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vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Apostolic Age (c. 30–100) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Apostolic_Age_(c._30–100)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Origins_and_early_development" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins_and_early_development"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Origins and early development </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Origins_and_early_development-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Jewish_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Jewish_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Jewish Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Jewish_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_growth" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_growth"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Early growth </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_growth-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Council_of_Jerusalem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Council_of_Jerusalem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Council of Jerusalem </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Council_of_Jerusalem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Persecution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christian_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christian_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Christian texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christian_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_hierarchy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_hierarchy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Structural hierarchy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_hierarchy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ante-Nicene_period_(100–312)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ante-Nicene_period_(100–312)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Ante-Nicene period (100–312) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ante-Nicene_period_(100–312)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ante-Nicene period (100–312) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ante-Nicene_period_(100–312)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Gentile_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gentile_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Gentile Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gentile_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-New_Testament" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Testament"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 New Testament </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Testament-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Christian_art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Christian_art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Early Christian art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_Christian_art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecutions_and_legalization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecutions_and_legalization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Persecutions and legalization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecutions_and_legalization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_of_Christianity_to_c._300_AD" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_of_Christianity_to_c._300_AD"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Spread of Christianity to c. 300 AD </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_of_Christianity_to_c._300_AD-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Inclusivity,_women_and_exclusivity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Inclusivity,_women_and_exclusivity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.1 Inclusivity, women and exclusivity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Inclusivity,_women_and_exclusivity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Practices" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Practices"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5.2 Practices </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Practices-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_antiquity_(313–476)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_antiquity_(313–476)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Late antiquity (313–476) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_antiquity_(313–476)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late antiquity (313–476) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_antiquity_(313–476)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Constantine_(c._272_–_337)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Constantine_(c._272_–_337)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Constantine (c. 272 – 337) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Constantine_(c._272_–_337)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Polytheism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Polytheism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Polytheism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Polytheism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Jews_(395-398)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Jews_(395-398)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 The Jews (395-398) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Jews_(395-398)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthodoxy_and_heresy_(312-)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthodoxy_and_heresy_(312-)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Orthodoxy and heresy (312-) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthodoxy_and_heresy_(312-)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-New_Testament_Canon_(382)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#New_Testament_Canon_(382)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 New Testament Canon (382) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-New_Testament_Canon_(382)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-East_and_West" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#East_and_West"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 East and West </div> </a> <ul id="toc-East_and_West-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monasticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6 Monasticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hospitals_(369)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hospitals_(369)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.6.1 Hospitals (369) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hospitals_(369)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Theodosius_I_(379_to_395)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodosius_I_(379_to_395)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7 Theodosius I (379 to 395) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodosius_I_(379_to_395)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theodosian_Law_Code" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theodosian_Law_Code"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.7.1 Theodosian Law Code </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theodosian_Law_Code-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_State,_the_Senate_and_the_Pope_(after_325)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_State,_the_Senate_and_the_Pope_(after_325)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.8 The State, the Senate and the Pope (after 325) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_State,_the_Senate_and_the_Pope_(after_325)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Antique_art_and_literature_(c.350-500)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Antique_art_and_literature_(c.350-500)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.9 Late Antique art and literature (c.350-500) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_Antique_art_and_literature_(c.350-500)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10 Spread </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Britain_and_Ireland_(397)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Britain_and_Ireland_(397)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10.1 Britain and Ireland (397) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Britain_and_Ireland_(397)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.10.2 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(476–842)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_Middle_Ages_(476–842)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Early Middle Ages (476–842) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(476–842)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early Middle Ages (476–842) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_Middle_Ages_(476–842)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Germanic_Western_Europe,_Eastern_Byzantium,_and_Islamic_civilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_Western_Europe,_Eastern_Byzantium,_and_Islamic_civilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Germanic Western Europe, Eastern Byzantium, and Islamic civilization </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_Western_Europe,_Eastern_Byzantium,_and_Islamic_civilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Germanic_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Germanic_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Germanic Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Germanic_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Christendom" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christendom"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Christendom </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christendom-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Education </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Law </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monasticism_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monasticism_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.4 Monasticism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Monasticism_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Papal_supremacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Papal_supremacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Papal supremacy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Papal_supremacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Justinian_I_and_the_birth_of_Byzantium" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Justinian_I_and_the_birth_of_Byzantium"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Justinian I and the birth of Byzantium </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Justinian_I_and_the_birth_of_Byzantium-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(842–1299)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#High_Middle_Ages_(842–1299)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 High Middle Ages (842–1299) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(842–1299)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle High Middle Ages (842–1299) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-High_Middle_Ages_(842–1299)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_background_of_the_High_Middle_Ages" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_background_of_the_High_Middle_Ages"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Historical background of the High Middle Ages </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_background_of_the_High_Middle_Ages-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christendom_842-1099" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christendom_842-1099"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Christendom 842-1099 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christendom_842-1099-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tenth_and_eleventh_century_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tenth_and_eleventh_century_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Tenth and eleventh century reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tenth_and_eleventh_century_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Investiture_controversy_(1078)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Investiture_controversy_(1078)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Investiture controversy (1078) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Investiture_controversy_(1078)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Toledo_1085" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Toledo_1085"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Toledo 1085 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Toledo_1085-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-First_crusade_(1095)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_crusade_(1095)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.4 First crusade (1095) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_crusade_(1095)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law_and_order_and_Papal_monarchy_(1099_-_1299)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law_and_order_and_Papal_monarchy_(1099_-_1299)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Law and order and Papal monarchy (1099 - 1299) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law_and_order_and_Papal_monarchy_(1099_-_1299)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Medieval_Inquisition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval_Inquisition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3.1 Medieval Inquisition </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval_Inquisition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Learning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Learning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Learning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Learning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scholasticism,_Renaissance_and_science_(1150-1200)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scholasticism,_Renaissance_and_science_(1150-1200)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.1 Scholasticism, Renaissance and science (1150-1200) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scholasticism,_Renaissance_and_science_(1150-1200)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Universities" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Universities"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.2 Universities </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Universities-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art,_architecture_and_music" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art,_architecture_and_music"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4.3 Art, architecture and music </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art,_architecture_and_music-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spread_and_retraction_of_Christianity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spread_and_retraction_of_Christianity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Spread and retraction of Christianity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spread_and_retraction_of_Christianity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mesopotamia_and_Egypt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mesopotamia_and_Egypt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.1 Mesopotamia and Egypt </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mesopotamia_and_Egypt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scandinavia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scandinavia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.2 Scandinavia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scandinavia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russia" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russia"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.3 