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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Historical Islamic psychological studies</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg/300px-Ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="474" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg/450px-Ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg/600px-Ibn_al-nafis_page.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1895" /></a><figcaption>A medical work by <a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a>, who corrected some of the erroneous theories of <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> on the anatomy of the brain<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Islamic psychology</b> or <i><b>ʿilm al-nafs</b></i><sup id="cite_ref-Amber-358_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amber-358-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (<a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a>: علم النفس), the science of the <i><a href="/wiki/Nafs" title="Nafs">nafs</a></i> ("<a href="/wiki/Self_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Self (philosophy)">self</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Psyche_(psychology)" title="Psyche (psychology)">psyche</a>"),<sup id="cite_ref-Talib_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talib-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is the medical and philosophical study of the psyche from an Islamic perspective and addresses topics in <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_mind" title="Philosophy of mind">philosophy of mind</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">psychiatry</a> as well as <a href="/wiki/Psychosomatic_medicine" title="Psychosomatic medicine">psychosomatic medicine</a>. In Islam, <a href="/wiki/Mental_health" title="Mental health">mental health</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a> were viewed with a holistic approach. This approach emphasized the mutual connection between maintaining adequate mental wellbeing and good physical health in an individual. People who practice Islam thought it was necessary to maintain positive mental health in order to partake in prayer and other religious obligations.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Concepts from Islamic thought have been reexamined by <a href="/wiki/Muslim" class="mw-redirect" title="Muslim">Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Psychologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychologists">psychologists</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">scholars</a> in the 20th and 21st centuries.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the writings of Muslim scholars, the term <i>Nafs</i> (self) was used to denote individual personality and the term <i>fitrah</i> for human nature. <i>Nafs</i> encompassed a broad range of faculties including the <i>qalb</i> (heart), the <i>ruh</i> (soul), the <i>aql</i> (intellect) and <i>irada</i> (will). Muslim scholarship was strongly influenced by <a href="/wiki/Greek_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek philosophy">Greek</a> as well as by the study of scripture, drawing particularly from <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a>'s understanding of the <a href="/wiki/Four_humors" class="mw-redirect" title="Four humors">four humors</a> of the body. </p><p>In medieval <a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic medicine</a> in particular, the study of <a href="/wiki/Mental_illness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mental illness">mental illness</a> was a speciality of its own,<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was variously known as <i>A‘ilaj al-nafs</i> (approximately "curing/treatment of the soul/self/ideas),<sup id="cite_ref-Amber-376_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Amber-376-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>al-tibb al-ruhani</i> ("the healing of the spirit," or "spiritual health") and <i>tibb al-qalb</i> ("healing of the heart/self," or "mental medicine").<sup id="cite_ref-Talib_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Talib-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Classical_Arabic" title="Classical Arabic">Classical Arabic</a> term for the mentally ill was "majnoon" which is derived from the term "<a href="/wiki/Jenna" title="Jenna">Jenna</a>", which means "covered". It was originally thought that mentally ill individuals could not differentiate between the real and the unreal. However, due to the nuanced nature of individual cases, the treatment of the mentally ill could not be generalized as it was in medieval Europe <sup id="cite_ref-Okasha_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Okasha-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This term was gradually redefined among the educated, and was defined by <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (Ibn Sīnā) as "one who suffers from a condition in which reality is replaced with fantasy". </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ethics_and_theology">Ethics and theology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ethics and theology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>, special legal protections were given to the mentally ill. This attitude was reinforced by scripture, as exemplified in Sura 4:5 of the <a href="/wiki/Qur%27an" class="mw-redirect" title="Qur'an">Qur'an</a>: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Do not give your property which God assigned you to manage to the insane: but feed and clothe the insane with this property and tell splendid words to them.</p><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>"<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></cite></div></blockquote> <p>This Quranic verse summarized Islam's attitudes towards the mentally ill, who were considered unfit to manage property but must be treated humanely and be kept under care by either a guardian or the state.