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class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">William Crookes</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 55 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-55" aria-hidden="true" > 55 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%83%D8%B3" title="وليام كروكس – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="وليام كروكس" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B2" title="ویلیام کروکز – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="ویلیام کروکز" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%89%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%95%E0%A6%B8" title="উইলিয়াম ক্রুকস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="উইলিয়াম ক্রুকস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Уільям Крукс – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Уільям Крукс" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9F%CF%85%CE%AF%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BC_%CE%9A%CF%81%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%BA%CF%82" title="Ουίλιαμ Κρουκς – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ουίλιαμ Κρουκς" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%A7%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="ویلیام کروکس – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ویلیام کروکس" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9C%8C%EB%A6%AC%EC%97%84_%ED%81%AC%EB%A3%A9%EC%8A%A4" title="윌리엄 크룩스 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="윌리엄 크룩스" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%88%D6%82%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B4_%D5%94%D6%80%D5%B8%D6%82%D6%84%D5%BD" title="Ուիլյամ Քրուքս – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ուիլյամ Քրուքս" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%95%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%90%D7%9D_%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A7%D7%A1" title="ויליאם קרוקס – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ויליאם קרוקס" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%82%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D" title="ವಿಲಿಯಮ್ ಕ್ರೂಕ್ಸ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ವಿಲಿಯಮ್ ಕ್ರೂಕ್ಸ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="უილიამ კრუქსი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უილიამ კრუქსი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Уильям Крукс – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Уильям Крукс" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sir_William_Crookes" title="Sir William Crookes – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Sir William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Вилијам Крукс – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Вилијам Крукс" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%99%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A3%E1%83%99%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98" title="უილიამ კრუკსი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="უილიამ კრუკსი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A7%D9%85_%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%88%D9%88%D9%83%D8%B3" title="ويليام كرووكس – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="ويليام كرووكس" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A3%E3%83%AA%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A0%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%AB%E3%83%83%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9" title="ウィリアム・クルックス – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ウィリアム・クルックス" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C%D9%85_%DA%A9%D8%B1%D9%88%DA%A9%D8%B3" title="ولیم کروکس – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="ولیم کروکس" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81,_%D0%A3%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC" title="Крукс, Уильям – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Крукс, Уильям" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BC_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Вилијам Крукс – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Вилијам Крукс" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%BF%E0%B0%AF%E0%B0%82_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%82%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D" title="విలియం క్రూక్స్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="విలియం క్రూక్స్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Crookes" title="William Crookes – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="William Crookes" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%8F%D0%BC_%D0%9A%D1%80%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%81" title="Вільям Крукс – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вільям Крукс" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" 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.infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="honorific-prefix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sir" title="Sir">Sir</a></div><div class="fn">William Crookes</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Crookes_1906.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_William_Crookes_1906.jpg/220px-Sir_William_Crookes_1906.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_William_Crookes_1906.jpg/330px-Sir_William_Crookes_1906.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sir_William_Crookes_1906.jpg/440px-Sir_William_Crookes_1906.jpg 2x" data-file-width="471" data-file-height="628" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Crookes in 1906</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1832-06-17)17 June 1832 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, England, UK</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">4 April 1919(1919-04-04) (aged 86) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace">London, England, UK</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Nationality</th><td class="infobox-data category">English</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Citizenship</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom_of_Great_Britain_and_Ireland" title="United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland">British</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Chemistry" title="Royal College of Chemistry">Royal College of Chemistry</a> <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_London" title="Imperial College London">Imperial College London</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">Plasma</a> <a href="/wiki/Scintillator" title="Scintillator">Scintillator</a> <a href="/wiki/Spinthariscope" title="Spinthariscope">Spinthariscope</a> <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Thallium</a> <a href="/wiki/Gemstone_irradiation" title="Gemstone irradiation">Gemstone irradiation</a> <a href="/wiki/Crookes_tube" title="Crookes tube">Crookes tube</a> <a href="/wiki/Crookes_radiometer" title="Crookes radiometer">Crookes radiometer</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Royal_Medal" title="Royal Medal">Royal Medal</a> (1875) <a href="/wiki/Davy_Medal" title="Davy Medal">Davy Medal</a> (1888) <a href="/wiki/Albert_Medal_(Royal_Society_of_Arts)" title="Albert Medal (Royal Society of Arts)">Albert Medal</a> (1899) <a href="/wiki/Copley_Medal" title="Copley Medal">Copley Medal</a> (1904) <a href="/wiki/Elliott_Cresson_Medal" title="Elliott Cresson Medal">Elliott Cresson Medal</a> (1912)</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physical_chemistry" title="Physical chemistry">Physical chemistry</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr></tbody></table> Sir William Crookes <a href="/wiki/Member_of_the_Order_of_Merit" class="mw-redirect" title="Member of the Order of Merit">OM</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> (<a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/krʊks/</a>; 17 June 1832 – 4 April 1919) was a British chemist and physicist who attended the <a href="/wiki/Royal_College_of_Chemistry" title="Royal College of Chemistry">Royal College of Chemistry</a>,<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-1">[1]</a> now part of <a href="/wiki/Imperial_College_London" title="Imperial College London">Imperial College London</a>, and worked on <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a>. He was a pioneer of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a>, inventing the <a href="/wiki/Crookes_tube" title="Crookes tube">Crookes tube</a> which was made in 1875. This was a foundational discovery that eventually changed the whole of chemistry and physics. He is credited with discovering the element <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>, announced in 1861, with the help of spectroscopy. He was also the first to describe the spectrum of terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a>, in 1865. Crookes was the inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Crookes_radiometer" title="Crookes radiometer">Crookes radiometer</a> but did not discern the true explanation of the phenomenon he detected. Crookes also invented a 100% ultraviolet blocking sunglass lens. For a time, he was interested in <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">spiritualism</a> and became president of the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research" title="Society for Psychical Research">Society for Psychical Research</a>. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biography">Biography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Biography">edit</a>]</div> Crookes's life was one of unbroken scientific activity that extended over sixty-seven years. He was considered remarkable for his industriousness and for his intellectual qualities.<a href="#cite_note-Obituary-2">[2]</a> His experiments in chemistry and physics were known for the originality of their design,<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> and he is considered a "superb experimentalist".<a href="#cite_note-Distillations-4">[4]</a> His interests, ranging over pure and applied science, economic and practical problems, and <a href="/wiki/Psychic_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychic research">psychic research</a>, made him a well-known personality and earned him a substantial income. He received many public and academic honours.<a href="#cite_note-Obituary-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_years">Early years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Early years">edit</a>]</div> William Crookes was born in London in 1832, the eldest of eight surviving children (eight others died young) of Joseph Crookes (1792–1889), a wealthy tailor and real estate investor of north-country origin, and his second wife, Mary (née Scott; 1806–1884).<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Joseph Crookes's father, William (1734–1814), was also a tailor, whose grandfather, John Crookes (b. 1660), had been Mayor of <a href="/wiki/Hartlepool" title="Hartlepool">Hartlepool</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Durham" title="County Durham">County Durham</a> on three occasions.<a href="#cite_note-auto-7">[7]</a> Joseph Crookes had had five children with his first wife; two sons from that marriage, Joseph and Alfred, took over the tailoring business, leaving William free to choose his own path.<a href="#cite_note-auto-7">[7]</a> In 1848, at age 16, Crookes entered the Royal College of Chemistry (now the Imperial College chemistry department) to study organic chemistry. Crookes lived with his parents about three miles from the College in Oxford Street. His father's shop was about half a mile away. Crookes paid £25 for his first year's tuition and had to provide his own apparatus and some of the more expensive chemicals. At the end of his first year, Crookes won the Ashburton scholarship which covered his second year's tuition. At the end of his second year, Crookes became a junior assistant to <a href="/wiki/August_Wilhelm_von_Hofmann" title="August Wilhelm von Hofmann">August Wilhelm von Hofmann</a>, doing laboratory demonstrations and helping with research and commercial analysis. In October 1851, Crookes was promoted to senior assistant, a position he held until 1854.