Russia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russia-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Baltic_and_central_Europe" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Baltic_and_central_Europe"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.4 Baltic and central Europe </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Baltic_and_central_Europe-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_East_(1054)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_East_(1054)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.5 The East (1054) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_East_(1054)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Northern_crusades_(1147–1316)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Northern_crusades_(1147–1316)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.6 Northern crusades (1147–1316) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Northern_crusades_(1147–1316)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fourth_Crusade_(1204)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fourth_Crusade_(1204)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.7 Fourth Crusade (1204) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fourth_Crusade_(1204)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Albigensian_Crusade_(1209_-_1229)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Albigensian_Crusade_(1209_-_1229)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5.8 Albigensian Crusade (1209 - 1229) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Albigensian_Crusade_(1209_-_1229)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Persecution_of_Jews_1239-" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Persecution_of_Jews_1239-"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Persecution of Jews 1239- </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Persecution_of_Jews_1239--sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_and_early_Renaissance_(c._1300–1520)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_Middle_Ages_and_early_Renaissance_(c._1300–1520)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance (c. 1300–1520) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_and_early_Renaissance_(c._1300–1520)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance (c. 1300–1520) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_Middle_Ages_and_early_Renaissance_(c._1300–1520)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_setting" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_setting"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Historical setting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_setting-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Avignon_Papacy_and_the_Western_Schism_(1309_-_1417)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Avignon_Papacy_and_the_Western_Schism_(1309_-_1417)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism (1309 - 1417) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Avignon_Papacy_and_the_Western_Schism_(1309_-_1417)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Criticism_and_reform_(1300_-_1500)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Criticism_and_reform_(1300_-_1500)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Criticism and reform (1300 - 1500) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Criticism_and_reform_(1300_-_1500)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_and_literature_(c.1400_-_1600)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_and_literature_(c.1400_-_1600)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Art and literature (c.1400 - 1600) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_and_literature_(c.1400_-_1600)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Byzantium_and_the_Fall_of_Constantinople_in_1453" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Byzantium_and_the_Fall_of_Constantinople_in_1453"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.5 Byzantium and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Byzantium_and_the_Fall_of_Constantinople_in_1453-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_Inquisition_(1478_-_twentieth_century)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_Inquisition_(1478_-_twentieth_century)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.6 Modern Inquisition (1478 - twentieth century) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_Inquisition_(1478_-_twentieth_century)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Expulsion_of_Jews_(circa_1200s_-_1500s)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Expulsion_of_Jews_(circa_1200s_-_1500s)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.7 Expulsion of Jews (circa 1200s - 1500s) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Expulsion_of_Jews_(circa_1200s_-_1500s)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modernity_(1500–1750)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modernity_(1500–1750)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Early modernity (1500–1750) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Early_modernity_(1500–1750)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Early modernity (1500–1750) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Early_modernity_(1500–1750)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_background" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_background"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Historical background </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_background-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Protestant_Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.1 Protestant Reformation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counter-Reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counter-Reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.2 Counter-Reformation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counter-Reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Internecine_wars" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Internecine_wars"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.3 Internecine wars </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internecine_wars-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Witch_trials" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Witch_trials"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1.4 Witch trials </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Witch_trials-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eastern-Orthodox_Churches" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eastern-Orthodox_Churches"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Eastern-Orthodox Churches </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eastern-Orthodox_Churches-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Age_of_Enlightenment_(17th-18th_c.)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Age_of_Enlightenment_(17th-18th_c.)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 The Age of Enlightenment (17th-18th c.) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Age_of_Enlightenment_(17th-18th_c.)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Modern_concepts_of_tolerance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_concepts_of_tolerance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3.1 Modern concepts of tolerance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_concepts_of_tolerance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.4 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colonialism_and_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colonialism_and_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5 Colonialism and missions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colonialism_and_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Asia_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.5.1 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_modernity_(1750–1945)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_modernity_(1750–1945)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Late modernity (1750–1945) </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Late_modernity_(1750–1945)-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Late modernity (1750–1945) subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Late_modernity_(1750–1945)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_setting_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_setting_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Historical setting </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_setting_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biblical_criticism,_liberalism,_fundamentalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biblical_criticism,_liberalism,_fundamentalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Biblical criticism, liberalism, fundamentalism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biblical_criticism,_liberalism,_fundamentalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_religious_revivals_(1730–1850)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_religious_revivals_(1730–1850)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 American religious revivals (1730–1850) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-American_religious_revivals_(1730–1850)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Western_slavery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Western_slavery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 Western slavery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Western_slavery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protestant_missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protestant_missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Protestant missions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protestant_missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Native_American_boarding_schools" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Native_American_boarding_schools"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5.1 Native American boarding schools </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Native_American_boarding_schools-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Russian_Orthodoxy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Russian_Orthodoxy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Russian Orthodoxy </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Russian_Orthodoxy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Christianity_and_Nazism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Christianity_and_Nazism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.7 Christianity and Nazism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Christianity_and_Nazism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_1945" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_1945"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 After 1945 </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-After_1945-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle After 1945 subsection </button> <ul id="toc-After_1945-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-A_global_religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#A_global_religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 A global religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-A_global_religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Africa_(19th–21st_centuries)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Africa_(19th–21st_centuries)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.1 Africa (19th–21st centuries) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Africa_(19th–21st_centuries)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asia_3" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asia_3"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1.2 Asia </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asia_3-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Challenges" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Challenges"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Challenges </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Challenges-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Diversity_and_commonality" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diversity_and_commonality"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.3 Diversity and commonality </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diversity_and_commonality-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.4 War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Particularizng_Emancipation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Particularizng_Emancipation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5 Particularizng Emancipation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Particularizng_Emancipation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Missions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Missions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.5.1 Missions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Missions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14 Sources </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Sources-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Sources subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Books_&_periodicals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Books_&_periodicals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.1 Books & periodicals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Books_&_periodicals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Encyclopedia_&_web_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Encyclopedia_&_web_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 14.2 Encyclopedia & web sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Encyclopedia_&_web_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 15 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Christianity</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 53 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-53" aria-hidden="true" > 53 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BD_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="इसाई धर्म केरऽ इतिहास – Angika" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="इसाई धर्म केरऽ इतिहास" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="Angika" class="interlanguage-link-target">अंगिका</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%B3%D9%8A%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ المسيحية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ المسيحية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_cristianismu" title="Historia del cristianismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia del cristianismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%96%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%9F%E0%A6%A7%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B0_%E0%A6%87%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B9%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B8" title="খ্রিস্টধর্মের ইতিহাস – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="খ্রিস্টধর্মের ইতিহাস" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="История на християнството – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="История на християнството" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_del_cristianisme" title="Història del cristianisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història del cristianisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Bjiny_k%C5%99es%C5%A5anstv%C3%AD" title="Dějiny křesťanství – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dějiny křesťanství" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%99%CF%83%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%81%CE%AF%CE%B1_%CF%84%CE%BF%CF%85_%CE%A7%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CF%84%CE%B9%CE%B1%CE%BD%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CE%BF%CF%8D" title="Ιστορία του Χριστιανισμού – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ιστορία του