<sup id="cite_ref-ReferenceA_5-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Psychology_during_the_Islamic_Golden_Age">Psychology during the Islamic Golden Age</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Psychology during the Islamic Golden Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The period comprising the 8th to the 15th centuries of the <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_calendar" title="Gregorian calendar">Gregorian calendar</a> is known to scholars as the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>. This marked a time of numerous advances and discoveries in the Islamic arts and sciences, during which Islamic scholars came to understand that certain conditions can alter an individual's spiritual and psychological states (those seen as <i>majnoon</i> (mad) being perceived as having imbalances in these states). A prominent philosopher during this time was <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghazali" title="Al-Ghazali">al-Ghazali</a>(1058–1111),<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who proposed that maintaining a balanced connection between the spiritual and psychological conditions within the body was vital in order to sustain a close relationship with God. al-Ghazali further explained that divergence from this interconnectedness could result in abnormalities within an individual's mental health.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Major_contributors">Major contributors</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Major contributors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi</a> (865–925), known as <a href="/wiki/Rhazes" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhazes">Rhazes</a> in the western tradition, was an influential Persian physician, philosopher, and scientist during the Golden Age of Islam, and among the first in the world to write on mental illness and psychotherapy.<sup id="cite_ref-WaelMohamed_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaelMohamed-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As chief physician of Baghdad hospital, he was also the director of one of the first psychiatric wards in the world. Two of his works in particular, <i>El-Mansuri</i> and <i>Al-Hawi</i>, provide descriptions and treatments for mental illnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-WaelMohamed_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WaelMohamed-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abu-Ali_al-Husayn_ibn_Abdalah_ibn-Sina">Abu-Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdalah ibn-Sina</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Abu-Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdalah ibn-Sina"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Abu-Ali al-Husayn ibn Abdalah ibn-Sina (980–1030), known to the west as <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a>, was a Persian polymath who is widely regarded for his writings on such diverse subjects as philosophy, physics, medicine, mathematics, geology, Islamic theology, and poetry. In his most widely celebrated work, the <a href="/wiki/Canon_of_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Canon of Medicine">Canon of Medicine</a> (Al-Qanun-fi-il-Tabb), he provided descriptions and treatments for such conditions as <a href="/wiki/Insomnia" title="Insomnia">insomnia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vertigo" title="Vertigo">vertigo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paralysis" title="Paralysis">paralysis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stroke" title="Stroke">stroke</a>, <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Depression_(mood)" title="Depression (mood)">depression</a> as well as male <a href="/wiki/Sexual_dysfunction" title="Sexual dysfunction">sexual dysfunction</a>. He was a pioneer in the field of <a href="/wiki/Psychosomatic_medicine" title="Psychosomatic medicine">psychosomatic medicine</a>, linking changes in mental state to changes in the body.<sup id="cite_ref-A.Okasha_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A.Okasha-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Abu Zayd al-Balkhi"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Zayd al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</a> (850-934) was a Muslim psychologist and physician during the Islamic Golden Age. His many contributions were vital to the understanding of mental health as well as how to treat various mental illnesses. Al-Balkhi is famous for his work titled “Sustenance of the Body and Soul.”<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In it, he encouraged other physicians to treat the body and mind as a whole and thus take a holistic approach to medicine. This thinking is significant because it laid the foundation for a psychophysiological approach to healthy living in Medieval Islam. In al-Balkhi’s writings, he explains that the soul experiences an array of emotions such as distress, sadness, and fear when the body undergoes physical illnesses.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The establishment of <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_therapy" title="Cognitive therapy">cognitive therapy</a> is credited to al-Balkhi. When his patients experienced distress, he developed an approach that motivated them to think positively using healthy cognitions. al-Balkhi and other important Islamic scholars also implemented the technique of <a href="/wiki/Reciprocal_inhibition" title="Reciprocal inhibition">reciprocal inhibition</a> when treating their patients.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, al-Balkhi also places emphasis on how environmental factors, such as housing, exercise, and nutrition, can affect a person’s mental wellbeing. al-Balkhi’s contributions also consisted of identifying the difference between <a href="/wiki/Psychosis" title="Psychosis">psychosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neurosis" title="Neurosis">neurosis</a>. He categorized neuroses into four groups: obsessions, sadness and depression, fear and anxiety, and anger and aggression. The analysis al-Balki made in medieval Islamic psychology is still relevant to modern psychology.