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href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D1%8A%D0%BB%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%BE_%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%83%D1%87%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B5" title="Дългосрочно изучаване – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Дългосрочно изучаване" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudin%C3%A1ln%C3%AD_v%C3%BDzkum" title="Longitudinální výzkum – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Longitudinální výzkum" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%C3%A4ngsschnittstudie" title="Längsschnittstudie – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Längsschnittstudie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longituuduuring" title="Longituuduuring – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Longituuduuring" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Estudio_longitudinal" title="Estudio longitudinal – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Estudio longitudinal" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luzetarako_datuak" title="Luzetarako datuak – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Luzetarako datuak" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B7%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D9%87_%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="مطالعه طولی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مطالعه طولی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89tude_longitudinale" title="Étude longitudinale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Étude longitudinale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A2%85%EB%8B%A8%EC%A0%81_%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC" title="종단적 연구 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="종단적 연구" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A4%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%B0%D5%A5%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B8%D5%BF%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80" title="Լոնգիտյուդային հետազոտություններ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լոնգիտյուդային հետազոտություններ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kajian_longitudinal" title="Kajian longitudinal – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Kajian longitudinal" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudin%C3%A1lis_kutat%C3%A1s" title="Longitudinális kutatás – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Longitudinális kutatás" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B8%A6%E6%96%AD%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="縦断研究 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="縦断研究" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinell_studie" title="Longitudinell studie – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Longitudinell studie" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Longitudinell_studie" title="Longitudinell studie – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Longitudinell studie" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Strategia_por%C3%B3wna%C5%84_pod%C5%82u%C5%BCnych" title="Strategia porównań podłużnych – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Strategia porównań podłużnych" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt 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href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8E%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D0%B4%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%B4%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Лонгітюдне дослідження – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Лонгітюдне дослідження" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B8%B1%E5%90%91%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="縱向研究 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="縱向研究" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BA%B5%E5%90%91%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6" title="纵向研究 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="纵向研究" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Study with repeated observations over time</div> <p>A <b>longitudinal study</b> (or <b>longitudinal survey</b>, or <b>panel study</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Research_design" title="Research design">research design</a> that involves repeated observations of the same variables (e.g., people) over long periods of time (i.e., uses <a href="/wiki/Longitudinal_data" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitudinal data">longitudinal data</a>). It is often a type of <a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational study</a>, although it can also be structured as longitudinal <a href="/wiki/Randomized_experiment" title="Randomized experiment">randomized experiment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Longitudinal studies are often used in social-personality and <a href="/wiki/Clinical_psychology" title="Clinical psychology">clinical psychology</a>, to study rapid fluctuations in behaviors, thoughts, and emotions from moment to moment or day to day; in <a href="/wiki/Developmental_psychology" title="Developmental psychology">developmental psychology</a>, to study developmental trends across the life span; and in <a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">sociology</a>, to study life events throughout lifetimes or generations; and in <a href="/wiki/Consumer_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Consumer research">consumer research</a> and <a href="/wiki/Political_polling" class="mw-redirect" title="Political polling">political polling</a> to study consumer trends. The reason for this is that, unlike <a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">cross-sectional studies</a>, in which different individuals with the same characteristics are compared,<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> longitudinal studies track the same people, and so the differences observed in those people are less likely to be the result of cultural differences across generations, that is, the <a href="/wiki/Cohort_effect" title="Cohort effect">cohort effect</a>. Longitudinal studies thus make observing changes more accurate and are applied in various other fields. In medicine, the design is used to uncover predictors of certain diseases. In advertising, the design is used to identify the changes that advertising has produced in the attitudes and behaviors of those within the target audience who have seen the advertising campaign. Longitudinal studies allow <a href="/wiki/Social_scientists" class="mw-redirect" title="Social scientists">social scientists</a> to distinguish short from long-term phenomena, such as <a href="/wiki/Poverty" title="Poverty">poverty</a>. If the poverty rate is 10% at a point in time, this may mean that 10% of the population are always poor or that the whole population experiences poverty for 10% of the time. </p><p>Longitudinal studies can be <a href="/wiki/Retrospective_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Retrospective study">retrospective</a> (looking back in time, thus using existing data such as medical records or claims database) or <a href="/wiki/Prospective_study" class="mw-redirect" title="Prospective study">prospective</a> (requiring the collection of new data).