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 8–10  Although Crookes revered Hofmann, he did not share his primary interest in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> One of Crookes's students was the Reverend <a href="/wiki/John_Barlow_(priest)" title="John Barlow (priest)">John Barlow</a>, Secretary of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution" title="Royal Institution">Royal Institution</a>, who chose to take a course in analytical chemistry. Through Barlow, Crookes met scientists such as <a href="/wiki/George_Gabriel_Stokes" class="mw-redirect" title="George Gabriel Stokes">George Gabriel Stokes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 11  Such friends reinforced Crookes's interest in <a href="/wiki/Optical_physics" class="mw-redirect" title="Optical physics">optical physics</a><a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 13  which was respected by Hofmann.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 12–13  By 1851, Crookes's interest in photography and optics caused his father to build him a laboratory in the garden at home for his research.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 8  When Crookes embarked upon original work, it wasn't in <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemistry" title="Organic chemistry">organic chemistry</a>, but rather into new compounds of <a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">selenium</a>. These were the subject of his first published papers, in 1851. He worked with <a href="/wiki/Manuel_John_Johnson" title="Manuel John Johnson">Manuel Johnson</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Radcliffe_Observatory" title="Radcliffe Observatory">Radcliffe Observatory</a> in <a href="/wiki/Oxford" title="Oxford">Oxford</a> in 1854, where he adapted the recent innovation of <a href="/wiki/Wax_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Wax paper">wax paper</a> photography to machines built by <a href="/wiki/Francis_Ronalds" title="Francis Ronalds">Francis Ronalds</a> to <a href="/wiki/Photography#Science_and_forensics" title="Photography">continuously record</a> meteorological parameters.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> In 1855 he was appointed lecturer in chemistry at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chester" title="University of Chester">Chester Diocesan Training College</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ruoff-9">[9]</a> In April 1856 Crookes married Ellen, daughter of William Humphrey of Darlington.<a href="#cite_note-EB1911-1">[1]</a> Since staff at Chester were required to be bachelors, he had to resign his position. William's father, Joseph Crookes, gave the couple a house at 15 Stanley Street, <a href="/wiki/Brompton,_London" title="Brompton, London">Brompton</a>. Ellen's mother, Mrs. Humphrey, lived with them for the rest of her life, nearly forty years. A devoted couple, William and Ellen Crookes had six sons and three daughters. Their first child, Alice Mary (born 1857, later Mrs. Cowland) remained unmarried for forty years, living with her parents and working as an assistant to her father. Two of Crookes's sons became engineers, and two lawyers.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> Married and living in London, Crookes sought to support his new family through independent work as a photographic chemist.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> In 1859, he founded the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chemical_News&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chemical News (page does not exist)">Chemical News</a>, a science magazine which he edited for many years and conducted on much less formal lines than was usual for the journals of scientific societies. Between 1864 and 1869, he was also involved with the <a href="/wiki/Quarterly_Journal_of_Science" title="Quarterly Journal of Science">Quarterly Journal of Science</a>. At various times he edited the Journal of the Photographic Society and the Photographic News.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_years">Middle years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Middle years">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Crookes_7_Kensington_Park_Gardens_blue_plaque.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/William_Crookes_7_Kensington_Park_Gardens_blue_plaque.jpg/220px-William_Crookes_7_Kensington_Park_Gardens_blue_plaque.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/William_Crookes_7_Kensington_Park_Gardens_blue_plaque.jpg/330px-William_Crookes_7_Kensington_Park_Gardens_blue_plaque.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/William_Crookes_7_Kensington_Park_Gardens_blue_plaque.jpg/440px-William_Crookes_7_Kensington_Park_Gardens_blue_plaque.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1613" data-file-height="1477" /></a><figcaption>Blue plaque, 7 <a href="/wiki/Ladbroke_Square" title="Ladbroke Square">Kensington Park Gardens</a>, London</figcaption></figure> Crookes was effective in experimentation. The method of <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectral analysis</a>, introduced by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Bunsen" title="Robert Bunsen">Bunsen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gustav_Kirchhoff" title="Gustav Kirchhoff">Kirchhoff</a>, was received by Crookes with great enthusiasm and to great effect.<a href="#cite_note-Obituary-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weeks-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeKosky-12">[12]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Thallium_sample.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Thallium_sample.jpg/220px-Thallium_sample.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Thallium_sample.jpg/330px-Thallium_sample.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Thallium_sample.jpg/440px-Thallium_sample.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption>The element <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>, discovered by Crookes</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crookesite.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Crookesite.jpg/220px-Crookesite.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Crookesite.jpg/330px-Crookesite.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Crookesite.jpg/440px-Crookesite.jpg 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>The mineral <a href="/wiki/Crookesite" title="Crookesite">crookesite</a>, a selenide of copper, thallium and silver (<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a> 7(<a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a>)<a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a> 4), named for Crookes</figcaption></figure> His first important discovery was that of the element <a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">thallium</a>, made with the help of <a href="/wiki/Flame_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Flame spectroscopy">flame spectroscopy</a>. Crookes discovered a previously unknown element with a bright green emission line in its spectrum. He named the element thallium, from <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a> θαλλός, <a href="/wiki/Thallus" title="Thallus">thallós</a>, meaning "a green shoot or twig". Crookes's findings were published on 30 March 1861.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weeks-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeKosky-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Thallium was also independently discovered by Frenchman <a href="/wiki/Claude_Auguste_Lamy" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude Auguste Lamy">Claude Auguste Lamy</a>, who had the advantage of access to large amounts of materials via his brother-in-law, <a href="/wiki/Charles_Fr%C3%A9d%C3%A9ric_Kuhlmann" title="Charles Frédéric Kuhlmann">Charles Frédéric Kuhlmann</a>. Both Crookes and Lamy isolated the element in 1862.<a href="#cite_note-Marshall-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeKosky-12">[12]</a> Crookes was elected a fellow of the Royal Society in 1863.<a href="#cite_note-Obituary-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Weeks-11">[11]</a> Crookes wrote a standard treatise on Select Methods in Chemical Analysis in 1871.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> In 1866, <a href="/wiki/Adolf_Erik_Nordenski%C3%B6ld" title="Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld">Adolf Erik Nordenskiöld</a> identified a rare mineral from Skrikerum as a selenide of copper, thallium, and silver (<a href="/wiki/Copper" title="Copper">Cu</a> 7(<a href="/wiki/Thallium" title="Thallium">Tl</a>, <a href="/wiki/Silver" title="Silver">Ag</a>)<a href="/wiki/Selenium" title="Selenium">Se</a> 4), and named the mineral <a href="/wiki/Crookesite" title="Crookesite">crookesite</a> in honor of Sir William Crookes.<a href="#cite_note-Weeks-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Marshall-10">[10]</a> Crookes developed the <a href="/wiki/Crookes_tube" title="Crookes tube">Crookes tube</a>,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> investigating <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode rays</a>. He published numerous papers on <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectroscopy</a> and conducted research on a variety of minor subjects. In his investigations of the conduction of electricity in low pressure gases, he discovered that as the pressure was lowered, the negative electrode (cathode) appeared to emit rays (the so-called "cathode rays", now known to be a stream of free <a href="/wiki/Electron" title="Electron">electrons</a>, and used in <a href="/wiki/Cathode-ray_display_device" class="mw-redirect" title="Cathode-ray display device">cathode-ray display devices</a>). As these examples indicate, he was a pioneer in the construction and use of <a href="/wiki/Vacuum_tube" title="Vacuum tube">vacuum tubes</a> for the study of physical phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> He was, as a consequence, one of the first scientists to investigate what is now called a <a href="/wiki/Plasma_(physics)" title="Plasma (physics)">plasma</a> and identified it as the fourth state of matter in 1879.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> He also devised one of the first instruments for studying nuclear <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">radioactivity</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Spinthariscope" title="Spinthariscope">spinthariscope</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Romer1960-24">[24]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_William_Crookes_as_Hofmann%27s_assistant.tiff" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of William Crookes, age 18"><img alt="Portrait of William Crookes, age 18" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Portrait_of_William_Crookes_as_Hofmann%27s_assistant.tiff/lossless-page1-84px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes_as_Hofmann%27s_assistant.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="84" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Portrait_of_William_Crookes_as_Hofmann%27s_assistant.tiff/lossless-page1-127px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes_as_Hofmann%27s_assistant.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Portrait_of_William_Crookes_as_Hofmann%27s_assistant.tiff/lossless-page1-169px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes_as_Hofmann%27s_assistant.