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Melancholia">Melancholia</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Melancholia"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The mental health disorder <a href="/wiki/Melancholia" title="Melancholia">melancholia</a> came under intensive study in the Islamic world of the Middle Ages. Islamic scholars described melancholia as a condition the principal symptom of which was a state of constant sadness, the cause of which was believed to be an excess of black bile in the body. The varied symptoms of melancholia were believed to derive from the particular area of the body in which the (conjectural) black bile had become concentrated. The resulting state of sadness experienced by sufferers was categorized into three different types: first sadness originating in trauma or stress, secondly sadness caused by external (organic/physiological) factors, such as inadequate nourishment of the body and thirdly the everyday sadness inherent in the human condition. This classification system is similar to the way in which present models analyze depression. In the medieval Islamic world , however, a diagnosis of melancholia could also encompass such varied cerebral phenomena as <a href="/wiki/Epilepsy" title="Epilepsy">epilepsy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mania" title="Mania">mania</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_3-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Mental_healthcare">Mental healthcare</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Mental healthcare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The earliest <a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">bimaristans</a> were built in the 9th century, and large bimaristans built in the 13th century contained separate wards for mentally ill patients.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Treatment_of_mental_illness">Treatment of mental illness</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Treatment of mental illness"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In addition to medication, treatment for mental illness might include baths, music, talk therapy, <a href="/wiki/Cupping_therapy" title="Cupping therapy">hijama</a> (cupping), and aromatherapy. Scholars and physicians of this time period were some of the first to emphasize psychosomatic medicine, the emphasis placed on the relationship between illness of the mind and problems in the body.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medicine would be prescribed in order to re-balance <a href="/wiki/The_four_humors" class="mw-redirect" title="The four humors">the four humors</a> of the body, an imbalance of which might result in psychosis.<sup id="cite_ref-A.Okasha_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-A.Okasha-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Insomnia, for example, was thought to result from excessive amounts of the dry humors which could be remedied by the use of <a href="/wiki/Humectants" class="mw-redirect" title="Humectants">humectants</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_philosophy" title="Islamic philosophy">Islamic philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Medicine in the medieval Islamic world">Medicine in the medieval Islamic world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ophthalmology in medieval Islam">Ophthalmology in medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Science in medieval Islam">Science in medieval Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sufi_psychology" title="Sufi psychology">Sufi psychology</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-Amber-358-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Amber-358_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFHaque2004">Haque 2004</a>, p. 358)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Talib-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Talib_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Talib_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transcultural+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Conceptualising+and+addressing+mental+disorders+amongst+Muslim+communities%3A+Approaches+from+the+Islamic+Golden+Age&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E763-%3C%2Fspan%3E774&rft.date=2020-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7689558%23id-name%3DPMC&rft.issn=1363-4615&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33059527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1363461520962603&rft.aulast=Mitha&rft.aufirst=Karim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7689558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<a href="#CITEREFHaque2004">Haque 2004</a>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-5"><span 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://jrsm.rsmjournals.com/content/99/12/615.short">the original</a> on 2013-02-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2018-08-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Medicine&rft.atitle=Jundi-Shapur%2C+bimaristans%2C+and+the+rise+of+academic+medical+centres&rft.volume=99&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E615-%3C%2Fspan%3E617&rft.date=2006-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC1676324%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F17139063&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F014107680609901208&rft.aulast=Miller&rft.aufirst=Andrew+C&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjrsm.rsmjournals.com%2Fcontent%2F99%2F12%2F615.short&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33059527">33059527</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:222832853">222832853</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transcultural+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Conceptualising+and+addressing+mental+disorders+amongst+Muslim+communities%3A+Approaches+from+the+Islamic+Golden+Age&rft.volume=57&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E763-%3C%2Fspan%3E774&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7689558%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A222832853%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33059527&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F1363461520962603&rft.aulast=Mitha&rft.aufirst=Karim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC7689558&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakhtiar2019" class="citation cs2">Bakhtiar, Laleh (2019), <i>Quranic Psychology of the Self: A Textbook on Islamic Moral Psychology (ilm al-nafs)</i>, Kazi