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort studies</a> are one type of longitudinal study which sample a <a href="/wiki/Cohort_(statistics)" title="Cohort (statistics)">cohort</a> (a group of people who share a defining characteristic, typically who experienced a common event in a selected period, such as birth or graduation) and perform <a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_data" title="Cross-sectional data">cross-section</a> observations at intervals through time. Not all longitudinal studies are cohort studies; some instead include a group of people who do not share a common event.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As opposed to observing an entire population, a panel study follows a smaller, selected group - called a 'panel'.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Advantages">Advantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Longitudinal_study&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Advantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When longitudinal studies are <a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">observational</a>, in the sense that they observe the state of the world without manipulating it, it has been argued that they may have less power to detect <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal relationships</a> than <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experiments</a>. Others say that because of the repeated observation at the individual level, they have more power than cross-sectional observational studies, by virtue of being able to exclude time-invariant unobserved individual differences and also of observing the temporal order of events.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="looked at article and can't seem to find this language and not clearly a good source for such information (August 2020)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Longitudinal studies do not require large numbers of participants (as in the examples below). Qualitative longitudinal studies may include only a handful of participants,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and longitudinal pilot or feasibility studies often have fewer than 100 participants.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Disadvantages">Disadvantages</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Longitudinal_study&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Disadvantages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Longitudinal studies are time-consuming and expensive.<sup id="cite_ref-Longitudinal_study_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Longitudinal_study-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Longitudinal studies cannot avoid an attrition effect: that is, some subjects cannot continue to participate in the study for various reasons. Under longitudinal research methods, the reduction in the research sample will bias the remaining smaller sample.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Practice effect is also one of the problems: longitudinal studies tend to be influenced because subjects repeat the same procedure many times (potentially introducing <a href="/wiki/Autocorrelation" title="Autocorrelation">autocorrelation</a>), and this may cause their performance to improve or deteriorate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Longitudinal_study&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Examples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Study name </th> <th>Type </th> <th>Country or region </th> <th>Year started </th> <th data-sort-type="number">Participants </th> <th class="unsortable">Remarks </th></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saxinstitute.org.au/our-work/45-up-study/">45 and Up Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>2006 </td> <td>267,153 </td> <td>The 45 and Up Study is a longitudinal study of participants aged 45 years and over in New South Wales conducted by the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.saxinstitute.org.au/">Sax Institute</a>. Researchers are able to analyze Study data linked to <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mbsonline.gov.au/internet/mbsonline/publishing.nsf/Content/Home">MBS</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.health.gov.au/internet/main/publishing.nsf/Content/Pharmaceutical+Benefits+Scheme+%28PBS%29-1">PBS</a> data, the NSW cancer registry, State hospitalizations, and emergency department visits and mortality data. <p>The Study is used by both researchers and policymakers to better understand how Australians are aging and using health services to prevent and manage ill-health and disability and guide health system decisions. 45 and Up is the largest ongoing study of healthy aging in the Southern Hemisphere. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_Disease_Neuroimaging_Initiative" title="Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative">Alzheimer's Disease Neuroimaging Initiative</a> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>International </td> <td>2004 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Australian_Longitudinal_Study_on_Women%27s_Health" title="Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health">Australian Longitudinal Study on Women's Health</a> (ALSWH) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>1996 </td> <td>50,000 </td> <td>Includes four cohorts of women: born between 1921 and 1926, 1946–1951, 1973–1978 and 1989–1995 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nurses%27_Health_Study" title="Nurses' Health Study">Nurses' Health Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1976 </td> <td>275,000 </td> <td>Most expensive and largest observational health study in history </td></tr> <tr> <td>The Jyväskylä Longitudinal Study of Personality and Social Development,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (JYLS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Finland </td> <td>1968 </td> <td>369 </td> <td>The sample was drawn from 12 complete school classes. Data has been collected when the participants were 8, 14, 20, 27, 33, 36, 42 and 50 years old. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Building a New Life in Australia : The Longitudinal Study of Humanitarian Migrants (BNLA)<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>2013 </td> <td>2,399 </td> <td>A longitudinal study of the settlement experience of humanitarian arrivals in Australia </td></tr> <tr> <td>Colombian Longitudinal Survey by Universidad de los Andes (ELCA)<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Colombia </td> <td>2010 </td> <td>15,363<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Follows rural and urban households for increasing the comprehension of social and economic changes in Colombia </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Avon_Longitudinal_Study_of_Parents_and_Children" title="Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children">Avon Longitudinal Study of Parents and Children</a> (ALSPAC) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>1991 </td> <td>14,000 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Born_in_Bradford" title="Born in Bradford">Born in Bradford</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>2007 </td> <td>12,500 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/1970_British_Cohort_Study" title="1970 British Cohort Study">1970 British Cohort Study</a> (BCS70) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>1970 </td> <td>17,000 </td> <td>Monitors the development of babies born in the UK in one particular week in April 1970 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/British_Doctors_Study" title="British Doctors Study">British Doctors Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>1951 </td> <td>40,701 </td> <td>Monitored the health of British male doctors. It provided convincing evidence of the link between smoking and cancer. </td></tr> <tr> <td>British Household Panel Study </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>1991 </td> <td>5,500 households (~10,000 individuals) </td> <td>Modeled on the US Panel Study of Income Dynamics <a href="/wiki/Panel_Study_of_Income_Dynamics" title="Panel Study of Income Dynamics">PSID study</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Busselton_Health_Study" title="Busselton Health Study">Busselton Health Study</a><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>1966 </td> <td>10,000 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Caerphilly_Heart_Disease_Study" title="Caerphilly Heart Disease Study">Caerphilly Heart Disease Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>1979 </td> <td>2,512 </td> <td>Male subjects (Wales) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=Canadian_Longitudinal_Study_on_Aging&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging (page does not exist)">Canadian Longitudinal Study on Aging</a> (CLSA-ÉLCV)<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Canada </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.clsa-elcv.ca/about-us/history#:~:text=In%20December%202011%2C%20the%20CLSA,2012%20with%20French%2Dspeaking%20participants.">2011</a> </td> <td>51,388<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>All research participants will be followed until 2033 or death.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Child Development Project<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1987 </td> <td>585 </td> <td>Follows children recruited the year before they entered kindergarten in three US cities: Nashville and Knoxville, Tennessee, and Bloomington, Indiana </td></tr> <tr> <td>Children of Immigrants Longitudinal Study (CILS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1992 </td> <td>5,262 </td> <td>Florida </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Congenital_Heart_Surgeons%27_Society" title="Congenital Heart Surgeons' Society">Congenital Heart Surgeons' Society</a> (CHSS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Canada </td> <td>– </td> <td>5,000 </td> <td>Various studies, managed by the Data Center Studies on Congenital Heart Diseases </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_General_Population_Study" title="Copenhagen General Population Study">Copenhagen General Population Study</a> (CGPS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Denmark </td> <td>1976 </td> <td>170,000 </td> <td>The study is an ongoing <a href="/wiki/Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">prospective cohort study</a>, that investigates the <a href="/wiki/Epidemiology" title="Epidemiology">epidemiology</a> of a wide range of <a href="/wiki/Disease" title="Disease">diseases</a> in a representative sample of the <a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Denmark" title="Demographics of Denmark">Danish population</a>. Now integrated with and expansing upon the earlier and less extensive sister study, the Copenhagen City Heart Study.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:02_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Dunedin_Multidisciplinary_Health_and_Development_Study" title="Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study">Dunedin Multidisciplinary Health and Development Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>New Zealand </td> <td>1972 </td> <td>1,037 </td> <td>Participants born in Dunedin during 1972–73 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Study of migrants and squatters in Rio's Favelas </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Brazil </td> <td>1968 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>The work of Janice Perlman, reported in her book <i>Favela</i> (2014)<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Footprints in Time; the longitudinal study of Indigenous children<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>2008 </td> <td>1,680 </td> <td>Study of Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander children in selected locations across Australia </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Fragile_Families_and_Child_Wellbeing_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study">Fragile Families and