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="2451" data-file-height="3477" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait of William Crookes, age 18</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_William_Crookes,_age_24.tiff" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of William Crookes, age 24"><img alt="Portrait of William Crookes, age 24" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_24.tiff/lossless-page1-85px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_24.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_24.tiff/lossless-page1-127px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_24.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_24.tiff/lossless-page1-170px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_24.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="2467" data-file-height="3487" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait of William Crookes, age 24</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_William_Crookes,_age_57.tiff" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of William Crookes, age 57"><img alt="Portrait of William Crookes, age 57" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_57.tiff/lossless-page1-79px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_57.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="79" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_57.tiff/lossless-page1-119px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_57.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_57.tiff/lossless-page1-158px-Portrait_of_William_Crookes%2C_age_57.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="2394" data-file-height="3631" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait of William Crookes, age 57</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Sir_William_Crookes,_O.M.,_age_79.tiff" class="mw-file-description" title="Portrait of Sir William Crookes, O.M., age 79"><img alt="Portrait of Sir William Crookes, O.M., age 79" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Portrait_of_Sir_William_Crookes%2C_O.M.%2C_age_79.tiff/lossless-page1-78px-Portrait_of_Sir_William_Crookes%2C_O.M.%2C_age_79.tiff.png" decoding="async" width="78" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Portrait_of_Sir_William_Crookes%2C_O.M.%2C_age_79.tiff/lossless-page1-117px-Portrait_of_Sir_William_Crookes%2C_O.M.%2C_age_79.tiff.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Portrait_of_Sir_William_Crookes%2C_O.M.%2C_age_79.tiff/lossless-page1-157px-Portrait_of_Sir_William_Crookes%2C_O.M.%2C_age_79.tiff.png 2x" data-file-width="2395" data-file-height="3666" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"> Portrait of Sir William Crookes, O.M., age 79</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Sir William Crookes by Sir Leslie Ward, 1902"><img alt="Sir William Crookes by Sir Leslie Ward, 1902" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg/71px-Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg" decoding="async" width="71" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg/107px-Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg/143px-Sir_William_Crookes_1902.jpg 2x" data-file-width="467" data-file-height="785" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Sir William Crookes by <a href="/wiki/Leslie_Ward" title="Leslie Ward">Sir Leslie Ward</a>, 1902</div> </li> </ul> Crookes investigated the properties of <a href="/wiki/Cathode_ray" title="Cathode ray">cathode rays</a>, showing that they travel in straight lines, cause <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence" title="Fluorescence">fluorescence</a> when they fall on some substances, and that their impact can produce great heat. He believed that he had discovered a fourth state of matter, which he called "radiant matter",<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> but his theoretical views on the nature of "radiant matter" were to be superseded.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> He believed the rays to consist of streams of particles of ordinary molecular magnitude. It remained for Sir <a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> to expound on the subatomic nature of cathode rays (consisting of streams of negative <a href="/wiki/Electrons" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrons">electrons</a><a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a>). Nevertheless, Crookes's experimental work in this field was the foundation of discoveries which eventually changed the whole of chemistry and physics.<a href="#cite_note-Martz-28">[28]</a> Crookes's attention had been attracted to the vacuum balance in the course of his research into thallium. He soon discovered the phenomenon which drives the movement in a <a href="/wiki/Crookes_radiometer" title="Crookes radiometer">Crookes radiometer</a>, in which a set of vanes, each blackened on one side and polished on the other, rotate when exposed to radiant energy. Crookes did not, however, provide the true explanation of this apparent "attraction and repulsion resulting from <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation</a>".<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-:0-30">[30]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sir_William_Crooks_in_his_laboratory._Wellcome_M0004618.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Sir_William_Crooks_in_his_laboratory._Wellcome_M0004618.jpg/220px-Sir_William_Crooks_in_his_laboratory._Wellcome_M0004618.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Sir_William_Crooks_in_his_laboratory._Wellcome_M0004618.jpg/330px-Sir_William_Crooks_in_his_laboratory._Wellcome_M0004618.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Sir_William_Crooks_in_his_laboratory._Wellcome_M0004618.jpg/440px-Sir_William_Crooks_in_his_laboratory._Wellcome_M0004618.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3522" data-file-height="3503" /></a><figcaption>Sir William Crookes in his laboratory</figcaption></figure> After 1880, Crookes lived at 7 <a href="/wiki/Kensington_Park_Gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Kensington Park Gardens">Kensington Park Gardens</a> in the fashionable area of <a href="/wiki/Notting_Hill" title="Notting Hill">Notting Hill</a>. His household included a large multigenerational family and a number of servants. There all his later work was done, in what was then "the finest private laboratory in Britain". It comprised an entire floor of the house and included three interconnected laboratory rooms, for chemistry, physics, and mechanical construction, and a library. Crookes was able to purchase the house and build the laboratory because of his income from the National Guano Company and from various patents.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 35  By 1880 Crookes employed a paid full-time scientific assistant (first Charles Gimingham and after 1883 James Gardiner). He was also helped by his daughter Alice, who was "adept at fractionating <a href="/wiki/Rare_earth_elements" class="mw-redirect" title="Rare earth elements">rare earth elements</a>" and "no mean interpreter of <a href="/wiki/Spectrum" title="Spectrum">spectra</a>".<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> His daily routine was to manage his commercial affairs in the morning, do further business or go to scientific meetings in the afternoon, eat dinner at 7, work in his library from 8 to 9, and then in the laboratory until after midnight. From his home, Crookes could easily reach the Chemical News offices, the Royal Society, the Chemica Society, and the Athenaeum Club.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> On 16 January 1884, Crookes's father died. Crookes's daughter Florence died of <a href="/wiki/Scarlet_fever" title="Scarlet fever">scarlet fever</a> in the same week. Joseph Crookes's estate was left in trust, divided between his three surviving sons, Alfred, William and Frank. Combined with his previous income, this ensured that Crookes was very well off.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a> In 1886, Crookes was elected as a member to the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years">Later years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Later years">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Periodic_table_in_the_style_of_a_space_lemniscate_william_crookes_slide.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Periodic_table_in_the_style_of_a_space_lemniscate_william_crookes_slide.jpeg/220px-Periodic_table_in_the_style_of_a_space_lemniscate_william_crookes_slide.jpeg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Periodic_table_in_the_style_of_a_space_lemniscate_william_crookes_slide.jpeg/330px-Periodic_table_in_the_style_of_a_space_lemniscate_william_crookes_slide.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/Periodic_table_in_the_style_of_a_space_lemniscate_william_crookes_slide.jpeg/440px-Periodic_table_in_the_style_of_a_space_lemniscate_william_crookes_slide.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="8294" data-file-height="6798" /></a><figcaption>Sample illustration: Periodic table in the style of a space lemniscate by William Crookes</figcaption></figure> On 13 August 1894, <a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> announced the detection of a new gas in the atmosphere. On 31 January 1895 they made a full report to the Royal Society on the new gas, <a href="/wiki/Argon" title="Argon">argon</a>. In addition, William Crookes, who had been asked to examine a sample, presented on the spectra of argon, reported that argon displayed two distinct spectra. In this way, Crookes identified the first known sample of terrestrial <a href="/wiki/Helium" title="Helium">helium</a><a href="#cite_note-Giunta-33">[33]</a> and established its correspondence to observations of solar helium.<a href="#cite_note-Obituary-2">[2]</a> The discovery of argon and of helium led to identification of the <a href="/wiki/Noble_gases" class="mw-redirect" title="Noble gases">noble gases</a> and the reorganization of the <a href="/wiki/Periodic_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Periodic system">periodic system</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Giunta-33">[33]</a> Crookes himself suggested a design for a Periodic table in the style of a space lemniscate in 1898.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-Leach-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> Crookes was knighted in 1897.<a href="#cite_note-Distillations-4">[4]</a> Crookes was named president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1898. In his inaugural address, he outlined in detail a coming catastrophe: The wheat-eating peoples of the world were going to start running out of food in the 1930s. The reason, he said, was a dearth of nitrogen fertilizer available from natural sources. Crookes called on chemists to develop new ways of making fertilizer from the enormous stock of nitrogen in the atmosphere (which is roughly 80 percent nitrogen). His remarks on the coming famine achieved wide distribution in the press and were turned into a popular book. Scientists addressing the problem in the first years of the twentieth century included <a href="/wiki/Kristian_Birkeland" title="Kristian Birkeland">Kristian Birkeland</a>, whose technology helped found Norsk Hydro, and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> and <a href="/wiki/Carl_Bosch" title="Carl Bosch">Carl Bosch</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Haber%E2%80%93Bosch_process" class="mw-redirect" title="Haber–Bosch process">Haber–Bosch process</a> forms the foundation of today's nitrogen fertilizer industry.