Publications, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1567446418" title="Special:BookSources/978-1567446418"><bdi>978-1567446418</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Quranic+Psychology+of+the+Self%3A+A+Textbook+on+Islamic+Moral+Psychology+%28ilm+al-nafs%29&rft.pub=Kazi+Publications&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-1567446418&rft.aulast=Bakhtiar&rft.aufirst=Laleh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaque2004" class="citation cs2">Haque, Amber (2004), "Psychology from Islamic Perspective: Contributions of Early Muslim Scholars and Challenges to Contemporary Muslim Psychologists", <i>Journal of Religion and Health</i>, <b>43</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">357–</span>377, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs10943-004-4302-z">10.1007/s10943-004-4302-z</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:38740431">38740431</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Religion+and+Health&rft.atitle=Psychology+from+Islamic+Perspective%3A+Contributions+of+Early+Muslim+Scholars+and+Challenges+to+Contemporary+Muslim+Psychologists&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E357-%3C%2Fspan%3E377&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs10943-004-4302-z&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A38740431%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Haque&rft.aufirst=Amber&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlott2000" class="citation cs2">Plott, C. (2000), <i>Global History of Philosophy: The Period of Scholasticism</i>, <a href="/wiki/Motilal_Banarsidass" title="Motilal Banarsidass">Motilal Banarsidass</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/81-208-0551-8" title="Special:BookSources/81-208-0551-8"><bdi>81-208-0551-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Global+History+of+Philosophy%3A+The+Period+of+Scholasticism&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=81-208-0551-8&rft.aulast=Plott&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoussefYoussefDening1996" class="citation cs2">Youssef, Hanafy A.; Youssef, Fatma A.; Dening, T. R. (1996), "Evidence for the existence of schizophrenia in medieval Islamic society", <i>History of Psychiatry</i>, <b>7</b> (25): <span class="nowrap">55–</span>62, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0957154X9600702503">10.1177/0957154X9600702503</a>, <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11609215">11609215</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:44459712">44459712</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=History+of+Psychiatry&rft.atitle=Evidence+for+the+existence+of+schizophrenia+in+medieval+Islamic+society&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=25&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E55-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.date=1996&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A44459712%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11609215&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1177%2F0957154X9600702503&rft.aulast=Youssef&rft.aufirst=Hanafy+A.&rft.au=Youssef%2C+Fatma+A.&rft.au=Dening%2C+T.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3APsychology+in+the+medieval+Islamic+world" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Template:Islamic_medicine" title="Template:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Islamic_medicine" title="Template talk:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic_medicine" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Islamic medicine"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Islamic_medicine183" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Islamic_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic medicine">Islamic medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Physicians_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Physicians of the medieval Islamic world">Physicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">7th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hafsa_Yazid" title="Abu Hafsa Yazid">Abu Hafsa Yazid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Harith_ibn_Kalada" title="Al-Harith ibn Kalada">Al-Harith ibn Kalada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Ramtha_al-Tamimi" title="Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi">Ibn Abi Ramtha al-Tamimi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Uthal" title="Ibn Uthal">Ibn Uthal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masarjawaih" title="Masarjawaih">Masarjawaih</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nafi_ibn_al-Harith" title="Nafi ibn al-Harith">Nafi ibn al-Harith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rufaida_Al-Aslamia" title="Rufaida Al-Aslamia">Rufaida Al-Aslamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaynab_al-Awadiya" title="Zaynab al-Awadiya">Zaynab al-Awadiya</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">8th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ja%27far_al-Sadiq" title="Ja'far al-Sadiq">Ja'ar al-Sadiq</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">9th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kindi" title="Al-Kindi">Al-Kindi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Ruhawi" title="Al-Ruhawi">Al-Ruhawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Albubather" title="Albubather">Albubather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_al-Ridha" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali al-Ridha">Ali al-Ridha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Sahl_Rabban_al-Tabari" title="Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari">Ali ibn Sahl Rabban al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bukhtishu" title="Bukhtishu">Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunayn_ibn_Ishaq" title="Hunayn ibn Ishaq">Hunayn ibn Ishaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ishaq_ibn_Hunayn" title="Ishaq ibn Hunayn">Ishaq ibn Hunayn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabir_ibn_Hayyan" title="Jabir ibn Hayyan">Jabir ibn Hayyan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabril_ibn_Bukhtishu" title="Jabril ibn Bukhtishu">Jabril ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masawaiyh" title="Masawaiyh">Masawaiyh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmawaih_ibn_Bunan" title="Salmawaih