavery in the Maghreb </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_Maghreb-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#19th_and_20th_centuries"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 19th and 20th centuries </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle 19th and 20th centuries subsection </button> <ul id="toc-19th_and_20th_centuries-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Abolition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Abolition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Abolition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Abolition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-20th-century:_suppression,_abolition_and_prohibition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#20th-century:_suppression,_abolition_and_prohibition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 20th-century: suppression, abolition and prohibition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-20th-century:_suppression,_abolition_and_prohibition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Slavery_in_the_late_20th_and_21st-century_Muslim_world" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Slavery_in_the_late_20th_and_21st-century_Muslim_world"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 Slavery in the late 20th and 21st-century Muslim world </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Slavery_in_the_late_20th_and_21st-century_Muslim_world-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Slavery in the late 20th and 21st-century Muslim world subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Slavery_in_the_late_20th_and_21st-century_Muslim_world-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Islamist_opinions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islamist_opinions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Islamist opinions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islamist_opinions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Salafi_support_for_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salafi_support_for_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.1 Salafi support for slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salafi_support_for_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mauritania_and_Sudan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mauritania_and_Sudan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Mauritania and Sudan </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mauritania_and_Sudan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Qatar" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Qatar"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Qatar </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Qatar-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Saudi_Arabia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Saudi_Arabia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 Saudi Arabia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Saudi_Arabia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Algeria_and_Libya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algeria_and_Libya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Algeria and Libya </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algeria_and_Libya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Jihadists" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jihadists"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.6 Jihadists </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jihadists-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Legacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Primary_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Primary sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Primary sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Primary_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_Arabic_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Arabic_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.1 Medieval Arabic sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Arabic_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-European_texts_(16th–19th_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#European_texts_(16th–19th_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.2 European texts (16th–19th centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-European_texts_(16th–19th_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12.3 Other sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16 Further reading </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Further reading subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-In_print" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_print"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.1 In print </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_print-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Online" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Online"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 16.2 Online </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Online-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of slavery in the Muslim world</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 8 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-8" aria-hidden="true" > 8 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A8%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D9%81%D9%8A_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D9%8A" title="تاريخ العبودية في العالم الإسلامي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ العبودية في العالم الإسلامي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87%E2%80%8C%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85" title="تاریخ برده‌داری در جهان اسلام – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ برده‌داری در جهان اسلام" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Esclavage_dans_le_monde_musulman" title="Esclavage dans le monde musulman – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Esclavage dans le monde musulman" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="मुसलमानी विश्व में गुलामी का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="मुसलमानी विश्व में गुलामी का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%88%DA%86_%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="مسلم دنیا وچ غلامی دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="مسلم دنیا وچ غلامی دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escravatura_no_mundo_mu%C3%A7ulmano" title="Escravatura no mundo muçulmano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Escravatura no mundo muçulmano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B1%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%BC%D1%83%D1%81%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%B5" title="История рабства в мусульманском мире – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История рабства в мусульманском мире" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%85_%D8%AF%D9%86%DB%8C%D8%A7_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%BA_%D8%BA%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%DB%8C_%DA%A9%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="مسلم دنیا میں غلامی کی تاریخ – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="مسلم دنیا میں غلامی کی تاریخ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q22905910#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world">Read</a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e">Edit</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&oldid=1259168496" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&id=1259168496&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q22905910" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about the history of slavery in Muslim countries. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Islam_and_slavery_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Islam and slavery (disambiguation)">Islam and slavery (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle-with-top-image,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-caption{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-pretitle{padding:0.4em 0.4em 0;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.2em 0.8em;font-size:145%;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-image{padding:0.2em 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-heading{padding:0.1em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content{padding:0 0.5em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-content-with-subgroup{padding:0.1em 0.4em 0.2em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-below{padding:0.3em 0.8em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-above,.mw-parser-output .sidebar-collapse .sidebar-below{border-top:1px solid #aaa;border-bottom:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-navbar{text-align:right;font-size:115%;padding:0 0.4em 0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:left;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.6em;font-size:105%}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-list-title-c{padding:0 0.4em;text-align:center;margin:0 3.3em}@media(max-width:640px){body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Slavery" title="Category:Slavery">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery" title="Slavery">slavery</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Shackles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/125px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="68" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/188px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png/250px-IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png 2x" data-file-width="498" data-file-height="272" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_21st_century" title="Slavery in the 21st century">Contemporary</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour" title="Child labour">Child Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Children_in_the_military" title="Children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">Debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_marriage" title="Forced marriage">Forced marriage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bride_buying" title="Bride buying">Bride buying</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_marriage" title="Child marriage">Child marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wife_selling" title="Wife selling">Wife selling</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_prostitution" title="Forced prostitution">Forced prostitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking" title="Human trafficking">Human trafficking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">Involuntary servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peon" title="Peon">Peonage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour" title="Penal labour">Penal labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st-century jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">Sexual slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wage_slavery" title="Wage slavery">Wage slavery</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">Historical</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Antiquity</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Egypt" title="Slavery in ancient Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonian_law#Three_classes" title="Babylonian law">Babylonia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Greece" title="Slavery in ancient Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_ancient_Rome" title="Slavery in ancient Rome">Rome</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Medieval Europe</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancillae" title="Ancillae">Ancillae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Byzantine_Empire" title="Slavery in the Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kholop" title="Kholop">Kholop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom" title="Serfdom">Serfs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_serfdom" title="History of serfdom">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serfdom_in_Russia" title="Serfdom in Russia">In Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_reform_of_1861" title="Emancipation reform of 1861">Emancipation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Thrall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genoese_slave_trade" title="Genoese slave trade">Genoese slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Muslim world</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_al-Andalus" title="Slavery in al-Andalus">Slavery in al-Andalus</a> ‎</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Contract of manumission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khazar_slave_trade" title="Khazar slave trade">Khazar slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_on_the_Barbary_Coast" title="Slavery on the Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Baltimore" title="Sack of Baltimore">Sack of Baltimore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raid_of_Su%C3%B0uroy" title="Slave raid of Suðuroy">Slave raid of Suðuroy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Turkish Abductions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_concubinage" title="Islamic views on concubinage">Concubinage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avret_Pazarlar%C4%B1" title="Avret Pazarları">Avret Pazarları</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_harem" title="Abbasid harem">Abbasid harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">Ottoman Imperial Harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_imperial_harem" title="Safavid imperial harem">Safavid imperial harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_harem" title="Qajar harem">Qajar harem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarya" title="Jarya">Jarya</a>/<a href="/wiki/Cariye" title="Cariye">Cariye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odalisque" title="Odalisque">Odalisque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiyan" title="Qiyan">Qiyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umm_al-walad" title="Umm al-walad">Umm al-walad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volga_Bulgarian_slave_trade" title="Volga Bulgarian slave trade">Volga Bulgarian slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">21st century</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bristol_slave_trade" title="Bristol slave trade">Bristol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade_to_Brazil" title="Atlantic slave trade to Brazil">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voyages:_The_Trans-Atlantic_Slave_Trade_Database" title="Voyages: The Trans-Atlantic Slave Trade Database">Database</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Passage" title="Middle Passage">Middle Passage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nantes_slave_trade" title="Nantes slave trade">Nantes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_New_France" title="Slavery in New France">New France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panyarring" title="Panyarring">Panyarring</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_colonial_Spanish_America" title="Slavery in colonial Spanish America">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Coast_of_West_Africa" title="Slave Coast of West Africa">Slave Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_colonial_history_of_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the colonial history of the United States">Thirteen colonies</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Topics and practice</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devshirme" title="Devshirme">Devshirme</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolie" title="Coolie">Coolie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corv%C3%A9e" title="Corvée">Corvée labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves in the United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Treatment of slaves in the United States">Treatment</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/House_slave" title="House slave">House slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">Slave market</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding" title="Slave raiding">Slave raiding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_children_in_the_military" title="History of children in the military">Child soldiers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_slavery" title="White slavery">White slavery</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Naval</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">Galley slave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Impressment" title="Impressment">Impressment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barbary_pirates" title="Barbary pirates">Pirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanghaiing" title="Shanghaiing">Shanghaiing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_ship" title="Slave ship">Slave ship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By country or region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Africa" title="Slavery in Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Angola" title="Slavery in Angola">Angola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Chad" title="Human trafficking in Chad">Chad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Comoros" title="Slavery in the Comoros">Comoros</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Ethiopia" title="Slavery in Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Nigeria" title="Slavery in Nigeria">Nigeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Seychelles" title="Slavery in Seychelles">Seychelles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Somalia" title="Slavery in Somalia">Somalia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Somali_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Somali slave trade">Somali slave trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_South_Africa" title="Slavery in South Africa">South Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Americas">North and South America</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Pre-Columbian_America" title="Slavery in Pre-Columbian America">Pre-Columbian America</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec slavery">Aztec</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery among the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Americas indigenous</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">U.S. Natives</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery in the United States">United States</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Field_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Field slaves in the United States">Field slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Female_slavery_in_the_United_States" title="Female slavery in the United States">female</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery in the United States">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_states_and_free_states" title="Slave states and free states">maps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">partus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labor_in_the_United_States" title="Penal labor in the United States">prison labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_codes" title="Slave codes">Slave codes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treatment_of_the_enslaved_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Treatment of the enslaved in the United States">Treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_the_United_States" title="Slave trade in the United States">interregional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_United_States" title="Human trafficking in the United States">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Bahamas" title="Slavery in the Bahamas">The Bahamas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Canada" title="Slavery in Canada">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_and_French_Caribbean" title="Slavery in the British and French Caribbean">Caribbean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barbados_Slave_Code" title="Barbados Slave Code">Barbados</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_British_Virgin_Islands" title="Slavery in the British Virgin Islands">British Virgin Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Trinidad" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Trinidad">Trinidad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Code_Noir" title="Code Noir">Code Noir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Latin_America" title="Slavery in Latin America">Latin America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brazil" title="Slavery in Brazil">Brazil</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lei_%C3%81urea" title="Lei Áurea">Lei Áurea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Colombia" title="Slavery in Colombia">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Cuba" title="Slavery in Cuba">Cuba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Haiti" title="Slavery in Haiti">Haiti</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haitian_Revolution" title="Haitian Revolution">revolt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restavek" title="Restavek">Restavek</a></li></ul></li> <li>(<a href="/wiki/Encomienda" title="Encomienda">Encomienda</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afro%E2%80%93Puerto_Ricans" title="Afro–Puerto Ricans">Puerto Rico</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Asia" title="Slavery in Asia">East, Southeast, and South Asia</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Southeast_Asia" title="Human trafficking in Southeast Asia">Human trafficking in Southeast Asia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bhutan" title="Slavery in Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_China" title="Slavery in China">China</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Booi_Aha" title="Booi Aha">Booi Aha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laogai" title="Laogai">Laogai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_system_in_China" title="Penal system in China">penal system</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India" title="Slavery in India">India</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage_in_India" title="Debt bondage in India">Debt bondage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chukri_System" class="mw-redirect" title="Chukri System">Chukri System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Japan" title="Slavery in Japan">Japan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comfort_women" title="Comfort women">comfort women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Korea" title="Slavery in Korea">Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kwalliso" title="Kwalliso">Kwalliso</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Maldives" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mongol_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mongol Empire">Slavery in the Mongol Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Thailand" title="Slavery in Thailand">Thailand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_military_and_prostitution_in_South_Korea" title="United States military and prostitution in South Korea">Yankee princess</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Vietnam" title="Slavery in Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oceania" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Oceania">Australia and Oceania</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Australia" title="Slavery in Australia">Australia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Australia" title="Human trafficking in Australia">Human trafficking</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding" title="Blackbirding">Blackbirding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_raiding_in_Easter_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raiding in Easter Island">Slave raiding in Easter Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_Papua_New_Guinea" title="Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea">Human trafficking in Papua New Guinea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackbirding_in_Polynesia" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackbirding in Polynesia">Blackbirding in Polynesia</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Europe and North Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sex_trafficking_in_Europe" title="Sex trafficking in Europe">Sex trafficking in Europe</a></li> <li>United Kingdom <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Penal_labour_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Penal labour in the United Kingdom">Penal Labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Britain" title="Slavery in Britain">Slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_slave_trade" title="Danish slave trade">Denmark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Slave_Coast" title="Dutch Slave Coast">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour_under_German_rule_during_World_War_II" title="Forced labour under German rule during World War II">Germany in World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malta" title="Slavery in Malta">Malta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thrall" title="Thrall">Norway</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Poland" title="Slavery in Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Portugal" title="Slavery in Portugal">Portugal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Romania" title="Slavery in Romania">Romania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Russia" title="Slavery in Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Spain" title="Slavery in Spain">Spain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_slave_trade" title="Swedish slave trade">Sweden</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>North Africa and West Asia</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_trafficking_in_the_Middle_East" title="Human trafficking in the Middle East">Human trafficking in the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Lebanon" title="Slavery in Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Palestine" title="Slavery in Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Syria" title="Slavery in Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Baháʼí Faith and slavery">Baháʼí Faith</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Opposition and resistance</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Abolitionism in the United Kingdom">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abolitionism_in_the_United_States" title="Abolitionism in the United States">U.S.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_abolitionists" title="List of abolitionists">Abolitionists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blockade_of_Africa" title="Blockade of Africa">Blockade of Africa</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/West_Africa_Squadron" title="West Africa Squadron">U.K.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_Slave_Trade_Patrol" title="African Slave Trade Patrol">U.S.</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Colonization_Society" title="American Colonization Society">Colonization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Liberia" title="Liberia">Liberia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sierra_Leone" title="Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compensated_emancipation" title="Compensated emancipation">Compensated emancipation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedman" title="Freedman">Freedman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Manumission" title="Manumission">Manumission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_suit" title="Freedom suit">Freedom suit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Power" title="Slave Power">Slave Power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underground_Railroad" title="Underground Railroad">Underground Railroad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Songs_of_the_Underground_Railroad" title="Songs of the Underground Railroad">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">Slave rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Trade_Act" title="Slave Trade Act">Slave Trade Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_international_law" title="Slavery in international law">International law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Servile_War" title="Third Servile War">Third Servile War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirteenth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Thirteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution">13th Amendment to the United States Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Abolition_of_slave_trade_in_Persian_gulf&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf (page does not exist)">Abolition of slave trade in Persian gulf</a> [<a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%86%D9%88%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%AA_%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%87_%D8%AF%D8%B1_%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%AC_%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3" class="extiw" title="fa:ممنوعیت تجارت برده در خلیج فارس">fa</a>]</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_at_common_law" title="Slavery at common law">Common law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indentured_servitude" title="Indentured servitude">Indentured servitude</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_labour" title="Forced labour">Forced labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slaves_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slaves in the United States">Fugitive slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_slave_laws_in_the_United_States" title="Fugitive slave laws in the United States">laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugitive_Slave_Convention" title="Fugitive Slave Convention">convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Dismal_Swamp_maroons" title="Great Dismal Swamp maroons">Great Dismal Swamp maroons</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slaves" title="List of slaves">List of slaves</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slave_owners" title="List of slave owners">owners</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_last_survivors_of_American_slavery" title="List of last survivors of American slavery">last survivors of American slavery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_slavery-related_memorials_and_museums" title="List of slavery-related memorials and museums">List of slavery-related memorials and museums</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_marriages_in_the_United_States" title="Slave marriages in the United States">Slave marriages in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_narrative" title="Slave narrative">Slave narrative</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_films_featuring_slavery" title="List of films featuring slavery">films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_Songs_of_the_United_States" title="Slave Songs of the United States">songs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_name" title="Slave name">Slave name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_catcher" title="Slave catcher">Slave catcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_patrol" title="Slave patrol">Slave patrol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Slave_Route_Project" title="The Slave Route Project">Slave Route Project</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Slave_breeding_in_the_United_States" title="Slave breeding in the United States">breeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_court_cases_in_the_United_States_involving_slavery" title="List of court cases in the United States involving slavery">court cases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Washington_and_slavery" title="George Washington and slavery">Washington</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Jefferson_and_slavery" title="Thomas Jefferson and slavery">Jefferson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Quincy_Adams_and_abolitionism" title="John Quincy Adams and abolitionism">J.Q. Adams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Lincoln_and_slavery" title="Abraham Lincoln and slavery">Lincoln</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Proclamation" title="Emancipation Proclamation">Emancipation Proclamation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forty_acres_and_a_mule" title="Forty acres and a mule">40 acres</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedmen%27s_Bureau" title="Freedmen's Bureau">Freedmen's Bureau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave_iron_bit" title="Slave iron bit">Iron bit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emancipation_Day" title="Emancipation Day">Emancipation Day</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Forced_labour" title="Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Forced_labour" title="Template talk:Forced labour"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Forced_labour" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Forced labour"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks" style="border-collapse:collapse;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/110px-Allah3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/165px-Allah3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Allah3.svg/220px-Allah3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="294" data-file-height="313" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Iman_(Islam)" title="Iman (Islam)">Beliefs</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Oneness</a> of <a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revealed Books</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Day of Resurrection</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Predestination</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Practices</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Profession of Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Prayer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Almsgiving</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Fasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Pilgrimage</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Islamic_texts" title="List of Islamic texts">Texts</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Foundations</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunnah" title="Sunnah">Sunnah</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Sirah</a>)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir (exegesis)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqidah" title="Aqidah">Aqidah (creed)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_al-Anbiya" title="Qisas al-Anbiya">Qisas al-Anbiya ("Stories of the Prophets")</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathnawi" title="Mathnawi">Mathnawi</a> (Poems)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Fiqh (jurisprudence)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Sharia (law)</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Islamic_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of Islamic history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">Muhammad</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahabah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun" title="Rashidun">Rashidun</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Imamate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Islam" title="Spread of Islam">Spread of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">society</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Academics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_(circumcision)" title="Khitan (circumcision)">Circumcision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Demographics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_diaspora" title="Muslim diaspora">Diaspora</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Islam" title="Education in Islam">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_possession_and_exorcism_in_Islam" title="Spirit possession and exorcism in Islam">Exorcism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Finance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawah" title="Dawah">Proselytizing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexuality_in_Islam" title="Sexuality in Islam">Sexuality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBTQ_people_and_Islam" title="LGBTQ people and Islam">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;;background:#dcf5dc;padding:0.2em;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Related topics</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist" style="padding-left:0.2em; padding-right:0.2em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism</a></li></ul> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_hadith" title="Criticism of hadith">Hadith</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_violence" title="Islam and violence">Violence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_war" title="Islam and war">war</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jihad" title="Jihad">Jihad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jihadism" title="Jihadism">Jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_jihadism" title="Salafi jihadism">Salafi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deobandi_jihadism" title="Deobandi jihadism">Deobandi jihadism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military laws</a></li></ul></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Islam" title="Glossary of Islam">Glossary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below plainlist" style="padding-top:0.1em;font-weight:bold;line-height:1.5em;"> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="padding-right:0.2em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam" title="Template:Islam"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam" title="Template talk:Islam"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg/230px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg" decoding="async" width="230" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg/345px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d9/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg/460px-%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%B6%D0%B0_%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B1%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BA%D0%B0-%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0.jpg 2x" data-file-width="758" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption>Sale of a child-slave (1872), painting by <a href="/wiki/Vasily_Vereshchagin" title="Vasily Vereshchagin">Vasily Vereshchagin</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tretyakov_Gallery" title="Tretyakov Gallery">Tretyakov Gallery</a>, <a href="/wiki/Moscow" title="Moscow">Moscow</a>. A rich <a href="/wiki/Turkish_people" title="Turkish people">Turkish man</a> examines a naked boy, before <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">buying him</a>.</figcaption></figure> The history of slavery in the Muslim world was throughout the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">history of Islam</a> with slaves serving in various social and economic roles, from powerful <a href="/wiki/Emir" title="Emir">emirs</a> to harshly treated manual laborers. Slaves were widely employed in irrigation, mining, and animal husbandry, but most commonly as soldiers, guards, domestic workers,<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:4-1">[1]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubines</a> (sex slaves).<a href="#cite_note-Ali_2015-2">[2]</a> The use of slaves for hard physical labor early on in Muslim history led to several destructive <a href="/wiki/Slave_rebellion" title="Slave rebellion">slave revolts</a>,<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:4-1">[1]</a> the most notable being the <a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a> of 869–883, and led to the end of the practice.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a> Many rulers also used slaves in the military and administration to such an extent that slaves could seize power, as did the <a href="/wiki/Mamluks" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluks">Mamluks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:4-1">[1]</a> Most slaves were imported from outside the Muslim world.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> Slavery in Islamic law does have religious and not racial foundation in principle, although this was not always the case in practise.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> The Arab slave trade was most active in West Asia, North Africa (<a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>), and Southeast Africa (<a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>), and rough estimates place the number of Africans enslaved in the twelve centuries prior to the 20th century at between six million to ten million.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-nyt-2015-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Beigbeder2006-10">[10]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman slave trade">Ottoman slave trade</a> came from raids into <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe" title="Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe">eastern</a> and central Europe and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> connected to the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Barbary_slave_trade" title="Barbary slave trade">slave traders</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> raided the Mediterranean coasts of Europe and as far afield as the British Isles and <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Abductions" title="Turkish Abductions">Iceland</a>. Historically, the Muslim Middle East was more or less united for many centuries, and slavery was hence reflected in the institution of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a> (632–661) <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a> (661–750), <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258), <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mamluk_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate">slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate</a> (1258–1517) and finnally in the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a> (1517–1922), before slavery was abolished in one Muslim country after another during the 20th-century. In the early 20th century, the authorities in Muslim states gradually outlawed and suppressed slavery, largely due to pressure exerted by Western nations such as Britain and France.<a href="#cite_note-eois-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">Slavery in Zanzibar</a> was abolished in 1909, when slave concubines were freed, and the open <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">slave market in Morocco</a> was closed in 1922. <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a> was abolished in 1924 when the <a href="/wiki/Turkish_Constitution_of_1924" title="Turkish Constitution of 1924">new Turkish Constitution</a> disbanded the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Harem" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Harem">Imperial Harem</a> and made the last concubines and eunuchs free citizens of the newly proclaimed republic.<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Slavery in Iran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Jordan" title="Slavery in Jordan">slavery in Jordan</a> was abolished in 1929. In the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">slavery in Bahrain</a> was first to be abolished in 1937, followed by <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Kuwait" title="Slavery in Kuwait">slavery in Kuwait</a> in 1949 and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">slavery in Qatar</a> in 1952, while <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Yemen</a> abolished it in 1962,<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> while <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Oman</a> followed in 1970. <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Mauritania</a> became the <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_abolition_of_slavery_and_serfdom" title="Timeline of abolition of slavery and serfdom">last state to abolish slavery</a>, in 1981. In 1990 the <a href="/wiki/Cairo_Declaration_on_Human_Rights_in_Islam" title="Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam">Cairo Declaration on Human Rights in Islam</a> declared that "no one has the right to enslave" another human being.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> As of 2001, however, instances of modern slavery persisted in areas of <a href="/wiki/The_Sahel" class="mw-redirect" title="The Sahel">the Sahel</a>,<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:206-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:222-16">[16]</a> and several 21st-century terroristic jihadist groups have attempted to use historic slavery in the Muslim world as a pretext for reviving <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">slavery in the 21st century</a>. Scholars point to the various difficulties in studying this amorphous phenomenon which occurs over a large geographic region (between East Africa and the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a>), a lengthy period of history (from the seventh century to the present day), and which only received greater attention after the abolition of the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Atlantic slave trade</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-gak18-19">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> The terms "Arab slave trade" and "Islamic slave trade" (and other similar terms) are invariably used to refer to this phenomenon. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_pre-Islamic_Arabia">Slavery in pre-Islamic Arabia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Slavery in pre-Islamic Arabia">edit</a>]</div> Slavery was widely practiced in <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabia</a>,<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> as well as in the rest of the <a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">antique</a> and <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">early medieval</a> world. Slavery in the Muslim world began with institutions inherited from <a href="/wiki/Pre-Islamic_Arabia" title="Pre-Islamic Arabia">pre-Islamic Arabia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> The minority were <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Europe" title="Demographics of Europe">European</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Caucasus" title="Ethnic groups in the Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, likely brought in by caravaners or the product of <a href="/wiki/Bedouin" title="Bedouin">Bedouin</a> capture, a practice stretching back to biblical times. Native <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> slaves had also existed, a prime example being <a href="/wiki/Zayd_ibn_Haritha_al-Kalbi" title="Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi">Zayd ibn Haritha al-Kalbi</a>, whom Muhammad later adopted. Arab slaves, however, usually obtained as captives, were generally ransomed off among nomadic groups.<a href="#cite_note-eois-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a> of Africans to the Arabian Peninsula is known to have been ongoing already in antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> The slave population increased by the custom of <a href="/wiki/Child_abandonment" title="Child abandonment">child abandonment</a> (see also <a href="/wiki/Infanticide" title="Infanticide">infanticide</a>) and by the kidnapping or sale of small children.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-27">[27]</a> Whether enslavement for debt or the sale of children by their families was common is disputed. (historian Henri Brunschvig argues it was rare,<a href="#cite_note-eois-11">[11]</a> but according to Jonathan E. Brockopp, debt slavery was persistent.<a href="#cite_note-Brockopp-28">[28]</a>) Free persons could sell their offspring, or even themselves, into slavery. Enslavement was also possible as a consequence of committing certain offenses against the law, as in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated4-27">[27]</a> Two classes of slaves existed: a purchased slave and one born in the master's home. Over the latter, the master had complete rights of ownership, though these slaves were unlikely to be sold or disposed of by the master. Female slaves were at times forced into prostitution for the benefit of their masters, following Near Eastern customs.<a href="#cite_note-eois-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-Esposito-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_Islamic_Arabia">Slavery in Islamic Arabia</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Slavery in Islamic Arabia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bilal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bilal.jpg/180px-Bilal.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bilal.jpg/270px-Bilal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Bilal.jpg/360px-Bilal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="431" data-file-height="718" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bilal_ibn_Ribah" class="mw-redirect" title="Bilal ibn Ribah">Bilal ibn Ribah</a> (pictured, atop the <a href="/wiki/Kaaba" title="Kaaba">Kaaba</a>) was an Ethiopian slave, emancipated on Muhammad's instruction, and appointed by him to be the first official <a href="/wiki/Muezzin" title="Muezzin">muezzin</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Islamic_history">Early Islamic history</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early Islamic history">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a></div> <a href="/wiki/W._Montgomery_Watt" title="W. Montgomery Watt">W. Montgomery Watt</a> points out that Muhammad's expansion of <a href="/wiki/Pax_Islamica" class="mw-redirect" title="Pax Islamica">Pax Islamica</a> to the Arabian peninsula reduced warfare and raiding, and therefore cut off the basis for enslaving freemen.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Manning_(professor)" class="mw-redirect" title="Patrick Manning (professor)">Patrick Manning</a>, Islamic legislations against abuse of slaves limited the extent of enslavement in the Arabian peninsula and, to a lesser degree, for the area of the entire <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>, where slavery had existed since the most ancient times.<a href="#cite_note-Manning1990-28-32">[32]</a> Constant <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a> raids into Byzantine territory flooded the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">slave market</a> with Greek captives. When Caliph Sulayman was in Medina on his way back from pilgrimage, he gifted 400 Greek slaves to his local favorites, "who could think of nothing better to do with them than slaughter them", boasted <a href="/wiki/Jarir_ibn_Atiyah" title="Jarir ibn Atiyah">Jarir ibn Atiyah</a>, a poet who took part in this.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a>, the growth of internal slave populations through natural increase was insufficient to maintain slave numbers through to modern times, which contrasts markedly with rapidly rising slave populations in the New World. This was due to a number of factor including liberation of the children born by slave mothers, liberation of slaves as an act of piety, liberation of military slaves who rose through the ranks, and restrictions on procreation, since casual sex and marriage was discouraged among the menial, domestic, and manual worker slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis-22">[22]</a> A fair proportion of male slaves were also imported as <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a>. The custom of using eunuchs as servants for women inside the Islamic <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">harems</a> had a preceeding example in the life of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, who used the eunuch Mabur as a servant in the house of his own slave concubine <a href="/wiki/Maria_al-Qibtiyya" title="Maria al-Qibtiyya">Maria al-Qibtiyya</a>; both of them slaves from Egypt.<a href="#cite_note-Taef_El-Ahari_2019-34">[34]</a> Levy states that according to the Quran and Islamic traditions, such emasculation was objectionable. Some jurists such as <a href="/wiki/Qadi_Baydawi" title="Qadi Baydawi">al-Baydawi</a> considered castration to be mutilation, stipulating laws to prevent it. However, in practice, emasculation was frequent.<a href="#cite_note-L77-35">[35]</a> In eighteenth-century Mecca, the majority of eunuchs were in the service of the mosques (<a href="/wiki/Aghawat" title="Aghawat">aghawat</a>).<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> There were also high death tolls among all classes of slaves. Slaves usually came from remote places and, lacking immunities, died in large numbers. Segal notes that the recently enslaved, weakened by their initial captivity and debilitating journey, would have been easy victims of an unfamiliar climate and infection.<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:62-37">[37]</a> Children were especially at risk, and the Islamic market demand for children was much greater than the American one. Many Black slaves lived in conditions conducive to malnutrition and disease, with effects on their own <a href="/wiki/Life_expectancy" title="Life expectancy">life expectancy</a>, the fertility of women, and the <a href="/wiki/Infant_mortality" title="Infant mortality">infant mortality</a> rate.<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:62-37">[37]</a> As late as the 19th century, Western travellers in North Africa and Egypt noted the high <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">death rate</a> among imported Black slaves.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Another factor was the <a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a> against the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economy</a> of ninth-century <a href="/wiki/South_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="South Iraq">southern Iraq</a>. Due to fears of a similar uprising among slave gangs occurring elsewhere, Muslims came to realize that large concentrations of slaves were not a suitable organization of labour and that slaves were best employed in smaller concentrations.<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> As such, large-scale employment of slaves for manual labour became the exception rather than the norm, and the medieval Islamic world did not need to import vast numbers of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-Phillips-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_trade">Slave trade</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/220px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="241" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/330px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg/440px-Slaves_Zadib_Yemen_13th_century_BNF_Paris.jpg 2x" data-file-width="829" data-file-height="910" /></a><figcaption>13th-century <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">slave market in Yemen</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Al-Andalus_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Andalus slave trade">Al-Andalus slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a></div> Bernard Lewis writes: "In one of the sad paradoxes of human history, it was the humanitarian reforms brought by Islam that resulted in a vast development of the <a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">slave trade</a> inside, and still more outside, the Islamic empire." He notes that the Islamic injunctions against the enslavement of Muslims led to the massive importation of slaves from the outside.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199010-41">[41]</a> According to Patrick Manning, Islam by recognizing and codifying slavery seems to have done more to protect and expand slavery than the reverse.<a href="#cite_note-Manning1990-28-32">[32]</a> The 'Arab' slave trade was part of the broader 'Islamic' slave trade. Bernard Lewis writes that "polytheists and idolaters were seen primarily as sources of slaves, to be imported into the Islamic world and molded-in Islamic ways, and, since they possessed no religion of their own worth the mention, as natural recruits for Islam."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199042-42">[42]</a> Patrick Manning states that religion was hardly the point of this slavery.