Child Wellbeing Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1998 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>Study being conducted in 20 cities </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Framingham_Heart_Study" title="Framingham Heart Study">Framingham Heart Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1948 </td> <td>5,209 </td> <td>Massachusetts </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Genetic_Studies_of_Genius" title="Genetic Studies of Genius">Genetic Studies of Genius</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1921 </td> <td>1,528 </td> <td>The world's oldest and longest-running longitudinal study </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Socio-Economic_Panel" title="Socio-Economic Panel">Socio-Economic Panel</a> (SOEP) </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Germany </td> <td>1984 </td> <td>12,000 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.growingup.ie/about-growing-up-in-ireland/">Growing Up in Ireland</a> (GUI) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>The Republic of Ireland </td> <td>2006 </td> <td>8,000 children<br />10,000 infants </td> <td><i>Growing Up in Ireland</i> is an Irish Government-funded study of children being carried out jointly by the Economic and Social Research Institute and Trinity College Dublin. The study started in 2006 and follows the progress of two groups of children: 8,000 9-year-olds (Child Cohort/Cohort '98) and 10,000 9-month-olds (Infant Cohort/Cohort '08). </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Growing_Up_in_New_Zealand" title="Growing Up in New Zealand">Growing Up in New Zealand</a> (GUiNZ) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>New Zealand </td> <td>2009 </td> <td>6,846 children </td> <td> <p><i>GUiNZ</i> is New Zealand's largest ongoing longitudinal study. It follows approximately 11% of all NZ children born between 2009 and 2010.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study aims to look in depth at the health and well-being of children (and their parents) growing up in NZ. </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://growingupinscotland.org.uk/">Growing Up in Scotland</a> (GUS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Scotland </td> <td>2003 </td> <td>14,000 </td> <td>Scotland </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Health_and_Retirement_Study" title="Health and Retirement Study">Health and Retirement Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1988 </td> <td>22,000 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Household,_Income_and_Labour_Dynamics_in_Australia_Survey" title="Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey">Household, Income and Labour Dynamics in Australia Survey</a> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>2001 </td> <td>25,000 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Grant_Study" title="Grant Study">Grant Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1939 </td> <td>268 </td> <td>A 75-year longitudinal study of 268 physically and mentally healthy Harvard college sophomores from the classes of 1939–1944. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Growing Up in Australia; the longitudinal study of Australian children<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>2004 </td> <td>10,000 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Midlife in the United States </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1983 </td> <td>6,500 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Manitoba Follow-Up Study (MFUS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Canada </td> <td>1948 </td> <td>3,983 men </td> <td>Canada's largest and longest running investigation of cardiovascular disease and successful aging </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Cohort_Study" title="Millennium Cohort Study">Millennium Cohort Study</a> (MCS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>2000 </td> <td>19,000 </td> <td>Study of child development, social stratification, and family life </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Millennium_Cohort_Study_(United_States)" title="Millennium Cohort Study (United States)">Millennium Cohort Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>2000 </td> <td>200,000 </td> <td>Evaluation of long-term health effects of military service, including deployments </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Twin_Family_Study" class="mw-redirect" title="Minnesota Twin Family Study">Minnesota Twin Family Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1983 </td> <td>17,000 (8,500 twin pairs) </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Child_Development_Study" title="National Child Development Study">National Child Development Study</a> (NCDS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>1958 </td> <td>17,000 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.neps-data.de/Mainpage">National Educational Panel Study</a> (NEPS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Germany </td> <td>2009 </td> <td>60,000 </td> <td>Study on the development of competencies, educational processes, educational decisions, and returns to education in formal, nonformal, and informal contexts throughout the life span </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Longitudinal_Surveys" title="National Longitudinal Surveys">National Longitudinal Surveys</a> (NLS) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1979 </td> <td>12,686 (NLSY79),<br />9,000 (approx., NLSY97) </td> <td>Includes four cohorts: NLSY79 (born 1957–64), NLSY97 (born 1980–84), NLSY79 Children and Young Adults, National Longitudinal Surveys of Young Women and Mature Women (NLSW) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Longitudinal_Survey_of_Children_and_Youth" title="National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth">National Longitudinal Survey of Children and Youth</a> (NLSCY) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Canada </td> <td>1994 </td> <td>35,795 </td> <td>Inactive since 2009 </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/National_Health_and_Nutrition_Examination_Survey" title="National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey">National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey</a> (NHANES) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1971 </td> <td>8,837 (since 1999) </td> <td>Continual since 1999 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nature vs Nurture study </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1960 </td> <td>11<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Concluded in 1980. Controversial study by <a href="/wiki/Peter_B._Neubauer" title="Peter B. Neubauer">Peter B. Neubauer</a> of twins and triplets separated at birth. Never published. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Pacific_Islands_Families_Study" title="Pacific Islands Families Study">Pacific Islands Families Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>New Zealand </td> <td>2000 </td> <td>1,398 </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td>Panel Study of Belgian Households<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Belgium </td> <td>1992 </td> <td>11,000<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Panel_Study_of_Income_Dynamics" title="Panel Study of Income Dynamics">Panel Study of Income Dynamics</a> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1968 </td> <td>70,000 </td> <td>Possibly the oldest household longitudinal survey in the US </td></tr> <tr> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rainestudy.org.au">The Raine Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Australia </td> <td>1989 </td> <td>5,768 (Gen1 + Gen2)<br />750 (Gen3)<br />100 (Gen0) </td> <td>The Raine Study is based in Perth, Western Australia. It has followed the same group of pregnant women (Gen1) and their babies (Gen2) who were born into the study between 1989 and 1992. Its original aim was to investigate the benefits of more frequent ultrasound scans on infant health.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It now studies the impact that early life factors (from the womb onwards) have on health throughout life.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Raine Study now includes 4 generations of cohort members. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Rotterdam_Study" title="Rotterdam Study">Rotterdam Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Netherlands </td> <td>1990 </td> <td>15,000 </td> <td>Focus is on inhabitants of Ommoord, a suburb of Rotterdam </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Seattle_500_Study" title="Seattle 500 Study">Seattle 500 Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1974 </td> <td>500 </td> <td>Study of the effects of prenatal health habits on human development </td></tr> <tr> <td>Stirling County Study </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Canada </td> <td>1952 </td> <td>639 </td> <td>Long-term study epidemiology of psychiatric disorders. Two cohorts were studied (575 from 1952 to 1970; 639 from 1970 to 1992).<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Study_of_Health_in_Pomerania" title="Study of Health in Pomerania">Study of Health in Pomerania</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Germany </td> <td>1997 </td> <td>15,000 </td> <td>Investigates common risk factors, sub-clinical disorders and manifest diseases in a high-risk population </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Study_of_Mathematically_Precocious_Youth" title="Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth">Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1972 </td> <td>5,000 </td> <td>Follows highly intelligent people identified by age 13. </td></tr> <tr> <td>Survey of Health, Ageing, and Retirement in Europe (SHARE) </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Europe </td> <td>2002 </td> <td>120,000 </td> <td>Multidisciplinary and cross-national panel database of micro data on health, socio-economic status and social and family networks of individuals aged 50 or over </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/The_Irish_Longitudinal_Study_on_Ageing_%E2%80%93_TILDA" class="mw-redirect" title="The Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing – TILDA">Irish Longitudinal Study on Ageing</a> (TILDA) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>Ireland </td> <td>2009 </td> <td>8,500 </td> <td>Studies health, social and financial circumstances of the older Irish population </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Attitudes_and_Values_Study" title="New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study">New Zealand Attitudes and Values Study</a> </td> <td>– </td> <td>New Zealand </td> <td>2009 </td> <td>n/a </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/K._Warner_Schaie" title="K. Warner Schaie">Seattle Longitudinal Study</a> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1956 </td> <td>6,000 <sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>– </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/UK_households:_a_longitudinal_study" class="mw-redirect" title="UK households: a longitudinal study">Understanding Society: The UK Household Longitudinal Study</a> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>2009 </td> <td>100,000 </td> <td>Incorporates the <a href="/w/index.php?title=British_Household_Panel_Study&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British Household Panel Study (page does not exist)">British Household Panel Study</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><i><a href="/wiki/Up_Series" class="mw-redirect" title="Up Series">Up Series</a></i> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United Kingdom </td> <td>1964 </td> <td>14 </td> <td>Documentary film project by Michael Apted </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Study_on_Global_Ageing_and_Adult_Health" title="Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health">Study on Global Ageing and Adult Health</a> (SAGE) </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>International </td> <td>2002 </td> <td>65,964 </td> <td>Studies the health and well-being of adult populations and the ageing process in six countries: China, Ghana, India, Mexico, Russian Federation and South Africa </td></tr> <tr> <td>Wisconsin Longitudinal Study<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Cohort </td> <td>United States </td> <td>1957 </td> <td>10,317 </td> <td>Follows graduates from Wisconsin high schools in 1957 </td></tr> <tr> <td>ONS Longitudinal Study<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>England and Wales </td> <td>1974 (data from 1971) </td> <td>500,000 (1% sample of the population of England and Wales). The LS contains records on over 500,000 people usually resident in England and Wales at each point in time) </td> <td>The sample comprises people born on one of four selected dates of birth and therefore makes up about 1% of the total population. The sample was initiated at the time of the 1971 Census, and the four