ibn Bunan">Salmawaih ibn Bunan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shapur_ibn_Sahl" title="Shapur ibn Sahl">Shapur ibn Sahl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yahya_ibn_Sarafyun" title="Yahya ibn Sarafyun">Yahya ibn Sarafyun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuhanna_ibn_Bukhtishu" title="Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu">Yuhanna ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_al-Khuri" title="Yusuf al-Khuri">Yusuf al-Khuri</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">10th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%27Ali_ibn_al-%27Abbas_al-Majusi" title="'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi">'Ali ibn al-'Abbas al-Majusi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aayon_Ibn_Aayon" title="Aayon Ibn Aayon">Aayon Ibn Aayon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_Rabee_Ibn_Ahmad_Al-Akhawyni_Bokhari" title="Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari">Abu Bakr Rabee Ibn Ahmad Al-Akhawyni Bokhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Bakr_al-Razi" title="Abu Bakr al-Razi">Abu Bakr al-Razi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sahl_%27Isa_ibn_Yahya_al-Masihi" title="Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi">Abu Sahl 'Isa ibn Yahya al-Masihi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Zayd_al-Balkhi" title="Abu Zayd al-Balkhi">Abu Zayd al-Balkhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hasan_al-Tabari" title="Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari">Abu al-Hasan al-Tabari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Qasim_Muqane%27i" title="Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i">Abu al-Qasim Muqane'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Zahrawi" title="Al-Zahrawi">Abu al-Qasim al-Zahrawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_ul-Ala_Shirazi" title="Abu ul-Ala Shirazi">Abu ul-Ala Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Kashkari" title="Al-Kashkari">Al-Kaŝkarī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Natili" title="Al-Natili">Al-Natili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Tamimi,_the_physician" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Tamimi, the physician">Al-Tamimi, the physician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eutychius_of_Alexandria" title="Eutychius of Alexandria">Eutychius of Alexandria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_al-Ash%CA%BFath" title="Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath">Ibn Abi al-Ashʿath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Juljul" title="Ibn Juljul">Ibn Juljul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Jazzar" title="Ibn al-Jazzar">Ibn al-Jazzar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_ibn_Baks" title="Ibrahim ibn Baks">Ibrahim ibn Baks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Israeli_ben_Solomon" title="Isaac Israeli ben Solomon">Isaac Israeli ben Solomon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohammed_ibn_Abdun_al-Jabali" title="Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali">Mohammed ibn Abdun al-Jabali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Mansur_Muwaffaq" title="Abu Mansur Muwaffaq">Muvaffak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qumri" title="Qumri">Qumri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qusta_ibn_Luqa" title="Qusta ibn Luqa">Qusta ibn Luqa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">11th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abdollah_ibn_Bukhtishu" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu">Abdollah ibn Bukhtishu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_%27Ubayd_al-Juzjani" title="Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani">Abu 'Ubayd al-Juzjani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Hakam_al-Kirmani" title="Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani">Abu al-Hakam al-Kirmani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Biruni" title="Al-Biruni">Al-Biruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Isa_al-Kahhal" title="Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal">Ali ibn Isa al-Kahhal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Ridwan" title="Ali ibn Ridwan">Ali ibn Ridwan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ali_ibn_Yusuf_al-Ilaqi" class="mw-redirect" title="Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi">Ali ibn Yusuf al-Ilaqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ammar_al-Mawsili" title="Ammar al-Mawsili">Ammar ibn Ali al-Mawsili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Badi%27_al-Asturlabi" title="Al-Badi' al-Asturlabi">Badi' al-Asturlabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Sadiq" title="Ibn Abi Sadiq">Ibn Abi Sadiq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Al-Thahabi" title="Ibn Al-Thahabi">Ibn Al-Thahabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Butlan" title="Ibn Butlan">Ibn Butlan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Hindu" title="Ibn Hindu">Ibn Hindu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jazla" title="Ibn Jazla">Ibn Jazla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Haytham" title="Ibn al-Haytham">Ibn al-Haytham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Kattani" title="Ibn al-Kattani">Ibn al-Kattani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Wafid" title="Ibn al-Wafid">Ibn al-Wafid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jonah_ibn_Janah" title="Jonah ibn Janah">Jonah ibn Janah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Masawaih_al-Mardini" title="Masawaih al-Mardini">Masawaih</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">12th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Jafar_ibn_Harun_al-Turjali" title="Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali">Abu Jafar ibn Harun al-Turjali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Bayan_ibn_al-Mudawwar" title="Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar">Abu al-Bayan ibn al-Mudawwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_al-Majd_ibn_Abi_al-Hakam" title="Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam">Abu