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<span>Common mistakes</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Common_mistakes-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Common mistakes subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Common_mistakes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Salt_re-use" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salt_re-use"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Salt re-use</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salt_re-use-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salt_length" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salt_length"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Salt length</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salt_length-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Benefits" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Benefits"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Benefits</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Benefits-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unix_implementations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unix_implementations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Unix implementations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Unix_implementations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Unix implementations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Unix_implementations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-1970s–1980s" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1970s–1980s"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>1970s–1980s</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1970s–1980s-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-1980s–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#1980s–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>1980s–present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1980s–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Web-application_implementations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Web-application_implementations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Web-application implementations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Web-application_implementations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item 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class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Salt (cryptography)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 22 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-22" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">22 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt" title="Salt – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Salt" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB_(%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Сол (криптография) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Сол (криптография)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C5%AFl_(kryptografie)" title="Sůl (kryptografie) – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Sůl (kryptografie)" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(Kryptologie)" title="Salt (Kryptologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Salt (Kryptologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sool_(kr%C3%BCptograafia)" title="Sool (krüptograafia) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Sool (krüptograafia)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(criptograf%C3%ADa)" title="Sal (criptografía) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Sal (criptografía)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gatz_(kriptografia)" title="Gatz (kriptografia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Gatz (kriptografia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salage_(cryptographie)" title="Salage (cryptographie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Salage (cryptographie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%86%94%ED%8A%B8_(%EC%95%94%ED%98%B8%ED%95%99)" title="솔트 (암호학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="솔트 (암호학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sol_(kriptografija)" title="Sol (kriptografija) – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Sol (kriptografija)" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(kriptografi)" title="Salt (kriptografi) – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Salt (kriptografi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(crittografia)" title="Salt (crittografia) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Salt (crittografia)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C4%81ls_(kriptogr%C4%81fija)" title="Sāls (kriptogrāfija) – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Sāls (kriptogrāfija)" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garam_(kriptografi)" title="Garam (kriptografi) – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Garam (kriptografi)" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(cryptografie)" title="Salt (cryptografie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Salt (cryptografie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%BD%E3%83%AB%E3%83%88_(%E6%9A%97%E5%8F%B7)" title="ソルト (暗号) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ソルト (暗号)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%B3l_(kryptografia)" title="Sól (kryptografia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sól (kryptografia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sal_(criptografia)" title="Sal (criptografia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Sal (criptografia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%BE%D0%BB%D1%8C_(%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Соль (криптография) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Соль (криптография)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt_(kryptografi)" title="Salt (kryptografi) – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Salt (kryptografi)" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8C_(%D0%BA%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Сіль (криптографія) – Ukrainian" 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print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Salt_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Salt (disambiguation)">Salt (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p>In <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>, a <b>salt</b> is <a href="/wiki/Random_Number_Generator" class="mw-redirect" title="Random Number Generator">random</a> data fed as an additional input to a <a href="/wiki/One-way_function" title="One-way function">one-way function</a> that <a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">hashes</a> <a href="/wiki/Data_(computing)" class="mw-redirect" title="Data (computing)">data</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Password" title="Password">password</a> or <a href="/wiki/Passphrase" title="Passphrase">passphrase</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Salting helps defend against attacks that use precomputed tables (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_tables" class="mw-redirect" title="Rainbow tables">rainbow tables</a>), by vastly growing the size of table needed for a successful attack.