Χριστιανισμού" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_cristianismo" title="Historia del cristianismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del cristianismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_de_kristanismo" title="Historio de kristanismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Historio de kristanismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristautasunaren_historia" title="Kristautasunaren historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kristautasunaren historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="تاریخ مسیحیت – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ مسیحیت" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_christianisme" title="Histoire du christianisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du christianisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EB%8F%85%EA%B5%90%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="기독교의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기독교의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%94%D6%80%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%B8%D5%B6%D5%A5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Քրիստոնեության պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Քրիստոնեության պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%88%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%88_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="ईसाई धर्म का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="ईसाई धर्म का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_kr%C5%A1%C4%87anstva" title="Povijest kršćanstva – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest kršćanstva" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Kristanismo" title="Historio di Kristanismo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Kristanismo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Kekristenan" title="Sejarah Kekristenan – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sejarah Kekristenan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_christianismo" title="Historia del christianismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Historia del christianismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storia_del_cristianesimo" title="Storia del cristianesimo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Storia del cristianesimo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%94%D7%A0%D7%A6%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA" title="היסטוריה של הנצרות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של הנצרות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Kanisa" title="Historia ya Kanisa – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Kanisa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristiet%C4%ABbas_v%C4%93sture" title="Kristietības vēsture – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kristietības vēsture" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_kereszt%C3%A9nys%C3%A9g_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nete" title="A kereszténység története – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A kereszténység története" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE" title="Историја на христијанството – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Историја на христијанството" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tantaran%27_ny_kristianisma" title="Tantaran' ny kristianisma – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Tantaran' ny kristianisma" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Storja_tal-Kristjane%C5%BCmu" title="Storja tal-Kristjaneżmu – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Storja tal-Kristjaneżmu" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%A8_%E0%A4%A7%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="ख्रिश्चन धर्माचा इतिहास – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="ख्रिश्चन धर्माचा इतिहास" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/St%C3%B3ria_de_l_Crestianismo" title="Stória de l Crestianismo – Mirandese" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Stória de l Crestianismo" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="Mirandese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Mirandés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_het_christendom" title="Geschiedenis van het christendom – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van het christendom" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geskydenisse_van_et_kristendom" title="Geskydenisse van et kristendom – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Geskydenisse van et kristendom" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nedersaksies</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AD%E3%83%AA%E3%82%B9%E3%83%88%E6%95%99%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="キリスト教の歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="キリスト教の歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B9%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%A6%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AF%DB%8C_%D8%AA%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="عیسائیت دی تریخ – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="عیسائیت دی تریخ" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د مسیحیت تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د مسیحیت تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_chrze%C5%9Bcija%C5%84stwa" title="Historia chrześcijaństwa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia chrześcijaństwa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_cristianismo" title="História do cristianismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do cristianismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istoria_cre%C8%99tinismului" title="Istoria creștinismului – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Istoria creștinismului" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorgia_da_la_baselgia" title="Istorgia da la baselgia – Romansh" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Istorgia da la baselgia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="Romansh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Rumantsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="История христианства – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="История христианства" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_e_Krisht%C3%ABrimit" title="Historia e Krishtërimit – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Historia e Krishtërimit" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9A%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%83%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%92_%E0%B6%86%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%89%E0%B6%AD%E0%B7%92%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%8F%E0%B7%83%E0%B6%BA" title="ක්‍රිස්තියානි ආගමේ ඉතිහාසය – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ක්‍රිස්තියානි ආගමේ ඉතිහාසය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_Christianity" title="History of Christianity – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="History of Christianity" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dejiny_kres%C5%A5anstva" title="Dejiny kresťanstva – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Dejiny kresťanstva" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Istorija_hri%C5%A1%C4%87anstva" title="Istorija hrišćanstva – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Istorija hrišćanstva" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kristinuskon_historia" title="Kristinuskon historia – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kristinuskon historia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B9%8C" title="ประวัติศาสนาคริสต์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ประวัติศาสนาคริสต์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hristiyanl%C4%B1k_tarihi" title="Hristiyanlık tarihi – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hristiyanlık tarihi" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%86%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%96%D1%8F_%D1%85%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%8F%D0%BD%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Історія християнства – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Історія християнства" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%85%D8%B3%DB%8C%D8%AD%DB%8C%D8%AA" title="تاریخ مسیحیت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="تاریخ مسیحیت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/L%E1%BB%8Bch_s%E1%BB%AD_Kit%C3%B4_gi%C3%A1o" title="Lịch sử Kitô giáo – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Lịch sử Kitô giáo" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kaagi_han_Kristiyanismo" title="Kaagi han Kristiyanismo – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Kaagi han Kristiyanismo" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E7%9D%A3%E6%95%99%E5%8E%86%E5%8F%B2" title="基督教历史 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="基督教历史" 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Relevant discussion may be found on the <a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_Christianity##" title="Talk:History of Christianity">talk page</a>. Please do not remove this message until <a href="/wiki/Template:POV#When_to_remove" title="Template:POV">conditions to do so are met</a>. (November 2024) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a photo of the Licinia Amias on marble, in the National Roman Museum from the early 3rd century Vatican necropolis area in Rome containing the text ("fish of the living"), a predecessor of the Ichthys symbol" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/260px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="226" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/390px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg/520px-Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="1825" /></a><figcaption>Funerary <a href="/wiki/Stele" title="Stele">stele</a> of Licinia Amias on marble, in the <a href="/wiki/National_Roman_Museum" class="mw-redirect" title="National Roman Museum">National Roman Museum</a>. One of the earliest Christian inscriptions found, it comes from the early 3rd century <a href="/wiki/Vatican_Necropolis" title="Vatican Necropolis">Vatican necropolis</a> area in Rome. It contains the text ΙΧΘΥϹ ΖΩΝΤΩΝ ("fish of the living"), a predecessor of the <a href="/wiki/Ichthys" title="Ichthys">Ichthys</a> symbol.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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class="sidebar-pretitle" style="background: #efefef">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background: #efefef"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/Christian_cross" title="Principal symbol of Christianity"><img alt="Principal symbol of Christianity" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/50px-Christian_cross.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/75px-Christian_cross.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Christian_cross.svg/100px-Christian_cross.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="404" data-file-height="564" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">Jesus</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ascension_of_Jesus" title="Ascension of Jesus">Ascension</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a></li><li>Foundations</li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_(Christianity)" class="mw-redirect" title="God the Father (Christianity)">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_apologetics" title="Christian apologetics">Apologetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">History of theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Universalism</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Tradition</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Peter" title="Saint Peter">Peter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mary,_mother_of_Jesus" title="Mary, mother of Jesus">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content-with-subgroup"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">(full list)</a></li></ul></div></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><table class="sidebar-subgroup"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Nicene</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedevacantism" title="Sedevacantism">Sedevacantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Free Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moravian_Church" title="Moravian Church">Moravian [Hussite]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plymouth_Brethren" title="Plymouth Brethren">Plymouth Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_and_uniting_churches" title="United and uniting churches">United Protestant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominational Christianity</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-bottom:0;"> <a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christadelphians" title="Christadelphians">Christadelphians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Apostolic_Church" title="Catholic Apostolic Church">Irvingians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Members_Church_of_God_International" title="Members Church of God International">Members Church of God International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Church_of_Jesus_Christ_of_Latter-day_Saints" title="The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints">The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_New_Church_(Swedenborgian)" title="The New Church (Swedenborgian)">The New Church (Swedenborgian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Unitarian,_Universalist,_and_Unitarian_Universalist_churches" title="List of Unitarian, Universalist, and Unitarian Universalist churches">Unitarians and Universalists</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #efefef;background:#efefef;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_prayer" title="Christian prayer">Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon" title="Sermon">Sermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_symbolism" title="Christian symbolism">Symbolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Christian cross"><img alt="Christian cross" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/20px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/30px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/40px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li></ul></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of a series on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Icon-religion.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/200px-Icon-religion.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="117" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/300px-Icon-religion.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Icon-religion.svg/400px-Icon-religion.