al-Majd ibn Abi al-Hakam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu%27l-Barak%C4%81t_al-Baghd%C4%81d%C4%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī">Abu'l-Barakāt al-Baghdādī</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmad_ibn_Farrokh" title="Ahmad ibn Farrokh">Ahmad ibn Farrokh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Samawal_al-Maghribi" title="Al-Samawal al-Maghribi">Al-Samawal al-Maghribi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avempace" title="Avempace">Avempace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Habal" title="Ibn Habal">Ibn Habal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Jumay%CA%BF" title="Ibn Jumayʿ">Ibn Jumay‘</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tufayl" title="Ibn Tufayl">Ibn Tufayl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Zuhr" title="Ibn Zuhr">Ibn Zuhr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Tilmidh" title="Ibn al-Tilmidh">Ibn al-Tilmīdh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maimonides" title="Maimonides">Moshe ben Maimon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Aslam_al-Ghafiqi" title="Muhammad ibn Aslam al-Ghafiqi">Muhammad ibn Aslam Al-Ghafiqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serapion_the_Younger" title="Serapion the Younger">Serapion the Younger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ya%27qub_ibn_Ishaq_al-Israili" title="Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili">Ya'qub ibn Ishaq al-Israili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayn_al-Din_Gorgani" title="Zayn al-Din Gorgani">Zayn al-Din Gorgani</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">13th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abd_al-Latif_al-Baghdadi" title="Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi">Abd al-Latif al-Baghdadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham_Maimonides" title="Abraham Maimonides">Abraham ben Moses ben Maimon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Dakhwar" title="Al-Dakhwar">Al-Dakhwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Shahrazuri" title="Al-Shahrazuri">Al-Shahrazuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Din_Rashid_al-Din_Vatvat" title="Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat">Amin al-Din Rashid al-Din Vatvat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/As-Suwaydi_(physician)" title="As-Suwaydi (physician)">As-Suwaydi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Da%27ud_Abu_al-Fadl" title="Da'ud Abu al-Fadl">Da'ud Abu al-Fadl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hussam_al-Din_al-Jarrahi" title="Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi">Hussam al-Din al-Jarrahi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaybi%27a" title="Ibn Abi Usaybi'a">Ibn Abi Usaibia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Tumlus" title="Ibn Tumlus">Ibn Tumlus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Baytar" title="Ibn al-Baytar">Ibn al-Baitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Nafis" title="Ibn al-Nafis">Ibn al-Nafis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Quff" title="Ibn al-Quff">Ibn al-Quff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al%E2%80%90Raqqam" class="mw-redirect" title="Ibn al‐Raqqam">Ibn al‐Raqqam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_ben_Judah_of_Ceuta" title="Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta">Joseph ben Judah of Ceuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najib_ad-Din_Samarqandi" title="Najib ad-Din Samarqandi">Najib ad-Din Samarqandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qutb_al-Din_al-Shirazi" title="Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi">Qutb al-Din al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_al-Suri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rashidun al-Suri">Rashidun al-Suri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sa%27ad_al-Dawla" title="Sa'ad al-Dawla">Sa'ad al-Dawla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakariya_al-Qazwini" title="Zakariya al-Qazwini">Zakariya al-Qazwini</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">14th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Nagawri" title="Al-Nagawri">Al-Nagawri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aqsara%27i" title="Aqsara'i">Aqsara'i</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Shuayb" title="Ibn Shuayb">Ibn Shuayb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Akfani" title="Ibn al-Akfani">Ibn al-Akfani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_al-Khatib" title="Ibn al-Khatib">Ibn al-Khatib</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaghmini" title="Jaghmini">Jaghmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mansur_ibn_Ilyas" title="Mansur ibn Ilyas">Mansur ibn Ilyas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mas%CA%BDud_ibn_Muhammad_Sijzi" title="Masʽud ibn Muhammad Sijzi">Mas‘ud ibn Muhammad Sijzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Mahmud_Amuli" title="Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli">Muhammad ibn Mahmud Amuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Najm_al-Din_Mahmud_ibn_Ilyas_al-Shirazi" title="Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi">Najm al-Din Mahmud ibn Ilyas al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakhshabi" title="Nakhshabi">Nakhshabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashid_al-Din_Hamadani" title="Rashid al-Din Hamadani">Rashid-al-Din Hamadani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sadid_al-Din_al-Kazaruni" title="Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni">Sadid al-Din al-Kazaruni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yusuf_ibn_Ismail_al-Kutubi" title="Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi">Yusuf ibn Ismail al-Kutubi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zayn-e-Attar" title="Zayn-e-Attar">Zayn-e-Attar</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">15th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Sa%27id_al-Afif" title="Abu Sa'id al-Afif">Abu Sa'id al-Afif</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burhan-ud-din_Kermani" title="Burhan-ud-din Kermani">Burhan-ud-din