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also helps protect passwords that occur multiple times in a database, as a new salt is used for each password instance.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, salting does not place any burden on users. </p><p>Typically, a unique salt is randomly generated for each password. The salt and the password (or its version after <a href="/wiki/Key_stretching" title="Key stretching">key stretching</a>) are <a href="/wiki/Concatenation" title="Concatenation">concatenated</a> and fed to a <a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">cryptographic hash function</a>, and the output <a href="/wiki/Hash_function" title="Hash function">hash value</a> is then stored with the salt in a database. The salt does not need to be encrypted, because knowing the salt would not help the attacker.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Salting is broadly used in cybersecurity, from <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> system credentials to <a href="/wiki/Internet_security" title="Internet security">Internet security</a>. </p><p>Salts are related to <a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_nonce" title="Cryptographic nonce">cryptographic nonces</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Example">Example</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Example"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Without a salt, identical passwords will map to identical hash values, which could make it easier for a hacker to guess the passwords from their hash value. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Username </th> <th>String to be hashed </th> <th>Hashed value = <a href="/wiki/SHA256" class="mw-redirect" title="SHA256">SHA256</a> </th></tr> <tr> <td><code>user1</code> </td> <td><code><b>password123</b></code> </td> <td><code>EF92B778BAFE771E89245B89ECBC08A44A4E166C06659911881F383D4473E94F</code> </td></tr> <tr> <td><code>user2</code> </td> <td><code><b>password123</b></code> </td> <td><code>EF92B778BAFE771E89245B89ECBC08A44A4E166C06659911881F383D4473E94F</code> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Instead, a salt is generated and appended to each password, which causes the resultant hash to output different values for the same original password. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Username </th> <th>Salt value </th> <th>String to be hashed </th> <th>Hashed value = <a href="/wiki/SHA256" class="mw-redirect" title="SHA256">SHA256</a> (Password + Salt value) </th></tr> <tr> <td><code>user1</code> </td> <td><code>D;%yL9TS:5PalS/d</code> </td> <td><code><b>password123</b>D;%yL9TS:5PalS/d</code> </td> <td><code>9C9B913EB1B6254F4737CE947EFD16F16E916F9D6EE5C1102A2002E48D4C88BD</code> </td></tr> <tr> <td><code>user2</code> </td> <td><code>)<,-<U(jLezy4j>*</code> </td> <td><code><b>password123</b>)<,-<U(jLezy4j>*</code> </td> <td><code>6058B4EB46BD6487298B59440EC8E70EAE482239FF2B4E7CA69950DFBD5532F2</code> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The salt and hash are then stored in the database. To later test if a password a user enters is correct, the same process can be performed on it (appending that user's salt to the password and calculating the resultant hash): if the result does not match the stored hash, it could not have been the correct password that was entered. </p><p>In practice, a salt is usually generated using a <a href="/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator">Cryptographically Secure PseudoRandom Number Generator</a>. CSPRNGs are designed to produce unpredictable random numbers which can be alphanumeric. While generally discouraged due to lower security, some systems use timestamps or simple counters as a source of salt. Sometimes, a salt may be generated by combining a random value with additional information, such as a timestamp or user-specific data, to ensure uniqueness across different systems or time periods. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Common_mistakes">Common mistakes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Common mistakes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salt_re-use">Salt re-use</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Salt re-use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Using the same salt for all passwords is dangerous because a precomputed table which simply accounts for the salt will render the salt useless. </p><p>Generation of precomputed tables for databases with unique salts for every password is not viable because of the computational cost of doing so. But, if a common salt is used for all the entries, creating such a table (that accounts for the salt) then becomes a viable and possibly successful attack.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Because salt re-use can cause users with the same password to have the same hash, cracking a single hash can result in other passwords being compromised too. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Salt_length">Salt length</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Salt length"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>If a salt is too short, an attacker may precompute a table of every possible salt appended to every likely password. Using a long salt ensures such a table would be prohibitively large.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-superidolsalts_.net_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-superidolsalts_.net-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 16 bytes (128 bits) or more is generally sufficient to provide a large enough space of possible values, minimizing the risk of collisions (i.e., two different passwords ending up with the same salt). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Benefits">Benefits</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Benefits"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>To understand the difference between cracking a single password and a set of them, consider a file with users and their hashed passwords. Say the file is unsalted. Then an attacker could pick a string, call it <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">attempt[0]</code>, and then compute <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">hash(attempt[0])</code>. A user whose hash stored in the file is <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">hash(attempt[0])</code> may or may not have password <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">attempt[0]</code>. However, even if <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">attempt[0]</code> is <i>not</i> the user's actual password, it will be accepted as if it were, because the system can only check passwords by computing the hash of the password entered and comparing it to the hash stored in the file. Thus, each match cracks a user password, and the chance of a match rises with the number of passwords in the file. In contrast, if salts are used, the attacker would have to compute <code>hash(attempt[0] || salt[a])</code>, compare against entry A, then <code>hash(attempt[0] || salt[b])</code>, compare against entry B, and so on. This prevents any one attempt from cracking multiple passwords, given that salt re-use is avoided.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Salts also combat the use of precomputed tables for cracking passwords.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a table might simply map common passwords to their hashes, or it might do something more complex, like store the start and end points of a set of <a href="/wiki/Rainbow_table#Precomputed_hash_chains" title="Rainbow table">precomputed hash chains</a>. In either case, salting can defend against the use of precomputed tables by lengthening hashes and having them draw from larger character sets, making it less likely that the table covers the resulting hashes. In particular, a precomputed table would need to cover the string <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">[salt + hash]</code> rather than simply <code class="mw-highlight mw-highlight-lang-text mw-content-ltr" style="" dir="ltr">[hash]</code>. </p><p>The modern <a href="/wiki/Shadow_password" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadow password">shadow password</a> system, in which password hashes and other security data are stored in a non-public file, somewhat mitigates these concerns. However, they remain relevant in multi-server installations which use centralized password management systems to push passwords or password hashes to multiple systems. In such installations, the <a href="/wiki/Superuser" title="Superuser">root</a> account on each individual system may be treated as less trusted than the administrators of the centralized password system, so it remains worthwhile to ensure that the security of the password hashing algorithm, including the generation of unique salt values, is adequate.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2013)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Another (lesser) benefit of a salt is as follows: two users might choose the same string as their password. Without a salt, this password would be stored as the same hash string in the password file. This would disclose the fact that the two accounts have the same password, allowing anyone who knows one of the account's passwords to access the other account. By salting the passwords with two random characters, even if two accounts use the same password, no one can discover this just by reading hashes. Salting also makes it extremely difficult to determine if a person has used the same password for multiple systems.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unix_implementations">Unix implementations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Unix implementations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1970s–1980s"><span id="1970s.E2.80.931980s"></span>1970s–1980s</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1970s–1980s"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Earlier versions of <a href="/wiki/Unix" title="Unix">Unix</a> used a <a href="/wiki/Passwd_(file)" class="mw-redirect" title="Passwd (file)">password file</a> <code>/etc/passwd</code> to store the hashes of salted passwords (passwords prefixed with two-character random salts). In these older versions of Unix, the salt was also stored in the passwd file (as cleartext) together with the hash of the salted password. The password file was publicly readable for all users of the system. This was necessary so that user-privileged software tools could find user names and other information. The security of passwords is therefore protected only by the one-way functions (enciphering or hashing) used for the purpose. Early Unix implementations limited passwords to eight characters and used a 12-bit salt, which allowed for 4,096 possible salt values.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was an appropriate balance for 1970s computational and storage costs.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1980s–present"><span id="1980s.E2.80.93present"></span>1980s–present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: 1980s–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Passwd#Shadow_file" title="Passwd">Passwd § Shadow file</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Shadow_password" class="mw-redirect" title="Shadow password">shadow password</a> system is used to limit access to hashes and salt. The salt is eight characters, the hash is 86 characters, and the password length is effectively unlimited, barring stack overflow errors. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Web-application_implementations">Web-application implementations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Web-application implementations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>It is common for a web application to store in a database the hash value of a user's password. Without a salt, a successful <a href="/wiki/SQL_injection" title="SQL injection">SQL injection</a> attack may yield easily crackable passwords. Because many users re-use passwords for multiple sites, the use of a salt is an important component of overall <a href="/wiki/Web_application_security" class="mw-redirect" title="Web application security">web application security</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some additional references for using a salt to secure password hashes in specific languages or libraries (PHP, the .NET libraries, etc.) can be found in the <a href="#External_links">external links</a> section below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Password_cracking" title="Password cracking">Password cracking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_nonce" title="Cryptographic nonce">Cryptographic nonce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initialization_vector" title="Initialization vector">Initialization vector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padding_(cryptography)" title="Padding (cryptography)">Padding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasty_Pudding_cipher#Encryption_and_decryption" title="Hasty Pudding cipher">"Spice" in the Hasty Pudding cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_table" title="Rainbow table">Rainbow tables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_(cryptography)" title="Pepper (cryptography)">Pepper (cryptography)</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFentonGrassiGarcia2017" class="citation web cs1">Fenton, James L.; Grassi, Paul A.; Garcia, Michael E. (June 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nvlpubs.nist.gov/nistpubs/SpecialPublications/NIST.SP.800-63-3.pdf">"NIST Special Publication 800-63-3"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>NIST Technical Series Publications</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIST+Technical+Series+Publications&rft.atitle=NIST+Special+Publication+800-63-3&rft.date=2017-06&rft.aulast=Fenton&rft.aufirst=James+L.&rft.au=Grassi%2C+Paul+A.&rft.au=Garcia%2C+Michael+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnvlpubs.nist.gov%2Fnistpubs%2FSpecialPublications%2FNIST.SP.800-63-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnderson2020" class="citation book cs1">Anderson, Ross (2020). <i>Security engineering: a guide to building dependable distributed systems</i> (Third ed.). Indianapolis, Indiana. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-119-64281-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-119-64281-7"><bdi>978-1-119-64281-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1224516855">1224516855</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Security+engineering%3A+a+guide+to+building+dependable+distributed+systems&rft.place=Indianapolis%2C+Indiana&rft.edition=Third&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1224516855&rft.isbn=978-1-119-64281-7&rft.aulast=Anderson&rft.aufirst=Ross&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGodwin2021" class="citation web cs1">Godwin, Anthony (10 September 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://bugcharmer.blogspot.com/2012/06/passwords-matter.html">"Passwords Matter"</a>. <i>The Bug Charmer</i> (Blog)<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2021-03-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=cheatsheetseries.owasp.org&rft.atitle=Password+Storage+-+OWASP+Cheat+Sheet+Series&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcheatsheetseries.owasp.org%2Fcheatsheets%2FPassword_Storage_Cheat_Sheet.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://kestas.kuliukas.com/RainbowTables/">"How Rainbow Tables work"</a>. <i>kestas.kuliukas.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=kestas.kuliukas.com&rft.atitle=How+Rainbow+Tables+work&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fkestas.kuliukas.com%2FRainbowTables%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStallingsLawrie_Brown2015" class="citation book cs1">Stallings, William; Lawrie Brown (2015). <i>Computer security: principles and practice</i> (Third ed.). Boston. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-13-377392-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-13-377392-7"><bdi>978-0-13-377392-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/874734678">874734678</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Computer+security%3A+principles+and+practice&rft.place=Boston&rft.edition=Third&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F874734678&rft.isbn=978-0-13-377392-7&rft.aulast=Stallings&rft.aufirst=William&rft.au=Lawrie+Brown&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorrisThompson1978" class="citation web cs1">Morris, Robert; Thompson, Ken (1978-04-03). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130821093338/http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/passwd.ps">"Password Security: A Case History"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Bell_Laboratories" class="mw-redirect" title="Bell Laboratories">Bell Laboratories</a></i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cm.bell-labs.com/cm/cs/who/dmr/passwd.ps">the original</a> on 2013-08-21.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Bell+Laboratories&rft.atitle=Password+Security%3A+A+Case+History&rft.date=1978-04-03&rft.aulast=Morris&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=Thompson%2C+Ken&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcm.bell-labs.com%2Fcm%2Fcs%2Fwho%2Fdmr%2Fpasswd.ps&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSimson_GarfinkelGene_SpaffordAlan_Schwartz2003" class="citation book cs1">Simson Garfinkel; Gene Spafford; Alan Schwartz (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.safaribooksonline.com/library/view/practical-unix-and/0596003234/ch04s03.html">"How Unix Implements Passwords"</a>. <i>Practical UNIX and Internet Security</i> (3rd ed.). O'Reilly Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780596003234" title="Special:BookSources/9780596003234"><bdi>9780596003234</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=How+Unix+Implements+Passwords&rft.btitle=Practical+UNIX+and+Internet+Security&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=O%27Reilly+Media&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780596003234&rft.au=Simson+Garfinkel&rft.au=Gene+Spafford&rft.au=Alan+Schwartz&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.safaribooksonline.com%2Flibrary%2Fview%2Fpractical-unix-and%2F0596003234%2Fch04s03.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dshield.org/diary.html?storyid=11110">"ISC Diary – Hashing Passwords"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2011-10-15</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ISC+Diary+%E2%80%93+Hashing+Passwords&rft.pub=Dshield.org&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dshield.org%2Fdiary.html%3Fstoryid%3D11110&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Salt_(cryptography)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWille2004" class="citation web cs1">Wille, Christoph (2004-01-05). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aspheute.com/english/20040105.asp">"Storing Passwords - done right!"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Storing+Passwords+-+done+right%21&rft.date=2004-01-05&rft.aulast=Wille&rft.aufirst=Christoph&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aspheute.com%2Fenglish%2F20040105.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASalt+%28cryptography%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/OWASP/CheatSheetSeries/blob/master/cheatsheets/Cryptographic_Storage_Cheat_Sheet.md">OWASP Cryptographic Cheat Sheet</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jasypt.org/howtoencryptuserpasswords.html">how to encrypt user passwords</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output 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a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptography_hash" title="Template:Cryptography hash"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cryptography_hash" title="Template talk:Cryptography hash"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptography_hash" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptography hash"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cryptographic_hash_functions_and_message_authentication_codes" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash functions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Message_authentication_code" title="Message authentication code">message authentication codes</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_hash_functions" title="List of hash functions">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparison_of_cryptographic_hash_functions" title="Comparison of cryptographic hash functions">Comparison</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hash_function_security_summary" title="Hash function security summary">Known attacks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Common functions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/MD5" title="MD5">MD5</a> (compromised)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SHA-1" title="SHA-1">SHA-1</a> (compromised)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/SHA-2" title="SHA-2">SHA-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SHA-3" title="SHA-3">SHA-3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BLAKE_(hash_function)#BLAKE2" title="BLAKE (hash function)">BLAKE2</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/NIST_hash_function_competition" title="NIST hash function competition">SHA-3 finalists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BLAKE_(hash_function)" title="BLAKE (hash function)">BLAKE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gr%C3%B8stl" title="Grøstl">Grøstl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/JH_(hash_function)" title="JH (hash function)">JH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skein_(hash_function)" title="Skein (hash function)">Skein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SHA-3" title="SHA-3">Keccak</a> (winner)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other functions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/BLAKE3" class="mw-redirect" title="BLAKE3">BLAKE3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CubeHash" title="CubeHash">CubeHash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elliptic_curve_only_hash" title="Elliptic curve only hash">ECOH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fast_syndrome-based_hash" title="Fast syndrome-based hash">FSB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fugue_(hash_function)" title="Fugue (hash function)">Fugue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/GOST_(hash_function)" title="GOST (hash function)">GOST</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HAS-160" title="HAS-160">HAS-160</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HAVAL" title="HAVAL">HAVAL</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kupyna" title="Kupyna">Kupyna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LSH_(hash_function)" title="LSH (hash function)">LSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lane_(hash_function)" title="Lane (hash function)">Lane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MASH-1" title="MASH-1">MASH-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MASH-1#MASH2" title="MASH-1">MASH-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD2_(hash_function)" title="MD2 (hash function)">MD2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD4" title="MD4">MD4</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MD6" title="MD6">MD6</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/MDC-2" title="MDC-2">MDC-2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N-hash" title="N-hash">N-hash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RIPEMD" title="RIPEMD">RIPEMD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RadioGat%C3%BAn" title="RadioGatún">RadioGatún</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SIMD_(hash_function)" title="SIMD (hash function)">SIMD</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SM3_(hash_function)" title="SM3 (hash function)">SM3</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SWIFFT" title="SWIFFT">SWIFFT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shabal" title="Shabal">Shabal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snefru" title="Snefru">Snefru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Streebog" title="Streebog">Streebog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiger_(hash_function)" title="Tiger (hash function)">Tiger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Very_smooth_hash" title="Very smooth hash">VSH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whirlpool_(hash_function)" title="Whirlpool (hash function)">Whirlpool</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Password hashing/<br /><a href="/wiki/Key_stretching" title="Key stretching">key stretching</a> functions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argon2" title="Argon2">Argon2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balloon_hashing" title="Balloon hashing">Balloon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bcrypt" title="Bcrypt">bcrypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catena_(cryptography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Catena (cryptography)">Catena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypt_(C)" title="Crypt (C)">crypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LAN_Manager#LM_hash_details" title="LAN Manager">LM