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="890" data-file-height="519" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_founders_of_religious_traditions" title="List of founders of religious traditions">Founding figures</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> (<a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abraham" title="Abraham">Abraham</a> (<a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddhartha_Gautama" class="mw-redirect" title="Siddhartha Gautama">Siddhartha Gautama</a> (<a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guru_Nanak" title="Guru Nanak">Guru Nanak</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahavira" title="Mahavira">Mahavira</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroaster" title="Zoroaster">Zoroaster</a> (<a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamza_ibn_Ali" title="Hamza ibn Ali">Hamza ibn Ali</a> (<a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druzism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laozi" title="Laozi">Laozi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">Taoism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucius" title="Confucius">Confucius</a> (<a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BCu%27ll%C3%A1h" title="Baháʼu'lláh">Baháʼu'lláh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí Faith</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Study_of_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Study of religion">Study of religion</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropology_of_religion" title="Anthropology of religion">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comparative_religion" title="Comparative religion">Comparative religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_of_religion" title="Neuroscience of religion">Neurotheology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_gene" title="God gene">God gene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Origins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_religion" title="Psychology of religion">Psychology</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Timeline</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;;padding-top:0.2em;"> <a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Ancient Near East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Ancient Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greco</a>-<a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> <a href="/wiki/Axial_Age" title="Axial Age">Axial Age</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vedanta" title="Vedanta">Vedanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C5%9Arama%E1%B9%87a" title="Śramaṇa">Śramaṇa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dharma" title="Dharma">Dharma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tao" title="Tao">Tao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Hellenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dualistic_cosmology" class="mw-redirect" title="Dualistic cosmology">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">Monotheism</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_India" title="Greater India">Dharmaization (Hindu-Buddhist Indianization)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamization" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamization">Islamization</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Age of Discovery</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance_magic" title="Renaissance magic">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="padding-top:0.4em;font-style:italic;font-weight:normal;border-bottom:1px solid #ccc;"> Modern day</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0.15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Age of Reason</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">New religious movements</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Great_Awakening" title="Great Awakening">Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalism" title="Fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Positive_deconstruction" title="Positive deconstruction">Postmodernism</a></li></ul></td> </tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content plainlist" style="padding-top:0;"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:transparent;border-top:1px solid #aaa;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Religions</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%27%C3%AD_Faith" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Bahá'í Faith">Bahá'í Faith</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Jainism" title="Timeline of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">Far Eastern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confucianism#History" title="Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinto#History" title="Shinto">Shinto</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_paganism" title="Modern paganism">Neopagan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religion" title="Template:History of religion"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religion" title="Template talk:History of religion"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religion" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religion"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of Christianity begins with the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">ministry</a> of <a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a>, a Jewish teacher and healer who was <a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">crucified</a> and died <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> AD 30–33 in <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judea</a>. Afterwards, his followers, a set of <a href="/wiki/Apocalypticism" title="Apocalypticism">apocalyptic</a> <a href="/wiki/Jews" title="Jews">Jews</a>, proclaimed him risen from the dead. Christianity began as <a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christianity" title="Jewish Christianity">a Jewish sect</a> and remained so for centuries in some locations, <a href="/wiki/Split_of_Christianity_and_Judaism" title="Split of Christianity and Judaism">diverging gradually from Judaism</a> over doctrinal, social and historical differences. In spite of the <a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire</a>, the faith spread as a <a href="/wiki/Grassroots" title="Grassroots">grassroots</a> movement that became established by the third-century both in and outside the empire. <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a> texts were written and church government was loosely organized in its first centuries, though the <a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon#Christian_canons" title="Biblical canon">biblical canon</a> did not become official until 382. <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine the Great</a> was the first <a href="/wiki/Roman_Emperor" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Emperor">Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">that converted to Christianity</a>. In 313, he issued the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> expressing tolerance for all religions. He did not make Christianity the state religion, but he did provide crucial support. Constantine called the first of <a href="/wiki/Seven_ecumenical_councils" class="mw-redirect" title="Seven ecumenical councils">seven ecumenical councils</a>. By the <a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a>, Eastern and Western Christianity had already begun to diverge, while <a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">missionary activities</a> <a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread Christianity</a> across Europe. Monks and nuns played a prominent role in establishing a <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> that influenced every aspect of medieval life. From the ninth-century into the twelfth, politicization and <a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a> went hand-in-hand in developing <a href="/wiki/East-Central_Europe" title="East-Central Europe">East-Central Europe</a>, influencing culture, language, literacy, and literature of <a href="/wiki/Slavic_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Slavic countries">Slavic countries</a> and <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a> was more prosperous than the <a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western Roman Empire</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> was influential, however, centuries of <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Byzantine_wars" title="Arab–Byzantine wars">Islamic aggression</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> negatively impacted Eastern Christianity. During the <a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a>, Eastern and <a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western Christianity</a> had grown far enough apart that differences led to the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a> of 1054. Temporary reunion was not achieved until the year before the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">fall of Constantinople</a> in 1453. The fall of the Byzantine Empire put an end to the institutional Christian Church in the East as established under Constantine, though it survived in altered form. Various catastrophic circumstances, combined with a growing <a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Criticism of the Catholic Church">criticism</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic Church</a> in the 1300–1500s, led to the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a> and its related <a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">reform movements</a>. Reform, and the Catholic <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a>, were followed by the <a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">European wars of religion</a>, the development of modern political concepts of tolerance, and the <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a>. Christianity also influenced the <a href="/wiki/New_World" title="New World">New World</a> through its connection to <a href="/wiki/Colonialism" title="Colonialism">colonialism</a>, its part in the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, slavery in the west, and the long-term impact of Protestant missions. In the twenty-first century, traditional Christianity has declined in the West, while new forms have developed and expanded throughout the world. Today, there are <a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">more than two billion Christians worldwide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Christianity has become the world's largest</a>, and most widespread religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Research2011-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritannica2022"It_has_become_the_largest_of_the_world's_religions_and,_geographically,_the_most_widely_diffused_of_all_faiths."-2">[2]</a> Within the last century, the centre of growth has shifted from West to East and from the North to the <a href="/wiki/Global_South" class="mw-redirect" title="Global South">Global South</a> becoming a <a href="/wiki/World_Christianity" title="World Christianity">global religion</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">twenty-first century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins2011101–133-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreston2008109–133-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobbins2004117–143-5">[5]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert200050–58-6">[6]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Jesus_of_Nazareth_c.27_-_30">Jesus of Nazareth c.27 - 30</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Jesus of Nazareth c.27 - 30">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Crucifixion_of_Jesus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photo of wood engraving by Gustave Doré depicting the crucifixion of Jesus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Crucifixion_of_Jesus.jpg/220px-Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Crucifixion_of_Jesus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Crucifixion_of_Jesus.jpg/330px-Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Crucifixion_of_Jesus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Crucifixion_of_Jesus.jpg/440px-Gustave_Dor%C3%A9_-_Crucifixion_of_Jesus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2756" data-file-height="3506" /></a><figcaption>1866 wood engraving by Gustave Doré - Crucifixion of Jesus</figcaption></figure> Early Christianity begins with the <a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">ministry of Jesus</a> (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 27–30)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung20061–2-7">[7]</a> Virtually all scholars of antiquity accept that <a href="/wiki/Historicity_of_Jesus" title="Historicity of Jesus">Jesus was a historical figure</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw2011129-8">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKöstenbergerKellumQuarles2009114-9">[9]</a> His crucifixion is well attested.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200624-10">[10]</a> He was a complex figure, which many see as a sage, a holy man, a prophet, a seer, or a visionary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200629-11">[11]</a> Jesus saw his identity, mission, and that of his followers, in light of the coming <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of God">kingdom of God</a> and the prophetic tradition of Israel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadhead2017123-12">[12]</a> His followers believed he was the Son of God, the <a href="/wiki/Christ_(title)" title="Christ (title)">Christ</a>, a title in Greek for the Hebrew term mashiach (Messiah) meaning “the anointed one", who had been <a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">raised from the dead</a> and <a href="/wiki/Session_of_Christ" title="Session of Christ">exalted by God</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200611-14">[14]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Frances_Young" title="Frances Young">Frances Young</a> has written, "The incarnation is what turns Jesus into the foundation of Christianity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200632–34-15">[15]</a> The Christian church established these as its founding doctrines, with baptism and the celebration of the Eucharist meal (Jesus' Last Supper) as its two primary rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStrout2016479-16">[16]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Apostolic_Age_(c._30–100)">Apostolic Age (c. 30–100)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Apostolic Age (c. 30–100)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Origins_and_early_development">Origins and early development</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Origins and early development">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> initially emerged in the <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Roman province of Judea</a> during the first-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-13">[13]</a> It was impacted by - and impacted - the geographical, cultural and socio-economic context in which it first developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsler20173,_23-17">[17]</a> In the Roman Empire around the ancient Mediterranean, elites (2 - 5 % of the population) controlled the means of economic production, had a virtual monopoly on literacy, and most of the political power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsler201711-18">[18]</a> Life for peasants was not easy, and hunger was common.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsler201712-19">[19]</a> 'Religion' in this context did not exist separately from politics or the family household.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsler201716-20">[20]</a> The 'house church' was the earliest stage of development and organization in the new Jesus movement. Voluntary associations known as collegia served as a model. Some church members were of higher social and economic standing than others and used their means to provide what was needed. The owner of the house was patron and host. The typical setting for worship was the communal meal which was not yet formally distinguished from the eucharistic meal. These house churches would each have been overseen by a presbyter/bishop whose primary role was economic. Any liturgical role would still have been linked to the substantial character of the eucharistic meal, the resources needed for it, and the charitable distributions connected to it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2014intro.-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGowan2016370-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsler201711-18">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2017686-23">[23]</a> Accordingly, Christian bishops began forming an alternative elite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEsler201711-18">[18]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:First_century_Iudaea_province.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/First_century_Iudaea_province.gif/220px-First_century_Iudaea_province.gif" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/First_century_Iudaea_province.gif/330px-First_century_Iudaea_province.