<a href="#cite_note-Manning2-43">[43]</a> Also, this term suggests comparison between Islamic slave trade and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity and slavery">Christian slave trade</a>. Propagators of Islam in Africa often revealed a cautious attitude towards proselytizing because of its effect in reducing the potential reservoir of slaves.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Boutre_indien.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Boutre_indien.jpg/220px-Boutre_indien.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Boutre_indien.jpg/330px-Boutre_indien.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Boutre_indien.jpg/440px-Boutre_indien.jpg 2x" data-file-width="623" data-file-height="413" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">Dhows</a> were used to transport goods and slaves to Oman.</figcaption></figure> In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a>-<a href="/wiki/Berber_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Berber people">Berbers</a> in the north: Islam moved southwards along the <a href="/wiki/Nile" title="Nile">Nile</a> and along the desert trails. One supply of slaves was the <a href="/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty" title="Solomonic dynasty">Solomonic dynasty</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a> which often exported <a href="/wiki/Nilotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Nilotic">Nilotic</a> slaves from their western borderland provinces. Native Muslim Somali <a href="/wiki/Sultanates" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanates">sultanates</a> exported slaves as well as the Sultanate of <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal</a>. According to <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">Al-Maqrizi</a>, Sultan <a href="/wiki/Jamal_ad-Din_II" title="Jamal ad-Din II">Jamal ad-Din</a> sold numerous <a href="/wiki/Amhara_people" title="Amhara people">Amhara</a> into slavery as far away as <a href="/wiki/Greece" title="Greece">Greece</a> and India after a victorious military campaign.<a href="#cite_note-:2-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> Historian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ulrich_Brauk%C3%A4mper&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ulrich Braukämper (page does not exist)">Ulrich Braukämper</a> states that these works of Islamic historiography, while demonstrating the influence and military presence of the Adal sultanate in southern Ethiopia, tend to overemphasize the importance of military victories that at best led to temporary territorial control in regions such as Bale. They nevertheless demonstrate Adal's strong impact in this hotly contested frontier province<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> The supply of European slaves came from Muslim outposts in Europe such as <a href="/wiki/Fraxinetum" title="Fraxinetum">Fraxinetum</a>.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Up until the early 18th century, the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean Khanate</a> maintained a massive slave trade with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> and the Middle East. Between 1530 and 1780, there were almost certainly one million and quite possibly as many as 1.25 million white, European Christians enslaved by the Muslims of the <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Coast" title="Barbary Coast">Barbary Coast</a> of North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Arabslavers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/220px-Arabslavers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/330px-Arabslavers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Arabslavers.jpg/440px-Arabslavers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="556" data-file-height="378" /></a><figcaption>A depiction of slaves being transported across the <a href="/wiki/Sahara_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Sahara desert">Sahara desert</a></figcaption></figure> On the coast of the Indian Ocean too, slave-trading posts were set up by Muslim Arabs.<a href="#cite_note-fcamb-50">[50]</a> The archipelago of <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>, along the coast of present-day <a href="/wiki/Tanzania" title="Tanzania">Tanzania</a>, is undoubtedly the most notorious example of these trading colonies. Southeast Africa and the Indian Ocean continued as an important region for the Oriental slave trade up until the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-eois-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">Livingstone</a> and <a href="/wiki/Henry_Morton_Stanley" title="Henry Morton Stanley">Stanley</a> were then the first Europeans to penetrate to the interior of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_River" title="Congo River">Congo basin</a> and to discover the scale of slavery there.<a href="#cite_note-fcamb-50">[50]</a> The Arab <a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tib" class="mw-redirect" title="Tippu Tib">Tippu Tib</a> extended his influence and made many people slaves.<a href="#cite_note-fcamb-50">[50]</a> After Europeans had settled in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a>, the trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. In Zanzibar, slavery was abolished late, in 1897, under Sultan <a href="/wiki/Hamoud_bin_Mohammed_of_Zanzibar" title="Hamoud bin Mohammed of Zanzibar">Hamoud bin Mohammed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> The rest of Africa had no direct contact with Muslim slave-traders. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Roles_of_slaves">Roles of slaves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Roles of slaves">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">History of concubinage in the Muslim world</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a></div> While slaves were employed for <a href="/wiki/Manual_labour" title="Manual labour">manual labour</a> during the Arab slave trade, most agricultural labor in the medieval Islamic world consisted of paid labour. Exceptions include the <a href="/wiki/Plantation_economy" title="Plantation economy">plantation economy</a> of Southern Iraq (which led to the <a href="/wiki/Zanj_Revolt" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanj Revolt">Zanj Revolt</a>), in 9th-century <a href="/wiki/Ifriqiya" title="Ifriqiya">Ifriqiya</a> (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>), and in 11th-century <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> (during the <a href="/wiki/Qarmatians" title="Qarmatians">Karmatian</a> state).<a href="#cite_note-Phillips-40">[40]</a> A system of plantation labor, much like that which would emerge in the Americas, developed early on, but with such dire consequences that subsequent engagements were relatively rare and reduced.<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:4-1">[1]</a> Slaves in Islam were mainly directed at the service sector – concubines and cooks, porters and soldiers – with slavery itself primarily a form of consumption rather than a factor of production.<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:4-1">[1]</a> The most telling evidence for this is found in the gender ratio; among slaves traded in Islamic empire across the centuries, there were roughly two females to every male.<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:4-1">[1]</a> Outside of explicit sexual slavery, most female slaves had domestic occupations. Often, this also included <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery#Sexual_intercourse" title="Islamic views on slavery">sexual relations with their masters</a> – a lawful motive for their purchase and the most common one.<a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-Ali_2015-2">[2]</a> Military slavery was also a common role for slaves. Barbarians from the "martial races" beyond the frontiers were widely recruited into the imperial armies. These recruits often advanced in the imperial and eventually metropolitan forces, sometimes obtaining high ranks.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199062-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_views_of_African_peoples">Arab views of African peoples</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Arab views of African peoples">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Arab_attitudes_to_Black_people" title="Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people">Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baqt" title="Baqt">Baqt</a></div> Though the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a> expresses no racial prejudice against black Africans, <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> argues that ethnocentric prejudice later developed among <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arabs</a>, for a variety of reasons:<a href="#cite_note-Lewis53-54">[54]</a> their <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">extensive conquests</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arab_slave_trade" title="Arab slave trade">slave trade</a>; the influence of <a href="/wiki/Aristotelianism" title="Aristotelianism">Aristotelian</a> ideas regarding slavery, which some <a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Muslim philosophers</a> directed towards <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bantu_peoples" title="Bantu peoples">Bantu</a><a href="#cite_note-Tlosfea-55">[55]</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic peoples</a>;<a href="#cite_note-Lewis2-56">[56]</a> and the influence of religious ideas regarding divisions among humankind.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> By the 8th century, anti-black prejudice among Arabs resulted in discrimination. A number of medieval Arabic authors argued against this prejudice, urging respect for all black people and especially <a href="/wiki/Ethiopians" title="Ethiopians">Ethiopians</a>.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The dominating Islamic view, expressed by contemporary Arab writers, was that slavery was benevolent since the supply source of slaves were the non-Islamic outside world of Polytheist-Idolators and Barbaric infidels, who thanks to their enslavement would convert to Islam and enjoy the benefits of Islamic civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In the first two centuries of Islam, Muslim were viewed as synonymous to Arab ethnicity, and the non-Arab <a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">mawla</a> (converts) freedmen, who were captured, enslaved, converted and manumitted, were considered inferior Muslims and fiscally, politically, socially and military discriminated against also as freedmen.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> During the Umayyad Caliphate, when the Islamic Caliphate expanded to a truly international empire composed of many different ethnicities, and Islam a universal civilization, with people of different races making the Hajj pilgrimage to Mecca, the Muslim world developed different stereotypical views on different races, creating a racial hierarchy among slaves of different ethnicity.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> The hajin, half-Arab sons of Muslim Arab men and their <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">slave concubines</a>, were viewed differently depending on the ethnicity of their mothers. Abduh Badawi noted that "there was a consensus that the most unfortunate of the hajins and the lowest in social status were those to whom blackness had passed from their mothers", since a son of African mother more visibly recognizable as non-Arab than the son of a white slave mother, and consequently, "son of a black woman" was used as an insult, while "son of a white woman" was used as a praise and as boasting.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> By the 14th century, a significant number of slaves came from <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">sub-Saharan Africa</a>; Lewis argues that this led to the likes of Egyptian historian Al-Abshibi (1388–1446) writing that "[i]t is said that when the [black] slave is sated, he fornicates, when he is hungry, he steals."<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> As late as the 20th century, some authors argued that slavery in Islamic societies was free of racism. However, recent research has revealed racist attitudes in Islamic history—especially <a href="/wiki/Category:Anti-black_racism" title="Category:Anti-black racism">anti-Black racism</a> and a link between Blackness and slavery—dating back to at least the ninth century CE.<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> In 2010, at the Second Afro-Arab summit Libyan leader <a href="/wiki/Muammar_Gaddafi" title="Muammar Gaddafi">Muammar Gaddafi</a> apologized for Arab involvement in the African slave trade, saying: "I regret the behavior of the Arabs... They brought African children to North Africa, they made them slaves, they sold them like animals, and they took them as slaves and traded them in a shameful way. I regret and I am ashamed when we remember these practices. I apologize for this."<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Geography_of_the_slave_trade">Geography of the slave trade</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Geography of the slave trade">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id=""Supply"_zones">"Supply" zones</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: "Supply" zones">edit</a>]</div> There is historical evidence of North African Muslim slave raids all along the Mediterranean coasts across Christian Europe.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The majority of slaves traded across the Mediterranean region were predominantly of European origin from the 7th to 15th centuries.<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In the 15th century, Ethiopians sold slaves from western borderland areas (usually just outside the realm of the <a href="/wiki/Emperor_of_Ethiopia" title="Emperor of Ethiopia">Emperor of Ethiopia</a>) or <a href="/wiki/Ennarea" title="Ennarea">Ennarea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Barter">Barter</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Barter">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Different_cowries.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/220px-Different_cowries.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="175" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/330px-Different_cowries.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Different_cowries.jpg/440px-Different_cowries.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1665" data-file-height="1326" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cowry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cowry">Cowry</a> shells were used as money in the slave trade.</figcaption></figure> Slaves were often bartered for objects of various kinds: in the Sudan, they were exchanged for cloth, trinkets and so on. In the Maghreb, slaves were swapped for horses. In the desert cities, lengths of cloth, pottery, <a href="/wiki/Venetian_glass" title="Venetian glass">Venetian glass</a> <a href="/wiki/Trade_bead" class="mw-redirect" title="Trade bead">slave beads</a>, dyestuffs and jewels were used as payment. The trade in black slaves was part of a diverse commercial network. Alongside gold coins, <a href="/wiki/Cowry" class="mw-redirect" title="Cowry">cowrie shells</a> from the Indian Ocean or the Atlantic (<a href="/wiki/Canary_Islands" title="Canary Islands">Canaries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Luanda" title="Luanda">Luanda</a>) were used as money throughout sub-saharan Africa (merchandise was paid for with sacks of cowries).<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slave_markets_and_fairs">Slave markets and fairs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Slave markets and fairs">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png/220px-Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="129" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png/330px-Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png/440px-Slave_market_Khartoum_19th_c.png 2x" data-file-width="743" data-file-height="435" /></a><figcaption>A slave market in <a href="/wiki/Khartoum" title="Khartoum">Khartoum</a>, Sudan, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1876</figcaption></figure> Enslaved Africans were sold in the towns of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_World" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab World">Arab World</a>. In 1416, <a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">al-Maqrizi</a> told how pilgrims coming from <a href="/wiki/Takrur" title="Takrur">Takrur</a> (near the <a href="/wiki/Senegal_River" title="Senegal River">Senegal River</a>) brought 1,700 slaves with them to <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Mecca</a>. In North Africa, the main slave markets were in Morocco, <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> and Cairo. Sales were held in public places or in <a href="/wiki/Souq" class="mw-redirect" title="Souq">souks</a>. Potential buyers made a careful examination of the "merchandise": they checked the state of health of a person who was often standing naked with wrists bound together. In Cairo, transactions involving <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Concubine" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubine">concubines</a> happened in private houses. Prices varied according to the slave's quality. Thomas Smee, the commander of the British research ship Ternate, visited such a market in Zanzibar in 1811 and gave a detailed description: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">'The show' commences about four o'clock in the afternoon. The slaves, set off to the best advantage by having their skins cleaned and burnished with cocoa-nut oil, their faces painted with red and white stripes and the hands, noses, ears and feet ornamented with a profusion of bracelets of gold and silver and jewels, are ranged in a line, commencing with the youngest, and increasing to the rear according to their size and age. At the head of this file, which is composed of all sexes and ages from 6 to 60, walks the person who owns them; behind and at each side, two or three of his domestic slaves, armed with swords and spears, serve as guard. Thus ordered the procession begins, and passes through the market-place and the principle streets... when any of them strikes a spectator's fancy the line immediately stops, and a process of examination ensues, which, for minuteness, is unequalled in any cattle market in Europe. The intending purchaser having ascertained there is no defect in the faculties of speech, hearing, etc., that there is no disease present, next proceeds to examine the person; the mouth and the teeth are first inspected and afterwards every part of the body in succession, not even excepting the breasts, etc., of the girls, many of whom I have seen handled in the most indecent manner in the public market by their purchasers; indeed there is every reasons to believe that the slave-dealers almost universally force the young girls to submit to their lust previous to their being disposed of. From such scenes one turns away with pity and indignation.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa:_8th_through_19th_centuries">Africa: 8th through 19th centuries</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Africa: 8th through 19th centuries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Zanzibar slave trade">Zanzibar slave trade</a></div> In April 1998, Elikia M'bokolo, wrote in <a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a>. "The African continent was bled of its human resources via all possible routes. Across the Sahara, through the Red Sea, from the Indian Ocean ports and across the Atlantic. At least ten centuries of slavery for the benefit of the Muslim countries (from the ninth to the nineteenth)." He continues: "Four million slaves exported via the Red Sea, another four million through the <a href="/wiki/Swahili_language" title="Swahili language">Swahili</a> ports of the Indian Ocean, perhaps as many as nine million along the trans-Saharan caravan route, and eleven to twenty million (depending on the author) across the Atlantic Ocean"<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> In the 8th century, Africa was dominated by Arab-Berbers in the north: Islam moved southwards along the Nile and along the desert trails. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Zanzslgwch.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/220px-Zanzslgwch.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/330px-Zanzslgwch.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9c/Zanzslgwch.jpg/440px-Zanzslgwch.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="554" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> slave gang in <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a> (1889)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hamoud_bin_Mohammed2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hamoud_bin_Mohammed2.JPG/200px-Hamoud_bin_Mohammed2.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hamoud_bin_Mohammed2.JPG/300px-Hamoud_bin_Mohammed2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Hamoud_bin_Mohammed2.JPG/400px-Hamoud_bin_Mohammed2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="727" data-file-height="853" /></a><figcaption>Hamoud bin Mohammed, Sultan of Zanzibar from 1896 to 1902 was decorated by <a href="/wiki/Queen_Victoria" title="Queen Victoria">Queen Victoria</a> for complying with British demands that slavery be banned and slaves be freed.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>In the Middle Ages, the general Arabic term bilâd as-sûdân ("Land of the Blacks") was used for the vast <a href="/wiki/Sudan_(region)" title="Sudan (region)">Sudan region</a> (an expression denoting <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West</a> and Central Africa<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a>), or sometimes extending from the coast of West Africa to <a href="/wiki/Western_Sudan" class="mw-redirect" title="Western Sudan">Western Sudan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Levtzion-74">[74]</a> It provided a pool of manual labour for North and Saharan Africa. This region was dominated by certain states and people: the Ghana Empire, the Empire of Mali, the <a href="/wiki/Kanem_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Kanem Empire">Kanem-Bornu Empire</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Fula_people" title="Fula people">Fulani</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hausa_Kingdoms" title="Hausa Kingdoms">Hausa</a>.</li> <li>In the Horn of Africa, the coasts of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean were controlled by local Somali and other Muslims, and Yemenis and Omanis had merchant posts along the coasts. The former Ethiopian coast, particularly the port of <a href="/wiki/Massawa" title="Massawa">Massawa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dahlak_Archipelago" title="Dahlak Archipelago">Dahlak Archipelago</a>, had long been a hub for the exportation of slaves from the interior by the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Kingdom of Aksum</a> and earlier polities. The slaves came from the southern regions of present-day <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>. The port and most coastal areas were largely Muslim, and the port itself was home to a number of Arab and Indian merchants.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Solomonic_dynasty" title="Solomonic dynasty">Solomonic dynasty</a> of Ethiopia often exported <a href="/wiki/Nilotic_peoples" title="Nilotic peoples">Nilotic</a> slaves from their western borderland provinces, or from newly conquered southern provinces.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Somali_people" title="Somali people">Somali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Afar_people" title="Afar people">Afar</a> Muslim <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">sultanates</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adal Sultanate</a>, also exported Nilotic and <a href="/wiki/Amhara_People" class="mw-redirect" title="Amhara People">Amhara</a> slaves that they captured from the interior.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a></li> <li>In the African Great Lakes region, Omani and Yemeni traders set up slave-trading posts along the southeastern coast of the Indian Ocean; most notably in the archipelago of Zanzibar, along the coast of present-day Tanzania. The <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> region or Swahili Coast flanking the Indian Ocean continued to be an important area for the Oriental slave trade up until the 19th century. <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">Livingstone</a> and Stanley were then the first Europeans to penetrate to the interior of the <a href="/wiki/Congo_Basin" title="Congo Basin">Congo Basin</a> and to discover the scale of slavery there. The Arab <a href="/wiki/Tippu_Tip" title="Tippu Tip">Tippu Tip</a> extended his influence there and captured many people as slaves. After Europeans had settled in the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Guinea" title="Gulf of Guinea">Gulf of Guinea</a>, the trans-Saharan slave trade became less important. In Zanzibar, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Zanzibar" title="Slavery in Zanzibar">slavery was abolished late</a>, in 1897, under Sultan <a href="/wiki/Hamoud_bin_Mohammed_of_Zanzibar" title="Hamoud bin Mohammed of Zanzibar">Hamoud bin Mohammed</a>.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Racial_dimension_of_slavery">Racial dimension of slavery</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Racial dimension of slavery">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Afro-Arabs" title="Afro-Arabs">Afro-Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Arab_attitudes_to_Black_people" title="Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people">Medieval Arab attitudes to Black people</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xenophobia_and_racism_in_the_Middle_East" title="Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East">Xenophobia and racism in the Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_the_Arab_world" title="Racism in the Arab world">Racism in the Arab world</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Racism_in_Muslim_communities" title="Racism in Muslim communities">Racism in Muslim communities</a></div> Since all non-Muslims not living under Islamic rule were considered a legitimate target of enslavement by Islamic law, slaves could be of many different races. However, this did not prevent a racist component of slavery. Slaves were valued differently on the market depending on their race, and were considered to have different abilities because of their racial identity, and a racial hierarchy existed among slaves of different races. The dominating Islamic view, expressed by contemporary Arab writers, was that slavery was benevolent since the supply source of slaves were the non-Islamic outside world of Polytheist-Idolators and Barbaric infidels, who thanks to their enslavement would convert to Islam and enjoy the benefits of Islamic civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis,_B._1990_p._42-79">[79]</a> In the first two centuries of Islam, Muslim were viewed as synonymous to Arab ethnicity, and the non-Arab <a href="/wiki/Mawla" title="Mawla">mawla</a> (converts) freedmen, who were captured, enslaved, converted and manumitted, were considered inferior Muslims and fiscally, politically, socially and military discriminated against also as freedmen.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Butlan" title="Ibn Butlan">Ibn Butlan</a> (11th-century) described the racial prejudices ascribing the suitability of certain tasks to slaves in accordance to their racial ethnicity, noting: <dl><dd>"He who wants a slave to guard his life and property should take one from the Indians and Nubians. He who wants a slave for [private] service [doorkeeper, domestic servant] should take one from the <a href="/wiki/Zanj" title="Zanj">Zanj</a> and the Armenians, and whoever desires a slave for bravery and warfare should take one from the Turks and Slavs. [...] He who wants a nice slave-girl should take one from those of the Berbers. He who wants a store-keeper (khuzzān) should take one from the Byzantine (al-Rūm) slaves. He who wants a slave to nurse babies should take one from the Persians. He who wants a slave girl for pleasure should take one from the Zanj women, and he who wants a slave-girl for singing songs should take one from Makkah".<a href="#cite_note-Labour._2016-81">[81]</a></dd></dl> Racism against Black Africans in the Arab world grew after Islam. While there had been a trade in slaves from Africa to both the Hellenistic world, the Roman Empire and Pre-Islamic Arabia, this was in a relatively small scale; but the massive expansion of slave trade from Africa after the Islamic conquests made Africans the most common ethnicity for slaves, and most Africans that Arabs interacted with were slaves, which increased racism against Africans.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> The hajin half-Arab sons of Muslim Arab men and their slave concubines were viewed differently depending on the ethnicity of their mothers. Abduh Badawi noted that "there was a consensus that the most unfortunate of the hajins and the lowest in social status were those to whom blackness had passed from their mothers", since a son of African mother more visibly recognizable as non-Arab than the son of a white slave mother, and consequently "son of a black woman" was used as an insult, while "son of a white woman" was used as a praise and as boasting.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> While white slaves were often free from any restrictions after manumission, Black slaves were rarely able to rise above the lowest levels in society after manumission, and during the Umayyad Caliphate, Black singers and poets complained about the racist discrimination against Black slaves and freedmen in their work.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> During the first century of Islam, Black slaves and freedmen could achieve fame and recognition, but from the Umayyad Caliphate onward, Black freedmen (unlike white), were with rare exceptions no longer noted to have achieved any higher positions of wealth, power, privilege or success, and contemporary Arab Muslim writers contributed this factor to a lack of capacity.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> Muslim enslavers where by Islamic law permitted to breed slaves. While the child of a slave became free if her master choose to awknowledge the child as his, the child of two slaves was born a slave. Since slaves where considered to have different abilities because of their race, slave-breeding was practiced to produce offspring of desired traits. The author <a href="/wiki/Al-Jahiz" title="Al-Jahiz">al Jāḥiẓ</a> (d. 868–869) wrote:“Know that there is abundant happiness and complete pleasure only in the brood of two dissimilar kinds. The breeding between them is the elixir that leads to purity. Specifically, that is the mating of anIndian woman with a Khurasanian man; they will give birth to pure gold.”<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_slaves">European slaves</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: European slaves">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Balkan_slave_trade" title="Balkan slave trade">Balkan slave trade</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea_slave_trade" title="Black Sea slave trade">Black Sea slave trade</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Saqaliba" title="Saqaliba">Saqaliba</a> is a term used in medieval <a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> sources to refer to <a href="/wiki/Slavs" title="Slavs">Slavs</a> and other peoples of <a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a>, <a href="/wiki/Southern_Europe" title="Southern Europe">Southern</a>, and Eastern Europe, or in a broad sense to European slaves under <a href="/wiki/Arab" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab">Arab</a> Islamic rule. Through the <a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a> up until the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>,<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> a major source of slaves sent to Muslim lands was Central and Eastern Europe. The slaves captured were sent to Islamic lands like Spain and Egypt through France and <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> via the <a href="/wiki/Prague_slave_trade" title="Prague slave trade">Prague slave trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Venetian_slave_trade" title="Venetian slave trade">Venetian slave trade</a>. <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a> served as a major centre for castration of Slavic captives.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bari" title="Emirate of Bari">Emirate of Bari</a> also served as an important port for trade of such slaves.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a> blocked Arab merchants from European ports, Arabs started importing slaves from the Caucasus and Caspian Sea regions, shipping them off as far east as Transoxiana in Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Despite this, slaves taken in battle or from minor raids in continental Europe remained a steady resource in many regions. The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> used slaves from the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> and Eastern Europe via the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Janissaries</a> were primarily composed of enslaved Europeans. Slaving raids by <a href="/wiki/Barbary_Slave_Trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Barbary Slave Trade">Barbary Pirates</a> on the coasts of Western Europe as far as Iceland remained a source of slaves until suppressed in the early 19th century. Common roles filled by European slaves ranged from laborers to concubines, and even soldiers. Christians became part of harems as slaves in the Balkans and Asia Minor when the Turks invaded. Muslim qadis owned Christian slave girls. According to Ibn Battuta, Greek girls who were pretty were forced into prostitution after being enslaved to Turks who took all their earnings.<a href="#cite_note-A.D._Caratzas-92">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Female_slaves">Female slaves</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Female slaves">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a>, <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage in Islam</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">History of concubinage in the Muslim world</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg/330px-A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg/495px-A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg/660px-A_slave_market_in_Cairo-David_Roberts.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1146" data-file-height="860" /></a><figcaption>A slave market in Cairo. Drawing by <a href="/wiki/David_Roberts_(painter)" title="David Roberts (painter)">David Roberts</a>, circa 1848.</figcaption></figure> In Classical Arabic terminology, female slaves were generally called <a href="/wiki/Jawaris" class="mw-redirect" title="Jawaris">jawāri</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: جَوار, s. jāriya <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: جارِية). Slave-girls specifically might be called imā’ (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: اِماء, s. ama <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: اَمة), while female slaves who had been trained as entertainers or courtesans were usually called <a href="/wiki/Qiy%C4%81n" class="mw-redirect" title="Qiyān">qiyān</a> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: قِيان, IPA /qi'jaːn/; singular qayna, <a href="/wiki/Arabic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabic language">Arabic</a>: قَينة, IPA /'qaina/).<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Generally, the role of female slaves in the Muslim world was one of two: for sexual slavery as concubines, or as domestic house slave servants. Both of these categories were substantial. Since sexual intercourse between a man and his female slave was not defined as zina in Islamic law, a female slave was the only legal way for a Muslim man to have sex outside of marriage. Since the customary Islamic <a href="/wiki/Sex_segregation" title="Sex segregation">sex segregation</a> prevented free Muslim women from working as maidservants in the same manner as occurred in Europe, slaves were the only way for a Muslim woman to employ a servant to help her with household chores. The cultural perception and role of women in society drastically differentiated the experience that women had as slaves from that of men.<a href="#cite_note-:0-94">[94]</a> In medieval Islam, lack of agency was associated with femininity<a href="#cite_note-:1-95">[95]</a> which differentiated how women were enslaved in context of how they were traded, treated, freed and labelled. While male slaves were typically captured during warfare, women and children were captured during raids.<a href="#cite_note-:1-95">[95]</a> Although, the enslavement of any Muslim, male or female, was prohibited. On the other hand, female relatives were often used as payment by patriarchs of the family.<a href="#cite_note-:0-94">[94]</a> Slave women where visually identified by their way of dress. Free Muslim women were obliged by religious command to veil for modesty in order to avoid sexual harassment: "O Prophet! say to your wives and your daughters and the women of the believers that they let down upon them their over-garments; this will be more proper, so that they may be recognized [as free Women] and not molested."<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> While Islamic law dictated that a free Muslim woman should veil herself entirely, except for her face and hands, in order to hide her <a href="/wiki/Awrah" class="mw-redirect" title="Awrah">awrah</a> (intimate parts) and avoid sexual harassment, the awrah of slave women where defined differently, and she was only to cover between her navel and her knee.<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-86">[86]</a> In accordance with this definition, <a href="/wiki/Anas_ibn_Malik" title="Anas ibn Malik">Anas ibn Malik</a> reported that: “The slave women of <a href="/wiki/Umar_b._al-Khattab" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar b. al-Khattab">ʿUmar</a> used to serve us with their heads uncovered, their breasts knocking together and their anklets exposed.”<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-86">[86]</a> Reportedly, <a href="/wiki/Umar_b._al-Khattab" class="mw-redirect" title="Umar b. al-Khattab">Umar b. al-Khaṭṭāb</a> himself once once saw a slave women wearing a veil, and reacted by attacking her and said: “Remove your veil (ikshifī qināʿik) and do not imitate free women!”<a href="#cite_note-doi.org-86">[86]</a> While a Muslim man were given the right to sex with both wives as well as female slaves, Islamic law did not define a difference between his child with a slave (if he had acknowledged paternity) and his child with a legal wife; there was no difference in legitimacy defined between the child of a slave mistress or a wife, and therefore, both were defined as legitimate.<a href="#cite_note-Slavery_1420._p._196-97">[97]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Concubinage">Concubinage</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Concubinage">edit</a>]</div> “Suria," which is commonly translated as <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubine</a>, referred to female slaves who had sexual relations with their masters but were not married to them. The accuracy of this translation has been criticized: "this act placed the woman who gave birth to a child from her 'master' into the legal category of suria, which was a type of marriage and not the European 'concubinage.'"<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> She became free at his death and the master was unable to sell her, which also meant he could not divorce her as his suria. This clear critique of "European" pertaining to a facet of <a href="/wiki/Swahili_coast" title="Swahili coast">Swahili</a> culture suggests that usuria, a phenomenon governed by Islamic law, was quite legitimate and performed as such on the coast of East Africa. However, usuria was not treated similarly in all Islamic legal systems.<a href="#cite_note-:0-94">[94]</a> Concubinage lasted as long as chattel slavery was legal in the Muslim world, and are documented in the 20th-century. Slavery was eventually declared illegal at the global level in 1948 under the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>' <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, followed by the <a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a> (1950–1951).<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> By this time, the Arab world was the only region in the world where chattel slavery was still legal. <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Slavery in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">slavery in Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Dubai" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in Dubai">slavery in Dubai</a> were abolished in 1962–1963, with <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">slavery in Oman</a> following in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> The report of the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (ACE) about <a href="/wiki/Hadhramaut" title="Hadhramaut">Hadhramaut</a> in Yemen in the 1930s described the existence of Chinese girls (<a href="/wiki/Mui_tsai" title="Mui tsai">Mui tsai</a>) trafficked from Singapore for enslavement as concubines,<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> and the King and Imam of Yemen, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_bin_Yahya" title="Ahmad bin Yahya">Ahmad bin Yahya</a> (r. 1948–1962), were reported to have had a harem of 100 slave women.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Sultan <a href="/wiki/Said_bin_Taimur" title="Said bin Taimur">Said bin Taimur</a> of Oman (r. 1932–1970) reportedly owned around 500 slaves, an estimated 150 of whom were women, who were kept at his palace at Salalah.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <a href="/wiki/King_Abdulaziz_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia">King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia</a> (r. 1932-1953) are known to have had a harem of twenty-two women, many of them concubines.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Baraka_Al_Yamaniyah" title="Baraka Al Yamaniyah">Baraka Al Yamaniyah</a> (died 22 August 2018), for example, was the <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubine</a> of <a href="/wiki/King_Abdulaziz_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia">King Abdulaziz of Saudi Arabia</a> (r. 1932-1953) and the mother of <a href="/wiki/Muqrin_bin_Abdulaziz" title="Muqrin bin Abdulaziz">Muqrin bin Abdulaziz</a> (born 1945), who was <a href="/wiki/Crown_prince_of_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Crown prince of Saudi Arabia">crown prince of Saudi Arabia</a> in 2015.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Prostitution">Prostitution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Prostitution">edit</a>]</div> The Islamic Law formally prohibited prostitution as <a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">zina</a>. However, since the principle of <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">concubinage in Islam</a> in <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic Law">Islamic Law</a> allowed a man to have intercourse with his female slave without it being defined as zina, prostitution was normally practiced by a <a href="/wiki/Pimp" class="mw-redirect" title="Pimp">pimp</a> selling his female slave on the slave market to a client, who was then allowed to have intercourse with her as her new owner; and who after intercourse returned his ownership of her to her pimp on the pretext of discontent.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Selling the female slave to the male client for the duration of sexual intercourse was not defined as prostitution in Islamic law, which made it a legal and accepted method for prostitution in the Islamic world.<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> This method for prostutition was still used in the Islamic world during the era of <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a>, being finally formally prohibited with the <a href="/wiki/Kanunname_of_1889" title="Kanunname of 1889">Kanunname of 1889</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ibn_Battuta's_accounts">Ibn Battuta's accounts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Ibn Battuta's accounts">edit</a>]</div> The 14th century <a href="/wiki/Maghreb" title="Maghreb">Maghrebi</a> traveller, <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a>, rarely travelled without the company of his concubines. Although he was a scholar of Muslim Law, his accounts provide insight into how women slave were traded and treated.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Ibn Battuta initially describes buying slave girls in Anatolia, and it seems that even though he lost his wealth and belongings multiple times, he never ventured out without a concubine if he could avoid it. Up until the nineteenth century, the importation of slaves from the non-Islamic world became an ever-expanding business due to the prohibition on Muslims being forced into slavery for debts or crimes, as well as the prohibition on Muslims ability to legally enslave Arabs. Because of this, any slave owned by a Muslim was distinct from its owner in terms of ethnicity, and any slave owned by a Muslim Arab was unquestionably a foreigner. Due to the recognized dubious status of slave merchants, it has been inferred that Ibn Battuta employed an intermediary, an agent to complete the trade.<a href="#cite_note-:1-95">[95]</a> Women were also traded as gifts across the Muslim world. Ibn Battuta writes about his exchanges with the amir Dawlasa in the <a href="/wiki/Maldives" title="Maldives">Maldives</a> as he brought two slave girls to his accommodation. Similarly, Ibn Battuta gifted "a white slave, a horse, and some raisins and almonds" to the governor of <a href="/wiki/Multan" title="Multan">Multan</a>. As a result, he solidified his relationship with powerful men.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Political_uprisings">Political uprisings</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Political uprisings">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rebellion">Rebellion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Rebellion">edit</a>]</div> In some cases, slaves would join domestic rebellions or even rise up against governors. The most renowned of these rebellions was known as the <a href="/wiki/Zanj_Rebellion" title="Zanj Rebellion">Zanj Rebellion</a>.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The Zanj Rebellion took place near the port city of <a href="/wiki/Basra" title="Basra">Basra</a>, located today in southern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, over a period of fifteen years (869–883 AD). It grew to involve over 50,000 slaves imported from across the Muslim empire, and claimed over "tens of thousands of lives in lower Iraq".<a href="#cite_note-Furlonge-113">[113]</a> The revolt was said to have been led by <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Muhammad" title="Ali ibn Muhammad">Ali ibn Muhammad</a>, who claimed to be a <a href="/wiki/Alids" title="Alids">descendant</a> of Caliph <a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Abu_Talib" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Abu Talib">Ali ibn Abu Talib</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Furlonge-113">[113]</a> Several historians, such as Al-Tabari and Al-Masudi, consider and view this revolt as one of the "most vicious and brutal uprising[s]" out of the many disturbances that plagued the <a href="/wiki/Abbasid" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid">Abbasid</a> central government.<a href="#cite_note-Furlonge-113">[113]</a> When the Russian general <a href="/wiki/Konstantin_Petrovich_von_Kaufmann" title="Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann">Konstantin Petrovich von Kaufmann</a> and his army approached the city of Khiva during the <a href="/wiki/Khivan_campaign_of_1873" title="Khivan campaign of 1873">Khivan campaign of 1873</a>, the Khan <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Rahim_Khan_II_of_Khiva" title="Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva">Muhammad Rahim Khan II of Khiva</a> fled to hide among the Yomuts, and the slaves in Khiva rebelled, informed about the eminent downfall of the city, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Khivan slave uprising">Khivan slave uprising</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eden,_J._2018_p._187-189-114">[114]</a> When Kaufmann's Russian army entered Khiva on 28 March, he was approached by Khivans who begged him to put down the ongoing slave uprising, during which slaves avenged themselves on their former enslavers.<a href="#cite_note-Eden,_J._2018_p._187-189-114">[114]</a> When the Khan returned to his capital after the Russian conquest, the Russian General Kaufmann presented him with a demand to abolish the <a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a> and slavery, which he did.<a href="#cite_note-Eden,_J._2018_p._187-189-114">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Political_power">Political power</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Political power">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mamluke.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Mamluke.jpg/220px-Mamluke.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Mamluke.jpg/330px-Mamluke.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1d/Mamluke.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="532" /></a><figcaption>A Mamluk cavalryman, drawn in 1810</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">Ghilman</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluk</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a> were slave-soldiers who were converted to Islam, and served the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Caliph" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliph">caliphs</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ayyubid" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid">Ayyubid</a> sultans during the Middle Ages. Over time, they became a powerful military <a href="/wiki/Caste" title="Caste">caste</a>, often defeating the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusaders</a> and, on more than one occasion, they seized power for themselves, for example, ruling <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)">Mamluk Sultanate</a> from 1250 to 1517.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: By country">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_India">Slavery in India</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Slavery in India">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_India#Slavery_in_Medieval_India" title="Slavery in India">Slavery in India § Slavery in Medieval India</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Muslim conquests</a> of the 8th century, the armies of the Umayyad commander <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_bin_Qasim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad bin Qasim">Muhammad bin Qasim</a> enslaved tens of thousands of Indian prisoners, including both soldiers and civilians.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> In the early 11th century Tarikh al-Yamini, the Arab historian <a href="/wiki/Al-Utbi" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Utbi">Al-Utbi</a> recorded that in 1001 the armies of <a href="/wiki/Mahmud_of_Ghazna" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahmud of Ghazna">Mahmud of Ghazna</a> conquered <a href="/wiki/Peshawar" title="Peshawar">Peshawar</a> and <a href="/wiki/Waihand" class="mw-redirect" title="Waihand">Waihand</a> (the capital city of <a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a>) after the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Peshawar_(1001)" title="Battle of Peshawar (1001)">Battle of Peshawar</a> in 1001, "in the midst of the land of <a href="/wiki/Hindustan" title="Hindustan">Hindustan</a>", and captured some 100,000 youths.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> Later, following his twelfth expedition into India in 1018–19, Mahmud is reported to have returned with such a large number of slaves that their value was reduced to only two to ten <a href="/wiki/Dirham" title="Dirham">dirhams</a> each. This unusually low price made, according to Al-Utbi, "merchants [come] from distant cities to purchase them, so that the countries of Central Asia, Iraq and Khurasan were swelled with them, and the fair and the dark, the rich and the poor, mingled in one common slavery". Elliot and Dowson refer to "five thousand slaves, beautiful men, and women."<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Later, during the <a href="/wiki/Delhi_Sultanate" title="Delhi Sultanate">Delhi Sultanate</a> period (1206–1555), references to the abundant availability of low-priced Indian slaves abound. Levi attributes this primarily to the vast human resources of India, compared to its neighbors to the north and west (India's <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a> population being approximately 12 to 20 times that of <a href="/wiki/Turan" title="Turan">Turan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> at the end of the 16th century).<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Delhi_sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Delhi sultanate">Delhi sultanate</a> obtained thousands of slaves and eunuch servants from the villages of Eastern <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a> (a widespread practice which Mughal emperor <a href="/wiki/Jahangir" title="Jahangir">Jahangir</a> later tried to stop). Wars, famines and pestilences drove many villagers to sell their children as slaves. The Muslim conquest of <a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a> in Western India had two main objectives. The conquerors demanded and more often forcibly wrested both Hindu women as well as land owned by Hindus. Enslavement of women invariably led to their conversion to Islam.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> In battles waged by Muslims against Hindus in <a href="/wiki/Malwa" title="Malwa">Malwa</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_plateau" class="mw-redirect" title="Deccan plateau">Deccan plateau</a>, a large number of captives were taken. Muslim soldiers were permitted to retain and enslave <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a> as plunder.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Bahmani" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani">Bahmani</a> sultan, <a href="/wiki/Alauddin_Bahman_Shah" class="mw-redirect" title="Alauddin Bahman Shah">Alauddin Bahman Shah</a> is noted to have captured 1,000 singing and dancing girls from Hindu temples after he battled the northern <a href="/wiki/Carnatic_region" title="Carnatic region">Carnatic</a> chieftains. The later Bahmanis also enslaved civilian women and children in wars; many of them were converted to Islam in captivity.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> During the rule of <a href="/wiki/Shah_Jahan" title="Shah Jahan">Shah Jahan</a>, many peasants were compelled to sell their women and children into slavery to meet the land revenue demand.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_Iran">Slavery in Iran</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Slavery in Iran">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Slavery in Iran</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Bengal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf of Bengal">Gulf of Bengal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Malabar_Coast" title="Malabar Coast">Malabar</a> in India were sources of eunuchs for the Safavid court of Iran according to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Sir Thomas Herbert accompanied <a href="/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a> in 1627–9 to Safavid Iran. He reported seeing Indian slaves sold to Iran, "above three hundred slaves whom the Persians bought in India: Persees, Ientews (gentiles [i.e. Hindus]) Bannaras [Bhandaris?], and others." brought to <a href="/wiki/Bandar_Abbas" title="Bandar Abbas">Bandar Abbas</a> via ship from <a href="/wiki/Surat" title="Surat">Surat</a> in 1628.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> Ethiopian slaves, both females imported as concubines and men imported as eunuchs were imported in 19th century Iran.