hash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lyra2" title="Lyra2">Lyra2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makwa_(cryptography)" class="mw-redirect" title="Makwa (cryptography)">Makwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PBKDF2" title="PBKDF2">PBKDF2</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scrypt" title="Scrypt">scrypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yescrypt" title="Yescrypt">yescrypt</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General purpose<br /><a href="/wiki/Key_derivation_function" title="Key derivation function">key derivation functions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/HKDF" title="HKDF">HKDF</a></li> <li>KDF1/KDF2</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Message_authentication_code" title="Message authentication code">MAC functions</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CBC-MAC" title="CBC-MAC">CBC-MAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Data_Authentication_Algorithm" title="Data Authentication Algorithm">DAA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galois_Message_Authentication_Code" class="mw-redirect" title="Galois Message Authentication Code">GMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HMAC" title="HMAC">HMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NMAC" class="mw-redirect" title="NMAC">NMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One-key_MAC" title="One-key MAC">OMAC</a>/<a href="/wiki/One-key_MAC" title="One-key MAC">CMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PMAC_(cryptography)" title="PMAC (cryptography)">PMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poly1305" title="Poly1305">Poly1305</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SipHash" title="SipHash">SipHash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/UMAC_(cryptography)" title="UMAC (cryptography)">UMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/VMAC" title="VMAC">VMAC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Authenticated_encryption" title="Authenticated encryption">Authenticated<br />encryption</a> modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CCM_mode" title="CCM mode">CCM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ChaCha20-Poly1305" title="ChaCha20-Poly1305">ChaCha20-Poly1305</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CWC_mode" title="CWC mode">CWC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/EAX_mode" title="EAX mode">EAX</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galois/Counter_Mode" title="Galois/Counter Mode">GCM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IAPM_(mode)" title="IAPM (mode)">IAPM</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/OCB_mode" title="OCB mode">OCB</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Attacks</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Collision_attack" title="Collision attack">Collision attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preimage_attack" title="Preimage attack">Preimage attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Birthday_attack" title="Birthday attack">Birthday attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brute-force_attack" title="Brute-force attack">Brute-force attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rainbow_table" title="Rainbow table">Rainbow table</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Side-channel_attack" title="Side-channel attack">Side-channel attack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Length_extension_attack" title="Length extension attack">Length extension attack</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Design</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avalanche_effect" title="Avalanche effect">Avalanche effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hash_collision" title="Hash collision">Hash collision</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkle%E2%80%93Damg%C3%A5rd_construction" title="Merkle–Damgård construction">Merkle–Damgård construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sponge_function" title="Sponge function">Sponge function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HAIFA_construction" title="HAIFA construction">HAIFA construction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Standardization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/CAESAR_Competition" title="CAESAR Competition">CAESAR Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/CRYPTREC" title="CRYPTREC">CRYPTREC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NESSIE" title="NESSIE">NESSIE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NIST_hash_function_competition" title="NIST hash function competition">NIST hash function competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Password_Hashing_Competition" title="Password Hashing Competition">Password Hashing Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NSA_Suite_B_Cryptography" title="NSA Suite B Cryptography">NSA Suite B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_National_Security_Algorithm_Suite" title="Commercial National Security Algorithm Suite">CNSA</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Utilization</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Post-quantum_cryptography#Hash-based_cryptography" title="Post-quantum cryptography">Hash-based cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merkle_tree" title="Merkle tree">Merkle tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Message_authentication" title="Message authentication">Message authentication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proof_of_work" title="Proof of work">Proof of work</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Salt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pepper_(cryptography)" title="Pepper (cryptography)">Pepper</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptography_navbox" title="Template:Cryptography navbox"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cryptography_navbox" title="Template talk:Cryptography navbox"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptography_navbox" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cryptography navbox"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Cryptography" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">Cryptography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cryptography" title="History of cryptography">History of cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_cryptography" title="Outline of cryptography">Outline of cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classical_cipher" title="Classical