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/First_century_Iudaea_province.gif/440px-First_century_Iudaea_province.gif 2x" data-file-width="575" data-file-height="792" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Roman_province" title="Roman province">Roman province</a> of <a href="/wiki/Judea_(Roman_province)" class="mw-redirect" title="Judea (Roman province)">Judea</a> in the 1st century AD</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Jewish_Christianity">Jewish Christianity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Jewish Christianity">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">first Christian communities</a> were predominantly Jewish, although some also attracted <a href="/wiki/God-fearers" class="mw-redirect" title="God-fearers">God-fearers</a>: Gentiles who visited Jewish synagogues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlutz2002178–190-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman200730–32-25">[25]</a> The religious, social, and political climate in Judea was extremely diverse and characterized by turmoil. Judaism itself included numerous religious and political movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-13">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchwartz200949,_91-26">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoung200625-27">[27]</a> One was <a href="/wiki/Jewish_messianism" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish messianism">Jewish messianism</a> with its <a href="/wiki/Cultural_and_historical_background_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural and historical background of Jesus">roots</a> in Jewish <a href="/wiki/Apocalyptic_literature" title="Apocalyptic literature">apocalyptic literature</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDaviesFinkelstein1989524–533-28">[28]</a> Its prophecy and poetry promised a future anointed leader (messiah or king) from the <a href="/wiki/Davidic_line" title="Davidic line">Davidic line</a> to resurrect the <a href="/wiki/Israelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Israelite">Israelite</a> Kingdom of God and replace the foreign rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20136–16-13">[13]</a> The nature of the earliest communities and the texts they produced indicate Jesus' first followers saw him as that promised Messiah.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBroadhead2017124-29">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert200911-30">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_growth">Early growth</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early growth">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Oxford_and_Cambridge_Acts_of_the_Apostles_-_with_ontrod._and_notes_for_the_use_of_students_preparing_for_examinations_(1894)_(14769867871).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of Paul's missionary journeys" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Oxford_and_Cambridge_Acts_of_the_Apostles_-_with_ontrod._and_notes_for_the_use_of_students_preparing_for_examinations_%281894%29_%2814769867871%29.jpg/330px-The_Oxford_and_Cambridge_Acts_of_the_Apostles_-_with_ontrod._and_notes_for_the_use_of_students_preparing_for_examinations_%281894%29_%2814769867871%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="228" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Oxford_and_Cambridge_Acts_of_the_Apostles_-_with_ontrod._and_notes_for_the_use_of_students_preparing_for_examinations_%281894%29_%2814769867871%29.jpg/495px-The_Oxford_and_Cambridge_Acts_of_the_Apostles_-_with_ontrod._and_notes_for_the_use_of_students_preparing_for_examinations_%281894%29_%2814769867871%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/The_Oxford_and_Cambridge_Acts_of_the_Apostles_-_with_ontrod._and_notes_for_the_use_of_students_preparing_for_examinations_%281894%29_%2814769867871%29.jpg/660px-The_Oxford_and_Cambridge_Acts_of_the_Apostles_-_with_ontrod._and_notes_for_the_use_of_students_preparing_for_examinations_%281894%29_%2814769867871%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2704" data-file-height="1868" /></a><figcaption>The Oxford and Cambridge Acts of the Apostles – Paul the Apostle's missionary journeys</figcaption></figure> Saul of Tarsus, a pharisee who became <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a>, persecuted the early Jewish Christians, then <a href="/wiki/Conversion_of_Paul" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversion of Paul">converted</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlutz2002178–190-24">[24]</a> Paul was influential in the early spread of Christianity making at least three missionary journeys and writing letters of instruction and admonishment to the churches he founded.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlutz2002178–190-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThiessen2014373–391-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifrid1992210–211,_246–247-32">[32]</a> Beginning with less than 1000 people, Christianity had grown to around one hundred <a href="/wiki/Early_centres_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centres of Christianity">small household churches</a> consisting of an average of seventy members each, by the year 100.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998202-33">[33]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P52_recto.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The recto of Rylands Library Papyrus P52 from the Gospel of John}}" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/P52_recto.jpg/180px-P52_recto.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/P52_recto.jpg/270px-P52_recto.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/P52_recto.jpg 2x" data-file-width="349" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption>The recto of Rylands Library Papyrus P52 from the Gospel of John. Bart Ehrman dates this fragment between 100 and 150</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Council_of_Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Council of Jerusalem">edit</a>]</div> The earliest date for the council is 47, but most likely it was held in 49 or 50. The issue concerned Gentiles joining the movement in increasing numbers and the <a href="/wiki/Judaizers" title="Judaizers">Judaizers</a> who wanted them to follow Jewish law. "The faith that was Jewish in form, and universal in content, had to be adjusted to non-Jewish people".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathews1909337-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Persecution">Persecution</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Persecution">edit</a>]</div> In its first three centuries, some saw Christianity as a threat which led to localized persecution by mobs and governors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchott20082-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoss2012129-36">[36]</a> The first reference to persecution by a Roman Emperor is under <a href="/wiki/Nero" title="Nero">Nero</a>, probably in 64 AD, in the city of Rome. Scholars conjecture that the Apostles Peter and Paul were killed then.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECropp200721-37">[37]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christian_texts">Christian texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Christian texts">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Hellenized" class="mw-redirect" title="Hellenized">Hellenized</a> Greek-speaking <a href="/wiki/Jews_of_Alexandria" class="mw-redirect" title="Jews of Alexandria">Jews of Alexandria</a> had produced the <a href="/wiki/Septuagint" title="Septuagint">Septuagint</a>, a Greek translation of the Hebrew Bible, between the third and first centuries BC.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETov201437–46-38">[38]</a> This was the translation of the Hebrew Bible used by the apostles and early Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch201066–69-39">[39]</a> Christian writings in Koine Greek, including Gospels containing accounts of Jesus's ministry, letters of Paul, and letters attributed to other early Christian leaders, were written in the first-century and had considerable authority even in the formative period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1998a14-40">[40]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPorter2011198-41">[41]</a> The letters of the Apostle Paul sent to the <a href="/wiki/Early_centers_of_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Early centers of Christianity">early Christian communities</a> were circulating in collected form by the end of the first-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerguson2002302–303-42">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structural_hierarchy">Structural hierarchy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Structural hierarchy">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Gerd_Theissen" title="Gerd Theissen">Gerd Theissen</a>, institutionalization began very early when itinerant preaching transformed into resident leadership in the first-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrell1997324-43">[43]</a> Edwin Judge argues that there must have been organization long before 325 since many bishops were established enough to participate in the Nicaean council.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudge20104-44">[44]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Pope Clement I">Clement</a>, a first-century bishop of Rome, refers to the leaders of the Corinthian church in <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_Clement" title="First Epistle of Clement">his epistle to Corinthians</a> as bishops and presbyters interchangeably. The New Testament writers also use the terms overseer and elders interchangeably and as synonyms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrington1957375–376-45">[45]</a> It is unlikely that Christian offices were derived from the synagogue.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGowan2016370-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2014intro.-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ante-Nicene_period_(100–312)">Ante-Nicene period (100–312)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Ante-Nicene period (100–312)">edit</a>]</div> The Second and Third centuries included both the fluidity and the consolidation of Christian identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017197-46">[46]</a> A more formal Church structure grew, and according to Carrington, that hierarchy developed at different times in different locations. <a href="/wiki/Bishop" title="Bishop">Bishops</a> began presiding over multiple churches and rose in power and influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrington1957375–376-45">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2014intro.-21">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017216-47">[47]</a> The Ante-Nicene period included increasing but sporadic persecution from Roman authorities, and the rise of Christian <a href="/wiki/Sect" title="Sect">sects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cult" title="Cult">cults</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sociological_classifications_of_religious_movements" title="Sociological classifications of religious movements">movements</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017207–212,_213–217-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Gentile_Christianity">Gentile Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Gentile Christianity">edit</a>]</div> The destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple by Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Titus" title="Titus">Titus</a> in 70 contributed to the divergence of Judaism and Christianity as did disagreements about Jewish law, Jewish insurrections against Rome which Christians did not support, and the development of <a href="/wiki/Rabbinic_Judaism" title="Rabbinic Judaism">Rabbinic Judaism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus200687–88,_99–100-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner1972313-50">[50]</a> What had begun as a Jewish messianic movement becomes a largely Gentile movement that is increasingly divorced from Judaism and its practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017198–200-51">[51]</a> However, Jewish Christianity remained influential in Palestine, Syria, and Asia Minor into the second and third centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylen1995190–193-52">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus200696–99,_101-53">[53]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="New_Testament">New Testament</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: New Testament">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:P46.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photo of an old page of writing from Papyrus 46 in a third-century collection of Paul's Epistles" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/150px-P46.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="212" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/225px-P46.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/P46.jpg/300px-P46.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="819" /></a><figcaption>A folio from <a href="/wiki/Papyrus_46" title="Papyrus 46">Papyrus 46</a>, an early third-century collection of <a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></figcaption></figure> By the early third-century, there existed <a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">a set of early Christian writings</a> similar to the current <a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPittsPorter201889–107-54">[54]</a> Although a general acceptance of the four gospels and the letters of Paul as authoritative is found in the second and third centuries, it is significant that church leaders assigned different degrees of authority to different writings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017205-55">[55]</a> There were disputes over the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_to_the_Hebrews" title="Epistle to the Hebrews">Epistle to the Hebrews</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Epistle_of_James" title="Epistle of James">Epistle of James</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_Peter" title="First Epistle of Peter">First</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Epistle_of_Peter" title="Second Epistle of Peter">Second Epistle of Peter</a>, the <a href="/wiki/First_Epistle_of_John" title="First Epistle of John">First Epistle of John</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Book of Revelation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoll199736–37-56">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Jonge2003315-57">[57]</a> <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnostic texts</a> emerged in the early second century challenging the physical nature of Jesus. In 172, <a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a> suggested that current prophecy could supersede the apostles, and <a href="/wiki/Monarchianism" title="Monarchianism">Monarchianism</a> emphasized the unity of God over the Trinity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017212–217-58">[58]</a> In the face of such diversity, the scriptures commonly used in worship provided some unity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017216–217-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullmann20181-60">[60]</a><a href="#cite_note-61">[note 1]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_Christian_art">Early Christian art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Early Christian art">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photo of very old and slightly damaged representation of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the catacombs, made around 300 AD" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg/220px-Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="311" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ce/Good_shepherd_02b_close.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="384" /></a><figcaption>One of the oldest representations of Jesus as the Good Shepherd from the <a href="/wiki/Catacombs_of_Rome" title="Catacombs of Rome">catacombs of Rome</a>, made around 300 AD</figcaption></figure> The early church fathers rejected the making of images.