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a><a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a> Sudan, Ethiopia, Tanzania and Zanzibar exported the majority of slaves to 19th century Iran.<a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_the_Seljuk_and_Ottoman_Empires">Slavery in the Seljuk and Ottoman Empires</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Seljuk and Ottoman Empires">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Slavery in the Ottoman Empire">Slavery in the Ottoman Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Crimean%E2%80%93Nogai_slave_raids_in_Eastern_Europe" title="Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe">Crimean–Nogai slave raids in Eastern Europe</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Crimean_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Crimean slave trade">Crimean slave trade</a></div> There was a very extensive slave trade of Christians in Anatolia by the Seljuk Turks in the eleventh and twelfth centuries which caused a significant decline in the numbers of Christians in Asia minor. After Edessa was captured and pillaged, 16,000 Christians were enslaved. Michael the Syrian reported that 16,000 Christians were enslaved and sold at Aleppo when the Turks, led by <a href="/wiki/Nur_ad-Din_(died_1174)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nur ad-Din (died 1174)">Nur ad-Din</a> invaded Cilicia. Major raids in the Greek provinces of western Anatolia led to the enslavement of thousands of Greeks. 26,000 people from Armenia, Mesopotamia and Cappadocia were captured and taken to slave markets during Turkic raids in the year 1185. "Asia Minor continued to be a major source of slaves for the Islamic world through the 14th century" according to <a href="/wiki/Speros_Vryonis" title="Speros Vryonis">Speros Vryonis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> After the <a href="/wiki/Seljuks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuks">Seljuks</a> conquered parts of <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a>, they brought to the devastated lands Greek, Armenian and Syrian farmers after enslaving entire Byzantine and Armenian villages and towns.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> Arab historians and geographers noted that the Turkmen tribes in Anatolia were constantly raiding Greek lands and carrying off large numbers of slaves. The historians Abul Fida and al-Umari relate that the Turkmens especially singled out the Greek children for enslavement, and describe that the numbers of slaves available were so great that, "one saw ... arriving daily those merchants who indulged in this trade."<a href="#cite_note-Vryonis_1971-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-auto5-140">[140]</a> Western Anatolia in the late 13th and the early 14th century was the center of a flourishing trade in Christian slaves. Matthew, metropolitan of Ephesus describes this slave trade:<a href="#cite_note-Vryonis_1971-139">[139]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Also distressing is the multitude of prisoners, some of whom are miserably enslaved to the Ismaelites and others to the Jews .... And the prisoners brought back to this new enslavement are numbered by the thousands; those [prisoners] arising from the enslavement of Rhomaioi through the capture of their lands and cities from all times by comparison would be found to be smaller or [at most] equal.</blockquote> <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> often spoke of slaves that the Turks used as domestic servants or <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sex slaves</a> during his travels through Anatolia during the 1300s. There was a large number of slaves at <a href="/wiki/Laodicea_on_the_Lycus" title="Laodicea on the Lycus">Laodicea</a>, in the harems of the prominent citizens. Some of the slaves had arrived in the marketplaces in large quantities, and Batouta himself acquired a slave woman at <a href="/wiki/Bal%C4%B1kesir" title="Balıkesir">Balıkesir</a>, close to <a href="/wiki/Pergamon" title="Pergamon">Pergamon</a>. According to Ibn Battuta, the emir of Smyrna, Omour Beg, among the most famous of slave traders during this period (and often went into expeditions for slaves in the <a href="/wiki/Aegean_Sea" title="Aegean Sea">Aegean Sea</a>) personally presented him with the gift of a slave woman. The slaves often sought to escape at any costs. Battuta describes how his slave fled from Magnesia together with another slave and how the two fugitives were later captured.<a href="#cite_note-A.D._Caratzas-92">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Vryonis_1971-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] In the year 1341, The Turkish bey <a href="/wiki/Umur_of_Aydin" class="mw-redirect" title="Umur of Aydin">Umur of Aydin</a> terrorized the Christians in the Aegean sea with his 350 ships and 15,000 men from a captured port in Smyrna, capturing many slaves.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> According to professor <a href="/wiki/Ehud_R._Toledano" title="Ehud R. Toledano">Ehud R. Toledano</a>, slavery in the Ottoman Empire was "Accepted by custom, perpetuated by tradition and sanctioned by religion". Abolitionism was considered a foreign idea, barely understood and vigorously resisted.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> Slavery was a legal and important part of the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Economy of the Ottoman Empire">economy of the Ottoman Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Social_structure_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Social structure of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman society</a><a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> until the slavery of <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasians</a> was banned in the early 19th century, although slaves from other groups were still permitted.<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> (present-day <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>), the administrative and political center of the Empire, about a fifth of the population consisted of slaves in 1609.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> Even after several measures to ban slavery in the late 19th century, the practice continued largely uninterrupted into the early 20th century. As late as 1908, female slaves were still sold in the Ottoman Empire. <a href="/wiki/Concubinage_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Concubinage in Islam">Concubinage</a> was a central part of the Ottoman slave system throughout the history of the institution.<a href="#cite_note-Schierbrand1886-147">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-Zilfi2010-148">[148]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/200px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/300px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg/400px-Janissary_Recruitment_in_the_Balkans-Suleymanname.jpg 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>Ottoman painting of Balkan children taken as soldier-slaves</figcaption></figure> A member of the Ottoman slave class, called a <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/kul#Turkish" class="extiw" title="wikt:kul">kul</a> in <a href="/wiki/Turkish_(language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkish (language)">Turkish</a>, could achieve high status. <a href="/wiki/Kizlar_Agha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kizlar Agha">Black castrated slaves</a> were tasked to guard the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Imperial_Harem" title="Ottoman Imperial Harem">imperial harems</a>, while <a href="/wiki/Kapi_Agha" title="Kapi Agha">white castrated slaves</a> filled administrative functions. <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">Janissaries</a> were the elite soldiers of the imperial armies, collected in childhood as a "<a href="/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">blood tax</a>", while <a href="/wiki/Galley_slaves" class="mw-redirect" title="Galley slaves">galley slaves</a> captured in <a href="/wiki/Slave_raids" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave raids">slave raids</a> or as <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>, staffed the imperial vessels. Slaves were often to be found at the forefront of Ottoman politics. The majority of officials in the Ottoman government were bought slaves, raised free, and integral to the success of the Ottoman Empire from the 14th century into the 19th. Many officials themselves owned a large number of slaves, although the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of the Ottoman Empire">Sultan</a> himself owned by far the largest number.<a href="#cite_note-Dursteler2006-149">[149]</a> By raising and specially training slaves as officials in palace schools such as <a href="/wiki/Enderun" class="mw-redirect" title="Enderun">Enderun</a>, the Ottomans created administrators with intricate knowledge of government and a fanatic loyalty. Ottomans practiced <a href="/wiki/Dev%C5%9Firme" class="mw-redirect" title="Devşirme">devşirme</a>, a sort of "blood tax" or "child collection": young Christian boys from Eastern Europe and <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> were taken from their homes and families, brought up as Muslims, and enlisted into the most famous branch of the <a href="/wiki/Kap%C4%B1kulu" title="Kapıkulu">Kapıkulu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissaries</a>, a special soldier class of the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="Military of the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman army</a> that became a decisive faction in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_wars_in_Europe" title="Ottoman wars in Europe">Ottoman invasions of Europe</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Most of the military commanders of the Ottoman forces, imperial administrators, and de facto rulers of the Empire, such as <a href="/wiki/Pargal%C4%B1_Ibrahim_Pasha" title="Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha">Pargalı Ibrahim Pasha</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sokollu_Mehmed_Pasha" title="Sokollu Mehmed Pasha">Sokollu Mehmed Pasha</a>, were recruited in this way.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[151]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Reliable_sources" title="Wikipedia:Reliable sources"><span title="The material near this tag may rely on an unreliable source. appears to be a blog or something? "This is the site to hone your People Skills"; "Personally, I'd love to go to Turkey and check out the caravanserais"; includes a google search widget autofilled with "napkin folding" (December 2023)">unreliable source?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_the_sultanates_of_Southeast_Asia">Slavery in the sultanates of Southeast Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Slavery in the sultanates of Southeast Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Piracy_in_the_Sulu_Sea" class="mw-redirect" title="Piracy in the Sulu Sea">Piracy in the Sulu Sea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Brunei" title="Slavery in Brunei">Slavery in Brunei</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Malaysia" title="Slavery in Malaysia">Slavery in Malaysia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Indonesia" title="Slavery in Indonesia">Slavery in Indonesia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Spanish expedition to Balanguingui</a></div> In the <a href="/wiki/East_Indies" title="East Indies">East Indies</a>, slavery was common until the end of the 19th century. The slave trade was centered on the Muslim sultanates in the <a href="/wiki/Sulu_Sea" title="Sulu Sea">Sulu Sea</a>: the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Maguindanao" title="Sultanate of Maguindanao">Sultanate of Maguindanao</a>, and the Confederation of Sultanates in Lanao (the modern <a href="/wiki/Moro_people" title="Moro people">Moro people</a>). Also the <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a> on Sumatra took part in the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-152">[152]</a> The economies of these sultanates relied heavily on the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_market_in_Aceh,_Sumatra,_Indonesia,_illustration_by_Smeeton_Tilly_from_L%27Illustration,_Journal_Universel,_No_1571,_Volume_LXI,_April_5,_1873._DeA_Veneranda_Biblioteca_Ambrosiana,_Milan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Slave_market_in_Aceh%2C_Sumatra%2C_Indonesia%2C_illustration_by_Smeeton_Tilly_from_L%27Illustration%2C_Journal_Universel%2C_No_1571%2C_Volume_LXI%2C_April_5%2C_1873._DeA_Veneranda_Biblioteca_Ambrosiana%2C_Milan.jpg/220px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Slave_market_in_Aceh%2C_Sumatra%2C_Indonesia%2C_illustration_by_Smeeton_Tilly_from_L%27Illustration%2C_Journal_Universel%2C_No_1571%2C_Volume_LXI%2C_April_5%2C_1873._DeA_Veneranda_Biblioteca_Ambrosiana%2C_Milan.jpg/330px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Slave_market_in_Aceh%2C_Sumatra%2C_Indonesia%2C_illustration_by_Smeeton_Tilly_from_L%27Illustration%2C_Journal_Universel%2C_No_1571%2C_Volume_LXI%2C_April_5%2C_1873._DeA_Veneranda_Biblioteca_Ambrosiana%2C_Milan.jpg/440px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3824" data-file-height="2931" /></a><figcaption>Slave market in Aceh</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iranun_lanong_warship_by_Rafael_Monle%C3%B3n_(1890).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Iranun_lanong_warship_by_Rafael_Monle%C3%B3n_%281890%29.jpg/250px-Iranun_lanong_warship_by_Rafael_Monle%C3%B3n_%281890%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/33/Iranun_lanong_warship_by_Rafael_Monle%C3%B3n_%281890%29.jpg/375px-Iranun_lanong_warship_by_Rafael_Monle%C3%B3n_%281890%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Iranun_lanong_warship_by_Rafael_Monle%C3%B3n_%281890%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="325" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Iranun_people" title="Iranun people">Iranun</a> <a href="/wiki/Lanong" title="Lanong">lanong</a> warship used for piracy and slave raids in the <a href="/wiki/Sulu_Sea" title="Sulu Sea">Sulu Sea</a></figcaption></figure> It is estimated that from 1770 to 1870, around 200,000 to 300,000 people were enslaved by <a href="/wiki/Iranun_people" title="Iranun people">Iranun</a> and <a href="/wiki/Banguingui" class="mw-redirect" title="Banguingui">Banguingui</a> slavers. These were taken by piracy from passing ships as well as coastal raids on settlements as far as the <a href="/wiki/Malacca_Strait" class="mw-redirect" title="Malacca Strait">Malacca Strait</a>, <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a>, the southern coast of China and the islands beyond the <a href="/wiki/Makassar_Strait" title="Makassar Strait">Makassar Strait</a>. Most of the slaves were <a href="/wiki/Tagalogs" class="mw-redirect" title="Tagalogs">Tagalogs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Visayans" title="Visayans">Visayans</a>, and "Malays" (including <a href="/wiki/Bugis" title="Bugis">Bugis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mandarese_people" title="Mandarese people">Mandarese</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iban_people" title="Iban people">Iban</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Makassar_people" title="Makassar people">Makassar</a>). There were also occasional European and Chinese captives who were usually ransomed off through <a href="/wiki/Tausug_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Tausug people">Tausug</a> intermediaries of the <a href="/wiki/Sulu_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Sulu Sultanate">Sulu Sultanate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Iranun_pirate.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Iranun_pirate.png/170px-Iranun_pirate.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Iranun_pirate.png/255px-Iranun_pirate.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Iranun_pirate.png/340px-Iranun_pirate.png 2x" data-file-width="798" data-file-height="1315" /></a><figcaption>An <a href="/wiki/Iranun_people" title="Iranun people">Iranun</a> pirate armed with a spear, a <a href="/wiki/Kampilan" title="Kampilan">kampilan</a> sword, and a <a href="/wiki/Kris" title="Kris">kris</a> dagger</figcaption></figure> The scale of this activity was so massive that the word for "pirate" in <a href="/wiki/Malay_language" title="Malay language">Malay</a> became Lanun, an <a href="/wiki/Exonym" class="mw-redirect" title="Exonym">exonym</a> of the Iranun people. Male captives of the Iranun and the Banguingui were treated brutally, even fellow Muslim captives were not spared. They were usually forced to serve as <a href="/wiki/Galley_slave" title="Galley slave">galley slaves</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Lanong" title="Lanong">lanong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garay_(ship)" title="Garay (ship)">garay</a> warships of their captors. Within a year of capture, most of the captives of the Iranun and Banguingui would be bartered off in <a href="/wiki/Jolo,_Sulu" title="Jolo, Sulu">Jolo</a> usually for rice, opium, bolts of cloth, iron bars, brassware, and weapons. The buyers were usually Tausug <a href="/wiki/Datu" title="Datu">datu</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Sulu" title="Sultanate of Sulu">Sultanate of Sulu</a> who had preferential treatment, but buyers also included European (Dutch and Portuguese) and Chinese traders as well as Visayan pirates (renegados).<a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a> The economy of the Sulu sultanates was largely based on slaves and the slave trade. Slaves were the primary indicators of wealth and status, and they were the source of labor for the farms, fisheries, and workshops of the sultanates. While personal slaves were rarely sold, slave traders trafficked extensively in slaves purchased from the Iranun and Banguingui <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave markets</a>. By the 1850s, slaves constituted 50% or more of the population of the Sulu archipelago.<a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a> Chattel slaves, known as banyaga, bisaya, ipun, or ammas were distinguished from the traditional debt bondsmen (the kiapangdilihan, known as <a href="/wiki/Alipin" title="Alipin">alipin</a> elsewhere in the Philippines). The bondsmen were natives enslaved to pay off debt or crime. They were slaves only in terms of their temporary service requirement to their master, but retained most of the rights of the freemen, including protection from physical harm and the fact that they could not be sold. The banyaga, on the other hand, had little to no rights.<a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a> Some slaves were treated like serfs and servants. Educated and skilled male slaves were largely treated well. Since most of the aristocratic classes in Sulu were illiterate, they were often dependent on the educated banyaga as scribes and interpreters. Slaves were often given their own houses and lived in small communities with slaves of similar ethnic and religious backgrounds. Harsh punishment and abuse were not uncommon, despite Islamic laws, especially for slave laborers and slaves who attempt to escape.<a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bombardment_Balanguingui.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bombardment_Balanguingui.jpg/250px-Bombardment_Balanguingui.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bombardment_Balanguingui.jpg/375px-Bombardment_Balanguingui.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Bombardment_Balanguingui.jpg/500px-Bombardment_Balanguingui.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="389" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Spanish warships bombarding</a> Moro pirates in Balanguingui Island in 1848</figcaption></figure> Spanish authorities and native Christian Filipinos responded to the Moro slave raids by building watchtowers and forts across the Philippine archipelago, many of which are still standing today. Some provincial capitals were also moved further inland. Major command posts were built in <a href="/wiki/Manila_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Manila City">Manila</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cavite_City" title="Cavite City">Cavite</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cebu_City" title="Cebu City">Cebu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iloilo_City" title="Iloilo City">Iloilo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zamboanga_City" title="Zamboanga City">Zamboanga</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iligan_City" class="mw-redirect" title="Iligan City">Iligan</a>. Defending ships were also built by local communities, especially in the <a href="/wiki/Visayas_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Visayas Islands">Visayas Islands</a>, including the construction of war "barangayanes" (<a href="/wiki/Balangay" title="Balangay">balangay</a>) that were faster than the Moro raiders' ships and could give chase. As resistance against raiders increased, <a href="/wiki/Lanong" title="Lanong">Lanong</a> warships of the Iranun were eventually replaced by the smaller and faster <a href="/wiki/Garay_(ship)" title="Garay (ship)">garay</a> warships of the Banguingui in the early 19th century. The Moro raids were eventually subdued by several major naval expeditions by the Spanish and local forces from 1848 to 1891, including retaliatory bombardment and capture of Moro settlements. By this time, the Spanish had also acquired <a href="/wiki/Steamship" title="Steamship">steam gunboats</a> (vapor), which could easily overtake and destroy the native Moro warships.<a href="#cite_note-warren-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-non-155">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-barrows-156">[156]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Landing_Balanguingui.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Landing_Balanguingui.jpg/250px-Landing_Balanguingui.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Landing_Balanguingui.jpg/375px-Landing_Balanguingui.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Landing_Balanguingui.jpg/500px-Landing_Balanguingui.jpg 2x" data-file-width="550" data-file-height="353" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Spanish_expedition_to_Balanguingui" title="Spanish expedition to Balanguingui">Spanish and auxiliary Filipino troops landing</a> at Balanguingui Island</figcaption></figure> The slave raids on merchant ships and coastal settlements disrupted traditional trade in goods in the Sulu Sea. While this was temporarily offset by the economic prosperity brought by the slave trade, the decline of slavery in the mid-19th century also led to the economic decline of the Sultanates of <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Brunei" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultanate of Brunei">Brunei</a>, Sulu, and Maguindanao. This eventually led to the collapse of the latter two states and contributed to the widespread poverty of the <a href="/wiki/Autonomous_Region_in_Muslim_Mindanao" title="Autonomous Region in Muslim Mindanao">Moro region</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a> today. By the 1850s, most slaves were local-born from slave parents as the raiding became more difficult. By the end of the 19th century and the conquest of the Sultanates by the Spanish and the Americans, the slave population was largely integrated into the native population as citizens under the Philippine government.<a href="#cite_note-warren-154">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-non-155">[155]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Gowa" title="Sultanate of Gowa">Sultanate of Gowa</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Bugis_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Bugis people">Bugis people</a> also became involved in the Sulu slave trade. They purchased slaves (as well as opium and Bengali cloth) from the Sulu Sea sultanates, then re-sold the slaves in the <a href="/wiki/Slave_market" title="Slave market">slave markets</a> in the rest of Southeast Asia. Several hundred slaves (mostly Christian Filipinos) were sold by the Bugis annually in <a href="/wiki/Batavia,_Dutch_East_Indies" title="Batavia, Dutch East Indies">Batavia</a>, Malacca, <a href="/wiki/Banten_(town)" title="Banten (town)">Bantam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cirebon" title="Cirebon">Cirebon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Banjarmasin" title="Banjarmasin">Banjarmasin</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palembang" title="Palembang">Palembang</a> by the Bugis. The slaves were usually sold to Dutch and Chinese families as servants, sailors, laborers, and concubines. The sale of Christian Filipinos (who were Spanish subjects) in Dutch-controlled cities led to formal protests by the Spanish Empire to the Netherlands and its prohibition in 1762 by the Dutch, but it had little effect due to lax or absent enforcement. The Bugis slave trade was only stopped in the 1860s, when the Spanish navy from Manila started patrolling Sulu waters to intercept Bugis slave ships and rescue Filipino captives. Also contributing to the decline was the hostility of the <a href="/wiki/Sama-Bajau_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Sama-Bajau people">Sama-Bajau</a> raiders in <a href="/wiki/Tawi-Tawi" title="Tawi-Tawi">Tawi-Tawi</a> who broke off their allegiance to the Sultanate of Sulu in the mid-1800s and started attacking ships trading with the Tausug ports.<a href="#cite_note-warren2-153">[153]</a> Both non-Muslims and Muslims in Southeast Asia during the end of the 19th century bought <a href="/wiki/Karayuki-san" title="Karayuki-san">Japanese girls as slaves who were imported to the region by sea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-157">[157]</a> The Japanese women were sold as concubines both to Muslim Malay men as well as non-Muslim Chinese men and British men of the British ruled <a href="/wiki/Straits_Settlements" title="Straits Settlements">Straits Settlements</a> of <a href="/wiki/British_Malaya" title="British Malaya">British Malaya</a> after being trafficked from Japan to Hong Kong and <a href="/wiki/Port_Darwin" title="Port Darwin">Port Darwin</a> in Australia. In Hong Kong the Japanese consul Miyagawa Kyujiro said these Japanese women were taken by Malay and Chinese men who "lead them off to wild and savage lands where they suffered unimaginable hardship." One Chinese man paid 40 <a href="/wiki/British_pound" class="mw-redirect" title="British pound">British pounds</a> for 2 Japanese women and a Malay man paid 50 British pounds for a Japanese woman in Port Darwin, Australia after they were trafficked there in August 1888 by a Japanese pimp, Takada Tokijirō.<a href="#cite_note-158">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-159">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a><a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> However, the buying of Chinese girls in Singapore was forbidden for Muslims by a Batavia (Jakarta) based Arab Muslim Mufti, <a href="/wiki/Usman_bin_Yahya" title="Usman bin Yahya">Usman bin Yahya</a> in a fatwa because he ruled that in Islam it was illegal to buy free non-Muslims or marry non-Muslim slave girls during peace time from slave dealers and non-Muslims could only be enslaved and purchased during holy war (jihad).<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> In <a href="/wiki/Jeddah" title="Jeddah">Jeddah</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Hejaz" title="Kingdom of Hejaz">Kingdom of Hejaz</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Arabian_peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabian peninsula">Arabian peninsula</a>, the Arab king <a href="/wiki/Ali_bin_Hussein,_King_of_Hejaz" title="Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz">Ali bin Hussein, King of Hejaz</a> had in his palace 20 young pretty <a href="/wiki/Javanese_people" title="Javanese people">Javanese girls</a> from <a href="/wiki/Java" title="Java">Java</a> (modern day <a href="/wiki/Indonesia" title="Indonesia">Indonesia</a>).<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a> In the 1760s the Arab <a href="/wiki/Syarif_Abdurrahman_Alkadrie" title="Syarif Abdurrahman Alkadrie">Syarif Abdurrahman Alkadrie</a> mass enslaved other Muslims while raiding coastal Borneo in violation of sharia, before he founded the <a href="/wiki/Pontianak_Sultanate" title="Pontianak Sultanate">Pontianak Sultanate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-auto-110">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_region">By region</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: By region">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Arab_world">Arab world</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Arab world">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate">Slavery in the Rashidun Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate">Slavery in the Umayyad Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate">Slavery in the Abbasid Caliphate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Mamluk_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate">Slavery in the Mamluk Sultanate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Slavery in Saudi Arabia</a></div> Ibn Battuta met a Syrian Arab Damascene girl who was a slave of a black African governor in Mali. Ibn Battuta engaged in a conversation with her in Arabic.<a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a><a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a><a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> The black man was a scholar of Islam and his name was Farba Sulayman.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> Syrian girls were trafficked from Syria to Saudi Arabia right before World War II and married to legally bring them across the border but then divorced and given to other men. A Syrian Dr. Midhat and Shaikh Yusuf were accused of engaging in this traffic of Syrian girls to supply them to Saudis.<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a><a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emily_Ruete" title="Emily Ruete">Emily Ruete</a> (Salama bint Said) was born to <a href="/wiki/Sultan" title="Sultan">Sultan</a> <a href="/wiki/Said_bin_Sultan" title="Said bin Sultan">Said bin Sultan</a> and Jilfidan, a <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> slave, turned concubine (some accounts also note her as <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a><a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-176">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-177">[177]</a>) An Indian girl slave who was named Mariam (originally Fatima) ended up in Zanzibar after being sold by multiple men. She originally came from Bombay. There were also Georgian girl slaves in Zanzibar.<a href="#cite_note-178">[178]</a> Egypt and Hejaz were also the recipients of Indian women trafficked via Aden and Goa.<a href="#cite_note-179">[179]</a><a href="#cite_note-180">[180]</a> Since Britain banned the slave trade in its colonies, 19th century British ruled Aden was no longer a recipient of slaves and the slaves sent from Ethiopia to Arabia were shipped to Hejaz instead.<a href="#cite_note-181">[181]</a> Eunuchs, female concubines and male labourers were the occupations of slaves sent from Ethiopia to Jidda and other parts of Hejaz.<a href="#cite_note-182">[182]</a> The southwest and southern parts of Ethiopia supplied most of the girls being exported by Ethiopian slave traders to India and Arabia.<a href="#cite_note-183">[183]</a> Female and male slaves from Ethiopia made up the main supply of slaves to India and the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-184">[184]</a> <a href="/wiki/Raoul_du_Bisson" title="Raoul du Bisson">Raoul du Bisson</a> was traveling down the Red Sea when he saw the chief black eunuch of the <a href="/wiki/Sharif_of_Mecca" title="Sharif of Mecca">Sharif of Mecca</a> being brought to Constantinople for trial for impregnating a <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">Circassian concubine</a> of the Sharif and having sex with his entire harem of Circassian and Georgian women. The chief black eunuch was not castrated correctly so he was still able to impregnate and the women were drowned as punishment.<a href="#cite_note-185">[185]</a><a href="#cite_note-186">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-187">[a]</a> 12 Georgian women were shipped to replace the drowned concubines.<a href="#cite_note-Bisson_1868_282–3-188">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_Central_Asia">Slavery in Central Asia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Slavery in Central Asia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Bukhara_slave_trade" title="Bukhara slave trade">Bukhara slave trade</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave trade</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persian_slave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Persian_slave.jpg/220px-Persian_slave.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Persian_slave.jpg/330px-Persian_slave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Persian_slave.jpg/440px-Persian_slave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1925" data-file-height="1273" /></a><figcaption>Persian slave in the <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a>, 16th century. Painting made in the 19th century</figcaption></figure> Central Asian Sunni Kazakhs, Sunni Karakalpaks, Sunni Uzbeks and Sunni Turkmen would raid Shia <a href="/wiki/Hazaras" title="Hazaras">Hazaras</a> in <a href="/wiki/Hazarajat" title="Hazarajat">Hazarajat</a> and Shia Persians living in <a href="/wiki/Khorasan_province" title="Khorasan province">Khorasan province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Qajar" class="mw-redirect" title="Qajar">Qajar</a> Iran and Christian Russian and <a href="/wiki/Volga_German" class="mw-redirect" title="Volga German">Volga German</a> settlers in areas of Russia for slaves and sell them in markets of the <a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Bukhara" title="Emirate of Bukhara">Emirate of Bukhara</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khanate of Khiva</a> and <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Kokand" title="Khanate of Kokand">Khanate of Kokand</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[188]</a> Muslim prisoners of Turkmen were coerced into admitting to heterodoxy by their Turkmen masters who justified enslaving fellow Muslims.<a href="#cite_note-auto-110">[110]</a> Prior to the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Geok_Tepe" title="Battle of Geok Tepe">Battle of Geok Tepe</a> in January 1881 and subsequent conquest of Merv in 1884, the Turkmen "retained the condition of predatory, horse-riding nomads, who were greatly feared by their neighbours as 'man-stealing Turks.' Until subjugated by the Russians, the Turkmens were a warlike people, who conquered their neighbours and regularly captured ethnic Persians for sale at the <a href="/wiki/Khivan_slave_trade" title="Khivan slave trade">Khivan slave market</a>. It was their boast that not one Persian had crossed their frontier except with a rope round his neck."<a href="#cite_note-turanians-190">[189]</a> Oirats were given as slaves to the Turfani Turkic Muslims of Emin Khoja by the Qing during the Qing conquest of the Dzungars.<a href="#cite_note-191">[190]</a> Hui Muslims were targeted in slave raids by Muslims of the Kokand Khanate.<a href="#cite_note-192">[191]</a> Enslavement didn't depend on religious status but political allegiance, since Turkic Muslim Ishaqi and Turfanis who served the Qing against fellow Turkic Muslim Afaqi and Khokandis were also enslaved by their fellow Turkic Muslims led by Jahangir.<a href="#cite_note-193">[192]</a> Kashgari Muslims purchased Ghalcha Mountain Tajiks as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-194">[193]</a> Two Uyghurs named Isma'il and Adir were sentenced to be sliced to death in public in 1841 after killing their Xibo master Dasanbu while they were sentenced to penal slavery in Ili. Isma'il was a thief and Adir was the son of a rebel with Jahanir Khoja in 1828. Adir was originally the slave of a Xibe named Dasangga before Dasanbu.<a href="#cite_note-195">[194]</a> Persians in northeast Iran were targeted by Turkmen slave raiders.<a href="#cite_note-196">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-197">[196]</a> <a href="#cite_note-198">[197]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kazakh_Khanate_slave_trade_on_Russian_settlement">Kazakh Khanate slave trade on Russian settlement</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Kazakh Khanate slave trade on Russian settlement">edit</a>]</div> During the 18th century, raids by Kazakhs on Russia's territory of <a href="/wiki/Orenburg" title="Orenburg">Orenburg</a> were common; the Kazakhs captured many Russians and sold them as slaves in the Central Asian market. The <a href="/wiki/Volga_Germans" title="Volga Germans">Volga Germans</a> were also victims of Kazakh raids; they were ethnic Germans living along the <a href="/wiki/River_Volga" class="mw-redirect" title="River Volga">River Volga</a> in the region of southeastern <a href="/wiki/European_Russia" title="European Russia">European Russia</a> around <a href="/wiki/Saratov" title="Saratov">Saratov</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 1717, 3,000 Russian slaves, men, women, and children, were sold in <a href="/wiki/Khanate_of_Khiva" title="Khanate of Khiva">Khiva</a> by Kazakh and Kyrgyz tribesmen.<a href="#cite_note-199">[198]</a> In 1730, the Kazakhs' frequent raids into Russian lands were a constant irritant and resulted in the enslavement of many of the Tsar's subjects, who were sold on the Kazakh steppe.<a href="#cite_note-200">[199]</a> In 1736, urged on by Kirilov, the Kazakhs of the Lesser and Middle Hordes launched raids into Bashkir lands, killing or capturing many Bashkirs in the Siberian and Nogay districts.<a href="#cite_note-201">[200]</a> In 1743, an order was given by the senate in response to the failure to defend against the Kazakh attack on a Russian settlement, which resulted in 14 Russians killed, 24 wounded. In addition, 96 <a href="/wiki/Cossack" class="mw-redirect" title="Cossack">Cossacks</a> were captured by Kazakhs.<a href="#cite_note-202">[201]</a> In 1755, Nepliuev tried to enlist Kazakh support by ending the reprisal raids and promising that the Kazakhs could keep the Bashkir women and children living among them (a long-standing point of contention between Nepliuev and Khan Nurali of the Junior Jüz).<a href="#cite_note-203">[202]</a> Thousands of Bashkirs would be massacred or taken captive by Kazakhs over the course of the uprising, whether in an effort to demonstrate loyalty to the Tsarist state, or as a purely opportunistic maneuver.<a href="#cite_note-204">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-205">[204]</a> In the period between 1764 and 1803, according to data collected by the Orenburg Commission, twenty Russian caravans were attacked and plundered. Kazakh raiders attacked even big caravans which were accompanied by numerous guards.<a href="#cite_note-206">[205]</a> In spring 1774, the Russians demanded the Khan return 256 Russians captured by a recent Kazakh raid.<a href="#cite_note-google6-207">[206]</a> In summer 1774, when Russian troops in the Kazan region were suppressing the <a href="/wiki/Pugachev%27s_Rebellion" title="Pugachev's Rebellion">rebellion</a> led by the Cossack leader <a href="/wiki/Pugachev" class="mw-redirect" title="Pugachev">Pugachev</a>, the Kazakhs launched more than 240 raids and captured many Russians and herds along the border of <a href="/wiki/Orenburg" title="Orenburg">Orenburg</a>.<a href="#cite_note-google6-207">[206]</a> In 1799, the biggest Russian caravan which was plundered at that time lost goods worth 295,000 rubles.<a href="#cite_note-google7-208">[207]</a> By 1830, the Russian government estimated that two hundred Russians were kidnapped and sold into slavery in Khiva every year.<a href="#cite_note-209">[208]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Slavery_in_the_Maghreb">Slavery in the Maghreb</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Slavery in the Maghreb">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Slavery in Algeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Slavery in Libya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Slavery in Egypt</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Slavery in Tunisia</a></div> When <a href="/wiki/Amr_ibn_al-As" title="Amr ibn al-As">Amr ibn al-As</a> conquered Tripoli in 643, he forced the Jewish and Christian Berbers to give their wives and children as slaves to the Arab army as part of their jizya.<a href="#cite_note-210">[209]</a><a href="#cite_note-211">[210]</a> <a href="/wiki/Uqba_ibn_Nafi" title="Uqba ibn Nafi">Uqba ibn Nafi</a> would often enslave for himself (and to sell to others) countless Berber girls, "the likes of which no one in the world had ever seen."<a href="#cite_note-212">[211]</a> The Muslim historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abd_al-Hakam" title="Ibn Abd al-Hakam">Ibn Abd al-Hakam</a> recounts that the Arab General <a href="/wiki/Hassan_ibn_al-Nu%27man" title="Hassan ibn al-Nu'man">Hassan ibn al-Nu'man</a> would often abduct "young, female Berber slaves of unparalled beauty, some of which were worth a thousand dinars." Al-Hakam confirms that up to 150,000 slaves were captured by <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a> and his son and nephew during the conquest of North Africa. In <a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangier</a>, <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a> enslaved all of the Berber inhabitants. Musa sacked a fortress near <a href="/wiki/Kairouan" title="Kairouan">Kairouan</a> and took with him all the children as slaves.<a href="#cite_note-213">[212]</a> The number of Berbers enslaved "amounted to a number never before heard of in any of the countries subject to the rule of Islam" up to that time. As a result, "most of the African cities were depopulated [and] the fields remained without cultivation." Even so, Musa "never ceased pushing his conquests until he arrived before <a href="/wiki/Tangier" title="Tangier">Tangiers</a>, the citadel of their [Berbers’] country and the mother of their cities, which he also besieged and took, obliging its inhabitants to embrace Islam."<a href="#cite_note-214">[213]</a> The historian Pascual de Gayangos observed: "Owing to the system of warfare adopted by the Arabs in those times, it is not improbable that the number of captives here specified fell into Musa's hands. It appears both from Christian and Arabian authorities that populous towns were not infrequently besieged and their inhabitants, amounting to thousands, led into captivity."<a href="#cite_note-215">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-216">[215]</a> Successive Muslim rulers of north Africa continued to attack and enslave the berbers en masse. Historian <a href="/wiki/Hugh_N._Kennedy" title="Hugh N. Kennedy">Hugh Kennedy</a> says that "The Islamic Jihad looks uncomfortably like a giant slave trade"<a href="#cite_note-217">[216]</a> Arab chronicles record vast numbers of Berber slaves taken, especially in the accounts of <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a>, who became the governor of Africa in 689, and "who was cruel and ruthless against any tribe that opposed the tenets of the Muslim faith, but generous and lenient to those who converted"<a href="#cite_note-218">[217]</a><a href="#cite_note-Open_Road_Media-219">[218]</a> Muslim Historian <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Qutaybah" title="Ibn Qutaybah">Ibn Qutaybah</a> recounts <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a> waging battles of extermination" against the Berbers and how he "killed myriads of them and made a surprising number of prisoners".<a href="#cite_note-Open_Road_Media-219">[218]</a> According to the historian As-sadfi, the number of Berber slaves taken by <a href="/wiki/Musa_ibn_Nusayr" title="Musa ibn Nusayr">Musa ibn Nusayr</a> was greater than in any of the previous Islamic conquests:<a href="#cite_note-220">[219]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Musa went out against the Berbers, and pursued them far into their native deserts, leaving wherever he went traces of his passage, killing numbers of them, taking thousands of prisoners, and carrying on the work of havoc and destruction. When the nations inhabiting the dreary plains of Africa saw what had befallen the Berbers of the coast and of the interior, they hastened to ask for peace and place themselves under the obedience of Musa, whom they solicited to enlist them in the ranks of his army</blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="19th_and_20th_centuries">19th and 20th centuries</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: 19th and 20th centuries">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Slavery in Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_conquest_of_Sudan_(1820%E2%80%931824)#Sudanese_slaves_in_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824)">Egyptian conquest of Sudan (1820–1824) § Sudanese slaves in Egypt</a></div> The strong abolitionist movement in the 19th century in England and later in other <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western countries</a> influenced slavery in Muslim lands. By 1870, <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a> had been at least formally banned in most areas of the world, with the exception of Muslim territories in the Middle East, in Caucasus, Africa, and the Gulf.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p.16-221">[220]</a> While slavery was by the 1870s viewed as morally unacceptable in the West, slavery was not considered to be immoral in the Muslim world since it was an institution recognized in the Quran and morally justified under the guise of warfare against non-Muslims, and non-Muslims were kidnapped and enslaved by Muslims around the Muslim world: in the Balkans, the Caucasus, the Baluchistan, India, South West Asia and the Philippines.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p.16-221">[220]</a> Slaves where marched in shackles to the coasts of Sudan, Ethiopia and Somali, placed upon <a href="/wiki/Dhow" title="Dhow">dhows</a> and trafficked <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">across the Indian Ocean</a> to the Gulf or Aden, or <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">across the Red Sea</a> to Arabia and Aden, while weak slaves being thrown in the sea; or across the Sahara desert via the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a> to the Nile, while dying from exposure and swollen feet.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p.16-221">[220]</a> Ottoman anti slavery laws where not enforced in the late 19th-century, particularly not in Hejaz; the first attempt to ban the Red Sea slave trade in 1857 resulted in a rebellion in the Hejaz Province, which resulted in Hejza exempted from the ban.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p._17-222">[221]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Ottoman_Convention_of_1880" title="Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880">Anglo-Ottoman Convention of 1880</a> formally banned the Red Sea slave trade, but it was not enforced in the Ottoman Provinces in the Arabian Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p._17-222">[221]</a> In the late 19th-century, the <a href="/wiki/Sultan_of_Morocco" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan of Morocco">Sultan of Morocco</a> stated to Western diplomats that it was impossible for him to ban slavery because such a ban would not be enforcable, but the British asked him to ensure that the slave trade in Morocco would at least be handled discreet and away from the eyes of foreign witnesses.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p._17-222">[221]</a> Appalling loss of life and hardships often resulted from the processes of acquisition and transportation of slaves to Muslim lands and this drew the attention of European opponents of slavery. Continuing pressure from European countries eventually overcame the strong resistance of religious conservatives who were holding that forbidding what God permits is just as great an offense as to permit what God forbids. Slavery, in their eyes, was "authorized and regulated by the holy law".<a href="#cite_note-223">[222]</a> Even masters persuaded of their own piety and benevolence sexually exploited their concubines, without a thought of whether this constituted a violation of their humanity.<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:5-224">[223]</a> There were also many pious Muslims who refused to have slaves and persuaded others not to do so.<a href="#cite_note-225">[224]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] Eventually, the Ottoman Empire's orders against the traffic of slaves were issued and put into effect.<a href="#cite_note-Lewis1-226">[225]</a> According to Brockopp, in the 19th century, "Some authorities made blanket pronouncements against slavery, arguing that it violated the Qurʾānic ideals of equality and freedom. The great slave markets of Cairo were closed down at the end of the nineteenth century and even conservative Qurʾān interpreters continue to regard slavery as opposed to Islamic principles of justice and equality."<a href="#cite_note-Brockopp-28">[28]</a> Slavery in the forms of carpet weavers, sugarcane cutters, <a href="/wiki/Child_camel_jockeys" class="mw-redirect" title="Child camel jockeys">camel jockeys</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sexual_slavery" title="Sexual slavery">sex slaves</a>, and even chattel exists even today in some Muslim countries (though some have questioned the use of the term slavery as an accurate description).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok20013-227">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-EHR-228">[227]</a> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/250px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/375px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg/500px-Inspecting_New_Arrivals_by_Giulio_Rosati_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1430" data-file-height="854" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Giulio_Rosati" title="Giulio Rosati">Giulio Rosati</a>, Inspection of New Arrivals, 1858–1917, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_beauties" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian beauties">Circassian beauties</a></figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg/200px-Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg/300px-Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg/400px-Meccan_merchant_and_his_Circassian_slave.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1309" data-file-height="1685" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Mecca" title="Mecca">Meccan</a> merchant (right) and his Circassian slave, between 1886 and 1887</figcaption></figure> According to a March 1886 article in The New York Times, the Ottoman Empire allowed a slave trade in girls to thrive during the late 1800s, while publicly denying it. Girl sexual slaves sold in the Ottoman Empire were mainly of three ethnic groups: <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian">Syrian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nubian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nubian people">Nubian</a>. Circassian girls were described by the American journalist as fair and light-skinned. They were frequently sent by Circassian leaders as gifts to the Ottomans. They were the most expensive, reaching up to 500 <a href="/wiki/Turkish_lira" title="Turkish lira">Turkish lira</a> and the most popular with the Turks. The next most popular slaves were Syrian girls, with "dark eyes and hair", and light brown skin. Their price could reach to thirty lira. They were described by the American journalist as having "good figures when young". Throughout coastal regions in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, Syrian girls were sold. The New York Times journalist stated Nubian girls were the cheapest and least popular, fetching up to 20 lira.<a href="#cite_note-229">[228]</a> Murray Gordon said that, unlike Western societies which developed anti-slavery movements, no such organizations developed in Muslim societies. In Muslim politics, the state interpreted Islamic law. This then extended legitimacy to the traffic in slaves.<a href="#cite_note-230">[229]</a> Writing about the Arabia he visited in 1862, the English traveler W. G. Palgrave met large numbers of slaves. The effects of slave concubinage were apparent in the number of persons of mixed race and in the emancipation of slaves he found to be common.<a href="#cite_note-231">[230]</a> Charles Doughty, writing about 25 years later, made similar reports.<a href="#cite_note-232">[231]</a> According to British explorer (and abolitionist) <a href="/wiki/Samuel_Baker" title="Samuel Baker">Samuel Baker</a>, who visited Khartoum in 1862 six decades after the British had declared slave trade illegal, slave trade was the industry "that kept Khartoum going as a bustling town". From Khartoum slave raiders attacked African villages to the south, looting and destroying so that "surviving inhabitants would be forced to collaborate with slavers on their next excursion against neighboring villages," and taking back captured women and young adults to sell in slave markets.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok20015-233">[232]</a> In the 1800s, the slave trade from Africa to the Islamic countries picked up significantly when the European slave trade dropped around the 1850s only to be ended with European colonisation of Africa around 1900.<a href="#cite_note-Manning-1990-234">[233]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] In 1814, Swiss explorer <a href="/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Burckhardt" title="Johann Ludwig Burckhardt">Johann Burckhardt</a> wrote of his travels in <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, where he saw the practice of slave trading: "I frequently witnessed scenes of the most shameless indecency, which the traders, who were the principal actors, only laughed at. I may venture to state, that very few female slaves who have passed their tenth year, reach Egypt or Arabia in a state of virginity."<a href="#cite_note-235">[234]</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Richard Francis Burton</a> wrote about the <a href="/wiki/Medina" title="Medina">Medina</a> slaves, during his 1853 <a href="/wiki/Haj" class="mw-redirect" title="Haj">Haj</a>, "a little black boy, perfect in all his points, and tolerably intelligent, costs about a thousand <a href="/wiki/Piastre" title="Piastre">piastres</a>; girls are dearer, and <a href="/wiki/Eunuch" title="Eunuch">eunuchs</a> fetch double that sum." In <a href="/wiki/Zanzibar" title="Zanzibar">Zanzibar</a>, Burton found slaves owning slaves.<a href="#cite_note-er-236">[235]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavezanzibar2.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slavezanzibar2.JPG/180px-Slavezanzibar2.JPG" decoding="async" width="180" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slavezanzibar2.JPG/270px-Slavezanzibar2.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Slavezanzibar2.JPG/360px-Slavezanzibar2.JPG 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>A photograph of a slave boy in the <a href="/wiki/Sultanate_of_Zanzibar" title="Sultanate of Zanzibar">Sultanate of Zanzibar</a>. 'An Arab master's punishment for a slight offence.' <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1890. From at least the 1860s onwards, photography was a powerful weapon in the abolitionist arsenal.</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a> wrote of the slave trade in the African Great Lakes region, which he visited in the mid-nineteenth century: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">To overdraw its evils is a simple impossibility ... 19th June 1866 – We passed a woman tied by the neck to a tree and dead, the people of the country explained that she had been unable to keep up with the other slaves in a gang, and her master had determined that she should not become anyone's property if she recovered. 26th June. – ...We passed a slave woman shot or stabbed through the body and lying on the path: a group of men stood about a hundred yards off on one side, and another of the women on the other side, looking on; they said an Arab who passed early that morning had done it in anger at losing the price he had given for her, because she was unable to walk any longer. 27th June 1866 – To-day we came upon a man dead from starvation, as he was very thin. One of our men wandered and found many slaves with slave-sticks on, abandoned by their masters from want of food; they were too weak to be able to speak or say where they had come from; some were quite young.