Site Map | Nikon’s MicroscopyU

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id="niklogo" /> <img src="/images/micro-U-logo.png" srcset="/images/micro-U-logo.png 1x, /images/micro-U-logo_2x.png 2x" width="306" height="70" id="mulogo" /></a> <div class="navbar"> <nav id="mainnav"> <ul> <li><a href="/">Home</a></li> <li><a href="/microscopy-basics">Basics</a></li> <li><a href="/techniques">Techniques</a> <ul class="subs"> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal">Confocal</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/dic">DIC</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/light-sheet">Light Sheet</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/multi-photon">Multiphoton</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/phase-contrast">Phase Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/polarized-light">Polarized Light</a></li> <li><a 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href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/dic-phase-contrast">Differential Interference Contrast (DIC)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/pathology">Human Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/phase-contrast">Phase Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/polarized-light">Polarized Light</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/stereo-microscopy">Stereomicroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/nikons-small-world">Nikon’s Small World</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/digital-imaging">Digital Imaging</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><a href="/museum">Museum</a></li> <li><a href="/glossary">Glossary</a></li> </ul> </nav> </div> <section id="searchbox"> <button id="search-button"><img src="/images/search.svg" height="24" width="24"/></button> <p><a href="https://www.microscope.healthcare.nikon.com" class="jumpext">Nikon Instruments</a> | <a target="popup" href="http://www.nikon.com" class="jumpext">Nikon Global</a> | <a href="http://www.nikonsmallworld.com" class="jumpext">Nikon Small World</a></p> </section> </header><div id="content"> <div id="sitemap"> <h2>Site Map</h2> <div class="col1"> <h3><a href="/">Home</a></h3> <hr /> <h3><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics">Microscopy Basics</a></h3> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/innovations-in-light-microscopy">Innovations in Light Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/aberrations-in-confocal-microscopy">Aberrations in Confocal Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/basic-microscope-ergonomics">Basic Microscope Ergonomics</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/conjugate-planes-in-optical-microscopy">Conjugate Planes in Optical Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/depth-of-field-and-depth-of-focus">Depth of Field and Depth of Focus</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/field-of-view">Field of View</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/coverslip-correction">Coverslip Correction</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/image-brightness">Image Brightness</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/infinity-optical-systems">Infinity Optical Systems</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/introduction-to-microscope-objectives">Introduction to Microscope Objectives</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/laser-safety">Laser Safety</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/microscope-objective-specifications">Microscope Objective Specifications</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/modulation-transfer-function">Modulation Transfer Function</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/multiple-beam-interferometry">Multiple-Beam Interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/nikon-cfi60-optical-system">Nikon CFI60 Optical System</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/numerical-aperture">Numerical Aperture</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/properties-of-microscope-objectives">Properties of Microscope Objectives</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/refractive-index-index-of-refraction">Refractive Index (Index of Refraction)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/resolution">Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/specialized-microscope-objectives">Specialized Microscope Objectives</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/components">The Microscope Optical Train</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/two-beam-interferometry">Two-Beam Interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/useful-magnification-range">Useful Magnification Range</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/water-immersion-objectives">Water Immersion Objectives</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/working-distance-and-parfocal-length">Working Distance and Parfocal Length</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/microscopy-basics/linear-measurements-micrometry">Linear Measurements (Micrometry)</a></li> </ul> <hr /> <h3><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques">Techniques</a></h3> <ul> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal">Confocal</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/introductory-confocal-concepts">Introductory Confocal Concepts</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/confocal-imaging-modes">Confocal Imaging Modes</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/aberrations-in-confocal-microscopy">Aberrations in Confocal Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/spectral-imaging-and-linear-unmixing">Spectral Imaging and Linear Unmixing</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/confocal-reflection-microscopy">Confocal Reflection Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/specimen-preparation-and-imaging">Specimen Preparation and Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/critical-aspects-of-confocal-microscopy">Critical Aspects of Confocal Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/three-color-confical-imaging">Three-Color Confocal Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/confocal/resonant-scanning-in-laser-confocal-microscopy">Resonant Scanning in Laser Confocal Microscopy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/dic">DIC</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/dic/de-sénarmont-bias-retardation-in-dic-microscopy">de Sénarmont Bias Retardation in DIC Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/dic/de-sénarmont-dic-microscope-configuration">de Sénarmont DIC Microscope Configuration</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/dic/reflected-light-dic-microscopy">Reflected Light DIC Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/dic/specimen-contrast-in-optical-microscopy">Specimen Contrast in Optical Microscopy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/introduction-to-fluorescence-microscopy">Introduction to Fluorescence Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/basics-of-fret-microscopy">Basics