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148-62">[61]</a> This rejection, along with the necessity to hide Christian practice from persecution, left behind few early records.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabar20237-63">[62]</a> What is most likely the oldest Christian art emerged on <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarcophagi">sarcophagi</a>, and in burial chambers in frescoes and statues, sometime from the late second to the early third-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–149-64">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudith_Anne_Testa80-65">[64]</a> This art is symbolic rather than representative. Much of it is a fusion of Graeco-Roman style and Christian symbolism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodenough1962138-66">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–151-67">[66]</a> Jesus as the good shepherd is the most common image of this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998149-68">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persecutions_and_legalization">Persecutions and legalization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Persecutions and legalization">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flagellation_St_Erasmus_Crypta_Balbi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="primitive painting of St. Erasmus being flogged" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Flagellation_St_Erasmus_Crypta_Balbi.jpg/180px-Flagellation_St_Erasmus_Crypta_Balbi.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Flagellation_St_Erasmus_Crypta_Balbi.jpg/270px-Flagellation_St_Erasmus_Crypta_Balbi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Flagellation_St_Erasmus_Crypta_Balbi.jpg/360px-Flagellation_St_Erasmus_Crypta_Balbi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2250" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/St._Erasmus" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Erasmus">St. Erasmus</a> flogged in the presence of Emperor Diocletian. Byzantine artwork, from the crypt of the church of <a href="/wiki/Santa_Maria_in_Via_Lata" title="Santa Maria in Via Lata">Santa Maria in Via Lata</a> in Rome</figcaption></figure> In 250, the emperor <a href="/wiki/Decius" title="Decius">Decius</a> made it a capital offense to refuse to make sacrifices to <a href="/wiki/Roman_gods" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman gods">Roman gods</a>, resulting in widespread persecution of Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERives1999141-69">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroix2006139–140-70">[69]</a> <a href="/wiki/Valerian_(emperor)" title="Valerian (emperor)">Valerian</a> pursued similar policies later that decade. The last and most severe official persecution, the <a href="/wiki/Diocletianic_Persecution" title="Diocletianic Persecution">Diocletianic Persecution</a>, took place in 303–311.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaddis200530–31-71">[70]</a> There was also periodic persecution of Christians by Persian Sassanian authorities, and popular opposition from Graeco-Roman society at large. Christian authors of the second and third centuries were on the defensive, and the term Hellene became equated with pagan during this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017212-72">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglebert20155-73">[72]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Serdica" title="Edict of Serdica">Edict of Serdica</a> was issued in 311 by the Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Galerius" title="Galerius">Galerius</a>, officially ending the persecution of Christians in the East. With the promulgation of the <a href="/wiki/Edict_of_Milan" title="Edict of Milan">Edict of Milan</a> in 313, in which co-emperors <a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great" title="Constantine the Great">Constantine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Licinius" title="Licinius">Licinius</a> legalized all religions, persecution of Christians by the Roman state ceased.<a href="#cite_note-ReligionFacts-74">[73]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a> became <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">the first country in the world to establish Christianity</a> as its state religion when, in an event traditionally dated to 301, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_the_Illuminator" title="Gregory the Illuminator">Gregory the Illuminator</a> convinced <a href="/wiki/Tiridates_III_of_Armenia" title="Tiridates III of Armenia">Tiridates III</a>, the King of Armenia, to convert to Christianity. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_of_Christianity_to_c._300_AD">Spread of Christianity to c. 300 AD</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Spread of Christianity to c. 300 AD">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire_as_diffusion_of_innovation" title="Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation">Christianization of the Roman Empire as diffusion of innovation</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Distribution_of_the_documented_presence_of_Christian_congregations_in_the_first_three_centuries.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Distribution_of_the_documented_presence_of_Christian_congregations_in_the_first_three_centuries.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Distribution_of_the_documented_presence_of_Christian_congregations_in_the_first_three_centuries.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Distribution_of_the_documented_presence_of_Christian_congregations_in_the_first_three_centuries.tif/lossy-page1-495px-Distribution_of_the_documented_presence_of_Christian_congregations_in_the_first_three_centuries.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Distribution_of_the_documented_presence_of_Christian_congregations_in_the_first_three_centuries.tif/lossy-page1-660px-Distribution_of_the_documented_presence_of_Christian_congregations_in_the_first_three_centuries.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1343" /></a><figcaption>Distribution of Christian congregations in Roman territories during each of the first three centuries AD<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFousek_et_al2018-75">[74]</a></figcaption></figure> Driven by a universalist logic, Christianity has been, from its beginnings, a missionary faith with global aspirations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20074-76">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert20091-77">[76]</a> It first spread through the <a href="/wiki/Jewish_diaspora" title="Jewish diaspora">Jewish diaspora</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumfress20133,_76,_83–88,_91-78">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBokenkotter200718-79">[78]</a> along the trade and travel routes followed by merchants, soldiers, and migrating tribes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007118-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarnett2017200,_217-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998192–193-82">[81]</a> It achieved <a href="/wiki/Critical_mass_(sociodynamics)" title="Critical mass (sociodynamics)">critical mass</a> in the years between 150 and 250 when it moved from fewer than 50,000 adherents to over a million. This provided enough adopters for its growth rate to be <a href="/wiki/Self-sustaining" class="mw-redirect" title="Self-sustaining">self-sustaining</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarnett2017200,_217-81">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998192–193-82">[81]</a> In the first-century, it spread into Asia Minor (<a href="/wiki/Athens" title="Athens">Athens</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corinth" title="Corinth">Corinth</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ephesus" title="Ephesus">Ephesus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Pergamum" class="mw-redirect" title="Pergamum">Pergamum</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevett2006314,_320,_324–327-83">[82]</a> Egyptian Christianity probably began in the first-century in Alexandria.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2006331,_334–335-84">[83]</a> As it spread, <a href="/wiki/Coptic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic Christianity">Coptic Christianity</a>, which survives into the modern era, developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPearson2006336-85">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20075-86">[85]</a> <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Antioch" title="Church of Antioch">Christianity in Antioch</a> is mentioned in <a href="/wiki/Paul%27s_epistles" class="mw-redirect" title="Paul's epistles">Paul's epistles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2006351,_353-87">[86]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png/220px-Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png/330px-Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/63/Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png/440px-Broad_overview_of_geography_relevant_to_paul_of_tarsus.png 2x" data-file-width="1569" data-file-height="764" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Mediterranean" title="Eastern Mediterranean">Eastern Mediterranean</a> region in the time of <a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></figcaption></figure> Early Christianity was in <a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Gaul</a>, North Africa, and the city of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBehr2006369–371,_372–374-88">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETilley2006386-89">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEdmundson20088–9-90">[89]</a> It spread (in its Arian form) in the Germanic world during the latter part of the third-century, and probably reached Roman Britain by the third-century at the latest.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiek2007abstract-91">[90]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchäferdiek2007abstract-91">[90]</a> From the earliest days, there was a Christian presence in <a href="/wiki/Edessa" title="Edessa">Edessa</a> (modern Turkey). It developed in <a href="/wiki/Adiabene" title="Adiabene">Adiabene</a> in the Parthian Empire in <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a> (modern Iran). It developed in <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> by the Black Sea, in <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Arabia" title="South Arabia">South Arabia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Soqotra" class="mw-redirect" title="Soqotra">Soqotra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>. By the sixth-century, there is evidence of Christian communities in <a href="/wiki/Sri_Lanka" title="Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tibet" title="Tibet">Tibet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007118-80">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilken20134,_235,_238-92">[91]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Inclusivity,_women_and_exclusivity">Inclusivity, women and exclusivity</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Inclusivity, women and exclusivity">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_charity_Thorvaldsen_Louvre_RF3698.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="marble fresco of woman and two young children from the Louvre" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Christian_charity_Thorvaldsen_Louvre_RF3698.jpg/220px-Christian_charity_Thorvaldsen_Louvre_RF3698.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="324" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Christian_charity_Thorvaldsen_Louvre_RF3698.jpg/330px-Christian_charity_Thorvaldsen_Louvre_RF3698.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Christian_charity_Thorvaldsen_Louvre_RF3698.jpg/440px-Christian_charity_Thorvaldsen_Louvre_RF3698.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1540" data-file-height="2270" /></a><figcaption> Christian charity, 19th century work by <a href="/wiki/Bertel_Thorvaldsen" title="Bertel Thorvaldsen">Bertel Thorvaldsen</a></figcaption></figure> Early Christianity was inclusively open to men and women, rich and poor, slave and free (<a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Bible_(King_James)/Galatians#Galatians_3" class="extiw" title="s:Bible (King James)/Galatians">Galatians 3:28</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeeks200379–81-93">[92]</a> Baptism was free, and there were no fees, which made Christianity a substantially cheaper form of worship compared with the costly aristocratic models of patronage, temple building, and cult observances.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWelchPulham2000202-94">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199245–48-95">[94]</a> Inclusivity extended to women who made up significant numbers of Christianity's earliest members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieu19995-96">[95]</a> Traditional social expectations of women in the Roman Empire did not encourage them to engage in the same activities as men of the same social class.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner199167-97">[96]</a> However, through religious activities, women were sometimes able to attain a freedom otherwise denied to them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPomeroy1995xv-98">[97]</a> The Pauline epistles in the New Testament provide some of the earliest documentary sources of women as true missionary partners in the early Jesus movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald1996163,_167-99">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECloke19955–7-100">[99]</a> Female figures in early Christian art are ubiquitous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETulloch2004302-101">[100]</a> In the church rolls from the second-century, there is conclusive evidence of groups of women "exercising the office of widow".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald1996169-102">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGuy201110,_75,_188-103">[102]</a> <a href="/wiki/Judith_Lieu" title="Judith Lieu">Judith Lieu</a> affirms that influential women were attracted to Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieu199916,_20–21-104">[103]</a> Much of the vociferous anti-Christian criticism of the early church was linked to "female initiative" which indicates women were playing a significant role.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGardner199167-97">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald1996126,_157,_167–168,_202,_242-105">[104]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaFosse2017385–387-106">[105]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[note 2]</a> Monasticism was one area of antique life that gave women who practiced charismatic asceticism some control over their destinies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017308-110">[108]</a> Ross Kraemer theorizes that the ascetic life was attractive to large numbers of women.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKraemer1980298,_300–301,_306–307-111">[109]</a> It offered an escape from marriage and motherhood and offered an intellectual life with access to social and economic power that would otherwise have eluded them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastelli2004251-112">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMilnor2011abstract-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017308-110">[108]</a> A key characteristic of these inclusive communities was their unique type of exclusivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrebilco201785-114">[112]</a> Believing was the crucial and defining characteristic of membership. Correct belief identified and separated believers from the "unbeliever" creating a high social boundary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2010126–127-115">[113]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrebilco201785,_218,_282-116">[114]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199268,_108-117">[115]</a> Such exclusivity formed an important part of Christianity's success by enabling independence in a society that syncretized religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199268,_108-117">[115]</a> In Daniel Praet's view, exclusivity gave Christianity the powerful psychological attraction of elitism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199236-118">[116]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Practices">Practices</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Practices">edit</a>]</div> Christian and non-Christian witnesses testify to the zealousness of Christian communities for <a href="/wiki/Alms" title="Alms">almsgiving</a> and charity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrison199376,_93-119">[117]</a> Christians showed the poor great generosity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuir2006218,_231-120">[118]</a> Early Christianity redefined family by burying together church members not related by blood and extending funeral rites to include the Christian community.