Kermani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Husayni_Isfahani" title="Husayni Isfahani">Husayni Isfahani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_Astarabadi" title="Muhammad Ali Astarabadi">Muhammad Ali Astarabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Yusuf_al-Harawi" title="Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi">Muhammad ibn Yusuf al-Harawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nurbakhshi" title="Nurbakhshi">Nurbakhshi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Muhammad_ibn_Thaleb" title="Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb">Shaykh Muhammad ibn Thaleb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabuncuo%C4%9Flu_%C5%9Eerafeddin" title="Sabuncuoğlu Şerafeddin">Şerafeddin Kadir</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">16th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rostam_Gorgani" title="Rostam Gorgani">Rostam Gorgani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BDImad_Shirazi" title="ʽImad Shirazi">ʽImad Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abul_Qasim_ibn_Mohammed_al-Ghassani" title="Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani">Abul Qasim ibn Mohammed al-Ghassani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawud_al-Antaki" title="Dawud al-Antaki">Dawud al-Antaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hakim-e-Gilani" title="Hakim-e-Gilani">Hakim-e-Gilani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Ali_Khorasani" title="Sultan Ali Khorasani">Sultan Ali Khorasani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taqi_ad-Din_Muhammad_ibn_Ma%27ruf" title="Taqi ad-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf">Taqi al-Din Muhammad ibn Ma'ruf</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">17th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qiwam_al-Din_Muhammad_al-Hasani" title="Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani">Qiwam al-Din Muhammad al-Hasani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abd_El_Razzaq_Al-Jaza%C3%AFri" title="Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri">Abd El Razzaq Al-Jazaïri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qurayshi_al-Shirazi" title="Qurayshi al-Shirazi">Qurayshi al-Shirazi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tunakabuni" title="Tunakabuni">Tunakabuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maqsud-Ali_Tabrizi" title="Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi">Maqsud-Ali Tabrizi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">18th century</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Khurasani_al-Shirazi" title="Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi">Al-Khurasani al-Shirazi</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ophthalmology_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Ophthalmology in the medieval Islamic world">Ophthalmology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Psychology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Medical_works_of_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Category:Medical works of the medieval Islamic world">Works</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Risalah_al-Dhahabiah" title="Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah">Al-Risalah al-Dhahabiah</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tacuinum_Sanitatis" title="Tacuinum Sanitatis">Tacuinum Sanitatis</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anatomy_Charts_of_the_Arabs" title="Anatomy Charts of the Arabs">Anatomy Charts of the Arabs</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Book_of_Healing" title="The Book of Healing">The Book of Healing</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Book_of_the_Ten_Treatises_of_the_Eye" title="Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye">Book of the Ten Treatises of the Eye</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_Gradibus" title="De Gradibus">De Gradibus</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Tasrif" title="Al-Tasrif">Al-Tasrif</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Zakhireye_Khwarazmshahi" title="Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi">Zakhireye Khwarazmshahi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adab_al-Tabib" title="Adab al-Tabib">Adab al-Tabib</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Kamel_al-Sanaat_al-Tibbyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya">Kamel al-Sanaat al-Tibbyya</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Al-Hawi" title="Al-Hawi">Al-Hawi</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Commentary_on_Anatomy_in_Avicenna%27s_Canon" title="Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon">Commentary on Anatomy in Avicenna's Canon</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Abi_Usaybi%27a" title="Ibn Abi Usaybi'a">Lives of the Physicians</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-%27Adudi_Hospital" title="Al-'Adudi Hospital">Al-'Adudi Hospital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bimaristan" title="Bimaristan">Bimarestan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nur_al-Din_Bimaristan" title="Nur al-Din Bimaristan">Nur al-Din Bimaristan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influences</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_medicine" title="Ancient Greek medicine">Ancient Greek medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_medicine" title="Ancient Iranian medicine">Ancient Iranian medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayurveda" title="Ayurveda">Ayurveda</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ibn_Sina_Academy_of_Medieval_Medicine_and_Sciences" title="Ibn Sina Academy of Medieval Medicine and Sciences">Ibn Sina Academy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Learned_medicine" title="Learned medicine">Learned medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_Renaissance" title="Medical Renaissance">Medical Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_medicine_of_Western_Europe" title="Medieval medicine of Western Europe">Medieval medicine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Islamic_studies259" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link 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