<a href="#cite_note-237">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-Appgat-238">[237]</a><a href="#cite_note-239">[238]</a></blockquote><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The strangest disease I have seen in this country seems really to be broken-heartedness, and it attacks free men who have been captured and made slaves... Twenty one were unchained, as now safe; however all ran away at once; but eight with many others still in chains, died in three days after the crossing. They described their only pain in the heart, and placed the hand correctly on the spot, though many think the organ stands high up in the breast-bone.<a href="#cite_note-240">[239]</a></blockquote>Zanzibar was once East Africa's main slave-trading port, and under Omani Arabs in the 19th century as many as 50,000 slaves were passing through the city each year.<a href="#cite_note-241">[240]</a> Livingstone wrote in a letter to the editor of the <a href="/wiki/New_York_Herald" title="New York Herald">New York Herald</a>:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">And if my disclosures regarding the terrible Ujijian slavery should lead to the suppression of the East Coast slave trade, I shall regard that as a greater matter by far than the discovery of all the Nile sources together.<a href="#cite_note-Stanley-242">[241]</a></blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Egyptian_Slave_Trade_Convention" title="Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention">Anglo-Egyptian Slave Trade Convention</a> of 1877 officially banned the <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">slave trade from Sudan</a>, thus formally putting an end on the import of slaves from <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-243">[242]</a> which was at this point the main supplier of slaves to <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">slavery in Egypt</a>. This ban was followed in 1884 by a ban on the import of white slave girls; this law was directed against the import of white women (mainly <a href="/wiki/Circassian_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian slave trade">from Caucasus</a>), which were the preferred choice for harem concubines among the Egyptian upper class.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceB-243">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-244">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abolition">Abolition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Abolition">edit</a>]</div> One of the early calls for abolition of the Arab slave trade in Africa was issued in the 19th century by the French Catholic cardinal, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Lavigerie" title="Charles Lavigerie">Charles Lavigerie</a>.<a href="#cite_note-245">[244]</a> European political leaders in the <a href="/wiki/Berlin_Conference" title="Berlin Conference">Berlin Conference of 1884–1885</a> cited the slave trade as reason for colonial efforts in the region.<a href="#cite_note-246">[245]</a> This call was due in part for the need to gain public acceptance of the colonial efforts.<a href="#cite_note-DS-247">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-Craven-248">[247]</a> The conference resolved to end slavery by African and Islamic powers. Thus, an international prohibition of the slave trade throughout their respected spheres was signed by the European members. In his novella <a href="/wiki/Heart_of_Darkness" title="Heart of Darkness">Heart of Darkness</a>, <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Conrad" title="Joseph Conrad">Joseph Conrad</a> sarcastically referred to one of the participants at the conference, the <a href="/wiki/International_Association_of_the_Congo" title="International Association of the Congo">International Association of the Congo</a> (also called "International Congo Society"), as "the International Society for the Suppression of Savage Customs".<a href="#cite_note-HistoricalContext-249">[248]</a><a href="#cite_note-250">[249]</a> The first name of this Society had been the "<a href="/wiki/International_African_Association" title="International African Association">International Association for the Exploration and Civilization of Central Africa</a>". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th-century:_suppression,_abolition_and_prohibition">20th-century: suppression, abolition and prohibition</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: 20th-century: suppression, abolition and prohibition">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism#National_abolition_dates" title="Abolitionism">Abolitionism § National abolition dates</a></div> At <a href="/wiki/Istanbul" title="Istanbul">Istanbul</a>, the sale of black and <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> women was conducted openly, even well past the granting of the Constitution in 1908.<a href="#cite_note-Lev85-251">[250]</a> Throughout the 19th and 20th centuries, slavery gradually became outlawed and suppressed in Muslim lands, due to a combination of pressures exerted by Western nations such as Britain and France, internal pressure from Islamic abolitionist movements, and economic pressures.<a href="#cite_note-eois-11">[11]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Brussels_Anti-Slavery_Conference_1889%E2%80%9390" title="Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90">Brussels Anti-Slavery Conference 1889–90</a> had addressed the slavery in a semi-global level and concluded with the <a href="/wiki/Brussels_Conference_Act_of_1890" title="Brussels Conference Act of 1890">Brussels Conference Act of 1890</a>, which was revised by the <a href="/wiki/Convention_of_Saint-Germain-en-Laye_1919" title="Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919">Convention of Saint-Germain-en-Laye 1919</a>. When the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> was founded, they conducted an international investigation of slavery via the <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a> (TSC), and a convention was drawn up to hasten the total abolition of slavery and the slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-252">[251]</a> The <a href="/wiki/1926_Slavery_Convention" title="1926 Slavery Convention">1926 Slavery Convention</a>, which was founded upon the investigation of the TSC of the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a>, was a turning point in banning global slavery. By this point in time, chattel slavery was mainly legal in the Muslim world. By the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Jeddah_(1927)" title="Treaty of Jeddah (1927)">Treaty of Jeddah</a>, May 1927 (art.7), concluded between the British Government and <a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sa%27ud" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn Sa'ud">Ibn Sa'ud</a> (King of <a href="/wiki/Nejd" class="mw-redirect" title="Nejd">Nejd</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Hijaz" class="mw-redirect" title="Hijaz">Hijaz</a>) it was agreed to suppress the <a href="/wiki/Slave_trade_in_Saudi_Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave trade in Saudi Arabia">slave trade in Saudi Arabia</a>, mainly supplied by the ancient <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>. In the 1932, the League of Nations asked all member countries to include anti-slavery commitment in any treaties they made with all Arab states.<a href="#cite_note-253">[252]</a> In 1932 the League formed the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (CES) to review the result and enforcement of the 1926 Slavery Convention, which resulted in a new international investigation under the first permanent slavery committee, the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> (ACE) in 1934–1939.<a href="#cite_note-254">[253]</a> In the 1930s, Saudi Arabia and the rest of the Arabian Peninsula was the main center of legal chattel slavery. By a decree issued in 1936, the importation of slaves into Saudi Arabia was prohibited unless it could be proved that they were slaves at the treaty date.<a href="#cite_note-Lev85-251">[250]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Slavery in Bahrain</a> was abolished by efforts of George Maxwell of the ACE in 1937. Article 4 of the <a href="/wiki/Universal_Declaration_of_Human_Rights" title="Universal Declaration of Human Rights">Universal Declaration of Human Rights</a>, adopted in 1948 by the <a href="/wiki/UN_General_Assembly" class="mw-redirect" title="UN General Assembly">UN General Assembly</a>, explicitly banned slavery. After <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">chattel slavery</a> was formally abolished by law in almost the entire world, with the exception of the Arabian Peninsula and some parts of Africa. Chattel slavery was still legal <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">in Yemen</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Trucial_States" title="Slavery in the Trucial States">the Trucial States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">in Oman</a>, and slaves were supplied to the Arabian Peninsula via the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a>. At this point in time, <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a> campaigned against the chattel slavery in the Arabian Peninsula and urged the UN to form a committee to address the issue. When the League of Nations was succeeded by the United Nations (UN) after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a>, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Wilton_Wood_Greenidge" title="Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge">Charles Wilton Wood Greenidge</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Slavery_International" title="Anti-Slavery International">Anti-Slavery International</a> worked for the UN to continue the investigation of global slavery conducted by the ACE of the League, and in February 1950 the Ad hoc <a href="/wiki/Committee_on_Slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Committee on Slavery">Committee on Slavery</a> of the United Nations was inaugurated,<a href="#cite_note-255">[254]</a> which ultimately resulted in the introduction of the <a href="/wiki/Supplementary_Convention_on_the_Abolition_of_Slavery" title="Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery">Supplementary Convention on the Abolition of Slavery</a> of 1956.<a href="#cite_note-256">[255]</a> At this time, Saudi Arabia and the other states in the Arabian Peninsula were put under growing international pressure. In 1962, all slavery practices or trafficking in Saudi Arabia was prohibited.<a href="#cite_note-257">[256]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[257]</a> By 1969, it could be observed that most Muslim states had abolished slavery, although it existed in the deserts of Iraq bordering Arabia and it still flourished in Saudi Arabia, <a href="/wiki/Yemen" title="Yemen">Yemen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oman" title="Oman">Oman</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lev85-251">[250]</a> Slavery was not formally abolished <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">in Yemen</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">and Oman</a> until the following year.<a href="#cite_note-259">[258]</a> The last nation to formally enact the abolition of slavery practice and slave trafficking was <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">the Islamic Republic of Mauritania</a> in 1981.<a href="#cite_note-260">[259]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Second_Sudanese_Civil_War" title="Second Sudanese Civil War">Second Sudanese Civil War</a> (1983–2005) people were taken into slavery; estimates of abductions range from 14,000 to 200,000.<a href="#cite_note-261">[260]</a> <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Slavery in Mauritania</a> was legally abolished by laws passed in 1905, 1961, and 1981.<a href="#cite_note-262">[261]</a> It was finally criminalized in August 2007.<a href="#cite_note-263">[262]</a> It is estimated that up to 600,000 Mauritanians, or 20% of <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>'s population, are currently[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers">when?</a>] in conditions which some consider to be "slavery", namely, many of them used as <a href="/wiki/Debt_bondage" title="Debt bondage">bonded labour</a> due to poverty.<a href="#cite_note-264">[263]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Slavery_in_the_late_20th_and_21st-century_Muslim_world">Slavery in the late 20th and 21st-century Muslim world</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Slavery in the late 20th and 21st-century Muslim world">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Kafala_system" title="Kafala system">Kafala system</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_modern_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in modern Africa">Slavery in modern Africa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Middle_East" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the Middle East">Slavery in the Middle East</a></div> The issue of slavery in the Islamic world in modern times is controversial. Critics argue there is hard evidence of its existence and destructive effects. According to the Oxford Dictionary of Islam, slavery in central Islamic lands has been "virtually extinct" since the mid-20th century, though there are reports indicating that it is still practiced in some areas of <a href="/wiki/Sudan" title="Sudan">Sudan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Somalia" title="Somalia">Somalia</a> as a result of warfare.<a href="#cite_note-265">[264]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chattel_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Chattel slavery">Chattel slavery</a> survived longest in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>. After the <a href="/wiki/Atlantic_slave_trade" title="Atlantic slave trade">Trans-Atlantic slave trade</a> had been suppressed, the ancient <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_slave_trade" title="Trans-Saharan slave trade">Trans-Saharan slave trade</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Ocean_slave_trade" title="Indian Ocean slave trade">Indian Ocean slave trade</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea_slave_trade" title="Red Sea slave trade">Red Sea slave trade</a> continued to traffic slaves from the African continent to the Middle East. During the 20th century, the issue of chattel slavery was addressed and investigated globally by international bodies created by the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> and the United Nations, such as the <a href="/wiki/Temporary_Slavery_Commission" title="Temporary Slavery Commission">Temporary Slavery Commission</a> in 1924–1926, the <a href="/wiki/Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Committee of Experts on Slavery">Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> in 1932, and the <a href="/wiki/Advisory_Committee_of_Experts_on_Slavery" title="Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery">Advisory Committee of Experts on Slavery</a> in 1934–1939.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003-266">[265]</a> By the time of the UN <a href="/wiki/Ad_Hoc_Committee_on_Slavery" title="Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery">Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery</a> in 1950–1951, legal chattel slavery still existed only in the Arabian Peninsula: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">in Oman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">in Qatar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">in Saudi Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_Trucial_States" title="Slavery in the Trucial States">in the Trucial States</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">in Yemen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003-266">[265]</a> Legal chattel slavery was finally abolished in the Arabian Peninsula in the 1960s: Saudi Arabia and Yemen in 1962, in Dubai in 1963, and Oman as the last in 1970.<a href="#cite_note-Miers,_S._2003-266">[265]</a> The last country to abolish slavery, <a href="/wiki/Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">did so in 1981</a>. The 1981 ban on slavery was not enforced in practice, as there were no legal mechanisms to prosecute those who used slaves, these only came in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-NYER-2014-267">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-268">[267]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamist_opinions">Islamist opinions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Islamist opinions">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/International_propagation_of_Salafism_and_Wahhabism" class="mw-redirect" title="International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism">International propagation of Salafism and Wahhabism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects of Islam</a></div> Earlier in the 20th century, prior to the "reopening" of slavery by <a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Muslim scholars</a> like Shaykh al-Fawzan, Islamist authors declared slavery outdated without actually clearly supporting its abolition. This has caused at least one scholar, <a href="/wiki/William_Clarence-Smith" class="mw-redirect" title="William Clarence-Smith">William Clarence-Smith</a>,<a href="#cite_note-269">[268]</a> to bemoan the "dogged refusal of <a href="/wiki/Abul_A%27la_Maududi" title="Abul A'la Maududi">Mawlana Mawdudi</a> to give up on slavery"<a href="#cite_note-CS-maududi-270">[269]</a> and the notable "evasions and silences of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Qutb" title="Muhammad Qutb">Muhammad Qutb</a>".<a href="#cite_note-271">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-CS-Qutb-272">[271]</a> <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Qutb" title="Muhammad Qutb">Muhammad Qutb</a>, brother and promoter of the Egyptian author and revolutionary <a href="/wiki/Sayyid_Qutb" title="Sayyid Qutb">Sayyid Qutb</a>, vigorously defended Islamic slavery from Western criticism, telling his audience that "Islam gave spiritual enfranchisement to slaves" and "in the early period of Islam the slave was exalted to such a noble state of humanity as was never before witnessed in any other part of the world."<a href="#cite_note-273">[272]</a> He contrasted the adultery, prostitution,<a href="#cite_note-IMRMQ41-274">[273]</a> and (what he called) "that most odious form of animalism" casual sex, found in Europe,<a href="#cite_note-275">[274]</a> with (what he called) "that clean and spiritual bond that ties a maid [i.e. slave girl] to her master in Islam."<a href="#cite_note-IMRMQ41-274">[273]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Salafi_support_for_slavery">Salafi support for slavery</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Salafi support for slavery">edit</a>]</div> In recent years, according to some scholars,<a href="#cite_note-276">[275]</a> there has been a "reopening"<a href="#cite_note-277">[276]</a> of the issue of slavery by some conservative <a href="/wiki/Salafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi">Salafi</a> Islamic scholars after its "closing" earlier in the 20th century when <a href="/wiki/Majority_Muslim_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Majority Muslim countries">Muslim countries</a> banned slavery. In 2003, Shaykh <a href="/wiki/Saleh_Al-Fawzan" title="Saleh Al-Fawzan">Saleh Al-Fawzan</a>, a member of Saudi Arabia's highest religious body, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Senior_Scholars_(Saudi_Arabia)" title="Council of Senior Scholars (Saudi Arabia)">Senior Council of Clerics</a>, issued a fatwa claiming "Slavery is a part of Islam. Slavery is part of jihad, and jihad will remain as long there is Islam."<a href="#cite_note-278">[277]</a> Muslim scholars who said otherwise were "infidels". In 2016, Shaykh al-Fawzan responded to a question about taking Yazidi women as sex slaves by reiterating that "Enslaving women in war is not prohibited in Islam", he added that those who forbid enslavement are either "ignorant or infidel".<a href="#cite_note-279">[278]</a> While Saleh Al-Fawzan's fatwa does not repeal Saudi laws against slavery,[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] the fatwa carries weight among many <a href="/wiki/Salafi" class="mw-redirect" title="Salafi">Salafi</a> Muslims. According to reformist jurist and author <a href="/wiki/Khaled_Abou_El_Fadl" title="Khaled Abou El Fadl">Khaled Abou El Fadl</a>, it "is particularly disturbing and dangerous because it effectively legitimates the trafficking in and sexual exploitation of so-called domestic workers in the Gulf region and especially Saudi Arabia."<a href="#cite_note-280">[279]</a> "Organized criminal gangs smuggle children into Saudi Arabia where they are enslaved, sometimes mutilated, and forced to work as beggars. When caught, the children are deported as illegal aliens."<a href="#cite_note-281">[280]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mauritania_and_Sudan">Mauritania and Sudan</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Mauritania and Sudan">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Slavery in Mauritania</a></div> In Mauritania slavery was abolished in the country's first constitution of 1961 after independence, and abolished yet again, by presidential decree, in July 1980. The "catch" of these abolitions was that slave ownership was not abolished. The edict "recognized the rights of owners by stipulating that they should be compensated for their loss of property". No financial payment was provided by the state, so that the abolition amounted to "little more than propaganda for foreign consumption". Religious authorities within Mauritania assailed abolition. One leader, El Hassan Ould Benyamine, imam of a mosque in Tayarat attacked it as <blockquote>"not only illegal because it is contrary to the teachings of the fundamental text of Islamic law, the Koran. The abolition also amounts to the expropriation from Muslims of their goods, goods that were acquired legally. The state, if it is Islamic, does not have the right to seize my house, my wife or my slave."<a href="#cite_note-RSIBS2001:206-15">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-282">[281]</a></blockquote> In 1994–95, a Special Rapporteur of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights documented the physical and emotional abuse of captives by the Sudanese Army and allied militia and army. The captives were "sold as slaves or forced to work under conditions amounting to slavery". The Sudanese government responded with "fury", accusing the author, Gaspar Biro of "harboring anti-Islam and Anti-Arab sentiments". In 1999, the UN Commission sent another Special Rapporteur who "also produced a detailed examination of the question of slavery incriminating the government of Sudan."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok2001xi-283">[282]</a> At least in the 1980s, slavery in Sudan was developed enough for slaves to have a market price – the price of a slave boy fluctuating between $90 and $10 in 1987 and 1988.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok20012-284">[283]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Qatar">Qatar</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Qatar">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Human_rights_issues_involving_the_2022_FIFA_World_Cup" title="Human rights issues involving the 2022 FIFA World Cup">Human rights issues involving the 2022 FIFA World Cup</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slave_Labour_ahead_of_2022_FIFA_World_Cup.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Slave_Labour_ahead_of_2022_FIFA_World_Cup.jpg/240px-Slave_Labour_ahead_of_2022_FIFA_World_Cup.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="190" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Slave_Labour_ahead_of_2022_FIFA_World_Cup.jpg/360px-Slave_Labour_ahead_of_2022_FIFA_World_Cup.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Slave_Labour_ahead_of_2022_FIFA_World_Cup.jpg/480px-Slave_Labour_ahead_of_2022_FIFA_World_Cup.jpg 2x" data-file-width="980" data-file-height="774" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Political_cartoon" title="Political cartoon">political cartoon</a> depicting <a href="/wiki/Slave_labour" class="mw-redirect" title="Slave labour">slave labour</a> in the construction of the stadiums in Qatar ahead of the <a href="/wiki/2022_FIFA_World_Cup" title="2022 FIFA World Cup">2022 FIFA World Cup</a><a href="#cite_note-Abadía_2021-285">[284]</a> (see also: <a href="/wiki/2022_FIFA_World_Cup_controversies" class="mw-redirect" title="2022 FIFA World Cup controversies">2022 FIFA World Cup controversies</a>)</figcaption></figure> The issue of migrant workers' rights in <a href="/wiki/Qatar" title="Qatar">Qatar</a> attracted greater attention since the <a href="/wiki/2022_FIFA_World_Cup" title="2022 FIFA World Cup">2022 FIFA World Cup</a> was awarded to Qatar,<a href="#cite_note-Atlantic_2022-286">[285]</a><a href="#cite_note-Reason_2022-287">[286]</a> with a 2013 investigation by <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a> newspaper claiming that many workers were denied food and water, had their identity papers taken away from them, compelled to <a href="/wiki/Forced_labor" class="mw-redirect" title="Forced labor">forced labor</a>, and that they were not paid on time or at all, making some of them effectively <a href="/wiki/Contemporary_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Contemporary slavery">slaves</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian20140218-288">[287]</a> The Guardian estimated that,<a href="#cite_note-Guardian20140218-288">[287]</a> by the time the competition would be held, without reforms of the kafala system, out of the 2 million-strong migrant workforce<a href="#cite_note-Guardian20200901-289">[288]</a> up to 4,000 workers could die due to lax safety and other causes.<a href="#cite_note-4000_may_die-290">[289]</a> These claims were based upon the fact that 522 Nepalese<a href="#cite_note-291">[290]</a> workers and over 700 Indian<a href="#cite_note-Guardian20140218-288">[287]</a> workers had died since 2010, when Qatar's bid as World Cup's host had been won, about 250 Indian workers dying each year.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-292">[291]</a> Given that there were half a million Indian workers in Qatar, the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_India" title="Government of India">Indian government</a> said that was quite a normal number of deaths.<a href="#cite_note-bbc-292">[291]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Saudi_Arabia">Saudi Arabia</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Saudi Arabia">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Slavery in Saudi Arabia</a></div> In 1962, Saudi Arabia abolished slavery officially; however, unofficial slavery is rumored to exist.<a href="#cite_note-293">[292]</a><a href="#cite_note-294">[293]</a><a href="#cite_note-295">[294]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/U.S._State_Department" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. State Department">U.S. State Department</a> as of 2005: <blockquote>Saudi Arabia is a destination for men and women from South and East Asia and East Africa trafficked for the purpose of labor exploitation, and for children from Yemen, Afghanistan, and Africa trafficking for forced begging. Hundreds of thousands of low-skilled workers from India, Indonesia, the Philippines, <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a>, Bangladesh, Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Kenya migrate voluntarily to Saudi Arabia; some fall into conditions of <a href="/wiki/Involuntary_servitude" title="Involuntary servitude">involuntary servitude</a>, suffering from physical and <a href="/wiki/Sexual_abuse" title="Sexual abuse">sexual abuse</a>, non-payment or delayed payment of wages, the withholding of travel documents, restrictions on their <a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_movement" title="Freedom of movement">freedom of movement</a> and non-consensual contract alterations. The Government of Saudi Arabia does not comply with the minimum standards for the elimination of trafficking and is not making significant efforts to do so.<a href="#cite_note-296">[295]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Algeria_and_Libya">Algeria and Libya</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Algeria and Libya">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Slavery in Algeria</a> and <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Slavery in Libya</a></div> Libya is a <a href="/wiki/European_migrant_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="European migrant crisis">major exit point</a> for African migrants heading to Europe. <a href="/wiki/International_Organization_for_Migration" title="International Organization for Migration">International Organization for Migration</a> (IOM) published a report in April 2017 showing that many of the migrants from <a href="/wiki/Sub-Saharan_Africa" title="Sub-Saharan Africa">Sub-Saharan Africa</a> heading to Europe are sold as slaves after being detained by <a href="/wiki/People_smugglers" class="mw-redirect" title="People smugglers">people smugglers</a> or militia groups. African countries south of Libya were targeted for slave trading and transferred to Libyan slave markets instead. According to the victims, the price is higher for migrants with skills like painting and tiling.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-297">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-298">[297]</a> Slaves are often <a href="/wiki/Ransom" title="Ransom">ransomed</a> to their families and – in the meantime until ransom can be paid – tortured, forced to work, sometimes to death and eventually executed or left to starve if they can't pay for too long. Women are often raped and used as <a href="/wiki/Sex_slave" class="mw-redirect" title="Sex slave">sex slaves</a> and sold to <a href="/wiki/Brothel" title="Brothel">brothels</a> and private Libyan clients.<a href="#cite_note-BBC-297">[296]</a><a href="#cite_note-Guardian-298">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-299">[298]</a> Many child migrants also suffer from abuse and <a href="/wiki/Child_rape" class="mw-redirect" title="Child rape">child rape</a> in Libya.<a href="#cite_note-300">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-301">[300]</a> In November 2017, hundreds of African migrants were being forced into slavery by human smugglers who were themselves facilitating their arrival in the country. Most of the migrants are from <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gambia" class="mw-redirect" title="Gambia">Gambia</a>. They however end up in cramped warehouses due to the crackdown by the Libyan Coast Guard, where they are held until they are ransomed or are sold for labor.<a href="#cite_note-302">[301]</a> Libyan authorities of the <a href="/wiki/Government_of_National_Accord" title="Government of National Accord">Government of National Accord</a> announced that they had opened up an investigation into the auctions.<a href="#cite_note-303">[302]</a> A human trafficker told <a href="/wiki/Al_Jazeera_Media_Network" title="Al Jazeera Media Network">Al-Jazeera</a> that hundreds of the migrants are bought and sold across the country every week.<a href="#cite_note-304">[303]</a> Dozens of African migrants headed for a new life in Europe in 2018 said they were sold for labor and trapped in slavery in Algeria.<a href="#cite_note-305">[304]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Jihadists">Jihadists</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Jihadists">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_jihadism" title="Slavery in 21st-century jihadism">Slavery in 21st-century jihadism</a></div> Militants insurgencies have raged in recent times in the Muslim world in places like the <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_territories" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian territories">Palestinian territories</a>, Syria, Chechnya, Yemen, Kashmir and Somalia, and many of them have taken <a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war">prisoners of war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-hamas-306">[305]</a> Despite Taliban fighting in Afghanistan for decades, they have never sought to enslave their war captives (as of 2019).<a href="#cite_note-hamas-306">[305]</a> The Palestinian group <a href="/wiki/Hamas" title="Hamas">Hamas</a> has held Israeli prisoners (such as <a href="/wiki/Gilad_Shalit" title="Gilad Shalit">Gilad Shalit</a>). Yet Hamas, which claims to uphold Islamic law, has also never sought to enslave its prisoners.<a href="#cite_note-hamas-306">[305]</a> However, other jihadist groups have enslaved their captives, claiming sanction from Islam. In 2014, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorist" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic terrorist">Islamic terrorist</a> groups in the Middle East (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">ISIS</a> also known as Islamic State) and Northern Nigeria (<a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a>) have not only justified the taking of slaves in war but actually enslaved women and girls. <a href="/wiki/Abubakar_Shekau" title="Abubakar Shekau">Abubakar Shekau</a>, the leader of the Nigerian extremist group <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a> said in an interview, "I shall capture people and make them slaves".<a href="#cite_note-CNNEssenceTerror-307">[306]</a> In the digital magazine <a href="/wiki/Dabiq_(magazine)" title="Dabiq (magazine)">Dabiq</a>, ISIS claimed religious justification for enslaving <a href="/wiki/Yazidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidi">Yazidi</a> women. ISIS claimed that the Yazidi are idol worshipers and their enslavement part of the old <a href="/wiki/Shariah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shariah">shariah</a> practice of <a href="/wiki/War_looting" class="mw-redirect" title="War looting">spoils of war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-308">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-309">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-310">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-311">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-312">[311]</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a> reports that <a href="/wiki/ISIS" class="mw-redirect" title="ISIS">ISIS</a> has taken "as many as 2,000 women and children" captive, selling and distributing them as sexual slaves.<a href="#cite_note-The_Economist-313">[312]</a> ISIS appealed to <a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">apocalyptic beliefs</a> and "claimed justification by a Hadith that they interpret as portraying the revival of slavery as a precursor to the end of the world."<a href="#cite_note-314">[313]</a> In response to <a href="/wiki/Boko_Haram" title="Boko Haram">Boko Haram</a>'s Quranic justification for kidnapping and enslaving people and ISIS's religious justification for enslaving <a href="/wiki/Yazidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Yazidi">Yazidi</a> women, 126 Islamic scholars from around the Muslim world signed an open letter in late September 2014 to the Islamic State's leader <a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Baghdadi" title="Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi">Abu Bakr al-Baghdadi</a>, rejecting his group's interpretations of the <a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Qur'an</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">hadith</a> to justify its actions.<a href="#cite_note-315">[314]</a><a href="#cite_note-christianpost-2014-09-25-316">[315]</a> The letter accuses the group of instigating <a href="/wiki/Fitna_(word)" title="Fitna (word)">fitna</a> – sedition – by instituting slavery under its rule in contravention of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery#Modern_interpretations" title="Islamic views on slavery">anti-slavery consensus</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">Islamic scholarly community</a>.<a href="#cite_note-OpenLetToAlBagh-317">[316]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Legacy">edit</a>]</div> The history of the slave trade has given rise to numerous debates among historians. For one thing, specialists are undecided on the number of Africans taken from their homes; this is difficult to resolve because of a lack of reliable statistics: there was no census system in medieval Africa. Archival material for the transatlantic trade in the 16th to 18th centuries may seem useful as a source, yet these record books were often falsified. Historians have to use imprecise narrative documents to make estimates which must be treated with caution: Luiz Felipe de Alencastro states that there were eight million slaves taken from Africa between the 8th and 19th centuries along the Oriental and the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Saharan_trade" title="Trans-Saharan trade">Trans-Saharan</a> routes.<a href="#cite_note-318">[317]</a> Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau has put forward a figure of 17 million African people enslaved (in the same period and from the same area) on the basis of Ralph Austen's work.<a href="#cite_note-319">[318]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Segal" title="Ronald Segal">Ronald Segal</a> estimates between 11.5 and 14 million were enslaved by the Arab slave trade.<a href="#cite_note-320">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-321">[320]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[321]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] Other estimates place it around 11.2 million.<a href="#cite_note-323">[322]</a> There has also been a considerable genetic impact on Arabs throughout the Arab world from pre-modern African and European slaves.<a href="#cite_note-324">[323]</a> <a href="/wiki/Reparations_for_slavery" title="Reparations for slavery">Reparations for slavery</a> in the Muslim world have been proposed.<a href="#cite_note-325">[324]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Primary_sources">Primary sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Primary sources">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval_Arabic_sources">Medieval Arabic sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Medieval Arabic sources">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg/220px-Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg/330px-Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg/440px-Captain_walter_croker_horror_stricken_at_algiers_1815.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="621" /></a><figcaption>An 1815 illustration of Christian slaves in <a href="/wiki/Algiers" title="Algiers">Algiers</a></figcaption></figure> These are given in chronological order. Scholars and <a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography and cartography in medieval Islam">geographers</a> from the Arab world had been travelling to Africa since the time of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> in the 7th century. <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Masudi" title="Al-Masudi">Al-Masudi</a> (died 957), Muruj adh-dhahab or <a href="/wiki/The_Meadows_of_Gold" title="The Meadows of Gold">The Meadows of Gold</a>, the reference manual for geographers and historians of the Muslim world. The author had travelled widely across the Arab world as well as the Far East.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qubi" title="Ya'qubi">Ya'qubi</a> (9th century), Kitab al-Buldan or Book of Countries</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_ben_Jacob" class="mw-redirect" title="Abraham ben Jacob">Abraham ben Jacob</a> (Ibrahim ibn Jakub) (10th century), Jewish merchant from Córdoba<a href="#cite_note-Slave_Trade-326">[325]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Bakri" title="Al-Bakri">Al-Bakri</a>, author of Kitāb al-Masālik wa'l-Mamālik or <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Roads_and_Kingdoms_(al-Bakr%C4%AB)" class="mw-redirect" title="Book of Roads and Kingdoms (al-Bakrī)">Book of Roads and Kingdoms</a>, published in Córdoba around 1068, gives us information about the <a href="/wiki/Berbers" title="Berbers">Berbers</a> and their activities; he collected eyewitness accounts on Saharan <a href="/wiki/Trade_route" title="Trade route">caravan routes</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_al-Idrisi" title="Muhammad al-Idrisi">Muhammad al-Idrisi</a> (died circa 1165), Description of Africa and Spain</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Battuta" title="Ibn Battuta">Ibn Battuta</a> (died circa 1377), Moroccan geographer who travelled to sub-Saharan Africa, to <a href="/wiki/Gao" title="Gao">Gao</a> and to <a href="/wiki/Timbuktu" title="Timbuktu">Timbuktu</a>. His principal work is called <a href="/wiki/A_Gift_to_Those_Who_Contemplate_the_Wonders_of_Cities_and_the_Marvels_of_Travelling" class="mw-redirect" title="A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling">A Gift to Those Who Contemplate the Wonders of Cities and the Marvels of Travelling</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Khaldun" title="Ibn Khaldun">Ibn Khaldun</a> (died in 1406), historian and philosopher from North Africa. Sometimes considered as the historian of Arab, Berber and Persian societies. He is the author of <a href="/wiki/Muqaddimah" title="Muqaddimah">Muqaddimah</a> or Historical Prolegomena and History of the Berbers.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Maqrizi" title="Al-Maqrizi">Al-Maqrizi</a> (died in 1442), Egyptian historian. His main contribution is his description of <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> markets.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leo_Africanus" title="Leo Africanus">Leo Africanus</a> (died circa 1548), author of Descrittione dell' Africa or Description of Africa, a rare description of Africa.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rifa%27a_al-Tahtawi" class="mw-redirect" title="Rifa'a al-Tahtawi">Rifa'a al-Tahtawi</a> (1801–1873), who translated medieval works on geography and history. His work is mostly about Muslim Egypt.</li> <li>Joseph Cuoq, Collection of Arabic sources concerning Western Africa between the 8th and 16th centuries (Paris 1975)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="European_texts_(16th–19th_centuries)">European texts (16th–19th centuries)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: European texts (16th–19th centuries)">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jo%C3%A3o_de_Castro" title="João de Castro">João de Castro</a>, Roteiro de Lisboa a Goa (1538)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Bruce" title="James Bruce">James Bruce</a>, (1730–1794), Travels to Discover the Source of the Nile (1790)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Cailli%C3%A9" title="René Caillié">René Caillié</a>, (1799–1838), Journal d'un voyage à Tombouctou</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Adams_(sailor)" title="Robert Adams (sailor)">Robert Adams</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_Narrative_of_Robert_Adams" title="The Narrative of Robert Adams">The Narrative of Robert Adams</a> (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mungo_Park_(explorer)" title="Mungo Park (explorer)">Mungo Park</a>, (1771–1806), Travels in the Interior of Africa (1816)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Ludwig_Burckhardt" title="Johann Ludwig Burckhardt">Johann Ludwig Burckhardt</a>, (1784–1817), Travels in Nubia (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Barth" title="Heinrich Barth">Heinrich Barth</a>, (1821–1865), Travels and Discoveries in North and Central Africa (1857)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Richard_Francis_Burton" title="Richard Francis Burton">Richard Francis Burton</a>, (1821–1890), The Lake Regions of Central Africa (1860)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Livingstone" title="David Livingstone">David Livingstone</a>, (1813–1873), Travel diaries (1866–1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Morton_Stanley" title="Henry Morton Stanley">Henry Morton Stanley</a>, (1841–1904), Through the Dark Continent (1878)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_sources">Other sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Other sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Historical manuscripts such as the <a href="/wiki/Tarikh_al-Sudan" title="Tarikh al-Sudan">Tarikh al-Sudan</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Adal_Sultanate" title="Adal Sultanate">Adalite</a> Futuh al-Habash, the Abyssinian <a href="/wiki/Kebra_Nagast" title="Kebra Nagast">Kebra Nagast</a>, and various Arabic and <a href="/wiki/Ajam" title="Ajam">Ajam</a> documents</li> <li>African <a href="/wiki/Oral_tradition" title="Oral tradition">oral tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kilwa_Chronicle" title="Kilwa Chronicle">Kilwa Chronicle</a> (16th century fragments)</li> <li>Numismatics: analysis of coins and of their <a href="/wiki/Trans-cultural_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-cultural diffusion">diffusion</a></li> <li>Archaeology: architecture of trading posts and of towns associated with the slave trade</li> <li>Iconography: Arab and Persian <a href="/wiki/Miniature_(illuminated_manuscript)" title="Miniature (illuminated manuscript)">miniatures</a> in major libraries</li> <li>European engravings, contemporary with the slave trade, and some more modern</li> <li>Photographs from the 19th century onward</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_concubinage_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of concubinage in the Muslim world">History of concubinage in the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">The Bible and slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic views on slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_slavery" title="History of slavery">History of slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Slavery and religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kafala_system" title="Kafala system">Kafala system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slave-owning_slaves" title="Slave-owning slaves">Slave-owning slaves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Europe_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Slavery in Europe (disambiguation)">Slavery in Europe (disambiguation)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Afghanistan" title="Slavery in Afghanistan">Slavery in Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Algeria" title="Slavery in Algeria">Slavery in Algeria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Bahrain" title="Slavery in Bahrain">Slavery in Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Egypt" title="Slavery in Egypt">Slavery in Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iran" title="Slavery in Iran">Slavery in Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Iraq" title="Slavery in Iraq">Slavery in Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Libya" title="Slavery in Libya">Slavery in Libya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Oman" title="Slavery in Oman">Slavery in Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mali" title="Slavery in Mali">Slavery in Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Mauritania" title="Slavery in Mauritania">Slavery in Mauritania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Morocco" title="Slavery in Morocco">Slavery in Morocco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Niger" title="Slavery in Niger">Slavery in Niger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">Slavery in Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Sudan" title="Slavery in Sudan">Slavery in Sudan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Tunisia" title="Slavery in Tunisia">Slavery in Tunisia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Qatar" title="Slavery in Qatar">Slavery in Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in the United Arab Emirates">Slavery in the United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_Yemen" title="Slavery in Yemen">Slavery in Yemen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_antiquity" title="Slavery in antiquity">Slavery in antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_medieval_Europe" title="Slavery in medieval Europe">Slavery in medieval Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_contemporary_Africa" title="Slavery in contemporary Africa">Slavery in contemporary Africa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr#Persecution_by_the_Quraysh,_613" title="Abu Bakr">Slaves freed by Abu Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mukataba" title="Mukataba">Mukataba</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-RSIBS2001:4-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:4_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:4_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:4_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:4_1-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:4_1-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:4_1-5">f</a> <a href="#RSIBS2001">Segal, Islam's Black Slaves, 2001</a>: p.4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Ali_2015-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ali_2015_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ali_2015_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffpost.com/entry/islam-sex-slavery_b_8004824">"The Truth About Islam and Sex Slavery History Is More Complicated Than You Think"</a>. HuffPost. 2015-08-19. Retrieved 2022-04-13.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=HuffPost&rft.atitle=The+Truth+About+Islam+and+Sex+Slavery+History+Is+More+Complicated+Than+You+Think&rft.date=2015-08-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffpost.com%2Fentry%2Fislam-sex-slavery_b_8004824&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> Clarence-Smith (2006), pp. 2–5 </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml">Slavery in Islam</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181006015406/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml">Archived</a> 2018-10-06 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. 7 September 2009. BBC. </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> Bernard Lewis, Race and Color in Islam, Harper and Yuow, 1970, quote on page 38. The brackets are displayed by Lewis. </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBacharach2008" class="citation web cs1">Bacharach, Jere (2008-09-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.blackpast.org/global-african-history/groups-organizations-global-african-history/african-military-slaves-muslim-middle-east/">"African Military Slaves in the Muslim Middle East •"</a>. Retrieved 2023-11-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=African+Military+Slaves+in+the+Muslim+Middle+East+%E2%80%A2&rft.date=2008-09-05&rft.aulast=Bacharach&rft.aufirst=Jere&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.blackpast.org%2Fglobal-african-history%2Fgroups-organizations-global-african-history%2Fafrican-military-slaves-muslim-middle-east%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> [Total of Black slave trade in the Muslim world from Sahara, Red Sea and Indian Ocean routes through the 19th century comes to an estimated 10,500,000, "a figure not far short of the 11,863,000 estimated to have been loaded onto ships during the four centuries of the Atlantic slave trade." (Paul E. Lovejoy, Transformation in Slavery (CUP, 1983). </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Raymond Mauny estimates a total of 6 million Black slaves were traded in Islam through the 20th Century, including 300,000 for part of the 20th century. (p.57, source: "Les Siecles obscurs de l'Afrique Noire (Paris: Fayard, 1970)] </li> <li id="cite_note-nyt-2015-9"><a href="#cite_ref-nyt-2015_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHOCHSCHILD2001" class="citation news cs1">HOCHSCHILD, ADAM (March 4, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/03/04/reviews/010304.04hochsct.html">"Human Cargo"</a>. New York Times. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171219112928/http://www.nytimes.com/books/01/03/04/reviews/010304.04hochsct.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 December 2017. Retrieved 1 September 2015. <q>Early on in Islam's Black Slaves, his history of slavery in the Muslim world, Ronald Segal cites some estimates. One scholar puts the rough total at 6.5 million slaves during more than a dozen centuries, and another at 10 million.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Human+Cargo&rft.date=2001-03-04&rft.aulast=HOCHSCHILD&rft.aufirst=ADAM&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F01%2F03%2F04%2Freviews%2F010304.04hochsct.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Beigbeder2006-10"><a href="#cite_ref-Beigbeder2006_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeigbeder2006" class="citation book cs1">Beigbeder, Yves (2006). Judging War Crimes and Torture: French Justice and International Criminal Tribunals and Commissions (1940–2005). <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a>: <a href="/wiki/Martinus_Nijhoff_Publishers" class="mw-redirect" title="Martinus Nijhoff Publishers">Martinus Nijhoff Publishers</a>. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15329-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-15329-5"><bdi>978-90-04-15329-5</bdi></a>. <q>Historian Roger Botte estimates that Arab slave trade of Africans until the 20th century has involved from 12 to 15 million persons, with the active participation of African leaders.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judging+War+Crimes+and+Torture%3A+French+Justice+and+International+Criminal+Tribunals+and+Commissions+%281940%E2%80%932005%29&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=Martinus+Nijhoff+Publishers&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-04-15329-5&rft.aulast=Beigbeder&rft.aufirst=Yves&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-eois-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-eois_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eois_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eois_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eois_11-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eois_11-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-eois_11-5">f</a> Brunschvig. 'Abd; <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Islam">Encyclopedia of Islam</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml">"BBC – Religions – Islam: Slavery in Islam"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181006015406/http://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-10-06. Retrieved 2015-08-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+Religions+%E2%80%93+Islam%3A+Slavery+in+Islam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Freligion%2Freligions%2Fislam%2Fhistory%2Fslavery_1.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Martin_A._Klein" title="Martin A. Klein">Martin A. Klein</a> (2002), Historical Dictionary of Slavery and Abolition, p. xxii, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0810841029" title="Special:BookSources/0810841029">0810841029</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/cairodeclaration.html">"University of Minnesota Human Rights Library"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181103121418/http://hrlibrary.umn.edu/instree/cairodeclaration.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-11-03. Retrieved 2018-02-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=University+of+Minnesota+Human+Rights+Library&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fhrlibrary.umn.edu%2Finstree%2Fcairodeclaration.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RSIBS2001:206-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:206_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:206_15-1">b</a> <a href="#RSIBS2001">Segal, Islam's Black Slaves, 1568</a>: p.206 </li> <li id="cite_note-RSIBS2001:222-16"><a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:222_16-0">^</a> <a href="#RSIBS2001">Segal, Islam's Black Slaves, 2001</a>: p.222 </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Miran, J. (2022). Red Sea Slave Trade. In Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> Emmer, P. (2005). Olivier Pétré-Grenouilleau, Les Traites Négrières: Essai d'Histoire Globale. Paris: Editions Gallimard, 2004. 468 pp. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/2-07-073499-4" title="Special:BookSources/2-07-073499-4">2-07-073499-4</a>. Itinerario, 29(2), 107–108. </li> <li id="cite_note-gak18-19"><a href="#cite_ref-gak18_19-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGakunzi2018" class="citation journal cs1">Gakunzi, David (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26500685">"The Arab-Muslim Slave Trade: Lifting the Taboo"</a>. Jewish Political Studies Review. 29 (3/4): 40–42. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0792-335X">0792-335X</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/26500685">26500685</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Jewish+Political+Studies+Review&rft.atitle=The+Arab-Muslim+Slave+Trade%3A+Lifting+the+Taboo&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3%2F4&rft.pages=40-42&rft.date=2018&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26500685%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0792-335X&rft.aulast=Gakunzi&rft.aufirst=David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F26500685&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Hogg, P. (2014). The African Slave Trade and Its Suppression: A Classified and Annotated Bibliography of Books, Pamphlets and Periodical. Routledge. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGilli-Elewy2017" class="citation journal cs1">Gilli-Elewy, Hend (February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743816001239">"On the Provenance of Slaves in Mecca during the Time of the Prophet Muhammad"</a>. International Journal of Middle East Studies. 49 (1): 164–168. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743816001239">10.1017/S0020743816001239</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7438">0020-7438</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:165061486">165061486</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=On+the+Provenance+of+Slaves+in+Mecca+during+the+Time+of+the+Prophet+Muhammad&rft.volume=49&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=164-168&rft.date=2017-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A165061486%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0020-7438&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743816001239&rft.aulast=Gilli-Elewy&rft.aufirst=Hend&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1017%252FS0020743816001239&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lewis_22-1">b</a> Lewis 1994, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html">Ch.1</a> {{Webarchive|url=<a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010401012040/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html">https://web.archive.org/web/20010401012040/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html</a> |date=2001-04-01 – "The Qur'an was promulgated in Mecca and Medina in the seventh century, and the background against which Qur'anic legislation must be seen is ancient Arabia. The Arabs practiced a form of slavery, similar to that which existed in other parts of the ancient world. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&dq=Bilal+ibn+Rabah+al-Habashi&pg=PA1323">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150905083856/https://books.google.com/books?id=DyuqdDIjaswC&pg=PA1323&dq=Bilal+ibn+Rabah+al-Habashi&hl=en&sa=X&ei=JQYUUdmuC-HN0QWIwYDIDQ&ved=0CFAQ6AEwBg#v=onepage&q=Bilal%20ibn%20Rabah%20al-Habashi&f=false">Archived</a> 2015-09-05 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_the_Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of the Qur'an">Encyclopedia of the Qur'an</a>, Slaves and Slavery </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Bilal b. Rabah, <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopedia of Islam">Encyclopedia of Islam</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> The Cambridge History of Islam (1977), p.36 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> The Palgrave Handbook of Global Slavery Throughout History. (2023). Tyskland: Springer International Publishing. 143 </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated4-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated4_27-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1990">Lewis 1990</a>, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-Brockopp-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Brockopp_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Brockopp_28-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">"Slaves and Slavery". Encyclopedia of the Quran.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slaves+and+Slavery&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Quran&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> Mendelsohn (1949) pp. 54–58 </li> <li id="cite_note-Esposito-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Esposito_30-0">^</a> John L Esposito (1998) p. 79 </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> Watt, Muhammad at Medina, 1956, p. 296 </li> <li id="cite_note-Manning1990-28-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manning1990-28_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manning1990-28_32-1">b</a> Manning (1990) p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrockelmann1960" class="citation book cs1">Grockelmann, Carl (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v5qUBunqis4C">History of the Islamic peoples</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+the+Islamic+peoples&rft.date=1960&rft.aulast=Grockelmann&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv5qUBunqis4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taef_El-Ahari_2019-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Taef_El-Ahari_2019_34-0">^</a> Taef El-Azhari, E. (2019). Queens, Eunuchs and Concubines in Islamic History, 661-1257. Storbritannien: Edinburgh University Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-L77-35"><a href="#cite_ref-L77_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevy1957">Levy 1957</a>, p. 77 </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 16. </li> <li id="cite_note-RSIBS2001:62-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:62_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:62_37-1">b</a> <a href="#RSIBS2001">Segal, Islam's Black Slaves, 2001</a>: p.62 </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen2001" class="citation web cs1">Hansen, Suzy (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070301113533/http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html">"Islam's black slaves"</a>. Salon.com book review. Salon.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.salon.com/books/int/2001/04/05/segal/index.html">the original</a> on 2007-03-01. Retrieved 2007-04-05.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Salon.com+book+review&rft.atitle=Islam%27s+black+slaves&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=Suzy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.salon.com%2Fbooks%2Fint%2F2001%2F04%2F05%2Fsegal%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> – See under 'What about eunuchs?' </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_D._Phillips_Jr.1985" class="citation book cs1">William D. Phillips Jr. (1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/15140.html">Slavery from Roman times to the early transatlantic trade</a>. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. pp. 76–7. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-1825-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-1825-1"><bdi>978-0-7190-1825-1</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024140806/http://www.upenn.edu/pennpress/book/15140.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-10-24. Retrieved 2017-07-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+from+Roman+times+to+the+early+transatlantic+trade&rft.pages=76-7&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-1825-1&rft.au=William+D.+Phillips+Jr.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.upenn.edu%2Fpennpress%2Fbook%2F15140.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Phillips-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Phillips_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Phillips_40-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_D._Phillips1985" class="citation book cs1">William D. Phillips (1985). Slavery from Roman times to the early transatlantic trade. <a href="/wiki/Manchester_University_Press" title="Manchester University Press">Manchester University Press</a>. p. 76. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-1825-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7190-1825-1"><bdi>978-0-7190-1825-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+from+Roman+times+to+the+early+transatlantic+trade&rft.pages=76&rft.pub=Manchester+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-7190-1825-1&rft.au=William+D.+Phillips&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199010-41"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis199010_41-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1990">Lewis 1990</a>, p. 10. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199042-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis199042_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1990">Lewis 1990</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-Manning2-43"><a href="#cite_ref-Manning2_43-0">^</a> Manning (1990) p.10 </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Murray Gordon, Slavery in the Arab World. New Amsterdam Press, New York, 1989. Originally published in French by Editions Robert Laffont, S.A. Paris, 1987, p. 28. </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-45"><a href="#cite_ref-:2_45-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Makrizi.)1790" class="citation book cs1">Al-Makrizi.), Ahmad (Ibn Ali (1790). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://play.google.com/books/reader?id=mqnfBjMhK6MC&pg=GBS.RA2-PA34&hl=fr">Historia regum Islamiticorum in Abyssinia</a>. Sam. et Joh. Luchtmans. pp. 33–34.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historia+regum+Islamiticorum+in+Abyssinia&rft.pages=33-34&rft.pub=Sam.+et+Joh.+Luchtmans&rft.date=1790&rft.aulast=Al-Makrizi.%29&rft.aufirst=Ahmad+%28Ibn+Ali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplay.google.com%2Fbooks%2Freader%3Fid%3DmqnfBjMhK6MC%26pg%3DGBS.RA2-PA34%26hl%3Dfr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> Pankhurst (1997) p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBraukämper2002" class="citation book cs1">Braukämper, Ulrich (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HGnyk8Pg9NgC">Islamic History and Culture in Southern Ethiopia: Collected Essays</a>. LIT Verlag Münster. p. 77. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-5671-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8258-5671-7"><bdi>978-3-8258-5671-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+History+and+Culture+in+Southern+Ethiopia%3A+Collected+Essays&rft.pages=77&rft.pub=LIT+Verlag+M%C3%BCnster&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-3-8258-5671-7&rft.aulast=Brauk%C3%A4mper&rft.aufirst=Ulrich&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHGnyk8Pg9NgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBruce,_Scott_G.2015" class="citation book cs1">Bruce, Scott G. (2015). Cluny and the Muslims of La Garde-Freinet : hagiography and the problem of Islam in medieval Europe. <a href="/wiki/Cornell_University_Press" title="Cornell University Press">Cornell University Press</a>. pp. 7, 20. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7591%2F9781501700927">10.7591/9781501700927</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5299-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8014-5299-4"><bdi>978-0-8014-5299-4</bdi></a>. <q>the Muslims of Fraxinetum were above all an entrepreneurial community that took advantage of the lawlessness of tenth-century Provence to pursue profitable enterprises like kidnapping and slave trading […] their primary economic concern: the capture of Europeans for the slave markets of the Islamic world.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cluny+and+the+Muslims+of+La+Garde-Freinet+%3A+hagiography+and+the+problem+of+Islam+in+medieval+Europe&rft.pages=7%2C+20&rft.pub=Cornell+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7591%2F9781501700927&rft.isbn=978-0-8014-5299-4&rft.au=Bruce%2C+Scott+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110725220038/http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm">"Ohio State Research News with reference to "Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters: White Slavery in the Mediterranean, the Barbary Coast, and Italy, 1500–1800" (Palgrave Macmillan)"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://researchnews.osu.edu/archive/whtslav.htm">the original</a> on 2011-07-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ohio+State+Research+News+with+reference+to+%22Christian+Slaves%2C+Muslim+Masters%3A+White+Slavery+in+the+Mediterranean%2C+the+Barbary+Coast%2C+and+Italy%2C+1500%E2%80%931800%22+%28Palgrave+Macmillan%29.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fresearchnews.osu.edu%2Farchive%2Fwhtslav.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-fcamb-50">^ <a href="#cite_ref-fcamb_50-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fcamb_50-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-fcamb_50-2">c</a> Holt et al. (1970) p. 391 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> Ingrams (1967) p.175 </li> <li id="cite_note-autogenerated1-52"><a href="#cite_ref-autogenerated1_52-0">^</a> Brunschvig. 'Abd; Encyclopedia of Islam, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELewis199062-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELewis199062_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1990">Lewis 1990</a>, p. 62. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis53-54"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis53_54-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_Lewis1992" class="citation book cs1">Bernard Lewis (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi">Race and slavery in the Middle East: an historical enquiry</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/53">53</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5"><bdi>978-0-19-505326-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+slavery+in+the+Middle+East%3A+an+historical+enquiry&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505326-5&rft.au=Bernard+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fraceslaveryinmid0000lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tlosfea-55"><a href="#cite_ref-Tlosfea_55-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalid1977" class="citation book cs1">Khalid, Abdallah (1977). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=M4QOAAAAYAAJ">The Liberation of Swahili from European Appropriation</a>. East African Literature Bureau. p. 38. Retrieved 10 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Liberation+of+Swahili+from+European+Appropriation&rft.pages=38&rft.pub=East+African+Literature+Bureau&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Khalid&rft.aufirst=Abdallah&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DM4QOAAAAYAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis2-56"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis2_56-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKevin_ReillyStephen_KaufmanAngela_Bodino2002" class="citation book cs1">Kevin Reilly; Stephen Kaufman; Angela Bodino (2002-09-30). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racismglobalread0000unse/page/52">Racism: A Global Reader</a>. M.E. Sharpe. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/racismglobalread0000unse/page/52">52–58</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1060-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7656-1060-7"><bdi>978-0-7656-1060-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Racism%3A+A+Global+Reader&rft.pages=52-58&rft.pub=M.E.+Sharpe&rft.date=2002-09-30&rft.isbn=978-0-7656-1060-7&rft.au=Kevin+Reilly&rft.au=Stephen+Kaufman&rft.au=Angela+Bodino&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fracismglobalread0000unse%2Fpage%2F52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEl_Hamel2002" class="citation journal cs1">El Hamel, Chouki (2002). "'Race', slavery and Islam in Maghribi Mediterranean thought: the question of the Haratin in Morocco". The Journal of North African Studies. 7 (3): 29–52 [39–40]. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13629380208718472">10.1080/13629380208718472</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:219625829">219625829</a>. <q>Neither in the Qur'an nor in the <a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a> is there any indication of racial difference among humankind. But as a consequence of the Arab conquests, a mutual assimilation between <a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> and the cultural and the scriptural traditions of Christian and Jewish populations occurred. Racial distinctions between humankind with reference to the <a href="/wiki/Generations_of_Noah" title="Generations of Noah">sons of Noah</a> is found in the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Babylonian Talmud</a>, a collection of rabbinic writings which dates back to the sixth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Journal+of+North+African+Studies&rft.atitle=%27Race%27%2C+slavery+and+Islam+in+Maghribi+Mediterranean+thought%3A+the+question+of+the+Haratin+in+Morocco&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=29-52+39-40&rft.date=2002&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13629380208718472&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A219625829%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=El+Hamel&rft.aufirst=Chouki&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_Lewis1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a> (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/28">Race and slavery in the Middle East: an historical enquiry</a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/28">28-34</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5"><bdi>978-0-19-505326-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+slavery+in+the+Middle+East%3A+an+historical+enquiry&rft.pages=28-34&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505326-5&rft.au=Bernard+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fraceslaveryinmid0000lewi%2Fpage%2F28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 18-19 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 40 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Lewis, Bernard</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/93">Race and Slavery in the Middle East</a>. Oxford University Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi/page/93">93</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5"><bdi>978-0-19-505326-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Slavery+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=93&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505326-5&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fraceslaveryinmid0000lewi%2Fpage%2F93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUrban2022" class="citation journal cs1">Urban, Elizabeth (2022-05-09). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/hic3.12727">"Race, gender and slavery in early Islamicate history"</a>. History Compass. 20 (5). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fhic3.12727">10.1111/hic3.12727</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1478-0542">1478-0542</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:248079344">248079344</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+Compass&rft.atitle=Race%2C+gender+and+slavery+in+early+Islamicate+history&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=5&rft.date=2022-05-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A248079344%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1478-0542&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fhic3.12727&rft.aulast=Urban&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fonlinelibrary.wiley.com%2Fdoi%2F10.1111%2Fhic3.12727&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Archived at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/varchive/youtube/20211205/p9bI_5MKdQ0">Ghostarchive</a> and the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200109192444/https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9bI_5MKdQ0">Wayback Machine</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=p9bI_5MKdQ0">"القذافي يعتذر للأفارقة علي الممارسة المخجلة للعرب في تجارة الرقيق"</a>. YouTube. 19 October 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=YouTube&rft.atitle=%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D8%B0%D8%A7%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%8A%D8%B9%D8%AA%D8%B0%D8%B1+%D9%84%D9%84%D8%A3%D9%81%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A9+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%B3%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%AE%D8%AC%D9%84%D8%A9+%D9%84%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B1%D8%A8+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D8%AA%D8%AC%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B1%D9%82%D9%8A%D9%82&rft.date=2010-10-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.youtube.com%2Fwatch%3Fv%3Dp9bI_5MKdQ0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAkhalbey2019" class="citation web cs1">Akhalbey, Francis (November 15, 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://face2faceafrica.com/article/watch-gaddafi-apologize-on-behalf-of-arabs-for-their-cruel-treatment-of-africans-during-the-arab-slave-trade">"Watch Gaddafi apologize on behalf of Arabs for their cruel treatment of Africans during the Arab slave trade"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Watch+Gaddafi+apologize+on+behalf+of+Arabs+for+their+cruel+treatment+of+Africans+during+the+Arab+slave+trade&rft.date=2019-11-15&rft.aulast=Akhalbey&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fface2faceafrica.com%2Farticle%2Fwatch-gaddafi-apologize-on-behalf-of-arabs-for-their-cruel-treatment-of-africans-during-the-arab-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConlin2009" class="citation cs2">Conlin, Joseph (2009), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?as_isbn=9780495572886">The American Past: A Survey of American History</a>, <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>, <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts" title="Massachusetts">MA</a>: Wadsworth, p. 206, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-495-57288-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-495-57288-6"><bdi>978-0-495-57288-6</bdi></a>, retrieved 10 October 2010</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+American+Past%3A+A+Survey+of+American+History&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Wadsworth&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-495-57288-6&rft.aulast=Conlin&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fas_isbn%3D9780495572886&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcDaniel1995" class="citation cs2">McDaniel, Antonio (1995), Swing low, sweet chariot: the mortality cost of colonizing Liberia in the nineteenth century, University of Chicago Press, p. 11, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55724-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-55724-3"><bdi>978-0-226-55724-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Swing+low%2C+sweet+chariot%3A+the+mortality+cost+of+colonizing+Liberia+in+the+nineteenth+century&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-226-55724-3&rft.aulast=McDaniel&rft.aufirst=Antonio&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Emery Van Donzel, "Primary and Secondary Sources for Ethiopian Historiography. The Case of Slavery and Slave-Trade in Ethiopia," in Claude Lepage, ed., Études éthiopiennes, vol I. France: Société française pour les études éthiopiennes, 1994, pp.187–88. </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJan_HogendornMarion_Johnson1986" class="citation book cs1">Jan Hogendorn; Marion Johnson (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cambridge.org/us/academic/subjects/history/regional-history-after-1500/shell-money-slave-trade">The Shell Money of the Slave Trade</a>. <a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521541107" title="Special:BookSources/9780521541107"><bdi>9780521541107</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 April 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shell+Money+of+the+Slave+Trade&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=9780521541107&rft.au=Jan+Hogendorn&rft.au=Marion+Johnson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fus%2Facademic%2Fsubjects%2Fhistory%2Fregional-history-after-1500%2Fshell-money-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoorehead1960" class="citation cs2">Moorehead, Alan (1960), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rBDHGXK1CKcC">The White Nile</a>, New York: Harper & Brothers, pp. 11–12, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780060956394" title="Special:BookSources/9780060956394"><bdi>9780060956394</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+White+Nile&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=11-12&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Brothers&rft.date=1960&rft.isbn=9780060956394&rft.aulast=Moorehead&rft.aufirst=Alan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrBDHGXK1CKcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> Please note : The numbers occurring in the source, and repeated here on Wikipedia include both Arab and European trade. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFM'bokolo1998" class="citation web cs1">M'bokolo, Elikia (April 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mondediplo.com/1998/04/02africa">"A Hundred And Fifty Years After France Abolished Slavery: The impact of the slave trade on Africa"</a>. mondediplo.com. <a href="/wiki/Le_Monde_diplomatique" title="Le Monde diplomatique">Le Monde diplomatique</a>. Retrieved 3 June 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=mondediplo.com&rft.atitle=A+Hundred+And+Fifty+Years+After+France+Abolished+Slavery%3A+The+impact+of+the+slave+trade+on+Africa&rft.date=1998-04&rft.aulast=M%27bokolo&rft.aufirst=Elikia&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmondediplo.com%2F1998%2F04%2F02africa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInternational_Association_for_the_History_of_Religions1959" class="citation cs2">International Association for the History of Religions (1959), Numen, Leiden: EJ Brill, p. 131, <q>West Africa may be taken as the country stretching from Senegal in the west, to the Cameroons in the east; sometimes it has been called the central and western Sudan, the Bilad as-Sūdan, 'Land of the Blacks', of the Arabs</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Numen&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=131&rft.pub=EJ+Brill&rft.date=1959&rft.au=International+Association+for+the+History+of+Religions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Levtzion-74"><a href="#cite_ref-Levtzion_74-0">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Nehemia_Levtzion" title="Nehemia Levtzion">Nehemia Levtzion</a>, Randall Lee Pouwels, The History of Islam in Africa, (Ohio University Press, 2000), p.255. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Pankhurst, Richard. The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century (Asmara, Eritrea: Red Sea Press, 1997), pp.416 </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.432 </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> Pankhurst. Ethiopian Borderlands, pp.59 & 435 </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPetterson2002" class="citation book cs1">Petterson, Don (2002). Revolution In Zanzibar An American's Cold War Tale. New York: Westview. p. 8.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Revolution+In+Zanzibar+An+American%27s+Cold+War+Tale&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=8&rft.pub=Westview&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Petterson&rft.aufirst=Don&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis,_B._1990_p._42-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis,_B._1990_p._42_79-0">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 42 </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 37 </li> <li id="cite_note-Labour._2016-81"><a href="#cite_ref-Labour._2016_81-0">^</a> Manufacturing and Labour. (2016). Storbritannien: Taylor & Francis. </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 40 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 60 </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Lewis, B. (1990). Race and Slavery in the Middle East: An Historical Enquiry. Storbritannien: Oxford University Press. p. 61 </li> <li id="cite_note-doi.org-86">^ <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_86-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_86-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_86-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-doi.org_86-3">d</a> Myrne, P. (2019). Slaves for Pleasure in Arabic Sex and Slave Purchase Manuals from the Tenth to the Twelfth Centuries. Journal of Global Slavery, 4(2), 196-225. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836X-00402004">https://doi.org/10.1163/2405836X-00402004</a> Cite error: The named reference "doi.org" was defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIbrahim2018" class="citation book cs1">Ibrahim, Raymond (2018). Sword and Scimitar: Fourteen Centuries of War between Islam and the West. Da Capo Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0306825552" title="Special:BookSources/978-0306825552"><bdi>978-0306825552</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sword+and+Scimitar%3A+Fourteen+Centuries+of+War+between+Islam+and+the+West&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0306825552&rft.aulast=Ibrahim&rft.aufirst=Raymond&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5qNgiv-ZOEAC&q=arabs+slavic+slaves&pg=PA316">Charlemagne, Muhammad, and the Arab Roots of Capitalism by Gene W. Heck</a>. Munich: Walter de Gruyter. 2009. p. 316. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-58450-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-58450-3"><bdi>978-3-406-58450-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charlemagne%2C+Muhammad%2C+and+the+Arab+Roots+of+Capitalism+by+Gene+W.+Heck&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=316&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-406-58450-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5qNgiv-ZOEAC%26q%3Darabs%2Bslavic%2Bslaves%26pg%3DPA316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=j-CgtWP38nsC&q=prague+slaves+castration&pg=PA72">Atlas of the Year 1000</a>. Munich: Harvard University Press. 2009. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-406-58450-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-406-58450-3"><bdi>978-3-406-58450-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+the+Year+1000&rft.place=Munich&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-3-406-58450-3&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dj-CgtWP38nsC%26q%3Dprague%2Bslaves%2Bcastration%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPackard1973" class="citation book cs1">Packard, Sidney Raymond (1973). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=T64YAAAAYAAJ&q=slavic+slaves+bari">12th century Europe: an interpretive essay</a>. p. 62.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=12th+century+Europe%3A+an+interpretive+essay&rft.pages=62&rft.date=1973&rft.aulast=Packard&rft.aufirst=Sidney+Raymond&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DT64YAAAAYAAJ%26q%3Dslavic%2Bslaves%2Bbari&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPargasRoşu2017" class="citation book cs1">Pargas, Damian Alan; Roşu, Felicia (2017-12-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wdBCDwAAQBAJ&q=arabs+slavic+slaves&pg=PA653">Critical Readings on Global Slavery (4 vols.)</a>. BRILL. pp. 653, 654. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004346611" title="Special:BookSources/9789004346611"><bdi>9789004346611</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Readings+on+Global+Slavery+%284+vols.%29&rft.pages=653%2C+654&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2017-12-07&rft.isbn=9789004346611&rft.aulast=Pargas&rft.aufirst=Damian+Alan&rft.au=Ro%C5%9Fu%2C+Felicia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwdBCDwAAQBAJ%26q%3Darabs%2Bslavic%2Bslaves%26pg%3DPA653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-A.D._Caratzas-92">^ <a href="#cite_ref-A.D._Caratzas_92-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-A.D._Caratzas_92-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFConstantelos_(Kōnstantelos)1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Constantelos (Kōnstantelos), Demetrios J. (Dēmētrios I.) (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=C0hoAAAAMAAJ&q=%22The+Arab+historian+Ibn+Battuta+relates+that+in+the+fourteenth+century+the+Turks+bought+beautiful+Greek+slave+girls+and+forced+them+to+become+prostitutes+;+each+girl+had+to+pay+a+regular+sum+to+her+master+.+Even+the+gadi+,+Muslim+judge+,+owned+%22">Poverty, Society, and Philanthropy in the Late Mediaeval Greek World</a>. Vol. 2 of Studies in the social & religious history of the mediaeval Greek world. A.D. Caratzas. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0892414014" title="Special:BookSources/0892414014"><bdi>0892414014</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Poverty%2C+Society%2C+and+Philanthropy+in+the+Late+Mediaeval+Greek+World&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=A.D.+Caratzas&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=0892414014&rft.aulast=Constantelos+%28K%C5%8Dnstantelos%29&rft.aufirst=Demetrios+J.+%28D%C4%93m%C4%93trios+I.%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DC0hoAAAAMAAJ%26q%3D%2522The%2BArab%2Bhistorian%2BIbn%2BBattuta%2Brelates%2Bthat%2Bin%2Bthe%2Bfourteenth%2Bcentury%2Bthe%2BTurks%2Bbought%2Bbeautiful%2BGreek%2Bslave%2Bgirls%2Band%2Bforced%2Bthem%2Bto%2Bbecome%2Bprostitutes%2B%3B%2Beach%2Bgirl%2Bhad%2Bto%2Bpay%2Ba%2Bregular%2Bsum%2Bto%2Bher%2Bmaster%2B.%2BEven%2Bthe%2Bgadi%2B%2C%2BMuslim%2Bjudge%2B%2C%2Bowned%2B%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> Fuad Matthew Caswell, The Slave Girls of Baghdad: The 'Qiyān' in the Early Abbasid Era (London: I. B. Tauris, 2011), pp. ix–x, 1–2. </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-94">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_94-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_94-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_94-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellMiersMiller2007" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Gwyn; Miers, Suzanne; Miller, Joseph Calder (2007). Women and slavery. Athens (Ohio): Ohio University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8214-1723-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8214-1723-2"><bdi>978-0-8214-1723-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+slavery&rft.place=Athens+%28Ohio%29&rft.pub=Ohio+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8214-1723-2&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Gwyn&rft.au=Miers%2C+Suzanne&rft.au=Miller%2C+Joseph+Calder&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-95">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_95-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_95-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_95-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolmacheva2017" class="citation book cs1">Tolmacheva, Marina A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/book/7096/chapter/151612200">"Concubines on the Road: Ibn Battuta's Slave Women"</a>. In Matthew S. Gordon; Kathryn A. Hain (eds.). Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History. Oxford University Press. pp. 163–189. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190622183.003.0009">10.1093/oso/9780190622183.003.0009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780190622213" title="Special:BookSources/9780190622213"><bdi>9780190622213</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Concubines+on+the+Road%3A+Ibn+Battuta%27s+Slave+Women&rft.btitle=Concubines+and+Courtesans%3A+Women+and+Slavery+in+Islamic+History&rft.pages=163-189&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Foso%2F9780190622183.003.0009&rft.isbn=9780190622213&rft.aulast=Tolmacheva&rft.aufirst=Marina+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademic.oup.com%2Fbook%2F7096%2Fchapter%2F151612200&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> Quran 33:59 </li> <li id="cite_note-Slavery_1420._p._196-97"><a href="#cite_ref-Slavery_1420._p._196_97-0">^</a> Cite error: The named reference <code>Slavery 1420. p. 196</code> was invoked but never defined (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_no_text" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references no text">help page</a>).</li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhalid1977" class="citation book cs1">Khalid, Abdallah (1977). The liberation of Swahili from European appropriation. Nairobi: Nairobi : East African Literature Bureau.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+liberation+of+Swahili+from+European+appropriation&rft.place=Nairobi&rft.pub=Nairobi+%3A+East+African+Literature+Bureau&rft.date=1977&rft.aulast=Khalid&rft.aufirst=Abdallah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> The Suppression of Slavery: Memorandum Submitted by the. United Nations. Secretary-General, 1946-, United Nations. Economic and Social Council. Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery. United Nations Economic and Social Council, Ad Hoc Committee on Slavery, 1951 </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> Suzanne Miers: Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem, p. 346-47 </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 270 </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> LIFE - 19 February 1965 - page 98 </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> Cobain, Ian, The history thieves: secrets, lies and the shaping of a modern nation, Portobello Books, London, 2016 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> Illahi, M. (2018). Doctrine of Terror: Saudi Salafi Religion. Australien: FriesenPress. p.119-120 </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbdullah_Al_HarthiKhaled_Al_Faris2013" class="citation news cs1">Abdullah Al Harthi; Khaled Al Faris (2 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131102140125/http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=20130202151557">"Proud of trust reposed in me by King: Muqrin"</a>. Saudi Gazette. Jeddah and Riyadh. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.saudigazette.com.sa/index.cfm?method=home.regcon&contentid=20130202151557">the original</a> on 2 November 2013. Retrieved 2 February 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Saudi+Gazette&rft.atitle=Proud+of+trust+reposed+in+me+by+King%3A+Muqrin&rft.date=2013-02-02&rft.au=Abdullah+Al+Harthi&rft.au=Khaled+Al+Faris&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.saudigazette.com.sa%2Findex.cfm%3Fmethod%3Dhome.regcon%26contentid%3D20130202151557&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimon_Henderson2013" class="citation news cs1">Simon Henderson (13 February 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.washingtoninstitute.org/policy-analysis/view/who-will-be-the-next-king-of-saudi-arabia">"Who Will Be the Next King of Saudi Arabia?"</a>. The Washington Institute. Retrieved 2 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Washington+Institute&rft.atitle=Who+Will+Be+the+Next+King+of+Saudi+Arabia%3F&rft.date=2013-02-13&rft.au=Simon+Henderson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.washingtoninstitute.org%2Fpolicy-analysis%2Fview%2Fwho-will-be-the-next-king-of-saudi-arabia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRiedel2013" class="citation news cs1">Riedel, Bruce (2013-02-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thedailybeast.com/articles/2013/02/03/with-prince-muqrin-s-appointment-saudi-succession-crisis-looms">"With Prince Muqrin's Appointment, Saudi Succession Crisis Looms"</a>. The Daily Beast. Retrieved 2023-04-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Beast&rft.atitle=With+Prince+Muqrin%27s+Appointment%2C+Saudi+Succession+Crisis+Looms&rft.date=2013-02-03&rft.aulast=Riedel&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thedailybeast.com%2Farticles%2F2013%2F02%2F03%2Fwith-prince-muqrin-s-appointment-saudi-succession-crisis-looms&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> B. Belli, "Registered female prostitution in the Ottoman Empire (1876-1909)," Ph.D. - Doctoral Program, Middle East Technical University, 2020. p 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> B. Belli, "Registered female prostitution in the Ottoman Empire (1876-1909)," Ph.D. - Doctoral Program, Middle East Technical University, 2020. p 56 </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-110">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_110-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_110-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_110-2">c</a> B. Belli, “Registered female prostitution in the Ottoman Empire (1876-1909),” Ph.D. - Doctoral Program, Middle East Technical University, 2020. Cite error: The named reference "auto" was defined multiple times with different content (see the <a href="/wiki/Help:Cite_errors/Cite_error_references_duplicate_key" title="Help:Cite errors/Cite error references duplicate key">help page</a>). </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAli2022" class="citation cs2">Ali, Adam (2022-01-28), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxfordre.com/africanhistory/display/10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.001.0001/acrefore-9780190277734-e-933">"Zanj Revolt in the Abbasid Caliphate (Iraq)"</a>, Oxford Research Encyclopedia of African History, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.013.933">10.1093/acrefore/9780190277734.013.933</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027773-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-027773-4"><bdi>978-0-19-027773-4</bdi></a>, retrieved 2023-11-22</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Zanj+Revolt+in+the+Abbasid+Caliphate+%28Iraq%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Research+Encyclopedia+of+African+History&rft.date=2022-01-28&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.013.933&rft.isbn=978-0-19-027773-4&rft.aulast=Ali&rft.aufirst=Adam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxfordre.com%2Fafricanhistory%2Fdisplay%2F10.1093%2Facrefore%2F9780190277734.001.0001%2Facrefore-9780190277734-e-933&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nmc.utoronto.ca/research-publications/faculty-publications/zanj-revolt-abbasid-caliphate">"Zanj Revolt in the Abbasid Caliphate"</a>. Department of Near & Middle Eastern Civilizations. 2020-09-30. Retrieved 2023-11-22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Department+of+Near+%26+Middle+Eastern+Civilizations&rft.atitle=Zanj+Revolt+in+the+Abbasid+Caliphate&rft.date=2020-09-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nmc.utoronto.ca%2Fresearch-publications%2Ffaculty-publications%2Fzanj-revolt-abbasid-caliphate&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Furlonge-113">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Furlonge_113-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Furlonge_113-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Furlonge_113-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFurlonge,_Nigel_D.1999" class="citation journal cs1">Furlonge, Nigel D. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-76402507/revisiting-the-zanj-and-re-visioning-revolt-complexities">"Revisiting the Zanj and Re-Visioning Revolt: Complexities of the Zanj Conflict – 868–883 AD – slave revolt in Iraq"</a>. Negro History Bulletin. 62 (4). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306155327/https://www.questia.com/magazine/1G1-76402507/revisiting-the-zanj-and-re-visioning-revolt-complexities">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-03-06. Retrieved 2017-12-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Negro+History+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Revisiting+the+Zanj+and+Re-Visioning+Revolt%3A+Complexities+of+the+Zanj+Conflict+%E2%80%93+868%E2%80%93883+AD+%E2%80%93+slave+revolt+in+Iraq&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.date=1999&rft.au=Furlonge%2C+Nigel+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.questia.com%2Fmagazine%2F1G1-76402507%2Frevisiting-the-zanj-and-re-visioning-revolt-complexities&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eden,_J._2018_p._187-189-114">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eden,_J._2018_p._187-189_114-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eden,_J._2018_p._187-189_114-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eden,_J._2018_p._187-189_114-2">c</a> Eden, J. (2018). Slavery and Empire in Central Asia. Storbritannien: Cambridge University Press. p. 187-189 </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Mamluk">"Mamluk | History, Significance, Leaders, & Decline | Britannica"</a>. www.britannica.com. 2024-09-30. Retrieved 2024-11-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.britannica.com&rft.atitle=Mamluk+%7C+History%2C+Significance%2C+Leaders%2C+%26+Decline+%7C+Britannica&rft.date=2024-09-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FMamluk&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> Mirza Kalichbeg Fredunbeg, tr., The Chachnamah, an Ancient History of Sind, 1900, reprint (Delhi, 1979), pp. 154, 163. This thirteenth-century source claims to be a Persian translation of an (apparently lost) eighth-century Arabic manuscript detailing the Islamic conquests of Sind. </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Andre Wink, Al-Hind: the Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 1, Early Medieval India and the Expansion of Islam, Seventh to Eleventh Centuries (Leiden, 1990) </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> Muhammad Qasim Firishta, Tarikh-i-Firishta (Lucknow, 1864). </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> Andre Wink, Al-Hind: The Making of the Indo-Islamic World, vol. 2, The Slave Kings and the Islamic Conquest, 11th–13th centuries (Leiden, 1997) </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> Abu Nasr Muhammad al-Utbi, Tarikh al-Yamini (Delhi, 1847), tr. by James Reynolds, The Kitab-i-Yamini (London, 1858), </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> Wink, Al-Hind, II </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> Henry M. Elliot and John Dowson, History of India as told by its own Historians, 8 vols (London, 1867–77), II, </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a> Dale, Indian Merchants, </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> Satish C. Misra, The Rise of Muslim Power in Gujarat (Bombay, 1963), p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> Cambridge History of India ed. Wolseley Haig, Vol. III pp.356, 449. </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> Cambridge History of India ed. Wolseley Haig, Vol. III, pp. 391, 397–398 </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> Sewell, Robert. A Forgotten Empire (Vijayanagar) pp. 57–58. </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> Moreland W.H., India at the Death of Akbar, (1920) p. 92. </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> Sarkar, Jadunath. The History Of Aurangzeb, volume III, pp. 331–32 </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhanKhan" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Khan, Samsam ud Daula Shah Nawaz; Khan, Abdul Hai. Maasir-ul-Umara (in Persian). Vol. III. Translated by Beni Prasad; Beveridge, H. Calcutta. p. 442.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Maasir-ul-Umara&rft.place=Calcutta&rft.pages=442&rft.aulast=Khan&rft.aufirst=Samsam+ud+Daula+Shah+Nawaz&rft.au=Khan%2C+Abdul+Hai&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> Travels of Fray <a href="/wiki/Sebastien_Manrique" title="Sebastien Manrique">Sebastien Manrique</a>, 1629–1643 vol. II, p.272. (Ashgate, 2010 reprint) </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBabayan1998" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Babayan, Kathryn (December 15, 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/eunuchs">"EUNUCHS iv. THE SAFAVID PERIOD"</a>. Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. IX. pp. 64–69.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=EUNUCHS+iv.+THE+SAFAVID+PERIOD&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.pages=64-69&rft.date=1998-12-15&rft.aulast=Babayan&rft.aufirst=Kathryn&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Feunuchs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFloor1988" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Floor, Willem (December 15, 1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-iv">"BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI iv. From the Mongols to the abolition of slavery"</a>. Encyclopædia Iranica. Vol. III. pp. 768–774.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=BARDA+and+BARDA-D%C4%80RI+iv.+From+the+Mongols+to+the+abolition+of+slavery&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.pages=768-774&rft.date=1988-12-15&rft.aulast=Floor&rft.aufirst=Willem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbarda-iv&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMirzai2017" class="citation book cs1">Mirzai, Behnaz A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mcJiDgAAQBAJ&dq=%22female+Ethiopians+being+sold+in+Iran%22&pg=PA67">A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran, 1800–1929</a> (illustrated ed.). University of Texas Press. p. 67. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1477311868" title="Special:BookSources/978-1477311868"><bdi>978-1477311868</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Slavery+and+Emancipation+in+Iran%2C+1800%E2%80%931929&rft.pages=67&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1477311868&rft.aulast=Mirzai&rft.aufirst=Behnaz+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmcJiDgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522female%2BEthiopians%2Bbeing%2Bsold%2Bin%2BIran%2522%26pg%3DPA67&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://media.mehrnews.com/d/2021/03/24/0/3726568.pdf">"A History of Slavery and Emancipation in Iran"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 2023-08-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Slavery+and+Emancipation+in+Iran&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmedia.mehrnews.com%2Fd%2F2021%2F03%2F24%2F0%2F3726568.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScheiwiller2016" class="citation book cs1">Scheiwiller, Staci Gem (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WYuiDQAAQBAJ&dq=%22arriving+from+the+Zanzibar+islands+in+the+Indian%22&pg=PT344">Liminalities of Gender and Sexuality in Nineteenth-Century Iranian Photography: Desirous Bodies</a>. Routledge History of Photography (illustrated ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1315512112" title="Special:BookSources/978-1315512112"><bdi>978-1315512112</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Liminalities+of+Gender+and+Sexuality+in+Nineteenth-Century+Iranian+Photography%3A+Desirous+Bodies&rft.series=Routledge+History+of+Photography&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1315512112&rft.aulast=Scheiwiller&rft.aufirst=Staci+Gem&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWYuiDQAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522arriving%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BZanzibar%2Bislands%2Bin%2Bthe%2BIndian%2522%26pg%3DPT344&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0lxHPgAACAAJ">The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh Through the Fifteenth Century</a>. American Council of Learned Societies. 2008. p. 175. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59740-476-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59740-476-1"><bdi>978-1-59740-476-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Medieval+Hellenism+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+Process+of+Islamization+from+the+Eleventh+Through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.pages=175&rft.pub=American+Council+of+Learned+Societies&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-59740-476-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0lxHPgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhillips1985" class="citation book cs1">Phillips, William D. (December 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GOZRAQAAIAAJ">Slavery from Roman Times to the Early Transatlantic Trade</a>. University of Minnesota Press. p. 90. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0816613250" title="Special:BookSources/978-0816613250"><bdi>978-0816613250</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+from+Roman+Times+to+the+Early+Transatlantic+Trade&rft.pages=90&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1985-12&rft.isbn=978-0816613250&rft.aulast=Phillips&rft.aufirst=William+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGOZRAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Vryonis_1971-139">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Vryonis_1971_139-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vryonis_1971_139-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Vryonis_1971_139-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVryonis1971" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Speros_Vryonis" title="Speros Vryonis">Vryonis, Speros Jr.</a> (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/39065646/Vryonis-Decline-of-Medieval-Hellinism-in-Asia-Minor">The Decline of Medieval Hellenism in Asia Minor and the Process of Islamization from the Eleventh through the Fifteenth Century</a>. Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 268.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Decline+of+Medieval+Hellenism+in+Asia+Minor+and+the+Process+of+Islamization+from+the+Eleventh+through+the+Fifteenth+Century&rft.place=Berkeley&rft.pages=268&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F39065646%2FVryonis-Decline-of-Medieval-Hellinism-in-Asia-Minor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto5-140"><a href="#cite_ref-auto5_140-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVryonis1965" class="citation web cs1">Vryonis, Speros (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6kzPHAAACAAJ">"Seljuk Gulams and Ottoman Devshirmes"</a>. p. 22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Seljuk+Gulams+and+Ottoman+Devshirmes&rft.pages=22&rft.date=1965&rft.aulast=Vryonis&rft.aufirst=Speros&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6kzPHAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7CMxDwAAQBAJ">The Travels of Ibn Battuta, A.D. 1325–1354: Volume II</a>. Translated by <a href="/wiki/H._A._R._Gibb" title="H. A. R. Gibb">H.A.R. Gibb</a>. Routledge. 2017 [1929]. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781351539913" title="Special:BookSources/9781351539913"><bdi>9781351539913</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Travels+of+Ibn+Battuta%2C+A.D.+1325%E2%80%931354%3A+Volume+II&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9781351539913&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7CMxDwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMadden2004" class="citation book cs1">Madden, Thomas F. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HkOAAAAACAAJ">Crusades: The Illustrated History</a>. Duncan Baird. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781844830404" title="Special:BookSources/9781844830404"><bdi>9781844830404</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Crusades%3A+The+Illustrated+History&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=Duncan+Baird&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781844830404&rft.aulast=Madden&rft.aufirst=Thomas+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHkOAAAAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFToledano1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ehud_R._Toledano" title="Ehud R. Toledano">Toledano, Ehud R.</a> (1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zvddg">The Ottoman Slave Trade and its Suppression: 1840–1890</a>. Princeton Studies on the Near East. Princeton University Press. pp. 92, 272–73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5723-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4008-5723-4"><bdi>978-1-4008-5723-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt7zvddg">j.ctt7zvddg</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+Slave+Trade+and+its+Suppression%3A+1840%E2%80%931890&rft.series=Princeton+Studies+on+the+Near+East&rft.pages=92%2C+272-73&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=1983&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt7zvddg%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.isbn=978-1-4008-5723-4&rft.aulast=Toledano&rft.aufirst=Ehud+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2Fj.ctt7zvddg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInalcik1979" class="citation book cs1">Inalcik, Halil (1979). "Servile Labor in the Ottoman Empire". In A. Ascher; B. K. Kiraly; T. Halasi-Kun (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090911101051/http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">The Mutual Effects of the Islamic and Judeo-Christian Worlds: The East European Pattern</a>. Brooklyn College. pp. 25–43. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coursesa.matrix.msu.edu/~fisher/hst373/readings/inalcik6.html">the original</a> on 2009-09-11. Retrieved 2015-08-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Servile+Labor+in+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.btitle=The+Mutual+Effects+of+the+Islamic+and+Judeo-Christian+Worlds%3A+The+East+European+Pattern&rft.pages=25-43&rft.pub=Brooklyn+College&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Inalcik&rft.aufirst=Halil&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoursesa.matrix.msu.edu%2F~fisher%2Fhst373%2Freadings%2Finalcik6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaum2008" class="citation book cs1">Baum, Bruce (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160629132607/https://books.google.com/books?id=TnVgKpqCxzQC&pg=PA28">The Rise and Fall of the Caucasian Race: A Political History of Racial Identity</a>. New York University Press. p. 28. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780814739433" title="Special:BookSources/9780814739433"><bdi>9780814739433</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TnVgKpqCxzQC&pg=PA28">the original</a> on 2016-06-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+Caucasian+Race%3A+A+Political+History+of+Racial+Identity&rft.pages=28&rft.pub=New+York+University+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=9780814739433&rft.aulast=Baum&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTnVgKpqCxzQC%26pg%3DPA28&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141006131931/https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">"Slavery"</a>. Encyclopædia Britannica's Guide to Black History. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/blackhistory/article-24157">the original</a> on 2014-10-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica%27s+Guide+to+Black+History&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Fblackhistory%2Farticle-24157&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schierbrand1886-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Schierbrand1886_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf_Von_Schierbrand1886" class="citation news cs1">Wolf Von Schierbrand (March 28, 1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191216220231/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1886/03/28/106300694.pdf">"Slaves sold to the Turk; How the vile traffic is still carried on in the East. Sights our correspondent saw for twenty dollars—in the house of a grand old Turk of a dealer"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/The_New_York_Times" title="The New York Times">The New York Times</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1886/03/28/106300694.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 16 December 2019. Retrieved 19 January 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Slaves+sold+to+the+Turk%3B+How+the+vile+traffic+is+still+carried+on+in+the+East.+Sights+our+correspondent+saw+for+twenty+dollars%E2%80%94in+the+house+of+a+grand+old+Turk+of+a+dealer.&rft.date=1886-03-28&rft.au=Wolf+Von+Schierbrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1886%2F03%2F28%2F106300694.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Zilfi2010-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Zilfi2010_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZilfi2010" class="citation book cs1">Zilfi, Madeline C. (2010). Women and Slavery in the Late Ottoman Empire: The design of difference. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51583-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51583-2"><bdi>978-0-521-51583-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+and+Slavery+in+the+Late+Ottoman+Empire%3A+The+design+of+difference&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51583-2&rft.aulast=Zilfi&rft.aufirst=Madeline+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] </li> <li id="cite_note-Dursteler2006-149"><a href="#cite_ref-Dursteler2006_149-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDursteler2006" class="citation book cs1">Dursteler, Eric (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LF8uer6PMfAC&pg=PA72">Venetians in Constantinople: Nation, Identity, and Coexistence in the Early Modern Mediterranean</a>. The Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 72. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8324-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-8324-8"><bdi>978-0-8018-8324-8</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160609193223/https://books.google.com/books?id=LF8uer6PMfAC&pg=PA72">Archived</a> from the original on 2016-06-09. Retrieved 2016-01-07.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Venetians+in+Constantinople%3A+Nation%2C+Identity%2C+and+Coexistence+in+the+Early+Modern+Mediterranean&rft.pages=72&rft.pub=The+Johns+Hopkins+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-8324-8&rft.aulast=Dursteler&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLF8uer6PMfAC%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1994" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20010401012040/http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html">Race and Slavery in the Middle East</a>. Oxford University Press. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html">the original</a> on 2001-04-01. Retrieved 2015-08-30.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Slavery+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.fordham.edu%2Fhalsall%2Fmed%2Flewis1.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-151"><a href="#cite_ref-151">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFde_Foix2006" class="citation web cs1">de Foix, Isabelle (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061018065828/http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm">"The Turks: History and Culture"</a>. The Waiter's Digest. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://schonwalder.com/Such-n-Such/huns.htm">the original</a> on 2006-10-18. Retrieved 2015-08-31.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Waiter%27s+Digest&rft.atitle=The+Turks%3A+History+and+Culture&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=de+Foix&rft.aufirst=Isabelle&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fschonwalder.com%2FSuch-n-Such%2Fhuns.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Gervase_ClarenceSmith2007" class="citation journal cs1">William Gervase ClarenceSmith (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.manusya.journals.chula.ac.th/files/essay/Smith_1-19.pdf">"Eunuchs and Concubines in the History of Islamic Southeast Asia"</a> (PDF). Manusya: Journal of Humanities. 14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Manusya%3A+Journal+of+Humanities&rft.atitle=Eunuchs+and+Concubines+in+the+History+of+Islamic+Southeast+Asia&rft.volume=14&rft.date=2007&rft.au=William+Gervase+ClarenceSmith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.manusya.journals.chula.ac.th%2Ffiles%2Fessay%2FSmith_1-19.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-warren2-153">^ <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren2_153-7">h</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Francis_Warren2002" class="citation book cs1">James Francis Warren (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190704132211/https://nuspress.nus.edu.sg/products/iranun-and-balangingi">Iranun and Balangingi: Globalization, Maritime Raiding and the Birth of Ethnicity</a>. NUS Press. pp. 53–56. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789971692421" title="Special:BookSources/9789971692421"><bdi>9789971692421</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nuspress.nus.edu.sg/products/iranun-and-balangingi">the original</a> on 2019-07-04. Retrieved 2018-05-06.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iranun+and+Balangingi%3A+Globalization%2C+Maritime+Raiding+and+the+Birth+of+Ethnicity&rft.pages=53-56&rft.pub=NUS+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=9789971692421&rft.au=James+Francis+Warren&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnuspress.nus.edu.sg%2Fproducts%2Firanun-and-balangingi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-warren-154">^ <a href="#cite_ref-warren_154-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-warren_154-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJames_Francis_Warren2007" class="citation book cs1">James Francis Warren (2007). The Sulu Zone, 1768–1898: The Dynamics of External Trade, Slavery, and Ethnicity in the Transformation of a Southeast Asian Maritime State. NUS Press. pp. 257–258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789971693862" title="Special:BookSources/9789971693862"><bdi>9789971693862</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sulu+Zone%2C+1768%E2%80%931898%3A+The+Dynamics+of+External+Trade%2C+Slavery%2C+and+Ethnicity+in+the+Transformation+of+a+Southeast+Asian+Maritime+State&rft.pages=257-258&rft.pub=NUS+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9789971693862&rft.au=James+Francis+Warren&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-non-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-non_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-non_155-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDomingo_M._Non1993" class="citation journal cs1">Domingo M. Non (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181104174139/https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/56477/1/KJ00000131731.pdf">"Moro Piracy during the Spanish Period and its Impact"</a> (PDF). Southeast Asian Studies. 30 (4): 401–419. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.20495%2Ftak.30.4_401">10.20495/tak.30.4_401</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://repository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp/dspace/bitstream/2433/56477/1/KJ00000131731.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2018-11-04. Retrieved 2018-11-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Southeast+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Moro+Piracy+during+the+Spanish+Period+and+its+Impact&rft.volume=30&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=401-419&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.20495%2Ftak.30.4_401&rft.au=Domingo+M.+Non&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frepository.kulib.kyoto-u.ac.jp%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F2433%2F56477%2F1%2FKJ00000131731.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-barrows-156"><a href="#cite_ref-barrows_156-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid_P._Barrows1905" class="citation book cs1">David P. Barrows (1905). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm">A History of the Philippines</a>. American Book Company. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190208005625/http://www.gutenberg.org/files/38269/38269-h/38269-h.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-02-08. Retrieved 2018-11-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+Philippines&rft.pub=American+Book+Company&rft.date=1905&rft.au=David+P.+Barrows&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gutenberg.org%2Ffiles%2F38269%2F38269-h%2F38269-h.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&dq=japanese+girls+sold+slaves+muslims&pg=PA15">Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</a> (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 15. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195221516" title="Special:BookSources/0195221516"><bdi>0195221516</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pages=15&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0195221516&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Gervase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26dq%3Djapanese%2Bgirls%2Bsold%2Bslaves%2Bmuslims%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-158"><a href="#cite_ref-158">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos2012" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (August 26, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://apjjf.org/2012/10/35/Bill-Mihalopoulos/3814/article.html">"Women, Overseas Sex Work and Globalization in Meiji Japan 明治日本における女性，国外性労働、海外進出"</a>. The Asia-Pacific Journal: Japan Focus. 10 (35).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Asia-Pacific+Journal%3A+Japan+Focus&rft.atitle=Women%2C+Overseas+Sex+Work+and+Globalization+in+Meiji+Japan+%E6%98%8E%E6%B2%BB%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E3%81%AB%E3%81%8A%E3%81%91%E3%82%8B%E5%A5%B3%E6%80%A7%EF%BC%8C%E5%9B%BD%E5%A4%96%E6%80%A7%E5%8A%B4%E5%83%8D%E3%80%81%E6%B5%B7%E5%A4%96%E9%80%B2%E5%87%BA&rft.volume=10&rft.issue=35&rft.date=2012-08-26&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapjjf.org%2F2012%2F10%2F35%2FBill-Mihalopoulos%2F3814%2Farticle.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos1993" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">"The making of prostitutes: The Karayuki-san"</a>. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars. 25 (1): 41–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">10.1080/14672715.1993.10408345</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Concerned+Asian+Scholars&rft.atitle=The+making+of+prostitutes%3A+The+Karayuki-san&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-56&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14672715.1993.10408345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos1993" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bin (March 19, 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">"The making of prostitutes: The Karayuki-san"</a>. Bulletin of Concerned Asian Scholars. 25 (1): 41–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345">10.1080/14672715.1993.10408345</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bulletin+of+Concerned+Asian+Scholars&rft.atitle=The+making+of+prostitutes%3A+The+Karayuki-san&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=41-56&rft.date=1993-03-19&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14672715.1993.10408345&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F14672715.1993.10408345&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos2015" class="citation book cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ReM5CgAAQBAJ&dq=%22whereupon+he+promptly+sold+one+woman+to+a+Malay%22&pg=PA29">Sex in Japan's Globalization, 1870–1930: Prostitutes, Emigration and Nation-Building</a>. Perspectives in Economic and Social History (reprint ed.). Routledge. p. 29. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317322214" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317322214"><bdi>978-1317322214</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sex+in+Japan%27s+Globalization%2C+1870%E2%80%931930%3A+Prostitutes%2C+Emigration+and+Nation-Building&rft.series=Perspectives+in+Economic+and+Social+History&rft.pages=29&rft.edition=reprint&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1317322214&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DReM5CgAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522whereupon%2Bhe%2Bpromptly%2Bsold%2Bone%2Bwoman%2Bto%2Ba%2BMalay%2522%26pg%3DPA29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihalopoulos1998" class="citation journal cs1">Mihalopoulos, Bill (February 1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/794471">"Modernization as creative problem making: Political action personal conduct and Japanese overseas prostitutes (La modernisation en tant que source de problème)"</a>. Economy and Society. 27 (1). Routledge: 50–73. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F03085149800000003">10.1080/03085149800000003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0308-5147">0308-5147</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economy+and+Society&rft.atitle=Modernization+as+creative+problem+making%3A+Political+action+personal+conduct+and+Japanese+overseas+prostitutes+%28La+modernisation+en+tant+que+source+de+probl%C3%A8me%29&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=50-73&rft.date=1998-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F03085149800000003&rft.issn=0308-5147&rft.aulast=Mihalopoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F794471&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMihapoulos1994" class="citation journal cs1">Mihapoulos, Bill (Jun 22, 1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+making+of+prostitutes+in+Japan:+the+'karayuki-san.'+(Japan+Enters...-a016654718">"The making of prostitutes in Japan: the 'karayuki-san.' (Japan Enters the 21st Century)"</a>. Crime and Social Justice Associates.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Crime+and+Social+Justice+Associates&rft.atitle=The+making+of+prostitutes+in+Japan%3A+the+%27karayuki-san.%27+%28Japan+Enters+the+21st+Century%29&rft.date=1994-06-22&rft.aulast=Mihapoulos&rft.aufirst=Bill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thefreelibrary.com%2FThe%2Bmaking%2Bof%2Bprostitutes%2Bin%2BJapan%3A%2Bthe%2B%27karayuki-san.%27%2B%28Japan%2BEnters...-a016654718&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&pg=PA142">Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</a> (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195221516" title="Special:BookSources/0195221516"><bdi>0195221516</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0195221516&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Gervase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26pg%3DPA142&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation conference cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4kVtAAAAMAAJ&q=javanese+girls+ali+palace+jeddah">Proceedings of the 17th IAHA Conference</a>. Secretary General, 17th IAHA Conference. 2004. p. 151. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/984321823X" title="Special:BookSources/984321823X"><bdi>984321823X</bdi></a>. <q>The anti - Husayn position was also taken by Idaran Zaman who reported that twenty beautiful young Javanese girls were found in the palace of his son, Sharif ' Ali in Jeddah . These girls were used as his concubines ...</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+17th+IAHA+Conference&rft.pages=151&rft.pub=Secretary+General%2C+17th+IAHA+Conference&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=984321823X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4kVtAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Djavanese%2Bgirls%2Bali%2Bpalace%2Bjeddah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFisherFisher2001" class="citation book cs1">Fisher, Humphrey J.; Fisher, Allan G. B. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wyDYZsacNioC&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PA182">Slavery in the History of Muslim Black Africa</a> (illustrated, revised ed.). NYU Press. p. 182. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0814727166" title="Special:BookSources/0814727166"><bdi>0814727166</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+History+of+Muslim+Black+Africa&rft.pages=182&rft.edition=illustrated%2C+revised&rft.pub=NYU+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=0814727166&rft.aulast=Fisher&rft.aufirst=Humphrey+J.&rft.au=Fisher%2C+Allan+G.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwyDYZsacNioC%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHamel2014" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Hamel, Chouki El (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UwogAwAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PA129">Black Morocco: A History of Slavery, Race, and Islam</a>. Vol. 123 of African Studies. Cambridge University Press. p. 129. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1139620048" title="Special:BookSources/978-1139620048"><bdi>978-1139620048</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Black+Morocco%3A+A+History+of+Slavery%2C+Race%2C+and+Islam&rft.pages=129&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1139620048&rft.aulast=Hamel&rft.aufirst=Chouki+El&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUwogAwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPA129&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGuthrie2013" class="citation book cs1">Guthrie, Shirley (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YD0hBQAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PR127">Arab Women in the Middle Ages: Private Lives and Public Roles</a>. Saqi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0863567643" title="Special:BookSources/978-0863567643"><bdi>978-0863567643</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Arab+Women+in+the+Middle+Ages%3A+Private+Lives+and+Public+Roles&rft.pub=Saqi&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0863567643&rft.aulast=Guthrie&rft.aufirst=Shirley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYD0hBQAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPR127&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon2018" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Stewart (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2-pIDwAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PT171">There and Back: Twelve of the Great Routes of Human History</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0199093564" title="Special:BookSources/978-0199093564"><bdi>978-0199093564</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=There+and+Back%3A+Twelve+of+the+Great+Routes+of+Human+History&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-0199093564&rft.aulast=Gordon&rft.aufirst=Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2-pIDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPT171&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKing1971" class="citation book cs1">King, Noel Quinton (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bMDYAAAAMAAJ&q=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl">Christian and Muslim in Africa</a>. Harper & Row. p. 22. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0060647094" title="Special:BookSources/0060647094"><bdi>0060647094</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+and+Muslim+in+Africa&rft.pages=22&rft.pub=Harper+%26+Row&rft.date=1971&rft.isbn=0060647094&rft.aulast=King&rft.aufirst=Noel+Quinton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbMDYAAAAMAAJ%26q%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolmacheva2017" class="citation book cs1">Tolmacheva, Marina A. (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F3QzDwAAQBAJ&dq=ibn+battuta+damascus+slave+girl&pg=PA179">"8 Concubines on the Road: Ibn Battuta's Slave Women"</a>. In Gordon, Matthew; Hain, Kathryn A. (eds.). Concubines and Courtesans: Women and Slavery in Islamic History (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0190622183" title="Special:BookSources/978-0190622183"><bdi>978-0190622183</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=8+Concubines+on+the+Road%3A+Ibn+Battuta%27s+Slave+Women&rft.btitle=Concubines+and+Courtesans%3A+Women+and+Slavery+in+Islamic+History&rft.pages=170&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0190622183&rft.aulast=Tolmacheva&rft.aufirst=Marina+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DF3QzDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dibn%2Bbattuta%2Bdamascus%2Bslave%2Bgirl%26pg%3DPA179&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarrington1971" class="citation book cs1">Harrington, Helise (1971). Adler, Bill; David, Jay; Harrington, Helise (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RldCAAAAIAAJ&q=%22A+slave+-+girl+of+his+joined+us+%3B+she+was+an+Arab+girl+%2C+of+Damascus+%2C+and+she+spoke+to+me+in+Arabic+.+While+this+was+going+on+we%22">Growing Up African</a>. Morrow. p. 49.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Growing+Up+African&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Morrow&rft.date=1971&rft.aulast=Harrington&rft.aufirst=Helise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRldCAAAAIAAJ%26q%3D%2522A%2Bslave%2B-%2Bgirl%2Bof%2Bhis%2Bjoined%2Bus%2B%253B%2Bshe%2Bwas%2Ban%2BArab%2Bgirl%2B%252C%2Bof%2BDamascus%2B%252C%2Band%2Bshe%2Bspoke%2Bto%2Bme%2Bin%2BArabic%2B.%2BWhile%2Bthis%2Bwas%2Bgoing%2Bon%2Bwe%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathew2016" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Mathew, Johan (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LuLvCwAAQBAJ&dq=%22Hence+the+ease+with+which+Sheikh+Yusuf,+referred+to+above,+could+traffic+Syrian+women+into+Saudi+Arabia.%22&pg=PA72">Margins of the Market: Trafficking and Capitalism across the Arabian Sea</a>. Vol. 24 of California World History Library. University of California Press. pp. 71–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520963429" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520963429"><bdi>978-0520963429</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Margins+of+the+Market%3A+Trafficking+and+Capitalism+across+the+Arabian+Sea&rft.pages=71-2&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0520963429&rft.aulast=Mathew&rft.aufirst=Johan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLuLvCwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Hence%2Bthe%2Bease%2Bwith%2Bwhich%2BSheikh%2BYusuf%2C%2Breferred%2Bto%2Babove%2C%2Bcould%2Btraffic%2BSyrian%2Bwomen%2Binto%2BSaudi%2BArabia.%2522%26pg%3DPA72&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://vdoc.pub/documents/margins-of-the-market-trafficking-and-capitalism-across-the-arabian-sea-4ss44p0ar0h0">"Margins Of The Market: Trafficking And Capitalism Across The Arabian Sea [PDF] [4ss44p0ar0h0]"</a>. vdoc.pub.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=vdoc.pub&rft.atitle=Margins+Of+The+Market%3A+Trafficking+And+Capitalism+Across+The+Arabian+Sea+%5BPDF%5D+%5B4ss44p0ar0h0%5D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fvdoc.pub%2Fdocuments%2Fmargins-of-the-market-trafficking-and-capitalism-across-the-arabian-sea-4ss44p0ar0h0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> Global Muslims in the Age of Steam and Print; From Zanzibar to Beirut by Jeremy Prestholdt, University of California Press, 2014, p.204 </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a> Connectivity in Motion: Island Hubs in the Indian Ocean World by Burkhard Schnepel, Edward A. Alpers, 2017, p.148 </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a> Balcony, Door, Shutter – Baroque heritage as materiality and biography in Stone Town, Zanzibar by Pamila Gupta, Vienna, 2019, p.14 </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPrestholdt2008" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Prestholdt, Jeremy (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kkecLQx3LqAC&dq=She+told+Kirk+that+her+name+was+Fatima,+though+she+was+renamed+Mariam+in+Zanzibar.&pg=PA130">Domesticating the World: African Consumerism and the Genealogies of Globalization</a>. Vol. 6 of California World History Library. University of California Press. p. 130. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520941472" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520941472"><bdi>978-0520941472</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Domesticating+the+World%3A+African+Consumerism+and+the+Genealogies+of+Globalization&rft.pages=130&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0520941472&rft.aulast=Prestholdt&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkkecLQx3LqAC%26dq%3DShe%2Btold%2BKirk%2Bthat%2Bher%2Bname%2Bwas%2BFatima%2C%2Bthough%2Bshe%2Bwas%2Brenamed%2BMariam%2Bin%2BZanzibar.%26pg%3DPA130&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-179"><a href="#cite_ref-179">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2020" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Jonathan A.C. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z6jRDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22selling+Indian+slaves+through+the+Red+Sea.+Women+in+particular+were+brought+from+the+Indian+port+of+Goa+to+Aden,+and+from+there+sold+on+to+the+Hejaz+and+Egypt.98+India+was+also+the+source+for+a+lesser+known+but+still+substantial+%22&pg=PT172">Slavery and Islam</a>. Simon and Schuster. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1786076366" title="Special:BookSources/978-1786076366"><bdi>978-1786076366</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Islam&rft.pub=Simon+and+Schuster&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1786076366&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Jonathan+A.C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz6jRDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522selling%2BIndian%2Bslaves%2Bthrough%2Bthe%2BRed%2BSea.%2BWomen%2Bin%2Bparticular%2Bwere%2Bbrought%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2BIndian%2Bport%2Bof%2BGoa%2Bto%2BAden%2C%2Band%2Bfrom%2Bthere%2Bsold%2Bon%2Bto%2Bthe%2BHejaz%2Band%2BEgypt.98%2BIndia%2Bwas%2Balso%2Bthe%2Bsource%2Bfor%2Ba%2Blesser%2Bknown%2Bbut%2Bstill%2Bsubstantial%2B%2522%26pg%3DPT172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dokumen.pub/slavery-and-islam-4543201504-9781786076359-9781786076366-a-1647425.html">"Slavery and Islam 4543201504, 9781786076359, 9781786076366"</a>. dokumen.pub.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=dokumen.pub&rft.atitle=Slavery+and+Islam+4543201504%2C+9781786076359%2C+9781786076366&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdokumen.pub%2Fslavery-and-islam-4543201504-9781786076359-9781786076366-a-1647425.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-181"><a href="#cite_ref-181">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAhmed2021" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Ahmed, Hussein (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zM1GEAAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+slaves+arabia+indian&pg=PA152">Islam in Nineteenth-Century Wallo, Ethiopia: Revival, Reform and Reaction</a>. Vol. 74 of Social, Economic and Political Studies of the Middle East and Asia. BRILL. p. 152. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004492288" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004492288"><bdi>978-9004492288</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+in+Nineteenth-Century+Wallo%2C+Ethiopia%3A+Revival%2C+Reform+and+Reaction&rft.pages=152&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-9004492288&rft.aulast=Ahmed&rft.aufirst=Hussein&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzM1GEAAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dethiopian%2Bslaves%2Barabia%2Bindian%26pg%3DPA152&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-182"><a href="#cite_ref-182">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2013" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TLtdAgAAQBAJ&dq=ethiopian+slaves+arabia+indian&pg=PA99">The Economics of the Indian Ocean Slave Trade in the Nineteenth Century</a>. Routledge. p. 99. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1135182212" title="Special:BookSources/978-1135182212"><bdi>978-1135182212</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Economics+of+the+Indian+Ocean+Slave+Trade+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=99&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1135182212&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=William+Gervase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTLtdAgAAQBAJ%26dq%3Dethiopian%2Bslaves%2Barabia%2Bindian%26pg%3DPA99&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYimene2004" class="citation book cs1">Yimene, Ababu Minda (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DigPvwHTqJ4C&dq=ethiopian+slaves+arabia+indian&pg=PA73">An African Indian Community in Hyderabad: Siddi Identity, Its Maintenance and Change</a>. Cuvillier Verlag. p. 73. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3865372066" title="Special:BookSources/3865372066"><bdi>3865372066</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+African+Indian+Community+in+Hyderabad%3A+Siddi+Identity%2C+Its+Maintenance+and+Change&rft.pages=73&rft.pub=Cuvillier+Verlag&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3865372066&rft.aulast=Yimene&rft.aufirst=Ababu+Minda&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDigPvwHTqJ4C%26dq%3Dethiopian%2Bslaves%2Barabia%2Bindian%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarendse2016" class="citation book cs1">Barendse, Rene J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=inClDAAAQBAJ&dq=%22Of+these+%2C+400+were+normally+bought+by+representatives+of+the+imam+%3B+100+were+sold+by+representatives+of+merchants+from+Pate+at+Muscat.283+However+%22&pg=PA259">The Arabian Seas: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century: The Indian Ocean World of the Seventeenth Century</a> (illustrated ed.). Routledge. p. 259. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1317458364" title="Special:BookSources/978-1317458364"><bdi>978-1317458364</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Arabian+Seas%3A+The+Indian+Ocean+World+of+the+Seventeenth+Century%3A+The+Indian+Ocean+World+of+the+Seventeenth+Century&rft.pages=259&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1317458364&rft.aulast=Barendse&rft.aufirst=Rene+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DinClDAAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522Of%2Bthese%2B%252C%2B400%2Bwere%2Bnormally%2Bbought%2Bby%2Brepresentatives%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bimam%2B%253B%2B100%2Bwere%2Bsold%2Bby%2Brepresentatives%2Bof%2Bmerchants%2Bfrom%2BPate%2Bat%2BMuscat.283%2BHowever%2B%2522%26pg%3DPA259&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-185"><a href="#cite_ref-185">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRemondino1891" class="citation book cs1">Remondino, Peter Charles (1891). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/historyofcircumc00remo/historyofcircumc00remo_djvu.txt">History of circumcision, from the earliest times to the present Moral and physical reasons for its performance</a>. Philadelphia; London: F. A. Davis. p. 101.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+circumcision%2C+from+the+earliest+times+to+the+present+Moral+and+physical+reasons+for+its+performance&rft.place=Philadelphia%3B+London&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=F.+A.+Davis&rft.date=1891&rft.aulast=Remondino&rft.aufirst=Peter+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fhistoryofcircumc00remo%2Fhistoryofcircumc00remo_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJunne2016" class="citation book cs1">Junne, George H. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YBKMDwAAQBAJ&dq=%22toilet+of+the+harem+bath+and+the+seductive+influence+of+this+terrestrial+Koranic+seventh+heaven+%22&pg=PA253">The Black Eunuchs of the Ottoman Empire: Networks of Power in the Court of the Sultan</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. p. 253. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857728081" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857728081"><bdi>978-0857728081</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Black+Eunuchs+of+the+Ottoman+Empire%3A+Networks+of+Power+in+the+Court+of+the+Sultan&rft.pages=253&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-0857728081&rft.aulast=Junne&rft.aufirst=George+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYBKMDwAAQBAJ%26dq%3D%2522toilet%2Bof%2Bthe%2Bharem%2Bbath%2Band%2Bthe%2Bseductive%2Binfluence%2Bof%2Bthis%2Bterrestrial%2BKoranic%2Bseventh%2Bheaven%2B%2522%26pg%3DPA253&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bisson_1868_282–3-188"><a href="#cite_ref-Bisson_1868_282–3_188-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBisson1868" class="citation book cs1">Bisson, Raoul Du (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lesfemmesleseun00bissgoog/page/n297/mode/2up">Les femmes, les eunuques et les guerriers du Soudan</a>. E. Dentu. pp. 282–3.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Les+femmes%2C+les+eunuques+et+les+guerriers+du+Soudan&rft.pages=282-3&rft.pub=E.+Dentu&rft.date=1868&rft.aulast=Bisson&rft.aufirst=Raoul+Du&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flesfemmesleseun00bissgoog%2Fpage%2Fn297%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHOPKINS2008" class="citation journal cs1">HOPKINS, B. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/journals/modern-asian-studies/article/abs/race-sex-and-slavery-forced-labour-in-central-asia-and-afghanistan-in-the-early-19th-century1/0A561B64835BB7E5F112451C5A43B2CA">"Race, Sex and Slavery: 'Forced Labour' in Central Asia and Afghanistan in the Early 19th Century"</a>. Modern Asian Studies. 42 (4): 629–671. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X0600271X">10.1017/S0026749X0600271X</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:145068664">145068664</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Race%2C+Sex+and+Slavery%3A+%27Forced+Labour%27+in+Central+Asia+and+Afghanistan+in+the+Early+19th+Century&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=629-671&rft.date=2008&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X0600271X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A145068664%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=HOPKINS&rft.aufirst=B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cambridge.org%2Fcore%2Fjournals%2Fmodern-asian-studies%2Farticle%2Fabs%2Frace-sex-and-slavery-forced-labour-in-central-asia-and-afghanistan-in-the-early-19th-century1%2F0A561B64835BB7E5F112451C5A43B2CA&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-turanians-190"><a href="#cite_ref-turanians_190-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://issuu.com/zabergan/docs/turanians">Turanians and Pan-Turanianism</a>. London: Naval Staff Intelligence Department. November 1918.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turanians+and+Pan-Turanianism&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Naval+Staff+Intelligence+Department&rft.date=1918-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fissuu.com%2Fzabergan%2Fdocs%2Fturanians&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNEWBY2013" class="citation journal cs1">NEWBY, L. J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">"Bondage on Qing China's Northwestern Frontier"</a>. Modern Asian Studies. 47 (3): 980. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261">10.1017/S0026749X12000261</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">24494172</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144623444">144623444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Bondage+on+Qing+China%27s+Northwestern+Frontier&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=980&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144623444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261&rft.aulast=NEWBY&rft.aufirst=L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&pg=PA45">Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</a> (illustrated ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 45. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0195221516" title="Special:BookSources/0195221516"><bdi>0195221516</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pages=45&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0195221516&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26pg%3DPA45&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNEWBY2013" class="citation journal cs1">NEWBY, L. J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">"Bondage on Qing China's Northwestern Frontier"</a>. Modern Asian Studies. 47 (3): 974. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261">10.1017/S0026749X12000261</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">24494172</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144623444">144623444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Bondage+on+Qing+China%27s+Northwestern+Frontier&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=974&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144623444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261&rft.aulast=NEWBY&rft.aufirst=L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNEWBY2013" class="citation journal cs1">NEWBY, L. J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">"Bondage on Qing China's Northwestern Frontier"</a>. Modern Asian Studies. 47 (3): 975. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261">10.1017/S0026749X12000261</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">24494172</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144623444">144623444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Bondage+on+Qing+China%27s+Northwestern+Frontier&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=975&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144623444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261&rft.aulast=NEWBY&rft.aufirst=L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNEWBY2013" class="citation journal cs1">NEWBY, L. J. (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">"Bondage on Qing China's Northwestern Frontier"</a>. Modern Asian Studies. 47 (3): 987. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261">10.1017/S0026749X12000261</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/24494172">24494172</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144623444">144623444</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Bondage+on+Qing+China%27s+Northwestern+Frontier&rft.volume=47&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=987&rft.date=2013&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144623444%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X12000261&rft.aulast=NEWBY&rft.aufirst=L.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F24494172&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNajmabadi1998" class="citation book cs1">Najmabadi, Afsaneh (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AXlIwLYJN6oC&dq=turkoman+raid+prize&pg=PA49">The Story of the Daughters of Quchan: Gender and National Memory in Iranian History – Modern Intellectual and Political History of the Middle East</a> (illustrated ed.). Syracuse University Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0815627912" title="Special:BookSources/0815627912"><bdi>0815627912</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+the+Daughters+of+Quchan%3A+Gender+and+National+Memory+in+Iranian+History+%E2%80%93+Modern+Intellectual+and+Political+History+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=49&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0815627912&rft.aulast=Najmabadi&rft.aufirst=Afsaneh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DAXlIwLYJN6oC%26dq%3Dturkoman%2Braid%2Bprize%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1911" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, Abraham Valentine Williams (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Z4aBAAAAIAAJ&dq=turkoman+raid+prize&pg=PA296">From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam: Travels in Transcaucasia and Northern Persia for Historic and Literary Research</a>. Macmillan. p. 296.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Constantinople+to+the+Home+of+Omar+Khayyam%3A+Travels+in+Transcaucasia+and+Northern+Persia+for+Historic+and+Literary+Research&rft.pages=296&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=Abraham+Valentine+Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DZ4aBAAAAIAAJ%26dq%3Dturkoman%2Braid%2Bprize%26pg%3DPA296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-198"><a href="#cite_ref-198">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJackson1911" class="citation book cs1">Jackson, A.B. Wiliams (1911). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FA4kgaeYqGoC&dq=turkoman+raid+prize&pg=PA296">From Constantinople to the Home of Omar Khayyam</a>. p. 296.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Constantinople+to+the+Home+of+Omar+Khayyam&rft.pages=296&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Jackson&rft.aufirst=A.B.+Wiliams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFA4kgaeYqGoC%26dq%3Dturkoman%2Braid%2Bprize%26pg%3DPA296&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-199"><a href="#cite_ref-199">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoudik2007" class="citation book cs1">Roudik, Peter (June 19, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-8_3jbZU9ikC&dq=Europe+and+the+latest+in+Russian+technology+in+exchange+for+3,000+Russian+slaves,+men,+women,+and+children+who+were+kept+there.&pg=PT85">The History of the Central Asian Republics</a>. Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780313087707" title="Special:BookSources/9780313087707"><bdi>9780313087707</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Central+Asian+Republics&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=2007-06-19&rft.isbn=9780313087707&rft.aulast=Roudik&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-8_3jbZU9ikC%26dq%3DEurope%2Band%2Bthe%2Blatest%2Bin%2BRussian%2Btechnology%2Bin%2Bexchange%2Bfor%2B3%2C000%2BRussian%2Bslaves%2C%2Bmen%2C%2Bwomen%2C%2Band%2Bchildren%2Bwho%2Bwere%2Bkept%2Bthere.%26pg%3DPT85&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-200"><a href="#cite_ref-200">^</a> Eastern Destiny: Russia in Asia and the North Pacific by G. Patrick March <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Nq18znjAE5YC&pg=PA139">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-201"><a href="#cite_ref-201">^</a> Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire 1500–1800 by Michael Khodarkovsky <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0QAraz9qVY4C&pg=PA35">[3]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-202"><a href="#cite_ref-202">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuriy_Anatolyevich_Malikov2006" class="citation book cs1">Yuriy Anatolyevich Malikov (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NISi2QK-mPQC&pg=PA375">Formation of a Borderland Culture: Myths and Realities of Cossack-Kazakh Relations in Northern Kazakhstan in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries</a>. University of California, Santa Barbara. p. 375. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-542-85601-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-542-85601-3"><bdi>978-0-542-85601-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formation+of+a+Borderland+Culture%3A+Myths+and+Realities+of+Cossack-Kazakh+Relations+in+Northern+Kazakhstan+in+the+Eighteenth+and+Nineteenth+Centuries&rft.pages=375&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Santa+Barbara&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-542-85601-3&rft.au=Yuriy+Anatolyevich+Malikov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNISi2QK-mPQC%26pg%3DPA375&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOlcott1995" class="citation book cs1">Olcott, Martha Brill (June 19, 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0QAraz9qVY4C&pg=PA35">The Kazakhs</a>. Hoover Institution Press, Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780817993535" title="Special:BookSources/9780817993535"><bdi>9780817993535</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Kazakhs&rft.pub=Hoover+Institution+Press%2C+Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1995-06-19&rft.isbn=9780817993535&rft.aulast=Olcott&rft.aufirst=Martha+Brill&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0QAraz9qVY4C%26pg%3DPA35&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-204"><a href="#cite_ref-204">^</a> Russia's Steppe Frontier: The Making Of A Colonial Empire, 1500–1800 By Michael Khodarkovsky, pp. 167–168 </li> <li id="cite_note-205"><a href="#cite_ref-205">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RPssAAAAIAAJ&q=Kazakh++Baskhir+massacre">Studies in History</a>. Sage. 1988.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+History&rft.pub=Sage&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DRPssAAAAIAAJ%26q%3DKazakh%2B%2BBaskhir%2Bmassacre&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-206"><a href="#cite_ref-206">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuriy_Anatolyevich_Malikov2006" class="citation book cs1">Yuriy Anatolyevich Malikov (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=NISi2QK-mPQC&pg=PA290">Formation of a Borderland Culture: Myths and Realities of Cossack-Kazakh Relations in Northern Kazakhstan in the Eighteenth and Nineteenth Centuries</a>. University of California, Santa Barbara. p. 290. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-542-85601-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-542-85601-3"><bdi>978-0-542-85601-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Formation+of+a+Borderland+Culture%3A+Myths+and+Realities+of+Cossack-Kazakh+Relations+in+Northern+Kazakhstan+in+the+Eighteenth+and+Nineteenth+Centuries&rft.pages=290&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Santa+Barbara&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-542-85601-3&rft.au=Yuriy+Anatolyevich+Malikov&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DNISi2QK-mPQC%26pg%3DPA290&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-google6-207">^ <a href="#cite_ref-google6_207-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-google6_207-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKhodarkovsky2002" class="citation book cs1">Khodarkovsky, Michael (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://archive.org/details/trent_0116405117767">Russia's steppe frontier : the making of a colonial empire, 1500–1800</a>. Internet Archive. Bloomington; Indianapolis : Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33989-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-33989-8"><bdi>978-0-253-33989-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+steppe+frontier+%3A+the+making+of+a+colonial+empire%2C+1500%E2%80%931800&rft.pub=Bloomington%3B+Indianapolis+%3A+Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-253-33989-8&rft.aulast=Khodarkovsky&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftrent_0116405117767&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google7-208"><a href="#cite_ref-google7_208-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarrel_Philip_Kaiser2006" class="citation book cs1">Darrel Philip Kaiser (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=He-n20u0pW0C&pg=PA168">Origin & Ancestors Families Karle & Kaiser of the German-Russian Volga Colonies</a>. Lulo.com. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4116-9894-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4116-9894-9"><bdi>978-1-4116-9894-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Origin+%26+Ancestors+Families+Karle+%26+Kaiser+of+the+German-Russian+Volga+Colonies&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Lulo.com&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-4116-9894-9&rft.au=Darrel+Philip+Kaiser&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHe-n20u0pW0C%26pg%3DPA168&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-209"><a href="#cite_ref-209">^</a> Pilgrims on the Silk Road: A Muslim-Christian Encounter in Khiva By Walter R. Ratliff <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WOCCEAWidLcC&dq=hundred+thousand+russian+slaves+khiva&pg=PA4">[4]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-210"><a href="#cite_ref-210">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2007" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QNsCPOnTfhoC">The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In</a>. Da Capo Press. p. 206. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306815850" title="Special:BookSources/9780306815850"><bdi>9780306815850</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Arab+Conquests%3A+How+the+Spread+of+Islam+Changed+the+World+We+Live+In&rft.pages=206&rft.pub=Da+Capo+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=9780306815850&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQNsCPOnTfhoC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-211"><a href="#cite_ref-211">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=_MwoDsz2VeEC">The History of the Conquest of Egypt, North Africa and Spain: Known as the Futuh</a>. Cosimo. January 2010. p. 170. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781616404352" title="Special:BookSources/9781616404352"><bdi>9781616404352</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Conquest+of+Egypt%2C+North+Africa+and+Spain%3A+Known+as+the+Futuh&rft.pages=170&rft.pub=Cosimo&rft.date=2010-01&rft.isbn=9781616404352&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D_MwoDsz2VeEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-212"><a href="#cite_ref-212">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qVqlswEACAAJ">Barbarians, Marauders, And Infidels</a>. Basic Books. 26 May 2004. p. 124. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813391533" title="Special:BookSources/9780813391533"><bdi>9780813391533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarians%2C+Marauders%2C+And+Infidels&rft.pages=124&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004-05-26&rft.isbn=9780813391533&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqVqlswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PJNgCwAAQBAJ">The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise</a>. Open Road Media. 9 February 2016. pp. 43–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781504034692" title="Special:BookSources/9781504034692"><bdi>9781504034692</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Andalusian+Paradise&rft.pages=43-44&rft.pub=Open+Road+Media&rft.date=2016-02-09&rft.isbn=9781504034692&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPJNgCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Makkari1840" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_al-Maqqari" title="Ahmad al-Maqqari">Al-Makkari, Ahmed ibn Mohammed</a> (1840) [1629]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/spain-history-volume-1/page/251/mode/1up">The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain</a>. Vol. 1. Translated by <a href="/wiki/Pascual_de_Gayangos" class="mw-redirect" title="Pascual de Gayangos">Pascual de Gayangos</a>. pp. 251–2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Mohammedan+Dynasties+in+Spain&rft.pages=251-2&rft.date=1840&rft.aulast=Al-Makkari&rft.aufirst=Ahmed+ibn+Mohammed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fspain-history-volume-1%2Fpage%2F251%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-215"><a href="#cite_ref-215">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1b5CngEACAAJ">The History of the Mohammedan Dynasties in Spain</a>. 1964. p. 1:510n10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Mohammedan+Dynasties+in+Spain&rft.pages=1%3A510n10&rft.date=1964&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1b5CngEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-216"><a href="#cite_ref-216">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PJNgCwAAQBAJ">The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise</a>. Open Road Media. 9 February 2016. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781504034692" title="Special:BookSources/9781504034692"><bdi>9781504034692</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Andalusian+Paradise&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Open+Road+Media&rft.date=2016-02-09&rft.isbn=9781504034692&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPJNgCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-217"><a href="#cite_ref-217">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2007" class="citation book cs1">Kennedy, Hugh (10 December 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DWRKDgAAQBAJ">The Great Arab Conquests: How the Spread of Islam Changed the World We Live In</a>. Hachette Books. p. 222. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780306817281" title="Special:BookSources/9780306817281"><bdi>9780306817281</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Arab+Conquests%3A+How+the+Spread+of+Islam+Changed+the+World+We+Live+In&rft.pages=222&rft.pub=Hachette+Books&rft.date=2007-12-10&rft.isbn=9780306817281&rft.aulast=Kennedy&rft.aufirst=Hugh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDWRKDgAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qVqlswEACAAJ">Barbarians, Marauders, And Infidels</a>. Basic Books. 26 May 2004. p. 116. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813391533" title="Special:BookSources/9780813391533"><bdi>9780813391533</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Barbarians%2C+Marauders%2C+And+Infidels&rft.pages=116&rft.pub=Basic+Books&rft.date=2004-05-26&rft.isbn=9780813391533&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqVqlswEACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Open_Road_Media-219">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Open_Road_Media_219-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Open_Road_Media_219-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PJNgCwAAQBAJ">The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise</a>. Open Road Media. 9 February 2016. pp. 42–44. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781504034692" title="Special:BookSources/9781504034692"><bdi>9781504034692</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Andalusian+Paradise&rft.pages=42-44&rft.pub=Open+Road+Media&rft.date=2016-02-09&rft.isbn=9781504034692&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPJNgCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-220"><a href="#cite_ref-220">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PJNgCwAAQBAJ">The Myth of the Andalusian Paradise</a>. Open Road Media. 9 February 2016. p. 100. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781504034692" title="Special:BookSources/9781504034692"><bdi>9781504034692</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Myth+of+the+Andalusian+Paradise&rft.pages=100&rft.pub=Open+Road+Media&rft.date=2016-02-09&rft.isbn=9781504034692&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPJNgCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p.16-221">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_p.16_221-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_p.16_221-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_p.16_221-2">c</a> Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p.16 </li> <li id="cite_note-Miers,_S._2003_p._17-222">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_p._17_222-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_p._17_222-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_p._17_222-2">c</a> Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 17 </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a> Lewis, Bernard Race and Slavery in the Middle East (1990) pp. 111, 149–156 </li> <li id="cite_note-RSIBS2001:5-224"><a href="#cite_ref-RSIBS2001:5_224-0">^</a> <a href="#RSIBS2001">Segal, Islam's Black Slaves, 2001</a>: p. 5 </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Seyyed Hossein Nasr</a> (2004), p. 182 </li> <li id="cite_note-Lewis1-226"><a href="#cite_ref-Lewis1_226-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLewis1990">Lewis 1990</a>, pp. 78–79 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok20013-227"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJok20013_227-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJok2001">Jok 2001</a>, p. 3. </li> <li id="cite_note-EHR-228"><a href="#cite_ref-EHR_228-0">^</a> James R. Lewis and Carl Skutsch, The Human Rights Encyclopedia, v.3, p. 898-904 </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a> (byline dated March 4) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWolf_Von_Schierbrand1886" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Wolf_Curt_von_Schierbrand" title="Wolf Curt von Schierbrand">Wolf Von Schierbrand</a> (March 28, 1886). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191216220231/https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1886/03/28/106300694.pdf">"Slaves sold to the Turk"</a> (PDF). The New York Times. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://timesmachine.nytimes.com/timesmachine/1886/03/28/106300694.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on December 16, 2019. Retrieved 2011-01-19.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Slaves+sold+to+the+Turk&rft.date=1886-03-28&rft.au=Wolf+Von+Schierbrand&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftimesmachine.nytimes.com%2Ftimesmachine%2F1886%2F03%2F28%2F106300694.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a> Gordon 1989, p. 21. </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a> In his narrative of A Years Journey Through Central and Eastern Arabia 5th Ed. London (1869), p.270 </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> Doughty, Charles Montagu, Arabia Deserta (Cambridge, 1988), I, 554 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok20015-233"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJok20015_233-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJok2001">Jok 2001</a>, p. 5. </li> <li id="cite_note-Manning-1990-234"><a href="#cite_ref-Manning-1990_234-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning1990" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Patrick (1990). Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades. African Studies Series. London: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+African+Life%3A+Occidental%2C+Oriental%2C+and+African+Slave+Trades&rft.place=London&rft.series=African+Studies+Series&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Manning&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-235"><a href="#cite_ref-235">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190404081021/https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis//nubia/chapter2.html">"Travels in Nubia, by John Lewis Burckhardt"</a>. Ebooks.adelaide.edu.au. 2015-08-25. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebooks.adelaide.edu.au/b/burckhardt/john_lewis//nubia/chapter2.html">the original</a> on 2019-04-04. Retrieved 2016-03-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Travels+in+Nubia%2C+by+John+Lewis+Burckhardt&rft.pub=Ebooks.adelaide.edu.au&rft.date=2015-08-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Febooks.adelaide.edu.au%2Fb%2Fburckhardt%2Fjohn_lewis%2F%2Fnubia%2Fchapter2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-er-236"><a href="#cite_ref-er_236-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRice1990" class="citation book cs1">Rice, Ed (1990). Captain Sir Richard Francis Burton: the secret agent who made the pilgrimage to Mecca, discovered the Kama Sutra, and brought the Arabian nights to the West. New York: Charles Scribner's Sons. p. 203,280–281,289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0684191379" title="Special:BookSources/978-0684191379"><bdi>978-0684191379</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Captain+Sir+Richard+Francis+Burton%3A+the+secret+agent+who+made+the+pilgrimage+to+Mecca%2C+discovered+the+Kama+Sutra%2C+and+brought+the+Arabian+nights+to+the+West&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=203%2C280-281%2C289&rft.pub=Charles+Scribner%27s+Sons&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0684191379&rft.aulast=Rice&rft.aufirst=Ed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=boicxwpPeAkC&q=We+passed+a+slave+woman+shot+or+stabbed+through+the+body+and+lying+on+the+path&pg=PA62">The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi</a>. Cambridge University Press. 15 September 2011. pp. 56, 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781108032612" title="Special:BookSources/9781108032612"><bdi>9781108032612</bdi></a>. Retrieved 25 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Journals+of+David+Livingstone+in+Central+Africa%2C+from+1865+to+His+Death%3A+Continued+by+a+Narrative+of+His+Last+Moments+and+Sufferings%2C+Obtained+from+His+Faithful+Servants%2C+Chuma+and+Susi&rft.pages=56%2C+62&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011-09-15&rft.isbn=9781108032612&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DboicxwpPeAkC%26q%3DWe%2Bpassed%2Ba%2Bslave%2Bwoman%2Bshot%2Bor%2Bstabbed%2Bthrough%2Bthe%2Bbody%2Band%2Blying%2Bon%2Bthe%2Bpath%26pg%3DPA62&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Appgat-238"><a href="#cite_ref-Appgat_238-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKwame_Anthony_AppiahHenry_Louis_Gates2005" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kwame_Anthony_Appiah" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah">Kwame Anthony Appiah</a>; <a href="/wiki/Henry_Louis_Gates" class="mw-redirect" title="Henry Louis Gates">Henry Louis Gates</a> (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y7EUAQAAIAAJ">Africana: The Encyclopedia of the African and African-American Experience, 5-Volume Set</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 295. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0195170559" title="Special:BookSources/978-0195170559"><bdi>978-0195170559</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Africana%3A+The+Encyclopedia+of+the+African+and+African-American+Experience%2C+5-Volume+Set&rft.pages=295&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0195170559&rft.au=Kwame+Anthony+Appiah&rft.au=Henry+Louis+Gates&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dy7EUAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> David Livingstone (2006). "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=AA75Tx77sHwC">The Last Journals of David Livingstone, in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death</a>". Echo Library. p.46. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84637-555-X" title="Special:BookSources/1-84637-555-X">1-84637-555-X</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-240"><a href="#cite_ref-240">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav03livigoog">The Last Journals of David Livingstone in Central Africa, from 1865 to His Death: Continued by a Narrative of His Last Moments and Sufferings, Obtained from His Faithful Servants, Chuma and Susi</a>. Cambridge University Press. 1875. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastjournalsdav03livigoog/page/n376">352</a>. Retrieved 25 April 2019. <q>the strangest disease i have sen in this country is brokenheartedness.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Journals+of+David+Livingstone+in+Central+Africa%2C+from+1865+to+His+Death%3A+Continued+by+a+Narrative+of+His+Last+Moments+and+Sufferings%2C+Obtained+from+His+Faithful+Servants%2C+Chuma+and+Susi&rft.pages=352&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1875&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flastjournalsdav03livigoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071206102932/http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html">"Swahili Coast"</a>. .nationalgeographic.com. 17 October 2002. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www7.nationalgeographic.com/ngm/data/2001/10/01/html/ft_20011001.6.html">the original</a> on 6 December 2007. Retrieved 15 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Swahili+Coast&rft.pub=.nationalgeographic.com&rft.date=2002-10-17&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww7.nationalgeographic.com%2Fngm%2Fdata%2F2001%2F10%2F01%2Fhtml%2Fft_20011001.6.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Stanley-242"><a href="#cite_ref-Stanley_242-0">^</a> Stanley Henry M., How I Found Livingstone; travels, adventures, and discoveries in Central Africa, including an account of four months' residence with Dr. Livingstone. (1871) </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceB-243">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_243-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceB_243-1">b</a> Kenneth M. Cuno: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RYP3CgAAQBAJ&dq=Walida+Pasha+harem&pg=PA20">Modernizing Marriage: Family, Ideology, and Law in Nineteenth- and Early ...</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> Cuno, K. M. (2015). Modernizing Marriage: Family, Ideology, and Law in Nineteenth- and Early Twentieth-Century Egypt. Egypten: Syracuse University Press. p. 25 </li> <li id="cite_note-245"><a href="#cite_ref-245">^</a> Fyfe, C. (1977). The Second Brussels Conference and the Partition of Africa-Britain and the Ending of the Slave Trade. By Suzanne Miers. London: Longmans, and New York: Africana Publishing Corporation, 1975. The Journal of African History, 18(1), 140–142. </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> Higgs, C. (2008). Slavery in the Great Lakes Region of East Africa, edited by Henri Medard and Shane Doyle. Canadian Journal of History, 43(3), 583–585. </li> <li id="cite_note-DS-247"><a href="#cite_ref-DS_247-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavid" class="citation web cs1">David, Saul. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/history/british/abolition/scramble_for_africa_article_01.shtml">"BBC – History – British History in depth: Slavery and the 'Scramble for Africa'"</a>. BBC/history. BBC. Retrieved 19 September 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC%2Fhistory&rft.atitle=BBC+%E2%80%93+History+%E2%80%93+British+History+in+depth%3A+Slavery+and+the+%27Scramble+for+Africa%27&rft.aulast=David&rft.aufirst=Saul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fhistory%2Fbritish%2Fabolition%2Fscramble_for_africa_article_01.shtml&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Craven-248"><a href="#cite_ref-Craven_248-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCraven2015" class="citation journal cs1">Craven, M. (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Flril%2Flrv002">"Between law and history: the Berlin Conference of 1884–1885 and the logic of free trade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/London_Review_of_International_Law" title="London Review of International Law">London Review of International Law</a>. 3: 31–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Flril%2Flrv002">10.1093/lril/lrv002</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=London+Review+of+International+Law&rft.atitle=Between+law+and+history%3A+the+Berlin+Conference+of+1884%E2%80%931885+and+the+logic+of+free+trade&rft.volume=3&rft.pages=31-59&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Flril%2Flrv002&rft.aulast=Craven&rft.aufirst=M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1093%252Flril%252Flrv002&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-HistoricalContext-249"><a href="#cite_ref-HistoricalContext_249-0">^</a> "Historical Context: Heart of Darkness." EXPLORING Novels, Online Edition. Gale, 2003. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://galenet.galegroup.com/servlet/DC">Discovering Collection</a>. (subscription required) </li> <li id="cite_note-250"><a href="#cite_ref-250">^</a> Stengers, Jean, "Sur l'aventure congolaise de Joseph Conrad". In Quaghebeur, M. and van Balberghe, E. (eds), Papier Blanc, Encre Noire: Cent Ans de Culture Francophone en Afrique Centrale (Zaïre, Rwanda et Burundi). 2 Vols. Brussels: Labor. Vol. 1, pp. 15–34. </li> <li id="cite_note-Lev85-251">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Lev85_251-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lev85_251-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Lev85_251-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFLevy1957">Levy 1957</a>, pp. 85–89 </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press, pp. 100–121 </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a> Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. 254 </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a> Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 216 </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a> Miers, Suzanne (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press, pp. 323–324 </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a> Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. Storbritannien: AltaMira Press. p. 326 </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gvnet.com/humantrafficking/SaudiArabia.htm">"Human Trafficking & Modern-day Slavery in Saudi Arabia"</a>. www.gvnet.com. Retrieved 2022-07-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.gvnet.com&rft.atitle=Human+Trafficking+%26+Modern-day+Slavery+in+Saudi+Arabia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.gvnet.com%2Fhumantrafficking%2FSaudiArabia.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.freetheslaves.net/slavery-today-2/slavery-in-history/">"Slavery in History « Free the Slaves"</a>. www.freetheslaves.net. Retrieved 2022-07-29.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.freetheslaves.net&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+History+%C2%AB+Free+the+Slaves&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.freetheslaves.net%2Fslavery-today-2%2Fslavery-in-history%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-259"><a href="#cite_ref-259">^</a> Murray Gordon. 'Slavery in the Arab World', New York: New Amsterdam, 1989, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4091579.stm">"Slavery: Mauritania's best kept secret"</a>. BBC News. December 13, 2004. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090414194052/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/africa/4091579.stm">Archived</a> from the original on April 14, 2009. Retrieved May 5, 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Slavery%3A+Mauritania%27s+best+kept+secret&rft.date=2004-12-13&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2F4091579.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/p/af/rls/rpt/2002/10445.htm">"Slavery, Abduction and Forced Servitude in Sudan"</a>. US Department of State. 22 May 2002. Retrieved 20 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery%2C+Abduction+and+Forced+Servitude+in+Sudan&rft.pub=US+Department+of+State&rft.date=2002-05-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2001-2009.state.gov%2Fp%2Faf%2Frls%2Frpt%2F2002%2F10445.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/inDepthNews/idUSL1833437920070322?feedType=RSS">"Slavery still exists in Mauritania"</a>. Reuters.com. 2007-03-22. Retrieved 2016-03-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Slavery+still+exists+in+Mauritania&rft.pub=Reuters.com&rft.date=2007-03-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FinDepthNews%2FidUSL1833437920070322%3FfeedType%3DRSS&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6938032.stm">"Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law"</a>. BBC News. 2007-08-09. Retrieved 2016-03-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Mauritanian+MPs+pass+slavery+law&rft.date=2007-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F6938032.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/worldservice/specials/1458_abolition/page4.shtml">"The Abolition season"</a>, BBC World Service </li> <li id="cite_note-265"><a href="#cite_ref-265">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohn_L._Esposito2014" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/oxforddictionary00bada">"Slavery"</a>. The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001">10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195125580" title="Special:BookSources/9780195125580"><bdi>9780195125580</bdi></a>. <q>Since the mid-twentieth century, slavery has been virtually extinct in the central Islamic lands, though reports from Sudan and Somalia reveal that slavery is still practiced in border areas as a result of continuing warfare.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Slavery&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Facref%2F9780195125580.001.0001&rft.isbn=9780195125580&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Foxforddictionary00bada&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miers,_S._2003-266">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_266-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_266-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Miers,_S._2003_266-2">c</a> Miers, S. (2003). Slavery in the Twentieth Century: The Evolution of a Global Problem. USA: AltaMira Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-NYER-2014-267"><a href="#cite_ref-NYER-2014_267-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOkeowo2014" class="citation magazine cs1">Okeowo, Alexis (September 8, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180106081042/https://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09/08/freedom-fighter">"Freedom Fighter: A slaving society and an abolitionist's crusade"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_New_Yorker" title="The New Yorker">The New Yorker</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2014/09/08/freedom-fighter">the original</a> on January 6, 2018. Retrieved October 16, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+Yorker&rft.atitle=Freedom+Fighter%3A+A+slaving+society+and+an+abolitionist%27s+crusade&rft.date=2014-09-08&rft.aulast=Okeowo&rft.aufirst=Alexis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newyorker.com%2Fmagazine%2F2014%2F09%2F08%2Ffreedom-fighter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/africa/6938032.stm">"Mauritanian MPs pass slavery law"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC_News" title="BBC News">BBC News</a>. 9 August 2007. Retrieved 2010-05-23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Mauritanian+MPs+pass+slavery+law&rft.date=2007-08-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fafrica%2F6938032.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-269"><a href="#cite_ref-269">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20060417083811/http://www.soas.ac.uk/staff/staffinfo.cfm?contactid=36">"Staff Profile Professor William Gervase Clarence-Smith"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.soas.ac.uk/staff/staffinfo.cfm?contactid=36">the original</a> on April 17, 2006. Retrieved August 9, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Staff+Profile+Professor+William+Gervase+Clarence-Smith&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.soas.ac.uk%2Fstaff%2Fstaffinfo.cfm%3Fcontactid%3D36&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CS-maududi-270"><a href="#cite_ref-CS-maududi_270-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&q=Mawdudi++slavery&pg=PA188">Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 188. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195221510" title="Special:BookSources/9780195221510"><bdi>9780195221510</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pages=188&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780195221510&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26q%3DMawdudi%2B%2Bslavery%26pg%3DPA188&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScience" class="citation web cs1">Science, London School of Economics and Political. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Islam&SlaveryWGCS.pdf">"Department of Economic History"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090708150750/http://www.lse.ac.uk/collections/economicHistory/GEHN/GEHNPDF/Islam%26SlaveryWGCS.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 2009-07-08. Retrieved 2020-07-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Department+of+Economic+History&rft.aulast=Science&rft.aufirst=London+School+of+Economics+and+Political&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lse.ac.uk%2Fcollections%2FeconomicHistory%2FGEHN%2FGEHNPDF%2FIslam%26SlaveryWGCS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CS-Qutb-272"><a href="#cite_ref-CS-Qutb_272-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, W. G. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nQbylEdqJKkC&q=clarence-smith+muhammad+qutb+slavery+disturbing&pg=PA186">Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 186. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780195221510" title="Special:BookSources/9780195221510"><bdi>9780195221510</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pages=186&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780195221510&rft.aulast=Clarence-Smith&rft.aufirst=W.+G.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DnQbylEdqJKkC%26q%3Dclarence-smith%2Bmuhammad%2Bqutb%2Bslavery%2Bdisturbing%26pg%3DPA186&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a> Qutb, Muhammad, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamicbulletin.org/free_downloads/new_muslim/islam_the_misunderstood_religion.pdf">Islam, the Misunderstood Religion</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180730020246/http://www.islamicbulletin.org/free_downloads/new_muslim/islam_the_misunderstood_religion.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-07-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, islamicbulletin.org pp. 27–8 </li> <li id="cite_note-IMRMQ41-274">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IMRMQ41_274-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IMRMQ41_274-1">b</a> Qutb, Muhammad, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.islamicbulletin.org/free_downloads/new_muslim/islam_the_misunderstood_religion.pdf">Islam, the Misunderstood Religion</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180730020246/http://www.islamicbulletin.org/free_downloads/new_muslim/islam_the_misunderstood_religion.pdf">Archived</a> 2018-07-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, islamicbulletin.org p. 41 </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a> Qutb, Muhammad, Islam, the Misunderstood Religion, Markazi Maktabi Islami, Delhi-6, 1992 p.50 </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a> Khaled Abou El Fadl and William Clarence-Smith </li> <li id="cite_note-277"><a href="#cite_ref-277">^</a> Abou el Fadl, Great Theft, HarperSanFrancisco, c2005. p. 255 </li> <li id="cite_note-278"><a href="#cite_ref-278">^</a> Shaikh Salih al-Fawzan "affirmation of slavery" was found on page 24 of "Taming a Neo-Qutubite Fanatic Part 1" when accessed on February 17, 2007 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090319010029/http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/downloads/pdf/GRV070005.pdf">"Archived copy"</a> (PDF). Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.salafipublications.com/sps/downloads/pdf/GRV070005.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 2009-03-19. Retrieved 2014-11-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archived+copy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.salafipublications.com%2Fsps%2Fdownloads%2Fpdf%2FGRV070005.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_web" title="Template:Cite web">cite web</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: archived copy as title (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-279"><a href="#cite_ref-279">^</a> Shaikh al-Fawzan "affirmation of enslaving Yazidi women as sex slaves" was found on Almasalah news referring to Shaikh al-Fawzan tweet. Article date (2016/03/10 15:37) accessed on July 17, 2020 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://almasalah.com/ar/News/36601/شيخ-في-هيئة-علماء-السعودية-سبي-النس">"شيخ في هيئة علماء السعودية: سبي النساء الإيزيديات "حلال""</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180124064737/http://almasalah.com/ar/news/36601/%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B3">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-24. Retrieved 2020-07-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE+%D9%81%D9%8A+%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9+%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9%3A+%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A+%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A1+%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A5%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%AA+%22%D8%AD%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%84%22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Falmasalah.com%2Far%2FNews%2F36601%2F%D8%B4%D9%8A%D8%AE-%D9%81%D9%8A-%D9%87%D9%8A%D8%A6%D8%A9-%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D8%B9%D9%88%D8%AF%D9%8A%D8%A9-%D8%B3%D8%A8%D9%8A-%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%86%D8%B3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-280"><a href="#cite_ref-280">^</a> The Great Theft: Wrestling Islam from the Extremists, by Khaled Abou El Fadl, Harper San Francisco, 2005, p.255 </li> <li id="cite_note-281"><a href="#cite_ref-281">^</a> BBC News <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/this_world/6431957.stm">"The child slaves of Saudi Arabia"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171024202308/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/programmes/this_world/6431957.stm">Archived</a> 2017-10-24 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-282"><a href="#cite_ref-282">^</a> "God created Me to Be a Slave," New York Times Magazine, October 12, 1997, p. 58 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok2001xi-283"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJok2001xi_283-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJok2001">Jok 2001</a>, p. xi. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJok20012-284"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJok20012_284-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJok2001">Jok 2001</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-Abadía_2021-285"><a href="#cite_ref-Abadía_2021_285-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbadía2021" class="citation magazine cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Abadía, Alejandro (30 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.revistalevel.com.co/contenido/la-primera-tarjeta-roja-del-mundial-es-para-su-anfitrion">"La Primera Tarjeta Roja del Mundial es para su Anfitrión"</a>. www.revistalevel.com (in Spanish). <a href="/wiki/Bogot%C3%A1" title="Bogotá">Bogotá</a>: Revista Level. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221002191929/https://www.revistalevel.com.co/contenido/la-primera-tarjeta-roja-del-mundial-es-para-su-anfitrion">Archived</a> from the original on 2 October 2022. Retrieved 21 March 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=www.revistalevel.com&rft.atitle=La+Primera+Tarjeta+Roja+del+Mundial+es+para+su+Anfitri%C3%B3n&rft.date=2021-05-30&rft.aulast=Abad%C3%ADa&rft.aufirst=Alejandro&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.revistalevel.com.co%2Fcontenido%2Fla-primera-tarjeta-roja-del-mundial-es-para-su-anfitrion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Atlantic_2022-286"><a href="#cite_ref-Atlantic_2022_286-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcTague2022" class="citation magazine cs1">McTague, Tom (19 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2022/11/qatar-hosting-fifa-world-cup-soccer/672171/">"The Qatar World Cup Exposes Soccer's Shame"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>. Washington, D.C. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2151-9463">2151-9463</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/936540106">936540106</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221119231915/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2022/11/qatar-hosting-fifa-world-cup-soccer/672171/">Archived</a> from the original on 19 November 2022. Retrieved 20 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=The+Qatar+World+Cup+Exposes+Soccer%27s+Shame&rft.date=2022-11-19&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F936540106&rft.issn=2151-9463&rft.aulast=McTague&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Finternational%2Farchive%2F2022%2F11%2Fqatar-hosting-fifa-world-cup-soccer%2F672171%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Reason_2022-287"><a href="#cite_ref-Reason_2022_287-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBoehm2022" class="citation magazine cs1">Boehm, Eric (21 November 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://reason.com/2022/11/21/the-qatar-world-cup-is-a-celebration-of-authoritarianism/">"The Qatar World Cup Is a Celebration of Authoritarianism"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reason_(magazine)" title="Reason (magazine)">Reason</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reason_Foundation" title="Reason Foundation">Reason Foundation</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/818916200">818916200</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221121221030/https://reason.com/2022/11/21/the-qatar-world-cup-is-a-celebration-of-authoritarianism/">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2022. Retrieved 22 November 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reason&rft.atitle=The+Qatar+World+Cup+Is+a+Celebration+of+Authoritarianism&rft.date=2022-11-21&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F818916200&rft.aulast=Boehm&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Freason.com%2F2022%2F11%2F21%2Fthe-qatar-world-cup-is-a-celebration-of-authoritarianism%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian20140218-288">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian20140218_288-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian20140218_288-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian20140218_288-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGibson2014" class="citation web cs1">Gibson, Owen (18 February 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/18/qatar-world-cup-india-migrant-worker-deaths">"More than 500 Indian Workers Have Died in Qatar Since 2012, Figures Show"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140306230719/http://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/feb/18/qatar-world-cup-india-migrant-worker-deaths">Archived</a> from the original on 6 March 2014. Retrieved 10 August 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=More+than+500+Indian+Workers+Have+Died+in+Qatar+Since+2012%2C+Figures+Show&rft.date=2014-02-18&rft.aulast=Gibson&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2014%2Ffeb%2F18%2Fqatar-world-cup-india-migrant-worker-deaths&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian20200901-289"><a href="#cite_ref-Guardian20200901_289-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPete_Pattisson2020" class="citation web cs1">Pete Pattisson (1 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/sep/01/new-employment-law-effectively-ends-qatars-exploitative-kafala-system">"New Labour Law Ends Qatar's Exploitative Kafala System"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210714181805/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2020/sep/01/new-employment-law-effectively-ends-qatars-exploitative-kafala-system">Archived</a> from the original on 14 July 2021. Retrieved 15 July 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=New+Labour+Law+Ends+Qatar%27s+Exploitative+Kafala+System&rft.date=2020-09-01&rft.au=Pete+Pattisson&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2020%2Fsep%2F01%2Fnew-employment-law-effectively-ends-qatars-exploitative-kafala-system&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4000_may_die-290"><a href="#cite_ref-4000_may_die_290-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBooth" class="citation news cs1">Booth, Robert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/sep/26/qatar-world-cup-migrant-workers-dead">"Qatar World Cup construction 'will leave 4,000 migrant workers dead'"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190522044716/https://www.theguardian.com/global-development/2013/sep/26/qatar-world-cup-migrant-workers-dead">Archived</a> from the original on 22 May 2019. Retrieved 26 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Qatar+World+Cup+construction+%27will+leave+4%2C000+migrant+workers+dead%27&rft.aulast=Booth&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fglobal-development%2F2013%2Fsep%2F26%2Fqatar-world-cup-migrant-workers-dead&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-291"><a href="#cite_ref-291">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.itv.com/news/2015-06-09/fifa-2022-world-cup-the-human-cost-in-qatar/">"Fifa 2022 World Cup: Is Qatar doing enough to save migrant workers' lives?"</a>. ITV News. 8 June 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190307112314/https://www.itv.com/news/2015-06-09/fifa-2022-world-cup-the-human-cost-in-qatar/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 March 2019. Retrieved 7 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ITV+News&rft.atitle=Fifa+2022+World+Cup%3A+Is+Qatar+doing+enough+to+save+migrant+workers%27+lives%3F&rft.date=2015-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.itv.com%2Fnews%2F2015-06-09%2Ffifa-2022-world-cup-the-human-cost-in-qatar%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-bbc-292">^ <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_292-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-bbc_292-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStephenson2015" class="citation web cs1">Stephenson, Wesley (6 June 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33019838">"Have 1,200 World Cup workers really died in Qatar?"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190626195050/https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-33019838">Archived</a> from the original on 26 June 2019. Retrieved 30 January 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Have+1%2C200+World+Cup+workers+really+died+in+Qatar%3F&rft.date=2015-06-06&rft.aulast=Stephenson&rft.aufirst=Wesley&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-33019838&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-293"><a href="#cite_ref-293">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://originalpeople.org/the-arab-muslim-slave-trade-of-africans-the-untold-story/">"The Arab Muslim Slave Trade Of Africans, The Untold Story – Originalpeople.org"</a>. originalpeople.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190919180429/http://originalpeople.org/the-arab-muslim-slave-trade-of-africans-the-untold-story/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-09-19. Retrieved 2019-09-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=originalpeople.org&rft.atitle=The+Arab+Muslim+Slave+Trade+Of+Africans%2C+The+Untold+Story+%E2%80%93+Originalpeople.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Foriginalpeople.org%2Fthe-arab-muslim-slave-trade-of-africans-the-untold-story%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-294"><a href="#cite_ref-294">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott2017" class="citation news cs1">Scott, E (10 January 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://russia-insider.com/en/politics/slavery-gulf-states-and-western-complicity/ri18442">"Slavery in the Gulf States, and Western Complicity"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200604124401/https://russia-insider.com/en/politics/slavery-gulf-states-and-western-complicity/ri18442">Archived</a> from the original on 2020-06-04.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Slavery+in+the+Gulf+States%2C+and+Western+Complicity&rft.date=2017-01-10&rft.aulast=Scott&rft.aufirst=E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frussia-insider.com%2Fen%2Fpolitics%2Fslavery-gulf-states-and-western-complicity%2Fri18442&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-295"><a href="#cite_ref-295">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nationalreview.com/2013/07/saudi-slavery-america-michelle-malkin/">"Saudi Slavery in America"</a>. National Review. 2013-07-18. Retrieved 2019-09-18.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Review&rft.atitle=Saudi+Slavery+in+America&rft.date=2013-07-18&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nationalreview.com%2F2013%2F07%2Fsaudi-slavery-america-michelle-malkin%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-296"><a href="#cite_ref-296">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2005/46616.htm">"V. Country Narratives – Countries Q through Z"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191017004938/https://2001-2009.state.gov/g/tip/rls/tiprpt/2005/46616.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-10-17. Retrieved 2019-05-25.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=V.+Country+Narratives+%E2%80%93+Countries+Q+through+Z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2F2001-2009.state.gov%2Fg%2Ftip%2Frls%2Ftiprpt%2F2005%2F46616.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-BBC-297">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_297-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-BBC_297-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39567632">"African migrants sold in Libya 'slave markets', IOM says"</a>. BBC. 11 April 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180724174509/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39567632">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-07-24. Retrieved 2018-07-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC&rft.atitle=African+migrants+sold+in+Libya+%27slave+markets%27%2C+IOM+says&rft.date=2017-04-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-39567632&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian-298">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_298-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_298-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEmma_Graham-Harrison2017" class="citation news cs1">Emma Graham-Harrison (10 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/10/libya-public-slave-auctions-un-migration">"Migrants from west Africa being 'sold in Libyan slave markets'"</a>. The Guardian. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170622132319/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/10/libya-public-slave-auctions-un-migration">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-06-22. Retrieved 2017-12-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Migrants+from+west+Africa+being+%27sold+in+Libyan+slave+markets%27&rft.date=2017-04-10&rft.au=Emma+Graham-Harrison&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2017%2Fapr%2F10%2Flibya-public-slave-auctions-un-migration&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-299"><a href="#cite_ref-299">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nation.africa/kenya/news/africa/African-migrants-sold-as-slaves-in-Libya-/1066-3886812-5hy4xoz/index.html">"African migrants sold as 'slaves' for $200 in Libya"</a>. Nation. Agence France-Presse. 12 April 2017. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180212021800/https://www.nation.co.ke/news/africa/African-migrants-sold-as-slaves-in-Libya-/1066-3886812-5hy4xoz/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-02-12. Retrieved 2017-12-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nation&rft.atitle=African+migrants+sold+as+%27slaves%27+for+%24200+in+Libya&rft.date=2017-04-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnation.africa%2Fkenya%2Fnews%2Fafrica%2FAfrican-migrants-sold-as-slaves-in-Libya-%2F1066-3886812-5hy4xoz%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-300"><a href="#cite_ref-300">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdams2017" class="citation news cs1">Adams, Paul (28 February 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39109585">"Libya exposed as child migrant abuse hub"</a>. BBC News. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180606043622/http://www.bbc.com/news/world-africa-39109585">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2018. Retrieved 21 July 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Libya+exposed+as+child+migrant+abuse+hub&rft.date=2017-02-28&rft.aulast=Adams&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-africa-39109585&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-301"><a href="#cite_ref-301">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170910085159/http://alwaght.com/en/News/89562/Immigrant-Women,-Children-Raped,-Starved-in-Libya%E2%80%99s-Hellholes-Unicef">"Immigrant Women, Children Raped, Starved in Libya's Hellholes: Unicef"</a>. Alwaght. 28 February 2017. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://alwaght.com/en/News/89562/Immigrant-Women,-Children-Raped,-Starved-in-Libya%E2%80%99s-Hellholes-Unicef">the original</a> on 10 September 2017. Retrieved 26 December 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Alwaght&rft.atitle=Immigrant+Women%2C+Children+Raped%2C+Starved+in+Libya%27s+Hellholes%3A+Unicef&rft.date=2017-02-28&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Falwaght.com%2Fen%2FNews%2F89562%2FImmigrant-Women%2C-Children-Raped%2C-Starved-in-Libya%25E2%2580%2599s-Hellholes-Unicef&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-302"><a href="#cite_ref-302">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-monday-edition-1.4410390/reporter-describes-surreal-experience-of-watching-a-migrant-slave-auction-in-libya-1.4410397">"Reporter describes 'surreal' experience of watching a migrant slave auction in Libya"</a>. CBC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180102140351/http://www.cbc.ca/radio/asithappens/as-it-happens-monday-edition-1.4410390/reporter-describes-surreal-experience-of-watching-a-migrant-slave-auction-in-libya-1.4410397">Archived</a> from the original on 2018-01-02. Retrieved 2017-12-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Reporter+describes+%27surreal%27+experience+of+watching+a+migrant+slave+auction+in+Libya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cbc.ca%2Fradio%2Fasithappens%2Fas-it-happens-monday-edition-1.4410390%2Freporter-describes-surreal-experience-of-watching-a-migrant-slave-auction-in-libya-1.4410397&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-303"><a href="#cite_ref-303">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/17/africa/libya-slave-auction-investigation/index.html">"Libya opens investigation into slave auctions following CNN report"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171226053747/http://edition.cnn.com/2017/11/17/africa/libya-slave-auction-investigation/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-26. Retrieved 2017-12-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Libya+opens+investigation+into+slave+auctions+following+CNN+report&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fedition.cnn.com%2F2017%2F11%2F17%2Fafrica%2Flibya-slave-auction-investigation%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-304"><a href="#cite_ref-304">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/11/african-refugees-bought-sold-murdered-libya-171129103602048.html">"African refugees bought, sold and murdered in Libya"</a>. Al-Jazeera. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171227014137/http://www.aljazeera.com/news/2017/11/african-refugees-bought-sold-murdered-libya-171129103602048.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-12-27. Retrieved 2017-12-26.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=African+refugees+bought%2C+sold+and+murdered+in+Libya&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2017%2F11%2Fafrican-refugees-bought-sold-murdered-libya-171129103602048.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-305"><a href="#cite_ref-305">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNellie_Peyton2018" class="citation news cs1">Nellie Peyton (30 May 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180601102111/https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1IV1R5-OZATP">"African migrants report torture, slavery in Algeria"</a>. Reuters Africa. Dakar. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://af.reuters.com/article/topNews/idAFKCN1IV1R5-OZATP">the original</a> on 1 June 2018. Retrieved 1 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters+Africa&rft.atitle=African+migrants+report+torture%2C+slavery+in+Algeria&rft.date=2018-05-30&rft.au=Nellie+Peyton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Faf.reuters.com%2Farticle%2FtopNews%2FidAFKCN1IV1R5-OZATP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-hamas-306">^ <a href="#cite_ref-hamas_306-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hamas_306-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-hamas_306-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBernard_K._Freamon2019" class="citation book cs1">Bernard K. Freamon (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://brill.com/view/title/36502">Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures</a>. Brill. p. 470. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004398795" title="Special:BookSources/9789004398795"><bdi>9789004398795</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Possessed+by+the+Right+Hand%3A+The+Problem+of+Slavery+in+Islamic+Law+and+Muslim+Cultures&rft.pages=470&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=9789004398795&rft.au=Bernard+K.+Freamon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbrill.com%2Fview%2Ftitle%2F36502&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CNNEssenceTerror-307"><a href="#cite_ref-CNNEssenceTerror_307-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLister2014" class="citation news cs1">Lister, Tim (6 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/06/world/africa/nigeria-boko-haram-analysis/">"Boko Haram: The essence of terror"</a>. CNN. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140513033040/http://www.cnn.com/2014/05/06/world/africa/nigeria-boko-haram-analysis/">Archived</a> from the original on 13 May 2014. Retrieved 13 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=CNN&rft.atitle=Boko+Haram%3A+The+essence+of+terror&rft.date=2014-05-06&rft.aulast=Lister&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cnn.com%2F2014%2F05%2F06%2Fworld%2Fafrica%2Fnigeria-boko-haram-analysis%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-308"><a href="#cite_ref-308">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/islamic-state-seeks-justify-enslaving-yazidi-women-and-girls-iraq-277100">"Islamic State Seeks to Justify Enslaving Yazidi Women and Girls in Iraq,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141101221822/http://www.newsweek.com/islamic-state-seeks-justify-enslaving-yazidi-women-and-girls-iraq-277100">Archived</a> 2014-11-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/Newsweek" title="Newsweek">Newsweek</a>, 10-13-2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-309"><a href="#cite_ref-309">^</a> Allen McDuffee, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/10/isis-confirms-and-justifies-enslaving-yazidis-in-new-magazine-article/381394/">"ISIS Is Now Bragging About Enslaving Women and Children,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170830060025/https://www.theatlantic.com/international/archive/2014/10/isis-confirms-and-justifies-enslaving-yazidis-in-new-magazine-article/381394/">Archived</a> 2017-08-30 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Atlantic" title="The Atlantic">The Atlantic</a>, Oct 13 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-310"><a href="#cite_ref-310">^</a> Salma Abdelaziz, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/12/world/meast/isis-justification-slavery/">"ISIS states its justification for the enslavement of women,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170621204748/http://www.cnn.com/2014/10/12/world/meast/isis-justification-slavery">Archived</a> 2017-06-21 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/CNN" title="CNN">CNN</a>, October 13, 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-311"><a href="#cite_ref-311">^</a> Richard Spencer, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11158797/Thousands-of-Yazidi-women-sold-as-sex-slaves-for-theological-reasons-says-Isil.html">"Thousands of Yazidi women sold as sex slaves 'for theological reasons', says Isil,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180409195532/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/islamic-state/11158797/Thousands-of-Yazidi-women-sold-as-sex-slaves-for-theological-reasons-says-Isil.html">Archived</a> 2018-04-09 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Daily_Telegraph" title="The Daily Telegraph">The Daily Telegraph</a>, 13 Oct 2014. </li> <li id="cite_note-312"><a href="#cite_ref-312">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625870-jihadists-boast-selling-captive-women-concubines-have-and-hold">"To have and to hold: Jihadists boast of selling captive women as concubines,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829145631/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625870-jihadists-boast-selling-captive-women-concubines-have-and-hold">Archived</a> 2017-08-29 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>, Oct 18th 2014 </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Economist-313"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Economist_313-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEconomistStaff2014" class="citation news cs1">EconomistStaff (October 18, 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625870-jihadists-boast-selling-captive-women-concubines-have-and-hold">"Jihadists Boast of Selling Captive Women as Concubines"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Economist" title="The Economist">The Economist</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170829145631/https://www.economist.com/news/middle-east-and-africa/21625870-jihadists-boast-selling-captive-women-concubines-have-and-hold">Archived</a> from the original on 29 August 2017. Retrieved 20 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Jihadists+Boast+of+Selling+Captive+Women+as+Concubines&rft.date=2014-10-18&rft.au=EconomistStaff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.economist.com%2Fnews%2Fmiddle-east-and-africa%2F21625870-jihadists-boast-selling-captive-women-concubines-have-and-hold&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-314"><a href="#cite_ref-314">^</a> Nour Malas, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wsj.com/articles/ancient-prophecies-motivate-islamic-state-militants-1416357441">"Ancient Prophecies Motivate Islamic State Militants: Battlefield Strategies Driven by 1,400-year-old Apocalyptic Ideas,"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170326072159/https://www.wsj.com/articles/ancient-prophecies-motivate-islamic-state-militants-1416357441">Archived</a> 2017-03-26 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/The_Wall_Street_Journal" title="The Wall Street Journal">The Wall Street Journal</a>, Nov. 18, 2014 (accessed Nov. 22, 2014) </li> <li id="cite_note-315"><a href="#cite_ref-315">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLauren_Markoe2013" class="citation news cs1">Lauren Markoe (24 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/24/muslim-scholars-islamic-state_n_5878038.html">"Muslim Scholars Release Open Letter to Islamic State Meticulously Blasting Its Ideology"</a>. The Huffington Post. Religious News Service. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140925115145/http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2014/09/24/muslim-scholars-islamic-state_n_5878038.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Huffington+Post&rft.atitle=Muslim+Scholars+Release+Open+Letter+to+Islamic+State+Meticulously+Blasting+Its+Ideology&rft.date=2013-09-24&rft.au=Lauren+Markoe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huffingtonpost.com%2F2014%2F09%2F24%2Fmuslim-scholars-islamic-state_n_5878038.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-christianpost-2014-09-25-316"><a href="#cite_ref-christianpost-2014-09-25_316-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2014" class="citation news cs1">Smith, Samuel (25 September 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.christianpost.com/news/international-coalition-of-muslim-scholars-refute-isis-religious-arguments-in-open-letter-to-al-baghdadi-127032/">"International Coalition of Muslim Scholars Refute ISIS' Religious Arguments in Open Letter to al-Baghdadi"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Christian_Post" title="The Christian Post">The Christian Post</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190402083022/https://www.christianpost.com/news/international-coalition-of-muslim-scholars-refute-isis-religious-arguments-in-open-letter-to-al-baghdadi-127032/">Archived</a> from the original on 2 April 2019. Retrieved 18 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Christian+Post&rft.atitle=International+Coalition+of+Muslim+Scholars+Refute+ISIS%27+Religious+Arguments+in+Open+Letter+to+al-Baghdadi&rft.date=2014-09-25&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.christianpost.com%2Fnews%2Finternational-coalition-of-muslim-scholars-refute-isis-religious-arguments-in-open-letter-to-al-baghdadi-127032%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-OpenLetToAlBagh-317"><a href="#cite_ref-OpenLetToAlBagh_317-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140925193528/http://lettertobaghdadi.com/index.php">"Open Letter to Al-Baghdadi"</a>. September 2014. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lettertobaghdadi.com/index.php">the original</a> on 25 September 2014. Retrieved 25 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Open+Letter+to+Al-Baghdadi&rft.date=2014-09&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flettertobaghdadi.com%2Findex.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-318"><a href="#cite_ref-318">^</a> Luiz Felipe de Alencastro, "Traite", in Encyclopædia Universalis (2002), corpus 22, page 902. </li> <li id="cite_note-319"><a href="#cite_ref-319">^</a> Ralph Austen, African Economic History (1987) </li> <li id="cite_note-320"><a href="#cite_ref-320">^</a> Quoted in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://necrometrics.com/pre1700b.htm#ISlave">Ronald Segal's Islam's Black Slaves</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-321"><a href="#cite_ref-321">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAdam_Hochschild2001" class="citation news cs1">Adam Hochschild (Mar 4, 2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/books/01/03/04/reviews/010304.04hochsct.html">"Human Cargo"</a>. The New York Times. Retrieved Dec 20, 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+New+York+Times&rft.atitle=Human+Cargo&rft.date=2001-03-04&rft.au=Adam+Hochschild&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nytimes.com%2Fbooks%2F01%2F03%2F04%2Freviews%2F010304.04hochsct.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonald_Segal2002" class="citation cs2">Ronald Segal (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamsblackslave00sega">Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora</a>, Farrar, Straus and Giroux, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0374527976" title="Special:BookSources/978-0374527976"><bdi>978-0374527976</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%27s+Black+Slaves%3A+The+Other+Black+Diaspora&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0374527976&rft.au=Ronald+Segal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamsblackslave00sega&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-323"><a href="#cite_ref-323">^</a> Maddison, Angus. Contours of the world economy 1-2030 AD: Essays in macro-economic history. Oxford University Press, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-324"><a href="#cite_ref-324">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBotelho" class="citation web cs1">Botelho, Alyssa. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.newscientist.com/article/dn25051-empires-and-slave-trading-left-their-mark-on-our-genes/">"Empires and slave-trading left their mark on our genes"</a>. New Scientist.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Empires+and+slave-trading+left+their+mark+on+our+genes&rft.aulast=Botelho&rft.aufirst=Alyssa&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newscientist.com%2Farticle%2Fdn25051-empires-and-slave-trading-left-their-mark-on-our-genes%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-325"><a href="#cite_ref-325">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2020" class="citation book cs1">Brown, J.A.C. (2020). Slavery and Islam. Oneworld Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781786076366" title="Special:BookSources/9781786076366"><bdi>9781786076366</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+Islam&rft.pub=Oneworld+Publications&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=9781786076366&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=J.A.C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Slave_Trade-326"><a href="#cite_ref-Slave_Trade_326-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://jewishencyclopedia.com/articles/13798-slave-trade">"SLAVE-TRADE - JewishEncyclopedia.com"</a>. jewishencyclopedia.com.