<a href="#cite_note-Hager-37">[37]</a> In 1903[<a href="/wiki/Protactinium#History" title="Protactinium">contradictory</a>], Crookes turned his attention to the newly discovered phenomenon of <a href="/wiki/Radioactivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Radioactivity">radioactivity</a>, achieving the separation from <a href="/wiki/Uranium" title="Uranium">uranium</a> of its active transformation product, uranium-X (later established to be <a href="/wiki/Protactinium" title="Protactinium">protactinium</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Burns-38">[38]</a> Crookes observed the gradual <a href="/wiki/Radioactive_decay" title="Radioactive decay">decay</a> of the separated transformation product, and the simultaneous reproduction of a fresh supply in the original uranium. At about the same time as this important discovery, he observed that when "p-particles", ejected from radio-active substances, impinge upon <a href="/wiki/Zinc_sulfide" title="Zinc sulfide">zinc sulfide</a>, each impact is accompanied by a minute scintillation, an observation which forms the basis of one of the most useful methods in the detection of radioactivity.<a href="#cite_note-Lincoln-39">[39]</a> In 1913, Crookes<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> created an ultraviolet blocking lens<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> made from glass containing <a href="/wiki/Cerium" title="Cerium">cerium</a>,<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> but only lightly tinted.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> They were an unintended by-product of Crookes's research to find a lens glass formulation that would protect glass workers from cataracts.<a href="#cite_note-thetimes.co.uk-45">[45]</a> Crookes tested more than 300 formulations,<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a> each numbered and labelled. Crookes Glass 246 was the tint recommended for glassworkers. The best-known Crookes tints are A (withdrawn due to its uranium), A1, B, and B2, which absorb all ultraviolet below 350 nm while darkening visual light. Crookes's samples were made by Whitefriars, London, stained glass makers, and Chance Brothers, Birmingham.<a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a><a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-thetimes.co.uk-45">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spiritualism">Spiritualism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Spiritualism">edit</a>]</div> Crookes became interested in <a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(movement)" title="Spiritualism (movement)">spiritualism</a> in the late 1860s, and was most strongly involved around 1874–1875. Eric Deeson notes that Crookes's studies of the occult are related to his scientific work on radiometry in that both involved the detection of previously undiscovered forces.<a href="#cite_note-Deeson-50">[50]</a> Crookes was possibly influenced by the death of his younger brother Philip in 1867 at 21 from yellow fever contracted while he was on an expedition to lay a telegraph cable from Cuba to Florida.<a href="#cite_note-Oppenheim_1988-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> In 1867, influenced by <a href="/wiki/C._F._Varley" title="C. F. Varley">Cromwell Fleetwood Varley</a>, Crookes attended a <a href="/wiki/S%C3%A9ance" title="Séance">séance</a> to try to get in touch with his brother.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> Between 1871 and 1874, Crookes studied the mediums <a href="/wiki/Fox_sisters" title="Fox sisters">Kate Fox</a>, <a href="/wiki/Florence_Cook_(medium)" title="Florence Cook (medium)">Florence Cook</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Dunglas_Home" title="Daniel Dunglas Home">Daniel Dunglas Home</a>. After his investigation, he believed that the mediums could produce genuine <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> phenomena and communicate with spirits.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Psychologists <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Zusne" title="Leonard Zusne">Leonard Zusne</a> and Warren H. Jones have described Crookes as gullible as he endorsed fraudulent mediums as genuine.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:William_Crookes_Katie_King.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/William_Crookes_Katie_King.png/220px-William_Crookes_Katie_King.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/William_Crookes_Katie_King.png/330px-William_Crookes_Katie_King.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/William_Crookes_Katie_King.png/440px-William_Crookes_Katie_King.png 2x" data-file-width="509" data-file-height="677" /></a><figcaption>Crookes with Katie King</figcaption></figure> The anthropologist <a href="/wiki/Edward_Clodd" title="Edward Clodd">Edward Clodd</a> noted that Crookes had poor eyesight, which may have explained his belief in spiritualist phenomena and quoted <a href="/wiki/William_Ramsay" title="William Ramsay">William Ramsay</a> as saying that Crookes is "so shortsighted that, despite his unquestioned honesty, he cannot be trusted in what he tells you he has seen."<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> Biographer <a href="/wiki/William_Hodson_Brock" title="William Hodson Brock">William Hodson Brock</a> wrote that Crookes was "evidently short-sighted, but did not wear spectacles until the 1890s. Until then he may have used a monocle or pocket magnifying glass when necessary. What limitations this imposed upon his psychic investigations we can only imagine."<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 140  After studying the reports of Florence Cook, the science historian <a href="/wiki/Sherrie_Lynne_Lyons" title="Sherrie Lynne Lyons">Sherrie Lynne Lyons</a> wrote that the alleged spirit "Katie King" was at times Cook herself and at other times an accomplice. Regarding Crookes, Lyons wrote, "Here was a man with a flawless scientific reputation, who discovered a new element, but could not detect a real live maiden who was masquerading as a ghost".<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> Cook was repeatedly exposed as a fraudulent medium but she had been "trained in the arts of the séance" which managed to trick Crookes.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> Some researchers such as <a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a> suspected that Crookes had an affair with Cook.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> In a series of experiments in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, England at the house of Crookes in February 1875, the medium <a href="/wiki/Anna_Eva_Fay" title="Anna Eva Fay">Anna Eva Fay</a> managed to fool Crookes into believing she had genuine <a href="/wiki/Psychic" title="Psychic">psychic</a> powers. Fay later confessed to her fraud and revealed the tricks that she had used.<a href="#cite_note-66">[66]</a> Regarding Crookes and his experiments with mediums, the magician <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a> suggested that Crookes had been deceived.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> The physicist <a href="/wiki/Victor_J._Stenger" title="Victor J. Stenger">Victor Stenger</a> wrote that the experiments were poorly controlled and "his desire to believe blinded him to the chicanery of his psychic subjects."<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> In 1897, <a href="/wiki/John_Grier_Hibben" title="John Grier Hibben">John Grier Hibben</a> wrote that Crookes's idea of ether waves explaining <a href="/wiki/Telepathy" title="Telepathy">telepathy</a> was not a scientific hypothesis "he presents no facts to indicate its probability or to save it from being relegated to the sphere of bare conjecture."<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> In 1916, <a href="/wiki/William_Hope_(paranormal_investigator)" title="William Hope (paranormal investigator)">William Hope</a> tricked Crookes with a fake spirit photograph of his wife. <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Lodge" title="Oliver Lodge">Oliver Lodge</a> revealed there had been obvious signs of double exposure, the picture of Lady Crookes had been copied from a wedding anniversary photograph, but Crookes was a convinced spiritualist and claimed it was genuine evidence for <a href="/wiki/Spirit_photography" title="Spirit photography">spirit photography</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 474  The physiologist <a href="/wiki/Gordon_Stein" title="Gordon Stein">Gordon Stein</a> suspected that Crookes was too ashamed to admit he had been duped by the medium Florence Cook or that he conspired with her for sexual favors. He also suggested that Crookes had conspired with Anna Eva Fay. He noted that contrary to popular belief, Hope had been exposed as a fraud on several occasions. Stein concluded that all feats of Hope were conjuring tricks.<a href="#cite_note-Stein-70">[70]</a> In a review, biographer William Brock wrote that Stein made his "case against Crookes and Home clearly and logically."<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> Crookes joined the <a href="/wiki/Society_for_Psychical_Research" title="Society for Psychical Research">Society for Psychical Research</a>, becoming its president in the 1890s: he also joined the <a href="/wiki/Theosophical_Society" title="Theosophical Society">Theosophical Society</a> and <a href="/wiki/The_Ghost_Club" title="The Ghost Club">The Ghost Club</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Oppenheim_1988-51">[51]</a> of which he was president from 1907 to 1912.<a href="#cite_note-Brock-3">[3]</a>: 440  In 1890 he was initiated into the <a href="/wiki/Hermetic_Order_of_the_Golden_Dawn" title="Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn">Hermetic Order of the Golden Dawn</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">List of presidents of the Royal Society</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-EB1911-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB1911_1-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFChisholm1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a>, ed. 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"Obituary notices: Sir William Crookes, O.M., 1832–1919; Thomas Fairley, 1843–1919; Walter William Fisher, 1842–1920; Antoine Paul Nicolas Franchimont, 1844–1919; Harold Cecil Greenwood, 1887–1919; Charles Edward Groves, 1841–1920; John Holmes, 1871–1919; Sir Boverton Redwood, Bart., 1846–1919; John Charles Umney, 1868–1919". J. Chem. 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Retrieved 23 August 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Distillations&rft.atitle=Champion+of+Victorian+Science&rft.date=2009-04-11&rft.aulast=James&rft.aufirst=Frank+A.+J.+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencehistory.org%2Fdistillations%2Fchampion-of-victorian-science&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bshr.org.uk/journals/022%20RHHCT%20Journal%2022%202004.pdf">"William Crookes: Covert Resources and a Mentor, 1871–81. By the late Derek R. Guttery"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=William+Crookes%3A+Covert+Resources+and+a+Mentor%2C+1871%E2%80%9381.+By+the+late+Derek+R.+Guttery.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bshr.org.uk%2Fjournals%2F022%2520RHHCT%2520Journal%252022%25202004.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/view/10.1093/ref:odnb/9780198614128.001.0001/odnb-9780198614128-e-32639">"Crookes, Sir William (1832–1919), chemist and science journalist"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. 2004. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F32639">10.1093/ref:odnb/32639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crookes%2C+Sir+William+%281832%E2%80%931919%29%2C+chemist+and+science+journalist&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F32639&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oxforddnb.com%2Fview%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F9780198614128.001.0001%2Fodnb-9780198614128-e-32639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.) </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_7-1">b</a> William Crookes (1832–1919) and the Commercialization of Science, William H. Brock, Routledge, 2008; Routledge, pp. 3–4 </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRonalds2016" class="citation book cs1">Ronalds, B.F. (2016). Sir Francis Ronalds: Father of the Electric Telegraph. London: Imperial College Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78326-917-4"><bdi>978-1-78326-917-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sir+Francis+Ronalds%3A+Father+of+the+Electric+Telegraph&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Imperial+College+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78326-917-4&rft.aulast=Ronalds&rft.aufirst=B.F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ruoff-9"><a href="#cite_ref-Ruoff_9-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRuoff1910" class="citation book cs1">Ruoff, Henry W. (1910). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kYo-AQAAIAAJ&pg=PA639">Masters of achievement; the world's greatest leaders in literature, art, religion, philosophy, science, politics and industry</a>. Buffalo, N.Y.: The Frontier press company. p. 639. Retrieved 7 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+achievement%3B+the+world%27s+greatest+leaders+in+literature%2C+art%2C+religion%2C+philosophy%2C+science%2C+politics+and+industry&rft.place=Buffalo%2C+N.Y.&rft.pages=639&rft.pub=The+Frontier+press+company&rft.date=1910&rft.aulast=Ruoff&rft.aufirst=Henry+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkYo-AQAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPA639&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Marshall-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Marshall_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marshall_10-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marshall_10-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Marshall_10-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarshallMarshall2011" class="citation journal cs1">Marshall, James L. Marshall; Marshall, Virginia R. Marshall (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.chem.unt.edu/~jimm/REDISCOVERY%207-09-2018/Hexagon%20Articles/thallium.pdf">"Rediscovery of the elements: Thallium, Crookes, and Lamy"</a> (PDF). The Hexagon: 62–67. Retrieved 30 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Hexagon&rft.atitle=Rediscovery+of+the+elements%3A+Thallium%2C+Crookes%2C+and+Lamy&rft.pages=62-67&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Marshall&rft.aufirst=James+L.+Marshall&rft.au=Marshall%2C+Virginia+R.+Marshall&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.chem.unt.edu%2F~jimm%2FREDISCOVERY%25207-09-2018%2FHexagon%2520Articles%2Fthallium.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Weeks-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Weeks_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weeks_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weeks_11-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Weeks_11-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks1956" class="citation book cs1">Weeks, Mary Elvira (1956). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/discoveryoftheel002045mbp">The discovery of the elements</a> (6th ed.). Easton, PA: Journal of Chemical Education.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+discovery+of+the+elements&rft.place=Easton%2C+PA&rft.edition=6th&rft.pub=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.date=1956&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=Mary+Elvira&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdiscoveryoftheel002045mbp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-DeKosky-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DeKosky_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeKosky_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DeKosky_12-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeKosky1973" class="citation journal cs1">DeKosky, Robert K. (1973). "Spectroscopy and the Elements in the Late Nineteenth Century: The Work of Sir William Crookes". The British Journal for the History of Science. 6 (4): 400–423. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0007087400012553">10.1017/S0007087400012553</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4025503">4025503</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:146534210">146534210</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+for+the+History+of+Science&rft.atitle=Spectroscopy+and+the+Elements+in+the+Late+Nineteenth+Century%3A+The+Work+of+Sir+William+Crookes&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=400-423&rft.date=1973&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A146534210%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4025503%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0007087400012553&rft.aulast=DeKosky&rft.aufirst=Robert+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> Crookes, William (30 March 1861) "On the existence of a new element, probably of the sulphur group," Chemical News, vol. 3, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6QcAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA193">pp. 193–194</a>; reprinted in: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrookes1861" class="citation journal cs1">Crookes, William (April 1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=OhyQnaPXF5QC&pg=RA1-PA301">"XLVI. On the existence of a new element, probably of the sulphur group"</a>. Philosophical Magazine. 21 (140): 301–305. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F14786446108643058">10.1080/14786446108643058</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Magazine&rft.atitle=XLVI.+On+the+existence+of+a+new+element%2C+probably+of+the+sulphur+group&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=140&rft.pages=301-305&rft.date=1861-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F14786446108643058&rft.aulast=Crookes&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOhyQnaPXF5QC%26pg%3DRA1-PA301&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> Crookes, William (18 May 1861) "Further remarks on the supposed new metalloid," Chemical News, vol. 3, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6QcAAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA303">p. 303</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> Crookes, William (19 June 1862) "Preliminary researches on thallium," Proceedings of the Royal Society of London, vol. 12, pages 150–159. </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> Lamy, A. (16 May 1862) "De l'existencè d'un nouveau métal, le thallium," Comptes Rendus, vol. 54, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://gallica2.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/bpt6k30115.image.r=Comptes+Rendus+Hebdomadaires.f1254.langFR">pages 1255–1262</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks,_Mary_Elvira1932" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks" title="Mary Elvira Weeks">Weeks, Mary Elvira</a> (1932). "The discovery of the elements: XVI. The rare earth elements". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (10): 1751–1773. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JChEd...9.1751W">1932JChEd...9.1751W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed009p1751">10.1021/ed009p1751</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+the+elements%3A+XVI.+The+rare+earth+elements&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=10&rft.pages=1751-1773&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed009p1751&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932JChEd...9.1751W&rft.au=Weeks%2C+Mary+Elvira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeeks1932" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Elvira_Weeks" title="Mary Elvira Weeks">Weeks, Mary Elvira</a> (1932). "The discovery of the elements. XIII. Supplementary note on the discovery of thallium". Journal of Chemical Education. 9 (12): 2078. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1932JChEd...9.2078W">1932JChEd...9.2078W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed009p2078">10.1021/ed009p2078</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=The+discovery+of+the+elements.+XIII.+Supplementary+note+on+the+discovery+of+thallium&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2078&rft.date=1932&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed009p2078&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1932JChEd...9.2078W&rft.aulast=Weeks&rft.aufirst=Mary+Elvira&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> The difference between "Crookes tubes" and "<a href="/wiki/Geissler_tube" title="Geissler tube">Geissler tubes</a>" is this: In a Geissler tube the exhaustion is very much less than in a Crookes tube, the light which we see in the Geissler tube being due to the <a href="/wiki/Luminescence" title="Luminescence">luminescence</a> of the residual gas. (Transactions, Volume 9. Hertfordshire Natural History Society and Field Club. The Club, 1898. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cKoUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA136">Page 136</a>.) </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> Alexander E. Outerbridge, Jr., A Fourth State of Matter. Lecture delivered before the Franklin Institute, 17 February 1881. Journal of the Franklin Institute of the State of Pennsylvania, Volume 81. By Franklin Institute (Philadelphia, Pa.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2QFAAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA287">Page 287+</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> William Crookes, On Radiant Matter. Lecture delivered before the British Association for the Advancement of Science, at Sheffield, Friday, 22 August 1879. The Popular Science Monthly, Volume 16. D. Appleton, 1880. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JM8WAQAAIAAJ&pg=PA157">Pg157+</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Crookes, W. Certain Properties of the Emanations of Radium. Chemical News; Vol. 87:241; 1903. </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrame" class="citation web cs1">Frame, Paul W. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.orau.org/health-physics-museum/collection/spinthariscopes/crookes-spinthariscope.html">"The Crookes Spinthariscope"</a>. Oak Ridge Associated Universities. Retrieved 11 October 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Crookes+Spinthariscope&rft.pub=Oak+Ridge+Associated+Universities&rft.aulast=Frame&rft.aufirst=Paul+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.orau.org%2Fhealth-physics-museum%2Fcollection%2Fspinthariscopes%2Fcrookes-spinthariscope.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Romer1960-24"><a href="#cite_ref-Romer1960_24-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlfred_Romer1960" class="citation book cs1">Alfred Romer (1960). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iHsKAAAAMAAJ">The Restless Atom: The Awakening of Nuclear Physics</a>. Anchor Books. Retrieved 2 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Restless+Atom%3A+The+Awakening+of+Nuclear+Physics&rft.pub=Anchor+Books&rft.date=1960&rft.au=Alfred+Romer&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiHsKAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> Radio-activity induced by the oscillatory discharge, or, The subsequent radio-active emanation from substances exposed to the Tesla oscillatory discharge. Harry Marshall Diemer, Ralph Stuart Cooper. Cornell University, 1903. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EEpUAAAAYAAJ&pg=PA43">Page 43+</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Chemist & Druggist, Volume 60. Benn Brothers., 1902. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uKQhAQAAMAAJ&pg=PA268">Pg 268</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Negatively electrified particles whose mass is only 1/1840 that of a <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> atom </li> <li id="cite_note-Martz-28"><a href="#cite_ref-Martz_28-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMartzLoganSchneberkShull2016" class="citation book cs1">Martz, Harry E.; Logan, Clint M.; Schneberk, Daniel J.; Shull, Peter J. (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qxMNDgAAQBAJ&pg=PA27">X-ray imaging : fundamentals, industrial techniques, and applications</a>. CRC Press. p. 27. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780849397721" title="Special:BookSources/9780849397721"><bdi>9780849397721</bdi></a>. Retrieved 7 December 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=X-ray+imaging+%3A+fundamentals%2C+industrial+techniques%2C+and+applications&rft.pages=27&rft.pub=CRC+Press&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=9780849397721&rft.aulast=Martz&rft.aufirst=Harry+E.&rft.au=Logan%2C+Clint+M.&rft.au=Schneberk%2C+Daniel+J.&rft.au=Shull%2C+Peter+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqxMNDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrookes1874" class="citation journal cs1"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Crookes, William</a> (1 January 1874). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1432450">"On Attraction and Repulsion Resulting from Radiation"</a>. 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Retrieved 3 June 2018 – via www.thetimes.co.uk.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Out+of+the+shade&rft.date=2015-11-09&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thetimes.co.uk%2Farticle%2Fout-of-the-shade-t38jv5mbm3v&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/nbstechnologic/nbstechnologicpaperT93e1.pdf">"Coblentz, W. W.; Emerson, W. B. Glasses for protecting eyes from injurious radiations. (1st ed.) 1916-11-14"</a> (PDF).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Coblentz%2C+W.+W.%3B+Emerson%2C+W.+B.+Glasses+for+protecting+eyes+from+injurious+radiations.+%281st+ed.%29+1916-11-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2Fnbstechnologic%2FnbstechnologicpaperT93e1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> <a href="/wiki/NIST" class="mw-redirect" title="NIST">NIST</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museyeum.org/detail.php?name_title=Crookes&module=objects&type=advanced&kv=7151&record=18">"Sir William Crookes' U "Ultimate" Anti-Glare Formula OPHTHALMIC LENSES tinted lens samples set, Sir William Crookes Anti-Glare Glass Co Ltd; Melson Wingate Ltd – British Optical Association Museum – The College of Optometrists"</a>. museyeum.org. Retrieved 3 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=museyeum.org&rft.atitle=Sir+William+Crookes%27+U+%22Ultimate%22+Anti-Glare+Formula+OPHTHALMIC+LENSES+tinted+lens+samples+set%2C+Sir+William+Crookes+Anti-Glare+Glass+Co+Ltd%3B+Melson+Wingate+Ltd+%E2%80%93+British+Optical+Association+Museum+%E2%80%93+The+College+of+Optometrists&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseyeum.org%2Fdetail.php%3Fname_title%3DCrookes%26module%3Dobjects%26type%3Dadvanced%26kv%3D7151%26record%3D18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://museyeum.org/detail.php?name_title=Crookes&module=objects&type=advanced&kv=20397&record=21&module=objects">"The Ultra-Violet Limit of Chance's 'Crookes' Glasses Compared with White Spectacle Glass and Some Common Tinted Glasses – Chance Brothers & Co. Ltd Smethwick, Birmingham, England 1920s (Promotional chart reproducing in black and white a spectral chart comparing various types of glass used for ophthalmic lenses. Landscape format, printed on one side only of a single sheet of white paper.) – British Optical Association Museum – The College of Optometrists"</a>. museyeum.org. Retrieved 3 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=museyeum.org&rft.atitle=The+Ultra-Violet+Limit+of+Chance%27s+%27Crookes%27+Glasses+Compared+with+White+Spectacle+Glass+and+Some+Common+Tinted+Glasses+%E2%80%93+Chance+Brothers+%26+Co.+Ltd+Smethwick%2C+Birmingham%2C+England+1920s+%28Promotional+chart+reproducing+in+black+and+white+a+spectral+chart+comparing+various+types+of+glass+used+for+ophthalmic+lenses.+Landscape+format%2C+printed+on+one+side+only+of+a+single+sheet+of+white+paper.%29+%E2%80%93+British+Optical+Association+Museum+%E2%80%93+The+College+of+Optometrists&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmuseyeum.org%2Fdetail.php%3Fname_title%3DCrookes%26module%3Dobjects%26type%3Dadvanced%26kv%3D20397%26record%3D21%26module%3Dobjects&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://patents.google.com/patent/US1634182A/en">"Colorless crookes glass"</a>. google.com. Retrieved 3 June 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=google.com&rft.atitle=Colorless+crookes+glass&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpatents.google.com%2Fpatent%2FUS1634182A%2Fen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deeson-50"><a href="#cite_ref-Deeson_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeeson1974" class="citation journal cs1">Deeson, Eric (26 December 1974). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=khzDRYfj97AC&pg=PA922">"Commonsense and Sir William Crookes"</a>. New Scientist: 922–925.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Commonsense+and+Sir+William+Crookes&rft.pages=922-925&rft.date=1974-12-26&rft.aulast=Deeson&rft.aufirst=Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkhzDRYfj97AC%26pg%3DPA922&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-Oppenheim_1988-51">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheim_1988_51-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Oppenheim_1988_51-1">b</a> Janet Oppenheim. (1988). The Other World: Spiritualism and Psychical Research in England, 1850–1914. Cambridge University Press. pp. 343–347. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521265058" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521265058">978-0521265058</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> John Hannavy. (2007). Encyclopedia of Nineteenth-Century Photography. Routledge. p. 350. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415972352" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415972352">978-0415972352</a> "Crookes' beloved younger brother had died in 1867 and the scientist hoped that spiritualism could provide a reunion. Although warned of the risk of ridicule, Crookes announced his intent to investigate mediums." </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sherrie_Lynne_Lyons" title="Sherrie Lynne Lyons">Sherrie Lynne Lyons</a>. (2010). Species, Serpents, Spirits, and Skulls: Science at the Margins in the Victorian Age. State University of New York Press. p. 92. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438427980" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438427980">978-1438427980</a> "Crookes appears to have been initially attracted to spiritualism when his youngest brother, whom he was quite close to, died of yellow fever. Brought up with the traditional Christian belief in the afterlife, Crookes was persuaded to attend a séance in 1867 to try to make contact with his brother." </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> Martyn Jolly. (2006). Faces of the Living dead: The Belief in Spirit Photography. Miegunyah Press. p. 30. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0712348997" title="Special:BookSources/978-0712348997">978-0712348997</a> "In 1867, he was devastated by the death of his much-loved youngest brother who, at the age of twenty-one. had caught yellow fever while laying a submarine telegraph cable in Cuba. At the time, Crookes was collaborating with a fellow electro-physicist Cromwell Fleetwood Varley, who was a pioneer of intercontinental telegraphy, as well as a clairvoyant. He persuaded Crookes to try to get in touch with his dead brother by spiritualist means." </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Cohen_(children%27s_writer)" title="Daniel Cohen (children's writer)">Daniel Cohen</a>. (1971). Masters of the Occult. Dodd, Mead & Company. p. 111. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0396064077" title="Special:BookSources/978-0396064077">978-0396064077</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> Andrew Neher. (2011). Paranormal and Transcendental Experience: A Psychological Examination. Dover Publications. p. 214. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0486261676" title="Special:BookSources/978-0486261676">978-0486261676</a> "William Crookes, the noted English physicist, had endorsed Catherine Fox as genuine... Crookes also endorsed several other mediums who were later exposed, including Anna Eva Fay (who was exposed more than once and who eventually explained how she duped Crookes), Florence Cook (who was the subject of more than one expose), and D. D. Home." </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Leonard_Zusne" title="Leonard Zusne">Leonard Zusne</a>; Warren H. Jones. (2014). Anomalistic Psychology: A Study of Magical Thinking. Psychology Press. p. 216. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-805-80508-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-805-80508-6">978-0-805-80508-6</a> "The fact is that William Crookes, although very good at physics experiments, was rather weak on drawing inferences and on theorizing. Besides, he was gullible. He endorsed several mediums in spite of their demonstrated trickery. Having witnessed a single seance with Kate Fox, he became convinced that the Fox sisters' rappings were genuine." </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Edward_Clodd" title="Edward Clodd">Edward Clodd</a>. (1917). The Question: A Brief History and Examination of Modern Spiritualism. Grant Richards, London. p. 100 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Sherrie_Lynne_Lyons" title="Sherrie Lynne Lyons">Sherrie Lynne Lyons</a>. (2010). Species, Serpents, Spirits, and Skulls: Science at the Margins in the Victorian Age. State University of New York Press. p. 101. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1438427980" title="Special:BookSources/978-1438427980">978-1438427980</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> <a href="/wiki/M._Lamar_Keene" title="M. Lamar Keene">M. Lamar Keene</a>. (1997). <a href="/wiki/The_Psychic_Mafia" class="mw-redirect" title="The Psychic Mafia">The Psychic Mafia</a>. Prometheus Books. p. 64. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1573921619" title="Special:BookSources/978-1573921619">978-1573921619</a> "The most famous of materialization mediums, Florence Cook-- though she managed to convince a scientist, Sir William Crookes, that she was genuine-- was repeatedly exposed in fraud. Florence had been trained in the arts of the séance by Frank Herne, a well-known physical medium whose materializations were grabbed on more than one occasion and found to be the medium himself." </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Trevor_H._Hall" title="Trevor H. Hall">Trevor H. Hall</a>. (1963). The Spiritualists: The Story of Florence Cook and William Crookes. Helix Press. </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandon1985" class="citation journal cs1">Brandon, Ruth (18 July 1985). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=p6DGWU27baYC&pg=PA52">"Unsavoury Spirits"</a>. New Scientist: 52.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Unsavoury+Spirits&rft.pages=52&rft.date=1985-07-18&rft.aulast=Brandon&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dp6DGWU27baYC%26pg%3DPA52&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrandon1983" class="citation journal cs1">Brandon, Ruth (16 June 1983). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BX7c6gVuyVQC&pg=PA783">"Scientists and the Supernormal"</a>. New Scientist: 783–786.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Scientist&rft.atitle=Scientists+and+the+Supernormal&rft.pages=783-786&rft.date=1983-06-16&rft.aulast=Brandon&rft.aufirst=Ruth&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBX7c6gVuyVQC%26pg%3DPA783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Sladek" title="John Sladek">John Sladek</a>. (1974). The New Apocrypha: A Guide to Strange Sciences and Occult Beliefs. Panther. p. 194. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0586039748" title="Special:BookSources/978-0586039748">978-0586039748</a> "Crookes was forty-one, and his wife was pregnant with their tenth child. Florence was eighteen and pretty, and willing to spend considerable time at Crookes home, locked into a dark room alone with him, while beautiful apparitions were shown to him. The man Florence had secretly married, Captain Corner, put an unspiritual construction on the proceedings, and gave Crookes a beating. By 1875 the situation was becoming obvious to outsiders, who published hints that the next manifestation might be an infant phenomenon. As for the apparitions, no one but Crookes is reported to have ever seen them ... By 1880 Florence had been exposed as a fraud by Sir George Sitwell." </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Amy Lehman. (2009). Victorian Women and the Theatre of Trance: Mediums, Spiritualists. McFarland. p. 158. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0786434794" title="Special:BookSources/978-0786434794">978-0786434794</a> Crookes took 44 photographs of "Katie King", in some of which he, or Florence Cook appear alongside her. He described in detail the physical differences between the spirit and her medium. The fact that some of these photographs, which still exist, show a Katie King who looks almost identical to Florence Cook calls Crookes's judgment, not to mention his veracity, into question. Skeptics at the time who were convinced that Florence was a fake thought that either Crookes was being completely hood-winked or that he had agreed to perpetrate the fraud with Florence. And the only explanation in either case had to be that Crookes was smitten with Florence—at the very least besotted with her and probably having an affair." </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Massimo_Polidoro" title="Massimo Polidoro">Massimo Polidoro</a>. (2000). Anna Eva Fay: The Mentalist Who Baffled Sir William Crookes. Skeptical Inquirer 24: 36–38. </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a>. (2011, originally published 1924). A Magician Among the Spirits. Cambridge University Press. p. 205. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1108027489" title="Special:BookSources/978-1108027489">978-1108027489</a> "There is not the slightest doubt in my mind that this brainy man was hoodwinked, and that his confidence was betrayed by the so-called mediums that he tested. His powers of observation were blinded and his reasoning faculties so blunted by his prejudice in favor of anything psychic or occult that he could not, or would not, resist the influence." </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Victor_J._Stenger" title="Victor J. Stenger">Victor J. Stenger</a>. (1990). Physics and Psychics: The Search for a World Beyond the Senses. Prometheus Books. pp. 156–157. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-575-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-575-1">978-0-87975-575-1</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> Hibben, J. G. (1897). Review of Presidential Address to the Society for Psychical Research, by W. Crookes. <a href="/wiki/Psychological_Review" title="Psychological Review">Psychological Review</a> 5: 362–387. </li> <li id="cite_note-Stein-70"><a href="#cite_ref-Stein_70-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStein1993" class="citation book cs1">Stein, Gordon (1993). The sorcerer of kings : the case of Daniel Dunglas Home and William Crookes. Prometheus Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-87975-863-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-87975-863-5"><bdi>0-87975-863-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+sorcerer+of+kings+%3A+the+case+of+Daniel+Dunglas+Home+and+William+Crookes&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=0-87975-863-5&rft.aulast=Stein&rft.aufirst=Gordon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> Brock, William. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.readcube.com/articles/10.1038/367422a0">Was Crookes A Crook?</a>. <a href="/wiki/Nature_(journal)" title="Nature (journal)">Nature</a> 367: 422–422. </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlex_Owen2007" class="citation book cs1">Alex Owen (2007). The Place of Enchantment: British Occultism and the Culture of the Modern. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 70.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Place+of+Enchantment%3A+British+Occultism+and+the+Culture+of+the+Modern&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=70&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.au=Alex+Owen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_Hodson_Brock2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/William_Hodson_Brock" title="William Hodson Brock">William Hodson Brock</a> (2004). "Crookes, Sir William (1832–1919)". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F32639">10.1093/ref:odnb/32639</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Crookes%2C+Sir+William+%281832%E2%80%931919%29&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F32639&rft.au=William+Hodson+Brock&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWilliam+Crookes" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edmund_Edward_Fournier_d%27Albe" title="Edmund Edward Fournier d'Albe">Edmund Edward Fournier d'Albe</a> (2011, originally published in 1923). The Life of Sir William Crookes. Cambridge University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-06159-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-06159-9">978-1-108-06159-9</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=William_Crookes&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:William_Crookes" class="extiw" title="s:Author:William Crookes">William Crookes</a></div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/William_Crookes" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/William Crookes">William Crookes</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/5544">Works by William Crookes</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Crookes%2C%20William%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22William%20Crookes%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Crookes%2C%20William%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22William%20Crookes%22%20OR%20title%3A%22William%20Crookes%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Crookes%2C%20William%22%20OR%20description%3A%22William%20Crookes%22%29%20OR%20%28%221832-1919%22%20AND%20Crookes%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about William Crookes</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li>Crookes's (1874) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/13351">A practical handbook of dyeing and calico-printing</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170729055002/http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/13351">Archived</a> 29 July 2017 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – digital facsimile from the <a href="/wiki/Linda_Hall_Library" title="Linda Hall Library">Linda Hall Library</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable succession-box noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:small;clear:both;"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="3" style="border-top: 5px solid lightgreen">Professional and academic associations </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <td style="width:30%;" rowspan="1">Preceded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Geikie" title="Archibald Geikie">Archibald Geikie</a></div> </td> <td style="width: 40%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">41st <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">President of the Royal Society</a> 1913–1915 </td> <td style="width: 30%; text-align: center;" rowspan="1">Succeeded by<div style="font-weight: bold"><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. 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title="Copley Medal">Copley Medallists</a> (1901–1950)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a> (1901)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> (1902)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eduard_Suess" title="Eduard Suess">Eduard Suess</a> (1903)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Crookes</a> (1904)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dmitri_Mendeleev" title="Dmitri Mendeleev">Dmitri Mendeleev</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%89lie_Metchnikoff" title="Élie Metchnikoff">Élie Metchnikoff</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_A._Michelson" title="Albert A. Michelson">Albert A. Michelson</a> (1907)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_Russel_Wallace" title="Alfred Russel Wallace">Alfred Russel Wallace</a> (1908)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_William_Hill" title="George William Hill">George William Hill</a> (1909)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Galton" title="Francis Galton">Francis Galton</a> (1910)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Darwin" title="George Darwin">George Darwin</a> (1911)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felix_Klein" title="Felix Klein">Felix Klein</a> (1912)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ray_Lankester" title="Ray Lankester">Ray Lankester</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1914)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ivan_Pavlov" title="Ivan Pavlov">Ivan Pavlov</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Dewar" title="James Dewar">James Dewar</a> (1916)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Paul_%C3%89mile_Roux" class="mw-redirect" title="Pierre Paul Émile Roux">Pierre Paul Émile Roux</a> (1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hendrik_Lorentz" title="Hendrik Lorentz">Hendrik Lorentz</a> (1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Bayliss" title="William Bayliss">William Bayliss</a> (1919)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Tabberer_Brown" title="Horace Tabberer Brown">Horace Tabberer Brown</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Larmor" title="Joseph Larmor">Joseph Larmor</a> (1921)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1922)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Lamb" title="Horace Lamb">Horace Lamb</a> (1923)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Albert_Sharpey-Schafer" title="Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer">Edward Albert Sharpey-Schafer</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1926)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> (1927)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Algernon_Parsons" title="Charles Algernon Parsons">Charles Algernon Parsons</a> (1928)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Max_Planck" title="Max Planck">Max Planck</a> (1929)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schuster" title="Arthur Schuster">Arthur Schuster</a> (1931)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Ellery_Hale" title="George Ellery Hale">George Ellery Hale</a> (1932)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theobald_Smith" title="Theobald Smith">Theobald Smith</a> (1933)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Scott_Haldane" title="John Scott Haldane">John Scott Haldane</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Thomson_Rees_Wilson" title="Charles Thomson Rees Wilson">Charles Thomson Rees Wilson</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Evans" title="Arthur Evans">Arthur Evans</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> (1937)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niels_Bohr" title="Niels Bohr">Niels Bohr</a> (1938)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hunt_Morgan" title="Thomas Hunt Morgan">Thomas Hunt