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYasin2005433-121">[119]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHellerman20096-122">[120]</a> Christians had no sacrificial cult, and this set them apart from Judaism and the pagan world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2007abstract-123">[121]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_antiquity_(313–476)">Late antiquity (313–476)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Late antiquity (313–476)">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Late_Antiquity" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Antiquity">Late Antiquity</a> can be seen as an era of economic struggle with periods of stagnation and periods of tremendous activity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2012113-124">[122]</a> The Christian faith grew and spread through the Empire into <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a> and around the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_basin" title="Mediterranean basin">Mediterranean basin</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudge20104-44">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein20146-125">[123]</a> Different doctrines and practices emerged as schisms and heresies due to its multiple geographic and cultural contexts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20071–3-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBardill20121-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregerman20162-128">[126]</a> Church organization began to mirror the structure of the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHall2007415-129">[127]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJohnson2015xx,_15,_23-130">[128]</a> The Theodosian Age embracing the last twenty years of the fourth century and the first twenty years of the fifth has been described as "the last renaissance of the Roman Empire".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2012150-131">[129]</a> By the second half of the fifth-century, cities were in decline, streets were no longer being built, and fortifications were decaying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2012150-131">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Constantine_(c._272_–_337)">Constantine (c. 272 – 337)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Constantine (c. 272 – 337)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Religious_policies_of_Constantine_the_Great" title="Religious policies of Constantine the Great">Religious policies of Constantine the Great</a></div> Constantine the Great became emperor in the West, declared himself a Christian, and in 313, just two years after the close of Diocletian's persecution, issued the Edict of Milan expressing tolerance for all religions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b542-132">[130]</a> The Edict was a pluralist policy, and throughout the Roman Empire of the fourth to sixth centuries, people shifted between a variety of religious groups in a kind of "religious marketplace".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPapaconstantinou2016xxix-133">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahlos20193-134">[132]</a> Constantine also took important steps to support and protect Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b538,_544-135">[133]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKahlos20193-134">[132]</a> He gave bishops judicial power and established equal footing for Christian clergy by granting them the same immunities polytheistic priests had long enjoyed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b538,_544,_546-136">[134]</a> By intervening in church disputes, he initiated a precedent for ecclesiastical councils.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerberdingMoran_Cruz200455–56-137">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b545-138">[136]</a> There was a burst of church building under Constantine, and Christian art and literature blossomed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2017700-139">[137]</a><a href="#cite_note-141">[note 3]</a> By the late fourth-century, there were churches in essentially all Roman cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b547-142">[139]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Polytheism">Polytheism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Polytheism">edit</a>]</div> Overt pagan-Christian religious conflict was once the dominant view of Late Antiquity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998633-143">[140]</a> Twenty-first-century scholarship indicates that, while hostile Christian actions toward pagans and their monuments did occur, violence was not a general phenomenon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInglebert20154–5-144">[141]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESághySchoolman20171-145">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998640–641,_646–647-146">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-148">[note 4]</a> As <a href="/wiki/Jan_N._Bremmer" title="Jan N. Bremmer">Jan N. Bremmer</a> writes, "religious violence in Late Antiquity is mostly restricted to violent rhetoric".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBremmer20209-149">[145]</a> Support for the polytheistic religions had been declining since the second-century B.C. and continued to decline throughout Late Antiquity. The economic crisis of the third-century had already produced a decline of urbanism and prosperity. Further economic disruption in the fourth and fifth-centuries occurred when <a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">various Germanic peoples</a> sacked Rome, and invaded Britain, Gaul, and Iberia. Such disruption made fewer public funds and private donations available to support expensive pagan festivals and temples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998641-150">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron201510,_17,_42,_50-151">[147]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarper2015685-152">[148]</a> Under Constantine, non-Christians became subject to a variety of hostile and discriminatory imperial laws aimed at suppressing sacrifice and magic and closing temples that continued their use.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson201287,_93-153">[149]</a> Blood sacrifice had been a central rite of virtually all religious groups in the pre-Christian Mediterranean, but it disappeared by the end of the fourth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury1995331-154">[150]</a> This is "one of the most significant religious developments of late antiquity," writes Scott Bradbury, and "must be attributed to ...imperial and episcopal hostility".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBradbury1995355–356-155">[151]</a> Christian emperors wanted the empire to become a Christian empire, and they used imperial law to make it easier to be Christian and harder to be pagan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman1993362–365,_378-156">[152]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998640–642,_646–647-157">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaradi-Mendelovici199048-158">[154]</a> However, there was no legislation forcing the conversion of pagans until the sixth-century, during the reign of the Eastern emperor Justinian I, when there was a shift from generalized legislation to actions that targeted individual centers of paganism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake2007418,_421-159">[155]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2015455–457-160">[156]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerberdingMoran_Cruz200455–56-161">[157]</a> Despite threatening imperial laws, occasional mob violence, and imperial confiscations of temple treasures, paganism remained widespread into the early fifth-century, continuing in parts of the empire into the seventh-century, and into the ninth-century in Greece.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman2002182-162">[158]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaxwell2015854–855-163">[159]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Jews_(395-398)">The Jews (395-398)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: The Jews (395-398)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Augustine_Portrait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Saint_Augustine_Portrait.jpg/220px-Saint_Augustine_Portrait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Saint_Augustine_Portrait.jpg/330px-Saint_Augustine_Portrait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Saint_Augustine_Portrait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="424" data-file-height="577" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a> by <a href="/wiki/Sandro_Botticelli" title="Sandro Botticelli">Sandro Botticelli</a>, c. 1480</figcaption></figure> Jews and Christians were both religious minorities, claiming the same inheritance, competing in a direct and sometimes violent clash.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStroumsa2007abstract-164">[160]</a> Augustine's ethic regarding the Jews rejected those who argued they should be killed or forcibly converted. Instead, he said Jews should be allowed to live in Christian societies and practice <a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a> without interference because they preserved the teachings of the Old Testament and were "living witnesses" of the New.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen199878–80-165">[161]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Anna_Sapir_Abulafia" class="mw-redirect" title="Anna Sapir Abulafia">Anna Sapir Abulafia</a>, scholars agree that "with the marked exception of Visigothic Spain in the seventh-century, Jews in Latin Christendom lived relatively peacefully with their Christian neighbors" until the 1200s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbulafia2002xii-166">[162]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBachrach19773-167">[163]</a> Sometime before the fifth-century, the theology of <a href="/wiki/Supersessionism" title="Supersessionism">supersessionism</a> emerged, claiming that Christianity had displaced Judaism as God's chosen people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETapie20173-168">[164]</a> Supersessionism was never official or universally held, but replacement theology has been part of Christian thought through much of history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguzzi2017xi,_3,_5,_12,_25,_133-169">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlach201027-170">[166]</a> Many attribute the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Antisemitism" title="Antisemitism">antisemitism</a> to this doctrine, while others make a distinction between supersessionism and modern antisemitism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim20062,_4,_8–9-171">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGerdmar200925-172">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthodoxy_and_heresy_(312-)">Orthodoxy and heresy (312-)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Orthodoxy and heresy (312-)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Christianity in the Roman Africa province</a></div> There has been a paradigm shift in modern scholarship that questions the existence of heresy and orthodoxy before the Council of Nicea (325) and differentiates heresy from schism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinn2017837,_848-173">[169]</a> The Church of Late Antiquity was seen by its supporters as a universal church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2017A_United_Church,_chapter_1-174">[170]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-175">[171]</a> Membership was based on belief, and correct belief - defined by apostolic tradition - was used to identify and define variations as heresies according to their degrees of difference from the "true church".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIricinschiZellentin20084-176">[172]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPraet199268,_108-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinn2017838–841-177">[173]</a> Ancient authors labeled anyone with doctrinal variations and different practices as heretical.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinn2017839-178">[174]</a> The sheer number of laws directed at heresy in the fourth and fifth centuries indicate it was a much higher priority than paganism for Christians of this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1998634,640,651-179">[175]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman1993375-180">[176]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Augustine_and_donatists.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Augustine and donatists debating" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Augustine_and_donatists.jpg/220px-Augustine_and_donatists.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Augustine_and_donatists.jpg/330px-Augustine_and_donatists.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Augustine_and_donatists.jpg/440px-Augustine_and_donatists.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="693" /></a><figcaption>Augustine and donatists debating</figcaption></figure> In North Africa during the reign of Constantine, <a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a> formed as a schism. Donatists refused - sometimes violently - to accept back into the Church those who had handed over sacred texts during Diocletian's persecution. After many appeals, the empire responded with force, and in 408 in his Letter 93, <a href="/wiki/Augustine" class="mw-redirect" title="Augustine">Augustine</a> defended the government's action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETilley2006389-181">[177]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrend2020172,_173,_222,_241-182">[178]</a> Augustine's authority on coercion was undisputed for over a millennium in Western Christianity, and according to Peter Brown, "it provided the theological foundation for the justification of medieval persecution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown1964107–116-183">[179]</a> Opponents of <a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a> used it to develop better Christian theology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGinn2017841-184">[180]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELogan2017864-185">[181]</a> <a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a> was mentioned at Nicea but not condemned, however, there were repeated and ongoing writings against it after 324.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrevett2017867-186">[182]</a> Traditionally, scholars have seen the greatest controversy as that between <a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">trinitarianism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodman200730–32-25">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20149-187">[183]</a> Exactly what occurred has long been a matter of intense debate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankin2017907-188">[184]</a> Sometime around 320, <a href="/wiki/Arius" title="Arius">Arius</a> wrote a letter to his bishop, Alexander, distinguishing three distinct "substances" of God with the Father alone as eternal and not having a beginning. In this metaphysic, the Son is not of the same substance as the Father. Alexander responded by taking formal action against Arius and advising the wider church to do the same.