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=jewishencyclopedia.com&rft.atitle=SLAVE-TRADE+-+JewishEncyclopedia.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fjewishencyclopedia.com%2Farticles%2F13798-slave-trade&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClarence-Smith,_William_Gervase2006" class="citation book cs1">Clarence-Smith, William Gervase (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamabolitionof0000clar">Islam and the Abolition of Slavery</a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam+and+the+Abolition+of+Slavery&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.au=Clarence-Smith%2C+William+Gervase&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamabolitionof0000clar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGordon,_Murray1987" class="citation book cs1">Gordon, Murray (1987). Slavery in the Arab World. New York: New Amsterdam Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+in+the+Arab+World&rft.pub=New+York%3A+New+Amsterdam+Press&rft.date=1987&rft.au=Gordon%2C+Murray&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFIngrams,_W._H.1967" class="citation book cs1">Ingrams, W. H. (1967). Zanzibar. UK: Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-1102-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7146-1102-0"><bdi>978-0-7146-1102-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Zanzibar&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-7146-1102-0&rft.au=Ingrams%2C+W.+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJok2001" class="citation book cs1">Jok, Madut Jok (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wqzvlWdxThwC&q=War+and+Slavery+in+Sudan&pg=PA1">War and Slavery in Sudan</a>. University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1762-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1762-9"><bdi>978-0-8122-1762-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=War+and+Slavery+in+Sudan&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1762-9&rft.aulast=Jok&rft.aufirst=Madut+Jok&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwqzvlWdxThwC%26q%3DWar%2Band%2BSlavery%2Bin%2BSudan%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLevy1957" class="citation book cs1">Levy, Reuben (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialstructureo0000levy_p7w6">The Social Structure of Islam</a>. UK: Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Social+Structure+of+Islam&rft.place=UK&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.aulast=Levy&rft.aufirst=Reuben&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsocialstructureo0000levy_p7w6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis1990" class="citation book cs1">Lewis, Bernard (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/raceslaveryinmid0000lewi">Race and Slavery in the Middle East</a>. New York: Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-505326-5"><bdi>978-0-19-505326-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Race+and+Slavery+in+the+Middle+East&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-19-505326-5&rft.aulast=Lewis&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fraceslaveryinmid0000lewi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLovejoy,_Paul_E.2000" class="citation book cs1">Lovejoy, Paul E. (2000). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/transformationsi0000love">Transformations in Slavery</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78430-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-78430-6"><bdi>978-0-521-78430-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Transformations+in+Slavery&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-521-78430-6&rft.au=Lovejoy%2C+Paul+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftransformationsi0000love&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFManning,_Patrick1990" class="citation book cs1">Manning, Patrick (1990). Slavery and African Life: Occidental, Oriental, and African Slave Trades. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34867-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-34867-6"><bdi>978-0-521-34867-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slavery+and+African+Life%3A+Occidental%2C+Oriental%2C+and+African+Slave+Trades&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-521-34867-6&rft.au=Manning%2C+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="RSIBS2001" class="citation book cs1">Segal, Ronald (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fdh3GYnXvrAC&q=ISLAM%27S+BLACK+SLAVES+segal">Islam's Black Slaves: The Other Black Diaspora</a>. New York: Farrar, Straus and Giroux. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780374527976" title="Special:BookSources/9780374527976"><bdi>9780374527976</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%27s+Black+Slaves%3A+The+Other+Black+Diaspora&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Farrar%2C+Straus+and+Giroux&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=9780374527976&rft.au=Segal%2C+Ronald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dfdh3GYnXvrAC%26q%3DISLAM%2527S%2BBLACK%2BSLAVES%2Bsegal&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-187"><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Abd_Allah_Pasha_ibn_Muhammad" title="Abd Allah Pasha ibn Muhammad">Abd Allah Pasha ibn Muhammad</a> was the Sharif of Mecca during Raoul du Bisson's time in the Red Sea in 1863-5 </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="In_print">In print</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: In print">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li>Freamon, Bernard K.. Possessed by the Right Hand: The Problem of Slavery in Islamic Law and Muslim Cultures. Netherlands, Brill, 2019.</li> <li>Akande, Habeeb. Illuminating the Darkness: Blacks and North Africans in Islam (Ta Ha 2012)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Hibri2003" class="citation journal cs1">Al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (2003). "An Islamic Perspective on Domestic Violence". 27 Fordham International Law Journal 195.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=27+Fordham+International+Law+Journal+195&rft.atitle=An+Islamic+Perspective+on+Domestic+Violence&rft.date=2003&rft.aulast=Al-Hibri&rft.aufirst=Azizah+Y.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFP.J._BearmanTh._BianquisC.E._BosworthE._van_Donzel" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">P.J. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">C.E. Bosworth</a>; E. van Donzel; W.P. Heinrichs (eds.). "Abd". <a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam</a> Online. Brill Academic Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-3912">1573-3912</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Abd&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam+Online&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.issn=1573-3912&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBloom,_JonathanBlair,_Sheila2002" class="citation book cs1">Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780300094220">Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power</a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09422-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-09422-0"><bdi>978-0-300-09422-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+A+Thousand+Years+of+Faith+and+Power&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-300-09422-0&rft.au=Bloom%2C+Jonathan&rft.au=Blair%2C+Sheila&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780300094220&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDavis,_Robert_C.2004" class="citation book cs1">Davis, Robert C. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/trent_0116405722392">Christian Slaves, Muslim Masters</a>. Palgrave Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-4551-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4039-4551-8"><bdi>978-1-4039-4551-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Slaves%2C+Muslim+Masters&rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-1-4039-4551-8&rft.au=Davis%2C+Robert+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftrent_0116405722392&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEsposito,_John1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Esposito" title="John Esposito">Esposito, John</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/islamstraightpat00espo_0">Islam: The Straight Path</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511233-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-511233-7"><bdi>978-0-19-511233-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+The+Straight+Path&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-19-511233-7&rft.au=Esposito%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fislamstraightpat00espo_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"> - First Edition 1991; Expanded Edition : 1992.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJaved_Ahmed_Ghamidi2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Javed_Ahmed_Ghamidi" class="mw-redirect" title="Javed Ahmed Ghamidi">Javed Ahmed Ghamidi</a> (2001). <a href="/wiki/Mizan" title="Mizan">Mizan</a>. Lahore: <a href="/wiki/Al-Mawrid" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Mawrid">Al-Mawrid</a>. OCLC 52901690.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mizan&rft.place=Lahore&rft.pub=Al-Mawrid&rft.date=2001&rft.au=Javed+Ahmed+Ghamidi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHasan,_Yusuf_FadlGray,_Richard2002" class="citation book cs1">Hasan, Yusuf Fadl; Gray, Richard (2002). Religion and Conflict in Sudan. Nairobi: Paulines Publications Africa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9966-21-831-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9966-21-831-5"><bdi>978-9966-21-831-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Religion+and+Conflict+in+Sudan&rft.pub=Nairobi%3A+Paulines+Publications+Africa&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-9966-21-831-5&rft.au=Hasan%2C+Yusuf+Fadl&rft.au=Gray%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHughes,_Thomas_PatrickPatrick1996" class="citation book cs1">Hughes, Thomas Patrick; Patrick (1996). A Dictionary of Islam. Asian Educational Services. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0672-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-206-0672-2"><bdi>978-81-206-0672-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Dictionary+of+Islam&rft.pub=Asian+Educational+Services&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-81-206-0672-2&rft.au=Hughes%2C+Thomas+Patrick&rft.au=Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEd.:_Holt,_P._MLambton,_AnnLewis,_Bernard1977" class="citation book cs1">Ed.: Holt, P. M; Lambton, Ann; Lewis, Bernard (1977). The Cambridge History of Islam. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-29137-8"><bdi>978-0-521-29137-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Islam&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-521-29137-8&rft.au=%27%27Ed.%27%27%3A+Holt%2C+P.+M&rft.au=Lambton%2C+Ann&rft.au=Lewis%2C+Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartin,_Vanessa2005" class="citation book cs1">Martin, Vanessa (2005). The Qajar Pact. I.B.Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-763-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-85043-763-5"><bdi>978-1-85043-763-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Qajar+Pact&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-85043-763-5&rft.au=Martin%2C+Vanessa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNasr,_Seyyed2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Nasr" class="mw-redirect" title="Seyyed Nasr">Nasr, Seyyed</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/isbn_9780060099244">The Heart of Islam: Enduring Values for Humanity</a>. US: HarperSanFrancisco. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-06-009924-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-06-009924-4"><bdi>978-0-06-009924-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Heart+of+Islam%3A+Enduring+Values+for+Humanity&rft.place=US&rft.pub=HarperSanFrancisco&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-06-009924-4&rft.au=Nasr%2C+Seyyed&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fisbn_9780060099244&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPankhurst,_Richard1997" class="citation book cs1">Pankhurst, Richard (1997). The Ethiopian Borderlands: Essays in Regional History from Ancient Times to the End of the 18th Century. The Red Sea Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-932415-19-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-932415-19-6"><bdi>978-0-932415-19-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ethiopian+Borderlands%3A+Essays+in+Regional+History+from+Ancient+Times+to+the+End+of+the+18th+Century&rft.pub=The+Red+Sea+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-932415-19-6&rft.au=Pankhurst%2C+Richard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchimmel,_Annemarie1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Annemarie_Schimmel" title="Annemarie Schimmel">Schimmel, Annemarie</a> (1992). Islam: An Introduction. US: SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1327-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-1327-2"><bdi>978-0-7914-1327-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islam%3A+An+Introduction&rft.place=US&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-1327-2&rft.au=Schimmel%2C+Annemarie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li>Sikainga, Ahmad A. "Shari'a Courts and the Manumission of Female Slaves in the Sudan 1898–1939", The International Journal of African Historical Studies > Vol. 28, No. 1 (1995), pp. 1–24</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSikainga,_Ahmad_A.1996" class="citation book cs1">Sikainga, Ahmad A. (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/slavesintoworker0000sika">Slaves Into Workers: Emancipation and Labor in Colonial Sudan</a>. University of Texas Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77694-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-292-77694-4"><bdi>978-0-292-77694-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+Into+Workers%3A+Emancipation+and+Labor+in+Colonial+Sudan&rft.pub=University+of+Texas+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-292-77694-4&rft.au=Sikainga%2C+Ahmad+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fslavesintoworker0000sika&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTucker,_Judith_E.Nashat,_Guity1999" class="citation book cs1">Tucker, Judith E.; Nashat, Guity (1999). Women in the Middle East and North Africa. Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21264-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-21264-1"><bdi>978-0-253-21264-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Women+in+the+Middle+East+and+North+Africa&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-253-21264-1&rft.au=Tucker%2C+Judith+E.&rft.au=Nashat%2C+Guity&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+slavery+in+the+Muslim+world" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Online">Online</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Online">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.fordham.edu/halsall/med/lewis1.html">Race and Slavery in the Middle East</a> by <a href="/wiki/Bernard_Lewis" title="Bernard Lewis">Bernard Lewis</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/slavery_1.shtml">Slavery in Islam (BBC (2009))</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islam_topics" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Islam_topics" title="Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islam_topics" title="Template talk:Islam topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islam_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islam topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islam_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Islam" title="Outline of Islam">Outline of Islam</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Schools_of_Islamic_theology" title="Schools of Islamic theology">Beliefs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Islam" title="God in Islam">God in Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tawhid" title="Tawhid">Tawhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_in_Islam" title="Muhammad in Islam">In Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_and_messengers_in_Islam" title="Prophets and messengers in Islam">Prophets of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Islam" title="Angels in Islam">Angels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Revelation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predestination_in_Islam" title="Predestination in Islam">Qadar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Day_of_Resurrection" class="mw-redirect" title="Day of Resurrection">Judgement Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiest_sites_in_Islam" title="Holiest sites in Islam">Holiest sites</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Five_Pillars_of_Islam" title="Five Pillars of Islam">Five Pillars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shahada" title="Shahada">Shahada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah" title="Salah">Salah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fasting_in_Islam" title="Fasting in Islam">Sawm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakat" title="Zakat">Zakat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hajj" title="Hajj">Hajj</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_religious_leaders" title="Islamic religious leaders">Leaders</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_history_of_Islam" title="Timeline of the history of Islam">Timeline of the history of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Succession_to_Muhammad" title="Succession to Muhammad">Succession to Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Muslim_conquests" title="Early Muslim conquests">Early conquests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Golden Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_early_Islam" title="Historiography of early Islam">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Companions_of_the_Prophet" title="Companions of the Prophet">Sahaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahl_al-Bayt" title="Ahl al-Bayt">Ahl al-Bayt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imamate_in_Shia_doctrine" title="Imamate in Shia doctrine">Shi'a Imams</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphates</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate_of_C%C3%B3rdoba" class="mw-redirect" title="Caliphate of Córdoba">Córdoba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Caliphate" title="Ottoman Caliphate">Ottoman</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holy_books" title="Islamic holy books">Religious texts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quran" title="Quran">Quran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadith" title="Hadith">Hadith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tafsir" title="Tafsir">Tafsir</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophetic_biography" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophetic biography">Seerah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qisas_Al-Anbiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Qisas Al-Anbiya">Story of Prophets</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_schools_and_branches" title="Islamic schools and branches">Denominations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ash%27arism" title="Ash'arism">Ash'arism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atharism" title="Atharism">Atharism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maturidism" title="Maturidism">Maturidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mu%27tazili" class="mw-redirect" title="Mu'tazili">Mu'tazili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salafi_movement" title="Salafi movement">Salafi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wahhabism" title="Wahhabism">Wahhabism</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver Shi'ism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma'ilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Alevism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alevism" title="Alevism">Bektashi Alevism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaydism" title="Zaydism">Zaydism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhakkima" title="Muhakkima">Muhakkima</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kharijites" title="Kharijites">Khawarij</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azariqa" title="Azariqa">Azariqa</a></li> <li>Moderate Kharijites <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam" title="Ibadi Islam">Ibadi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Azzabas" title="Azzabas">Azzabas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nukkari" title="Nukkari">Nukkari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibadi_Islam#Wahbi_school" title="Ibadi Islam">Wahbi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufri" title="Sufri">Sufri</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najdat" title="Najdat">Najdat</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation_of_Islam" title="Nation of Islam">Nation of Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmadiyya" title="Ahmadiyya">Ahmadiyya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lahore_Ahmadiyya_Movement_for_the_Propagation_of_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Lahore Ahmadiyya Movement for the Propagation of Islam">Lahori</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quranism" title="Quranism">Quranism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-denominational_Muslim" title="Non-denominational Muslim">Non-denominational</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Life</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_culture" title="Islamic culture">Culture</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_Islam" title="Animals in Islam">Animals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_association_football" class="mw-redirect" title="Islam in association football">Association football</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calendar" title="Islamic calendar">Calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_children" title="Islam and children">Children</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_clothing" title="Islamic clothing">Clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_flags" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic flags">Flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_holidays" title="Islamic holidays">Holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosque" title="Mosque">Mosques</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madrasa" title="Madrasa">Madrasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morality_in_Islam" title="Morality in Islam">Moral teachings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_aspects_of_Islam" title="Political aspects of Islam">Political aspects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurban_(Islamic_ritual_sacrifice)" title="Qurban (Islamic ritual sacrifice)">Qurbani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_attitudes_towards_science" title="Islamic attitudes towards science">Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_humanity" title="Islam and humanity">Social welfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Islam" title="Women in Islam">Women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT in Islam">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_by_country" title="Islam by country">Islam by country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="LawJurisprudence" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">Law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a></li></ul></div></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_economics" title="Islamic economics">Economics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_banking_and_finance" title="Islamic banking and finance">Banking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islamic_economics" title="History of Islamic economics">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukuk" title="Sukuk">Sukuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takaful" title="Takaful">Takaful</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Murabaha" title="Murabaha">Murabaha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Riba" title="Riba">Riba</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Hygiene</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghusl" title="Ghusl">Ghusl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miswak" title="Miswak">Miswak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najis" title="Najis">Najis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tayammum" title="Tayammum">Tayammum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_toilet_etiquette" title="Islamic toilet etiquette">Toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wudu" title="Wudu">Wudu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_family_jurisprudence" title="Islamic family jurisprudence">Family</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marital_jurisprudence" title="Islamic marital jurisprudence">Marriage</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_sexual_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic sexual jurisprudence">Sex</a></li></ul></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haya_(Islam)" title="Haya (Islam)">Haya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_marriage_contract" title="Islamic marriage contract">Marriage contract</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahr" title="Mahr">Mahr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahram" title="Mahram">Mahram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marriage_in_Islam" title="Marriage in Islam">Nikah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikah_mut%27ah" title="Nikah mut'ah">Nikah mut'ah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zina" title="Zina">Zina</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other aspects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baligh" title="Baligh">Baligh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_hygienical_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic hygienical jurisprudence">Cleanliness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_criminal_jurisprudence" title="Islamic criminal jurisprudence">Criminal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_blasphemy" title="Islam and blasphemy">Blasphemy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capital_punishment_in_Islam" title="Capital punishment in Islam">Death penalty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhabihah" title="Dhabihah">Dhabiĥa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhimmi" title="Dhimmi">Dhimmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divorce_in_Islam" title="Divorce in Islam">Divorce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_dietary_laws" title="Islamic dietary laws">Diet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_ethics" title="Islamic ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adab_(Islam)" title="Adab (Islam)">Etiquette</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maisir" title="Maisir">Gambling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_gender_segregation" title="Islam and gender segregation">Gender segregation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_honorifics" title="Islamic honorifics">Honorifics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hudud" title="Hudud">Hudud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_inheritance_jurisprudence" title="Islamic inheritance jurisprudence">Inheritance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">Jizya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_leadership" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic leadership">Leadership</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma_malakat_aymanukum" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma malakat aymanukum">Ma malakat aymanukum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_military_jurisprudence" title="Islamic military jurisprudence">Military</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prisoners_of_war_in_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Prisoners of war in Islam">POWs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Slavery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sources_of_sharia" class="mw-redirect" title="Sources of sharia">Sources of law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_theological_jurisprudence" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic theological jurisprudence">Theological</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Kalam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madhhab" title="Madhhab">Schools of islamic jurisprudence</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Islamic_studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> <a href="/wiki/Islamic_studies" title="Islamic studies">Islamic studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_art" title="Islamic art">Arts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabesque" title="Arabesque">Arabesque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_architecture" title="Islamic architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_calligraphy" title="Islamic calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_rug" title="Oriental rug">Carpets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_garden" title="Islamic garden">Gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_geometric_patterns" title="Islamic geometric patterns">Geometric patterns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_music" title="Islamic music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_pottery" title="Islamic pottery">Pottery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alchemy_and_chemistry_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Alchemy and chemistry in the medieval Islamic world">Alchemy and chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astronomy in the medieval Islamic world">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmology in medieval Islam">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Geography and cartography in the medieval Islamic world">Geography and cartography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mathematics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Mathematics in the medieval Islamic world">Mathematics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physics_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Physics in the medieval Islamic world">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Islamic_philosophy" title="Early Islamic philosophy">Early</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contemporary_Islamic_philosophy" title="Contemporary Islamic philosophy">Contemporary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_eschatology" title="Islamic eschatology">Eschatology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam">Theological</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Other areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Astrology in the medieval Islamic world">Astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_evolution" title="Islamic views on evolution">Creationism (evolution)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_feminism" title="Islamic feminism">Feminism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_inventions_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="List of inventions in the medieval Islamic world">Inventions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberalism_and_progressivism_within_Islam" title="Liberalism and progressivism within Islam">Liberalism and progressivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_literature" title="Islamic literature">Literature</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_poetry" title="Islamic poetry">poetry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Psychology in the medieval Islamic world">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shu%27ubiyya" title="Shu'ubiyya">Shu'ubiyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_non-Islamic_places_of_worship_into_mosques" title="Conversion of non-Islamic places of worship into mosques">Conversion to mosques</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div id="_Other" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"> Other</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_other_religions" title="Islam and other religions">Other religions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_Islam" title="Catholic Church and Islam">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Mormonism" title="Islam and Mormonism">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism_and_Islam" title="Protestantism and Islam">Protestantism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druze#Relationship_with_Muslims" title="Druze">Druzism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Islamic_relations" title="Hindu–Islamic relations">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Jainism" title="Islam and Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic%E2%80%93Jewish_relations" title="Islamic–Jewish relations">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_Sikhism" title="Islam and Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;"><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam" title="Apostasy in Islam">Apostasy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0;background-color:#f7fdf7;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostasy_in_Islam_by_country" title="Apostasy in Islam by country">Apostasy in Islam by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ex-Muslims" title="Ex-Muslims">Ex-Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_former_Muslims" title="List of former Muslims">List of former Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ex-Muslim_organisations" title="List of ex-Muslim organisations">List of ex-Muslim organisations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:8em;background:#dcf5dc;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islam" title="Criticism of Islam">Criticism of Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Muhammad" title="Criticism of Muhammad">Muhammad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Quran" title="Criticism of the Quran">Quran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Muslim">Cultural Muslim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamism" title="Islamism">Islamism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Islamism" title="Criticism of Islamism">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Islamism" title="Post-Islamism">Post-Islamism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutbism" title="Qutbism">Qutbism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamophobia" title="Islamophobia">Islamophobia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_extremism" title="Islamic extremism">Islamic extremism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_terrorism" title="Islamic terrorism">Islamic terrorism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_view_of_miracles" title="Islamic view of miracles">Islamic view of miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_and_domestic_violence" title="Islam and domestic violence">Domestic violence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Muslims" title="Persecution of Muslims">Persecution of Muslims</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quran_and_miracles" class="mw-redirect" title="Quran and miracles">Quran and miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbols_of_Islam" title="Symbols of Islam">Symbolism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background-color:#dcf5dc;"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/15px-Allah-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/23px-Allah-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Allah-green.svg/31px-Allah-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="206" data-file-height="215" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Islam" title="Portal:Islam">Islam portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Islam" title="Category:Islam">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Slavery_and_religion" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Slavery_and_religion" title="Template:Slavery and religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Slavery_and_religion" title="Template talk:Slavery and religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Slavery_and_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Slavery and religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Slavery_and_religion" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Slavery_and_religion" title="Slavery and religion">Slavery and religion</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Views on slavery</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_slavery" title="Christian views on slavery">Christian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_views_on_slavery" title="Islamic views on slavery">Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_views_on_slavery" title="Jewish views on slavery">Jewish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religious texts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/The_Bible_and_slavery" title="The Bible and slavery">The Bible</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith_and_slavery" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahá'í Faith and slavery">Bahá'í Faith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_slavery" title="Catholic Church and slavery">Catholicism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mormonism_and_slavery" title="Mormonism and slavery">Mormonism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of slavery in the Muslim world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced_monasticism" title="Forced monasticism">Forced monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_abolitionism" title="Christian abolitionism">Christian abolitionism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Quakers_in_the_abolition_movement" title="Quakers in the abolition movement">Quaker</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sicut_dudum" title="Sicut dudum">Sicut dudum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_in_21st-century_Islamism" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavery in 21st-century Islamism">Slavery in 21st-century Islamism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&oldid=1259168496">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&oldid=1259168496</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam-related_controversies" title="Category:Islam-related controversies">Islam-related controversies</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="Category:History of slavery in the Muslim world">History of slavery in the Muslim world</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Islam_and_government" title="Category:Islam and government">Islam and government</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_reference_errors" title="Category:Pages with reference errors">Pages with reference errors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_duplicate_reference_names" title="Category:Pages with duplicate reference names">Pages with duplicate reference names</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1:_long_volume_value" title="Category:CS1: long volume value">CS1: long volume value</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_with_broken_reference_names" title="Category:Pages with broken reference names">Pages with broken reference names</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Persian-language_sources_(fa)" title="Category:CS1 Persian-language sources (fa)">CS1 Persian-language sources (fa)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_December_2023" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2023">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from December 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_dead_external_links" title="Category:All articles with dead external links">All articles with dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_dead_external_links_from_October_2023" title="Category:Articles with dead external links from October 2023">Articles with dead external links from October 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_permanently_dead_external_links" title="Category:Articles with permanently dead external links">Articles with permanently dead external links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_containing_links_to_subscription-only_content" title="Category:Pages containing links to subscription-only content">Pages containing links to subscription-only content</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_archived_copy_as_title" title="Category:CS1 maint: archived copy as title">CS1 maint: archived copy as title</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_Spanish-language_sources_(es)" title="Category:CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)">CS1 Spanish-language sources (es)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_containing_Arabic-language_text" title="Category:Articles containing Arabic-language text">Articles containing Arabic-language text</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_unsourced_statements" title="Category:All articles with unsourced statements">All articles with unsourced statements</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_May_2024" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024">Articles with unsourced statements from May 2024</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_April_2022" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from April 2022">Articles with unsourced statements from April 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_lacking_reliable_references" title="Category:All articles lacking reliable references">All articles lacking reliable references</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_lacking_reliable_references_from_December_2023" title="Category:Articles lacking reliable references from December 2023">Articles lacking reliable references from December 2023</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_incomplete_citations" title="Category:All articles with incomplete citations">All articles with incomplete citations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_incomplete_citations_from_November_2022" title="Category:Articles with incomplete citations from November 2022">Articles with incomplete citations from November 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_incomplete_citations_from_September_2015" title="Category:Articles with incomplete citations from September 2015">Articles with incomplete citations from September 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:All_articles_with_vague_or_ambiguous_time" title="Category:All articles with vague or ambiguous time">All articles with vague or ambiguous time</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vague_or_ambiguous_time_from_November_2020" title="Category:Vague or ambiguous time from November 2020">Vague or ambiguous time from November 2020</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_unsourced_statements_from_June_2017" title="Category:Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017">Articles with unsourced statements from June 2017</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_January_2015" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2015">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from January 2015</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_needing_page_number_citations_from_May_2015" title="Category:Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2015">Wikipedia articles needing page number citations from May 2015</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 23 November 2024, at 19:15 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-2jqt7","wgBackendResponseTime":195,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.585","walltime":"2.951","ppvisitednodes":{"value":18172,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":608959,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":22210,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":19,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":69,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":872385,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2447.749 1 -total"," 52.01% 1273.081 2 Template:Reflist"," 19.93% 487.817 114 Template:Cite_book"," 10.88% 266.434 40 Template:Cite_web"," 6.21% 152.101 15 Template:Fix"," 5.39% 132.023 7 Template:Sfn"," 5.29% 129.444 1 Template:Short_description"," 5.07% 124.022 2 Template:Sidebar_with_collapsible_lists"," 4.63% 113.228 6 Template:Langx"," 4.45% 108.927 23 Template:Cite_news"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.529","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":19844352,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbadía2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbdullah_Al_HarthiKhaled_Al_Faris2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdam_Hochschild2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAhmed2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkhalbey2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Hibri2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Makkari1840\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAl-Makrizi.)1790\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAli2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBabayan1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBacharach2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarendse2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaum2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeigbeder2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernard_K._Freamon2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernard_Lewis1992\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBisson1868\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBloom,_JonathanBlair,_Sheila2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoehm2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBooth\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBotelho\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBraukämper2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2020\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFBruce,_Scott_G.2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbellMiersMiller2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarence-Smith,_William_Gervase2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClarence-Smith2006\"] = 6,\n [\"CITEREFClarence-Smith2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConlin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstantelos_(Kōnstantelos)1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCraven2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDarrel_Philip_Kaiser2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavid_P._Barrows1905\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDavis,_Robert_C.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDomingo_M._Non1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDursteler2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEconomistStaff2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEd.:_Holt,_P._MLambton,_AnnLewis,_Bernard1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEl_Hamel2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmma_Graham-Harrison2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsposito,_John1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherFisher2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFloor1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurlonge,_Nigel_D.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGakunzi2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGibson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilli-Elewy2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon,_Murray1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGordon2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrockelmann1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuthrie2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHOCHSCHILD2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHOPKINS2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamel2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHansen2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarrington1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHasan,_Yusuf_FadlGray,_Richard2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes,_Thomas_PatrickPatrick1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIbrahim2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInalcik1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIngrams,_W._H.1967\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInternational_Association_for_the_History_of_Religions1959\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJackson1911\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFJames_Francis_Warren2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJames_Francis_Warren2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJan_HogendornMarion_Johnson1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJaved_Ahmed_Ghamidi2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohn_L._Esposito2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJok2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJunne2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKennedy2007\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKevin_ReillyStephen_KaufmanAngela_Bodino2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhalid1977\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKhanKhan\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhodarkovsky2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKwame_Anthony_AppiahHenry_Louis_Gates2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLauren_Markoe2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevy1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLewis2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLister2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLovejoy,_Paul_E.2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFM\u0026#039;bokolo1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMadden2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManning,_Patrick1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFManning1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMartin,_Vanessa2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathew2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcDaniel1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcTague2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMihalopoulos1993\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMihalopoulos1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMihalopoulos2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMihalopoulos2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMihapoulos1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMirzai2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoorehead1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNEWBY2013\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFNajmabadi1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNasr,_Seyyed2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNellie_Peyton2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOkeowo2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlcott1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFP.J._BearmanTh._BianquisC.E._BosworthE._van_Donzel\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPackard1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPankhurst,_Richard1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPargasRoşu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPete_Pattisson2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPetterson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhillips1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrestholdt2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRemondino1891\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRice1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiedel2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRonald_Segal2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoudik2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScheiwiller2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchimmel,_Annemarie1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScience\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFScott2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSikainga,_Ahmad_A.1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSimon_Henderson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStephenson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFToledano1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolmacheva2017\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTucker,_Judith_E.Nashat,_Guity1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUrban2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVryonis1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVryonis1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_D._Phillips1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_D._Phillips_Jr.1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliam_Gervase_ClarenceSmith2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolf_Von_Schierbrand1886\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFYimene2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYuriy_Anatolyevich_Malikov2006\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFZilfi2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_Foix2006\"] = 1,\n [\"RSIBS2001\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 2,\n [\"About\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 6,\n [\"Cbignore\"] = 3,\n [\"Circa\"] = 2,\n [\"Citation\"] = 6,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 115,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 5,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 19,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 23,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 40,\n [\"Columns-list\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Islam And Slavery\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 2,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"Full citation needed\"] = 2,\n [\"Further\"] = 3,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 4,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Islam\"] = 1,\n [\"Islam topics\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 6,\n [\"Main\"] = 14,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Page needed\"] = 4,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Religion and slavery\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 11,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 7,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Slavery\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 5,\n [\"Subscription required\"] = 1,\n [\"Unreliable source?\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 11,\n [\"When\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","240","16.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","240","16.0"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","140","9.3"],["chunk \u003CModule:Citation/CS1\u003E","100","6.7"],["(for generator)","100","6.7"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","80","5.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::unstripNoWiki","60","4.0"],["citation0 \u003CModule:Citation/CS1:2614\u003E","40","2.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getExpandedArgument","40","2.7"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","40","2.7"],["[others]","420","28.0"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-2fxxf","timestamp":"20241124161723","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of slavery in the Muslim world","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q22905910","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q22905910","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2015-08-30T22:59:13Z","dateModified":"2024-11-23T19:15:14Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/9\/9e\/IJzeren_voetring_voor_gevangenen_transparent_background.png","headline":"history of slavery in Islamic lands"}</script> </body> </html>