dates were used to update the sample at the 1981,1991, 2001 and 2011 Censuses and in routine event registrations. Fresh LS members enter the study through birth and immigration and existing members leave through death and emigration. Thus, the LS represents a continuous sample of the population of England and Wales, rather than a sample taken at a one-time point only. It now includes records for over 950,000 study members. In addition to the census records, the individual LS records contain data for events such as deaths, births to sample mothers, emigrations and cancer registrations. Census information is also included for all people living in the same household as the LS member. The LS does not follow up household members in the same way from census to census. Support for potential users and more information available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ucl.ac.uk/celsius">CeLSIUS</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Scottish Longitudinal Study (SLS)<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Scotland </td> <td>1991 </td> <td>274,000 (comprises 5.3% sample of the Scottish population, with records on approximately 274,000 individuals using 20 random birthdates) </td> <td>The SLS is a large-scale linkage study built upon census records from 1991 onwards, with links to vital events (births, deaths, marriages, emigration); geographical and ecological data (deprivation indices, pollution, weather); primary and secondary education data (attendance, Schools Census, qualifications); and links to NHS Scotland ISD datasets, including cancer registrations, maternity records, hospital admissions, prescribing data and mental health admissions. The research potential is considerable. The SLS is a replica of the ONS Longitudinal Study but with a few key differences: sample size, commencement point and the inclusion of certain variables. The SLS is supported and maintained by the SLS Development & Support Unit with a safe-setting at the National Records of Scotland in Edinburgh. Further information and support for potential users is available at <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://sls.lscs.ac.uk/">SLS-DSU</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>Northern Ireland Longitudinal Study (NILS)<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </td> <td>Panel </td> <td>Northern Ireland </td> <td>2006 </td> <td>500,000 (comprises about 28% of the Northern Ireland population and approximately 50% of households). </td> <td>The NILS is a large-scale, representative data-linkage study created by linking data from the Northern Ireland Health Card Registration system to 1981, 1991, 2001 and 2011 census returns and to administrative data from other sources. These include vital events registered with the General Register Office for Northern Ireland (such as births, deaths, and marriages) and the Health Card registration system migration events data. The result is a 30-year-plus longitudinal data set which is regularly being updated. In addition to this rich resource, there is also the potential to link further Health and Social care data via distinct linkage projects (DLPs). The NILS is designed for statistics and research purposes only and is managed by the Northern Ireland Statistics and Research Agency under Census legislation. The data are de-identified at the point of use; access is only from within a strictly controlled 'secure environment' and governed by protocols and procedures to ensure data confidentiality. </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Early_Childhood_Longitudinal_Study" title="Early Childhood Longitudinal Study">Early Childhood Longitudinal Study</a> (ECLS) </td> <td> </td> <td>United States </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Longitudinal_study&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_series" title="Time series">Time series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panel_analysis" title="Panel analysis">Panel analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repeated_measures_design" title="Repeated measures design">Repeated measures design</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Longitudinal_study&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFShadishCookCampbell2002" class="citation book cs1">Shadish, William R.; Cook, Thomas D.; Campbell, Donald T. (2002). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/experimentalquas00shad"><i>Experimental and Quasi-Experimental Designs for Generalized Causal Inference</i></a></span> (2nd ed.). 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class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Randomized_controlled_trial" title="Randomized controlled trial">Randomized controlled trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Scientific experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blind_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Blind experiment">Blind experiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Open-label_trial" title="Open-label trial">Open-label trial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adaptive_clinical_trial" class="mw-redirect" title="Adaptive clinical trial">Adaptive clinical trial</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Platform_trial" title="Platform trial">Platform trial</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Observational_study" title="Observational study">Observational study</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Hierarchy_of_evidence#USA" title="Hierarchy of evidence">EBM II-2 to II-3</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cross-sectional_study" title="Cross-sectional study">Cross-sectional study</a> vs. <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Longitudinal study</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ecological_study" title="Ecological study">Ecological study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cohort_study" title="Cohort study">Cohort study</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Retrospective_cohort_study" title="Retrospective cohort study">Retrospective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prospective_cohort_study" title="Prospective cohort study">Prospective</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Case–control study">Case–control study</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nested_case%E2%80%93control_study" title="Nested case–control study">Nested case–control study</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_series" title="Case