Morgan</a> (1939)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Langevin" title="Paul Langevin">Paul Langevin</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Lewis_(cardiologist)" title="Thomas Lewis (cardiologist)">Thomas Lewis</a> (1941)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(chemist)" title="Robert Robinson (chemist)">Robert Robinson</a> (1942)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Barcroft" title="Joseph Barcroft">Joseph Barcroft</a> (1943)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._I._Taylor" title="G. I. Taylor">Geoffrey Ingram Taylor</a> (1944)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oswald_Avery" title="Oswald Avery">Oswald Avery</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian" title="Edgar Adrian">Edgar Douglas Adrian</a> (1946)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._H._Hardy" title="G. H. Hardy">G. H. Hardy</a> (1947)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Hill" title="Archibald Hill">Archibald Hill</a> (1948)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_de_Hevesy" title="George de Hevesy">George de Hevesy</a> (1949)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Chadwick" title="James Chadwick">James Chadwick</a> (1950)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Template talk:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Royal_Society_presidents" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Royal Society presidents"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_the_Royal_Society" title="List of presidents of the Royal Society">Presidents</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Brouncker,_2nd_Viscount_Brouncker" title="William Brouncker, 2nd Viscount Brouncker">Viscount Brouncker</a> (1662)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Williamson_(English_politician)" title="Joseph Williamson (English politician)">Joseph Williamson</a> (1677)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christopher_Wren" title="Christopher Wren">Christopher Wren</a> (1680)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_John_Hoskyns,_2nd_Baronet" title="Sir John Hoskyns, 2nd Baronet">John Hoskyns</a> (1682)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Wyche" title="Cyril Wyche">Cyril Wyche</a> (1683)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Pepys" title="Samuel Pepys">Samuel Pepys</a> (1684)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Vaughan,_3rd_Earl_of_Carbery" title="John Vaughan, 3rd Earl of Carbery">Earl of Carbery</a> (1686)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Herbert,_8th_Earl_of_Pembroke" title="Thomas Herbert, 8th Earl of Pembroke">Earl of Pembroke</a> (1689)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Robert_Southwell_(diplomat)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sir Robert Southwell (diplomat)">Robert Southwell</a> (1690)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Montagu,_1st_Earl_of_Halifax" title="Charles Montagu, 1st Earl of Halifax">Charles Montagu</a> (1695)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Somers,_1st_Baron_Somers" title="John Somers, 1st Baron Somers">Lord Somers</a> (1698)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (1703)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Sloane" title="Hans Sloane">Hans Sloane</a> (1727)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Folkes" title="Martin Folkes">Martin Folkes</a> (1741)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Parker,_2nd_Earl_of_Macclesfield" title="George Parker, 2nd Earl of Macclesfield">Earl of Macclesfield</a> (1752)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Douglas,_14th_Earl_of_Morton" title="James Douglas, 14th Earl of Morton">Earl of Morton</a> (1764)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_West_(antiquary)" title="James West (antiquary)">James West</a> (1768)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Burrow" title="James Burrow">James Burrow</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Pringle_(physician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Pringle (physician)">John Pringle</a> (1772)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Banks" title="Joseph Banks">Joseph Banks</a> (1778)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">19th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Hyde_Wollaston" title="William Hyde Wollaston">William Hyde Wollaston</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humphry_Davy" title="Humphry Davy">Humphry Davy</a> (1820)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Davies_Gilbert" title="Davies Gilbert">Davies Gilbert</a> (1827)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prince_Augustus_Frederick,_Duke_of_Sussex" title="Prince Augustus Frederick, Duke of Sussex">Duke of Sussex</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spencer_Compton,_2nd_Marquess_of_Northampton" title="Spencer Compton, 2nd Marquess of Northampton">Marquess of Northampton</a> (1838)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Parsons,_3rd_Earl_of_Rosse" title="William Parsons, 3rd Earl of Rosse">Earl of Rosse</a> (1848)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wrottesley,_2nd_Baron_Wrottesley" title="John Wrottesley, 2nd Baron Wrottesley">Lord Wrottesley</a> (1854)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_Benjamin_Collins_Brodie,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Benjamin Collins Brodie, 1st Baronet">Benjamin Collins Brodie</a> (1858)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edward_Sabine" title="Edward Sabine">Edward Sabine</a> (1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> (1871)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Dalton_Hooker" title="Joseph Dalton Hooker">Joseph Dalton Hooker</a> (1873)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Spottiswoode" title="William Spottiswoode">William Spottiswoode</a> (1878)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Henry_Huxley" title="Thomas Henry Huxley">Thomas Henry Huxley</a> (1883)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">George Gabriel Stokes</a> (1885)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (1890)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Lister" title="Joseph Lister">Joseph Lister</a> (1895)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">20th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/William_Huggins" title="William Huggins">William Huggins</a> (1900)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a> (1905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archibald_Geikie" title="Archibald Geikie">Archibald Geikie</a> (1908)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">William Crookes</a> (1913)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (1915)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Scott_Sherrington" title="Charles Scott Sherrington">Charles Scott Sherrington</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ernest_Rutherford" title="Ernest Rutherford">Ernest Rutherford</a> (1925)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frederick_Gowland_Hopkins" title="Frederick Gowland Hopkins">Frederick Gowland Hopkins</a> (1930)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Henry_Bragg" title="William Henry Bragg">William Henry Bragg</a> (1935)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_Hallett_Dale" title="Henry Hallett Dale">Henry Hallett Dale</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Robinson_(organic_chemist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Robinson (organic chemist)">Robert Robinson</a> (1945)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edgar_Adrian,_1st_Baron_Adrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Edgar Adrian, 1st Baron Adrian">Lord Adrian</a> (1950)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyril_Norman_Hinshelwood" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyril Norman Hinshelwood">Cyril Norman Hinshelwood</a> (1955)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howard_Florey" title="Howard Florey">Howard Florey</a> (1960)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrick_Blackett" title="Patrick Blackett">Patrick Blackett</a> (1965)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alan_Lloyd_Hodgkin" class="mw-redirect" title="Alan Lloyd Hodgkin">Alan Lloyd Hodgkin</a> (1970)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_R._Todd" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexander R. Todd">Lord Todd</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andrew_Huxley" title="Andrew Huxley">Andrew Huxley</a> (1980)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Porter" title="George Porter">George Porter</a> (1985)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Atiyah" title="Michael Atiyah">Sir Michael Atiyah</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aaron_Klug" title="Aaron Klug">Sir Aaron Klug</a> (1995)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">21st century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Robert_May,_Baron_May_of_Oxford" title="Robert May, Baron May of Oxford">Lord May</a> (2000)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Rees,_Baron_Rees_of_Ludlow" class="mw-redirect" title="Martin Rees, Baron Rees of Ludlow">Lord Rees</a> (2005)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Nurse" title="Paul Nurse">Sir Paul Nurse</a> (2010)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venki_Ramakrishnan" title="Venki Ramakrishnan">Venki Ramakrishnan</a> (2015)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adrian_Smith_(statistician)" title="Adrian Smith (statistician)">Adrian Smith</a> (2020)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189552#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189552#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q189552#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" 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href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/116740884">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n85181973">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb124591923">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb124591923">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00436923">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/RMSV049833">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35032297">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20030828031&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1242148">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p068156685">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/2035666">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000168985&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000455860">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=157116">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810688572405606">Poland</a></li><li><a class="external text" href="https://wikidata-externalid-url.toolforge.org/?p=8034&url_prefix=https://opac.vatlib.it/auth/detail/&id=495/180681">Vatican</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007274633405171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058509003706706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA04212157?l=en">CiNii</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.getty.edu/vow/ULANFullDisplay?find=&role=&nation=&subjectid=500021593">ULAN</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/388396">RKD Artists</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/ressources/repertoire-artistes-personnalites/24613">Musée d'Orsay</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pic.nypl.org/constituents/7320">Photographers' Identities</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/804971">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd116740884.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" 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