of FRET Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization">Fluorescence <em>in situ</em> Hybridization</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/introduction-to-fluorescent-proteins">Introduction to Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/stereomicroscopy-fluorescence-illumination">Stereomicroscopy Fluorescence Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/optical-system-and-detector-requirements">Optical System and Detector Requirements for Live-Cell Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/total-internal-reflection-fluorescence-tirf-microscopy">Total Internal Reflection Fluorescence (TIRF) Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/multi-photon-microscopy">Multiphoton Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/nikon-fluorescence-filter-sets">Fluorescence Filter Combinations</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/fluorescent-protein-imaging-parameters">Imaging Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/fluorescence/laser-safety">Laser Safety</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/light-sheet">Light Sheet</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/light-sheet/light-sheet-fluorescence-microscopy">Light Sheet Fluorescence Microscopy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/multi-photon">Multiphoton</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/multi-photon/multiphoton-microscopy">Multiphoton Microscopy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/phase-contrast">Phase Contrast</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/phase-contrast/introduction-to-phase-contrast-microscopy">Introduction to Phase Contrast Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/phase-contrast/phase-contrast-microscope-configuration">Phase Contrast Microscope Configuration</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/phase-contrast/specimen-contrast-in-optical-microscopy">Specimen Contrast in Optical Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/phase-contrast/apodized-phase-contrast">Apodized Phase Contrast</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/polarized-light">Polarized Light</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/polarized-light/introduction-to-polarized-light">Introduction to Polarized Light</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/polarized-light/principles-of-birefringence">Principles of Birefringence</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/polarized-light/polarized-light-microscopy">Polarized Light Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/polarized-light/principles-of-interference">Principles of Interference</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/super-resolution">Super-Resolution</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/super-resolution/the-diffraction-barrier-in-optical-microscopy">The Diffraction Barrier in Optical Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/super-resolution/single-molecule-super-resolution-imaging">Single-Molecule Super-Resolution Imaging</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/stereomicroscopy">Stereomicroscopy</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/stereomicroscopy/introduction-to-stereomicroscopy">Introduction to Stereomicroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/stereomicroscopy/specimen-contrast-in-optical-microscopy">Specimen Contrast in Optical Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/stereomicroscopy/stereomicroscopy-fluorescence-illumination">Stereomicroscopy Fluorescence Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/stereomicroscopy/reflected-episcopic-light-illumination">Reflected (Episcopic) Light Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/stereomicroscopy/oblique-illumination">Oblique Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/techniques/stereomicroscopy/darkfield-illumination">Darkfield Illumination</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <hr /> <h3><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications">Applications</a></h3> <ul> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging">Live-Cell Imaging</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/maintaining-live-cells-on-the-microscope-stage">Maintaining Live Cells on the Microscope Stage</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/live-cell-imaging-culture-chambers">Live-Cell Imaging Culture Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/introduction-to-fluorescent-proteins">Introduction to Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/correcting-focus-drift-in-live-cell-microscopy">Correcting Focus Drift in Live-Cell Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/optical-system-and-detector-requirements-for-live-cell-imaging">Optical System and Detector Requirements for Live-Cell Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/the-automatic-microscope">The Automatic Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/fluorescent-protein-imaging-parameters">Imaging Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/live-cell-imaging/nikon-perfect-focus-system">Nikon Perfect Focus System (PFS)</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/fret">Förster Resonance Energy Transfer (FRET)</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/fret/basics-of-fret-microscopy">Basics of FRET Microscopy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li> <h4><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization-fish">Fluorescence <em>in situ</em> Hybridization (FISH)</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/applications/fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization-fish/fluorescence-in-situ-hybridization">Fluorescence <em>in situ</em> Hybridization</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <hr /> <h3><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/digital-imaging">Digital Imaging</a></h3> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/digital-imaging/color-balance-in-digital-imaging">Color Balance in Digital Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/digital-imaging/digital-imaging-new-opportunities-for-microscopy">Digital Imaging – New Opportunities for Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/digital-imaging/digital-networking-camera-technology">Digital Networking Camera Technology</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/digital-imaging/fundamentals-of-digital-imaging">Fundamentals of Digital Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/digital-imaging/introduction-to-charge-coupled-devices-ccds">Introduction to Charge-Coupled Devices (CCDs)</a></li> </ul> <hr /> <h3><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum">Nikon’s Museum of Microscopy</a></h3> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/nikons-first-microscope">Nikon's First Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-sm-5-stereoscopic-microscope">Model SM-5 Stereoscopic Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-h-microscope">Model H Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/smz-steromicroscope">SMZ Steromicroscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/nikon-apophot-table-microscope">Nikon Apophot Table Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-s-microscope">Model S Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-s-epi-illuminator">Model S Epi-Illuminator</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-s-ke-microscope">Model S-Ke Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-m-inverted-microscope">Model M Inverted Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/microflex-model-pfm-camera-accessory">Microflex Model PFM Camera Accessory</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/interference-phase-microscope-accessory">Interference-Phase Microscope Accessory</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/halogen-lamp-illuminator-model-s-ke">Halogen Lamp Illuminator (Model S-Ke)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-g-microscope">Model G Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-ms-inverted-microscope">Model MS Inverted Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-s-po-microscope">Model S-Po Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-gh-microscope">Model GH Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/stereoscopic-microscope-model-sm-6">Stereoscopic Microscope Model SM-6</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/biophot">Biophot</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/slit-lamp-cs-1-microscope">Slit Lamp CS-1 Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/diaphot-tmd-inverted-microscope">Diaphot TMD Inverted Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/labophot-entry-level-research-microscope">Labophot Entry-Level Research Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/multiphot-large-format-photomacrography-microscope">Multiphot Large-Format Photomacrography Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/alphaphot">Alphaphot</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/microphot-fx-research-microscope">Microphot-FX Research Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/diaphot-inverted-tissue-culture-microscope">Diaphot Inverted Tissue Culture Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/nikon-tms-inverted-microscope">Nikon TMS Inverted Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/optiphot-88-ic-inspection-microscope">Optiphot-88 IC Inspection Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-smz-2t-stereomicroscope">Model SMZ-2T Stereomicroscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-e600">Eclipse E600</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/smz-u-stereoscopic-zoom-microscope">SMZ-U Stereoscopic Zoom Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/xd-20-large-substrate-microscope">XD-20 Large Substrate Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-e600pol">Eclipse E600POL</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/diaphot-200-300-inverted-microscope">Diaphot 200/300 Inverted Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-e800">Eclipse E800</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-te300-inverted-microscope">Eclipse TE300 Inverted Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-e1000">Eclipse E1000</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-e400">Eclipse E400</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-smz-800-stereomicroscope">Model SMZ-800 Stereomicroscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-physiostation">Eclipse PhysioStation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-e200">Eclipse E200</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-ts100">Eclipse TS100</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/model-smz1500-stereomicroscope">Model SMZ1500 Stereomicroscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-te2000-inverted-microscope">Eclipse TE2000 Inverted Microscope</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/c1-series-confocal">C1 Series Confocal</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-50-55i">Eclipse 50/55i</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-80i">Eclipse 80i</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/eclipse-90i">Eclipse 90i</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/museum/smz25">SMZ25 Stereomicroscope</a></li> </ul> <hr /> <h3>References</h3> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/3d-superresolution-techniques">3D Superresolution Techniques</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/4pi-superresolution-microscopy">4Pi Superresolution Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/autofluorescence">Autofluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/bimolecular-fluorescence-complementation">Bimolecular Fluorescence Complementation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/blinking-superresolution-microscopy">Blinking Superresolution Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/cellular-phototoxicity">Cellular Phototoxicity</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/chromophore-assisted-light-inactivation">Chromophore-Assisted Light Inactivation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/confocalmicroscopy">Confocal Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/deconvolution-microscopy">Deconvolution Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/dic">Differential Interference Contrast (DIC)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/dstorm-microscopy">dSTORM Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/electron-multiplying-ccd-cameras">Electron-Multiplying CCD Cameras</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/flim">FLIM Literature References</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorescence">Fluorescence Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorescence-recovery-after-photobleaching">Fluorescence Recovery after Photobleaching</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fret-literature-references">Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorescence-resonance-energy-transfer">Fluorescence Resonance Energy Transfer</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorescent-protein-biosensors">Fluorescent Protein Biosensors</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorescent-proteins">Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorescent-speckle-microscopy">Fluorescent Speckle Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorophore-co-localization">Fluorophore Co-Localization</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fluorophore-photobleaching">Fluorophore Photobleaching</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/focus-drift-in-optical-microscopy">Focus Drift in Optical Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/fret-microscopy-with-spectral-imaging">FRET Microscopy with Spectral Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/general-phase-contrast-literature-sources">General Phase Contrast Literature Sources</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/ground-state-depletion-gsd-microscopy">Ground State Depletion (GSD) Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/interference-superresolution-microscopy">Interference