series">Case series</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_study" title="Case study">Case study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Case_report" title="Case report">Case report</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outcome_measure" title="Outcome measure">Measures</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Measures_of_occurrence" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Occurrence</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Incidence_(epidemiology)" title="Incidence (epidemiology)">Incidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cumulative_incidence" class="mw-redirect" title="Cumulative incidence">Cumulative incidence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Prevalence" title="Prevalence">Prevalence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Point_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Point prevalence">Point prevalence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Period_prevalence" class="mw-redirect" title="Period prevalence">Period prevalence</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Measures_of_association" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Association</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Risk_difference" title="Risk difference">Risk difference</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_needed_to_treat" title="Number needed to treat">Number needed to treat</a>, <a href="/wiki/Number_needed_to_harm" title="Number needed to harm">Number needed to harm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Risk_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Risk ratio">Risk ratio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relative_risk_reduction" title="Relative risk reduction">Relative risk reduction</a>, <a href="/wiki/Odds_ratio" title="Odds ratio">Odds ratio</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hazard_ratio" title="Hazard ratio">Hazard ratio</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Population_impact_measure" title="Population impact measure">Population impact</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Attributable_fraction_among_the_exposed" title="Attributable fraction among the exposed">Attributable fraction among the exposed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Attributable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Attributable fraction for the population">Attributable fraction for the population</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventable_fraction_among_the_unexposed" title="Preventable fraction among the unexposed">Preventable fraction among the unexposed</a>, <a href="/wiki/Preventable_fraction_for_the_population" title="Preventable fraction for the population">Preventable fraction for the population</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Epidemiological_methods#Other_measures" class="mw-redirect" title="Epidemiological methods">Other</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Clinical_endpoint" title="Clinical endpoint">Clinical endpoint</a>, <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">Virulence</a>, <a href="/wiki/Infectivity" title="Infectivity">Infectivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mortality_rate" title="Mortality rate">Mortality rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Morbidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Morbidity">Morbidity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Case_fatality_rate" title="Case fatality rate">Case fatality rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Specificity_and_sensitivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specificity and sensitivity">Specificity and sensitivity</a>, <a href="/wiki/Likelihood_ratios_in_diagnostic_testing" title="Likelihood ratios in diagnostic testing">Likelihood-ratios</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pre-_and_post-test_probability" title="Pre- and post-test probability">Pre- and post-test probability</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Trial/test types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/In_vitro" title="In vitro">In vitro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_vivo" title="In vivo">In vivo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing" title="Animal testing">Animal testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Animal_testing_on_non-human_primates" title="Animal testing on non-human primates">Animal testing on non-human primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First-in-man_study" class="mw-redirect" title="First-in-man study">First-in-man study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multicenter_trial" title="Multicenter trial">Multicenter trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seeding_trial" title="Seeding trial">Seeding trial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaccine_trial" title="Vaccine trial">Vaccine trial</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Analysis_of_clinical_trials" title="Analysis of clinical trials">Analysis of clinical trials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Risk%E2%80%93benefit_ratio" title="Risk–benefit ratio">Risk–benefit ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systematic_review" title="Systematic review">Systematic review</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Replication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meta-analysis" title="Meta-analysis">Meta-analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention-to-treat_analysis" title="Intention-to-treat analysis">Intention-to-treat analysis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Interpretation of results</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Selection_bias" title="Selection bias">Selection bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivorship_bias" title="Survivorship bias">Survivorship bias</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_does_not_imply_causation" title="Correlation does not imply causation">Correlation does not imply causation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_result" title="Null result">Null result</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_as_a_biological_variable" title="Sex as a biological variable">Sex as a biological variable</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Clinical_research" title="Category:Clinical research">Category</a></b></li> <li><b><a 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