cipher">Classical cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_protocol" title="Cryptographic protocol">Cryptographic protocol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Authentication_protocol" title="Authentication protocol">Authentication protocol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_primitive" title="Cryptographic primitive">Cryptographic primitive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptanalysis" title="Cryptanalysis">Cryptanalysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptocurrency" title="Cryptocurrency">Cryptocurrency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptosystem" title="Cryptosystem">Cryptosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_nonce" title="Cryptographic nonce">Cryptographic nonce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptovirology" title="Cryptovirology">Cryptovirology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hash_function" title="Hash function">Hash function</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_derivation_function" title="Key derivation function">Key derivation function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secure_Hash_Algorithms" title="Secure Hash Algorithms">Secure Hash Algorithms</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_signature" title="Digital signature">Digital signature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptography" title="Kleptography">Kleptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_(cryptography)" title="Key (cryptography)">Key (cryptography)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_exchange" title="Key exchange">Key exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_generator" title="Key generator">Key generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_schedule" title="Key schedule">Key schedule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_stretching" title="Key stretching">Key stretching</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keygen" title="Keygen">Keygen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Cryptography_machines" title="Template:Cryptography machines">Machines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptojacking_malware" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptojacking malware">Cryptojacking malware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ransomware" title="Ransomware">Ransomware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_number_generation" title="Random number generation">Random number generation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator">Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator</a> (CSPRNG)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudorandom_noise" title="Pseudorandom noise">Pseudorandom noise</a> (PRN)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secure_channel" title="Secure channel">Secure channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insecure_channel" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecure channel">Insecure channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subliminal_channel" title="Subliminal channel">Subliminal channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Encryption" title="Encryption">Encryption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decryption" class="mw-redirect" title="Decryption">Decryption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/End-to-end_encryption" title="End-to-end encryption">End-to-end encryption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harvest_now,_decrypt_later" title="Harvest now, decrypt later">Harvest now, decrypt later</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information-theoretic_security" title="Information-theoretic security">Information-theoretic security</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaintext" title="Plaintext">Plaintext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Codetext" class="mw-redirect" title="Codetext">Codetext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ciphertext" title="Ciphertext">Ciphertext</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shared_secret" title="Shared secret">Shared secret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trapdoor_function" title="Trapdoor function">Trapdoor function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trusted_timestamping" title="Trusted timestamping">Trusted timestamping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key-based_routing" title="Key-based routing">Key-based routing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Onion_routing" title="Onion routing">Onion routing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garlic_routing" title="Garlic routing">Garlic routing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kademlia" title="Kademlia">Kademlia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mix_network" title="Mix network">Mix network</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mathematics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographic_hash_function" title="Cryptographic hash function">Cryptographic hash function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Block_cipher" title="Block cipher">Block cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_cipher" title="Stream cipher">Stream cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symmetric-key_algorithm" title="Symmetric-key algorithm">Symmetric-key algorithm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Authenticated_encryption" title="Authenticated encryption">Authenticated encryption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public-key_cryptography" title="Public-key cryptography">Public-key cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_key_distribution" title="Quantum key distribution">Quantum key distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quantum_cryptography" title="Quantum cryptography">Quantum cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-quantum_cryptography" title="Post-quantum cryptography">Post-quantum cryptography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Message_authentication_code" title="Message authentication code">Message authentication code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cryptographically_secure_pseudorandom_number_generator" title="Cryptographically secure pseudorandom number generator">Random numbers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steganography" title="Steganography">Steganography</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a 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