Superresolution Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/linear-measurements-micrometry-selected-references">Linear Measurements (Micrometry)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/live-cell-imaging">Live-Cell Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/live-cell-imaging-and-perfusion-chambers">Live-Cell Imaging and Perfusion Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/live-cell-imaging-chambers">Live-Cell Imaging Chambers</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/live-cell-superresolution">Live-Cell Superresolution</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/opticalsystems">Microscope Optical Systems</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/motorized-microscope-accessory-internet-resources">Motorized Microscope Accessory Internet Resources</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/multiphoton-microscopy">Multiphoton Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/near-field-scanning-nsom">Near-Field Scanning (NSOM)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/optical-highlighter-fluorescent-proteins">Optical Highlighter Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/palm-microscopy">PALM Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/palmira-superresolution-imaging">PALMIRA Superresolution Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/phasecontrast">Phase Contrast Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/polarizedlight">Polarized Light Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/quantum-dots">Quantum Dots</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/resonant-scanning-confocal-microscopy">Resonant Scanning Confocal Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/saturated-structured-illumination">Saturated Structured Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/selective-plane-illumination">Selective Plane Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/single-molecule-fluorescence-microscopy">Single Molecule Fluorescence Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/single-molecule-localization">Single-Molecule Localization</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/specialized-superresolution-methods">Specialized Superresolution Methods</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/specimencontrast">Specimen Contrast in Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/spectral-imaging-and-linear-unmixing">Spectral Imaging and Linear Unmixing</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/spinningdisk">Spinning Disk Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/standing-wave-microscopy">Standing Wave Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/stereomicroscopy">Stereomicroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/stimulated-emission-depletion-sted">Stimulated Emission Depletion (STED)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/storm-microscopy">STORM Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/structured-illumination-microscopy">Structured Illumination Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/superresolution-localization-accuracy">Superresolution Localization Accuracy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/superresolution-microscopy-probes">Superresolution Microscopy Probes</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/superresolution-practical-aspects">Superresolution Practical Aspects</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/super-resolution-review-articles">Superresolution Review Articles</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/superresolution-structured-illumination">Superresolution Structured Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/superresolution-techniques">Superresolution Techniques</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/synthetic-fluorophores-and-hybrid-tags">Synthetic Fluorophores and Hybrid Tags</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/the-resolft-concept">The RESOLFT Concept</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/references/total-internal-reflection-microscopy">Total Internal Reflection Microscopy</a></li> </ul> <hr /> </div> <div class="col2"> <h3><a href="/galleries">Galleries</a></h3> <ul> <li><h4>Technique Galleries</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/confocal">Confocal</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/dic-phase-contrast">Differential Interference Contrast (DIC)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/fluorescence">Fluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/phase-contrast">Phase Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/polarized-light">Polarized Light</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/stereo-microscopy">Stereomicroscopy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>Application Galleries</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/cell-motility">Cell Motility</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/pathology">Human Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/digital-imaging">Digital Imaging</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4><a href="http://www.nikonsmallworld.com/">Nikon’s Small World Galleries</a></h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/nikons-small-world/nikon-small-world-photomicrography-competition">Nikon Small World Photomicrography Competition</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/galleries/nikons-small-world/nikons-small-world-photomicrography-competition">Nikon’s Small World in Motion Competition</a></li> </ul> </li> </ul> <hr /> <h3><a href="/tutorials">Tutorials</a></h3> <ul> <li><h4>Microscopy Basics</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/reticlecalibration">Eyepiece Reticle Calibration</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/fielddiameter">Field of View Diameter</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/tepaths">Inverted Microscope Optical Pathways</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/kohler">Microscope Alignment for Köhler Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/fixedtubelength">Microscope Conjugate Field Planes</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/ocularfocus">Photomask Reticle Operation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/posture">Proper Microscope Posture</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/smzpaths">Stereomicroscope Optical Pathways</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/usefulmagnification">Useful Magnification Range</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>Confocal Microscopy</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/integrated-circuit-inspection">Integrated Circuit Inspection</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/lambda-stack-basic-concepts">Lambda Stack Basic Concepts</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/lambda-stacks-and-spectral-signatures">Lambda Stacks and Spectral Signatures</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/nikon-diffraction-efficiency-enhancement-system-dees">Nikon Diffraction Efficiency Enhancement System (DEES)</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/resonant-scanning-confocal-microscope-zoom">Resonant Scanning Confocal Microscope Zoom</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/resonant-scanning-in-laser-confocal-microscopy">Resonant Scanning in Laser Confocal Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/spectral-imaging-with-fret-biosensors">Spectral Imaging with FRET Biosensors</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/spectral-imaging-with-linear-unmixing">Spectral Imaging with Linear Unmixing</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>Digital Imaging</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/ccd-noise-sources">CCD Noise Sources</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/ccd-resolution-for-optical-microscopy">CCD Resolution for Optical Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/ccd-signal-to-noise-ratio">CCD Signal-To-Noise Ratio</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/color-balance-in-digital-imaging">Color Balance in Digital Imaging</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/full-frame-ccd-operation">Full-Frame CCD Operation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/matching-camera-to-microscope-resolution">Matching Camera to Microscope Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/proximity-focused-image-intensifiers">Proximity-Focused Image Intensifiers</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/spatial-resolution-in-digital-imaging">Spatial Resolution in Digital Imaging</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>DIC Microscopy</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/bias-retardation-effects-on-specimen-contrast">Bias Retardation Effects on Specimen Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/dic-microscopy-with-de-sénarmont-compensators">DIC Microscopy with de Sénarmont Compensators</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/nomarski-prism-action-in-polarized-light">Nomarski Prism Action in Polarized Light</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/optical-sectioning-in-reflected-light-dic">Optical Sectioning in Reflected Light DIC</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/the-de-sénarmont-dic-microscope-optical-train">The de Sénarmont DIC Microscope Optical Train</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/wavefront-relationships-in-de-sénarmont-and-nomarski-dic">Wavefront Relationships in de Sénarmont and Nomarski DIC</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/wavefront-relationships-in-reflected-light-dic-microscopy">Wavefront Relationships in Reflected Light DIC Microscopy</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>Fluorescence Microscopy</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/balancing-arc-discharge-lamp-excitation-illumination">Balancing Arc-Discharge Lamp Excitation Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/blue-excitation">Blue Excitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/blue-violet-excitation">Blue-Violet Excitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/dual-band-excitation-1">Dual Band Excitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/fluorescence-filter-noise-terminator">Fluorescence Filter Noise Terminator</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/fluorescent-protein-biosensors">Fluorescent Protein Biosensors</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/arclamp">Focus and Alignment of Mercury and Xenon Arc Lamps</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/green-excitation">Green Excitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/spectralprofiles">Matching Fluorescent Probes with Nikon Fluorescence Filter Blocks</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/stereomicroscopy-fluorescence">Stereomicroscopy Fluorescence</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/triple-band-excitation">Triple Band Excitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/ultraviolet-excitation">Ultraviolet Excitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/violet-excitation">Violet Excitation</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/yellow-excitation">Yellow Excitation</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>Live Cell Imaging</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/adjustment-of-objective-correction-collars">Adjustment of Objective Correction Collars</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/choosing-filter-combinations-for-fluorescent-proteins">Choosing Filter Combinations for Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/choosing-fluorescent-proteins-for-dual-labeling-experiments">Choosing Fluorescent Proteins for Dual Labeling Experiments</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/comparison-of-phase-contrast-and-dic-microscopy">Comparison of Phase Contrast & DIC Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/dic-microscope-component-alignment">DIC Microscope Component Alignment</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/arclamp">Focus and Alignment of Mercury and Xenon Arc Lamps</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/förster-fluorescence-resonance-energy-transfer-with-fluorescent-proteins">Förster (Fluorescence) Resonance Energy Transfer with Fluorescent Proteins</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/laser-scanning-confocal-microscopy">Laser Scanning Confocal Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/matching-camera-to-microscope-resolution">Matching Camera to Microscope Resolution</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/spectralprofiles">Matching Fluorescent Probes with Nikon Fluorescence Filter Blocks</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/kohler">Microscope Alignment for Köhler Illumination</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/optical-sectioning-with-de-sénarmont-dic-microscopy">Optical Sectioning with de Sénarmont DIC Microscopy</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/perfect-focus-offset-system-mechanics">Perfect 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href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/twolenssystem">Perfect Two-Lens System Characteristics</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/apodizedmorph">Specimen Contrast Enhancement with Apodized Phase Plates</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/offaxisrays">Tube Lens Focal Length</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/eyepiece">Viewing and Projection Eyepieces</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>Polarized Light</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/birefringence-in-calcite-crystals">Birefringence in Calcite Crystals</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/polarized-light-waveforms">Polarized Light Waveforms</a></li> </ul> </li> <li><h4>Phase Contrast</h4> <ul> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/apodized-phase-contrast">Apodized Phase Contrast</a></li> <li><a href="https://www.microscopyu.com/tutorials/interaction-of-light-waves-with-phase-specimens">Interaction of 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