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERankin2017908-189">[185]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Nicaea_icon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="An Eastern icon depicting Constantine surrounded by several few bishops holding the Nicene Creed in front of them" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/220px-Nicaea_icon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/330px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Nicaea_icon.jpg/440px-Nicaea_icon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1388" /></a><figcaption>Icon depicting the <a href="/wiki/Constantine_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Constantine I">Emperor Constantine</a> (centre) and the bishops of the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (325) holding the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed#Niceno-Constantinopolitan_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Niceno–Constantinopolitan Creed of 381</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">First Council of Nicaea</a> (held in modern <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0znik" title="İznik">İznik</a>, Turkey), called by Constantine in 325 to resolve the controversy, produced a statement of orthodoxy in the form of the <a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a>, while the <a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">First Council of Constantinople</a> called by <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> in 381, affirmed it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBerndtSteinacher20142,_4,_7-190">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETrombley2007abstract-191">[187]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="New_Testament_Canon_(382)">New Testament Canon (382)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: New Testament Canon (382)">edit</a>]</div> The New Testament canon was eventually settled based on common usage.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWestcott200512–13-192">[188]</a> By the fourth-century, unanimity was reached in the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Church" title="Latin Church">Latin Church</a> on which texts should be included.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBruce1988215-193">[189]</a> A list of accepted books was established by the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Rome" title="Council of Rome">Council of Rome</a> in 382, followed by those of <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Hippo" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Hippo">Hippo</a> in 393 and <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Carthage#Synod_of_397" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of Carthage">Carthage</a> in 397.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2010Intro-194">[190]</a> For Christians, these became the New Testament, and the Hebrew Scriptures became the Old Testament.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2010Intro._and_ch._1-195">[191]</a> By the fifth-century, the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Churches" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Churches">Eastern Churches</a>, with a few exceptions, had come to accept the Book of Revelation—and thus had come into harmony with the canon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBible_history1970305-196">[192]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="East_and_West">East and West</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: East and West">edit</a>]</div> By Late Antiquity, the tendency for East and West to grow apart was already becoming evident.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown19762-197">[193]</a> The Western church used Latin, while Eastern church leaders spoke and wrote in Greek, Syrian, and other languages. Theological differences were already becoming evident.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahner2013xiii,_xiv-198">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEichbauer20221-199">[195]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176–177-200">[196]</a> In the Roman West, the church condemned Roman culture as sinful, tried to keep them separate, and struggled to resist State control while assimilation was still taking place. Eastern Christianity acclaimed harmony with Greek culture and upheld unanimity between church and state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake2007416,_418-201">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown19767–8-202">[198]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2002261-203">[199]</a> One particular bone of contention was Consantinople's claim of equal precedence with Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-175">[171]</a> The East advocated <a href="/wiki/Pentarchy" title="Pentarchy">Pentarchy</a>, which would share the government of the church between the Patriarchs of Constantinople, Alexandria, Antioch, Jerusalem, and the Pope of Rome. First promoted through legislation of the emperor Justinian, and later confirmed by the Council in Trullo (692), the West opposed it, advocating instead for the <a href="/wiki/Papal_supremacy" title="Papal supremacy">papal supremacy</a> of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPentarchy2024-204">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEQinisext_Council2008-205">[201]</a> Ongoing theological controversies over Jesus' human and divine natures as either one (or two) separate (or unified) natures led to the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Third</a> (431), <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Fourth</a> (451), <a href="/wiki/Second_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Second Council of Constantinople">Fifth</a> (583) and <a href="/wiki/Third_Council_of_Constantinople" title="Third Council of Constantinople">Sixth ecumenical councils</a> (680–681).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESabo2018vii-206">[202]</a> Schisms broke out after the Council of Chalcedon (451) wrote the <a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Definition" title="Chalcedonian Definition">Chalcedonian Definition</a> that two separate natures of Christ form one <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> entity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELöhr2007abstract-207">[203]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECross2001363-208">[204]</a> Disagreement led the Armenian, Assyrian, and Egyptian churches to withdraw from Catholicism, and instead, combine into what is today known as <a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodoxy" class="mw-redirect" title="Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a>, one of three major branches of Eastern Christianity, along with the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> in Persia and <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodoxy</a> in Byzantium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAdams2021366–367-209">[205]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006375-210">[206]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBussell1910346-211">[207]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Monasticism">Monasticism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Monasticism">edit</a>]</div> Christian monasticism was formerly thought to have begun as an Egyptian phenomenon that spread to other regions. Twenty-first century scholarship asserts its origin was in Syria where it emerged from the asceticism that had existed in Christianity from its beginning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017309-212">[208]</a> Egyptian monasticism of the fourth and fifth centuries produced the texts and sayings, themes, and figures, that shaped much of modern understanding of monastics as "desert fathers".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017312-213">[209]</a> Palestine became a centre of pilgrimage and monastic communities were associated with the urban holy places. Monastics were in Cappadocia, Italy, Gaul and Roman North Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017315–324-214">[210]</a> There were Greek and non-Greek communities in Jerusalem and Bethlehem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017316-215">[211]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hospitals_(369)">Hospitals (369)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Hospitals (369)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saint_Basil_the_Great._Line_engraving._Wellcome_V0031688.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="line drawing of Basil of Ceasarea" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Saint_Basil_the_Great._Line_engraving._Wellcome_V0031688.jpg/130px-Saint_Basil_the_Great._Line_engraving._Wellcome_V0031688.jpg" decoding="async" width="130" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Saint_Basil_the_Great._Line_engraving._Wellcome_V0031688.jpg/195px-Saint_Basil_the_Great._Line_engraving._Wellcome_V0031688.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Saint_Basil_the_Great._Line_engraving._Wellcome_V0031688.jpg/260px-Saint_Basil_the_Great._Line_engraving._Wellcome_V0031688.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2126" data-file-height="3394" /></a><figcaption>Saint Basil the Great. Line engraving.</figcaption></figure> In 358, <a href="/wiki/Basil_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Basil the Great">Basil the Great</a> founded a monastic community in Caesarea that developed an unprecedented <a href="/wiki/Health_care_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care system">health care system</a>. It allowed the sick to be cared for in a special building at the monastery by those dedicated to their care giving the sick benefits which <a href="/wiki/Social_stigma" title="Social stigma">destigmatized</a> illness. This transformed health care, formed the first public <a href="/wiki/Hospital" title="Hospital">hospital</a> in 369, and became a model for public hospitals into the twentieth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrislip20058–9,_38–39,_99–103,_104–106-216">[212]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theodosius_I_(379_to_395)">Theodosius I (379 to 395)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Theodosius I (379 to 395)">edit</a>]</div> For centuries after his death, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Theodosius_I" title="Theodosius I">Theodosius I</a> (379-395) was regarded as the champion of Christian orthodoxy who stamped out paganism. Theodosius's predecessors had all been <a href="/wiki/Semi-Arian" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-Arian">semi-Arians</a>, and recent scholarship tends to see the ancient Christian writers as affirming orthodoxy rather than writing actual history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington2006248–249-217">[213]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHebblewhitechapter_8-218">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron74_(and_note_177)-219">[215]</a> Scholars agree that Theodosius gathered legislation on religious subjects, continued the practices of his predecessors against sacrifices, magic and temples that allowed them, issued multiple decrees against heretics, but did not see himself as a destroyer of the old cults.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron60,_65,_68–73-220">[216]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHebblewhitechapter_8-218">[214]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEErrington2006251-221">[217]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Theodosian_Law_Code">Theodosian Law Code</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Theodosian Law Code">edit</a>]</div> Under Theodosius' direction, laws from different governors and emperors going back to Constantine were collected into the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Theodosianus" title="Codex Theodosianus">Theodosian Law Code</a>. Originally written to resolve issues of a particular place and time, these laws often contradicted each other. Theodosius had them gathered together, organized by theme, and reissued throughout the empire between 389 and 391.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarriesWood20105–16-222">[218]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESaradi-Mendelovici199047-223">[219]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_State,_the_Senate_and_the_Pope_(after_325)">The State, the Senate and the Pope (after 325)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: The State, the Senate and the Pope (after 325)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:020210817_131926_Bronze_coin_Justinian_the_Great,_6th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="picture of a 6th century bronze coin with the image of Justinian I on it" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/020210817_131926_Bronze_coin_Justinian_the_Great%2C_6th_century.jpg/220px-020210817_131926_Bronze_coin_Justinian_the_Great%2C_6th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/020210817_131926_Bronze_coin_Justinian_the_Great%2C_6th_century.jpg/330px-020210817_131926_Bronze_coin_Justinian_the_Great%2C_6th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/020210817_131926_Bronze_coin_Justinian_the_Great%2C_6th_century.jpg/440px-020210817_131926_Bronze_coin_Justinian_the_Great%2C_6th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1284" data-file-height="1087" /></a><figcaption>Bronze coin with image of Justinian the Great, 6th century</figcaption></figure> After Constantine removed restrictions on Christianity, emperor and bishop shared responsibility for maintaining relations with the divine.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake2007412-224">[220]</a> Constantine and his successors, attempted to fit the Church into their political program.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERahner2013xiii,_xvii-225">[221]</a> Western church leaders resisted by making a case for a sphere of religious authority separate from state authority. Their objection forms the first clearly articulated limitation on the scope of a ruler’s power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDrake2007413–414-226">[222]</a> For most of this period, the papacy had limited influence while the senatorial aristocracy played the central role. By the end of this period, the two powers had begun switching places.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman2021300-227">[223]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkus1990intro,_11-228">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20071–3-126">[124]</a> Patriarchs in the East frequently looked to the bishop of Rome to resolve disagreements resulting in an extension of papal power and influence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkus1990intro,_11-228">[224]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20071–3-126">[124]</a> Roman senators were incredibly wealthy, influential, and independent, and their conversion to Christianity began slowly during the reign of Gratian (367-83).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2002259-229">[225]</a> The last hold-outs converted midway through the fifth century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2002258–259-230">[226]</a><a href="#cite_note-232">[note 5]</a> The Senate remained influential, even with the barbarians after 476, playing an increasing role in church politics through the end of the fifth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman2021198–199,_209–212,_215,_241-233">[228]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnish1988120-234">[229]</a> In 535, the eastern emperor <a href="/wiki/Justinian_I" title="Justinian I">Justinian I</a> (482 – 565) attempted to assert control over the <a href="/wiki/Italian_Peninsula" class="mw-redirect" title="Italian Peninsula">Italian Peninsula</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_War_(535%E2%80%93554)" title="Gothic War (535–554)">Gothic war</a>, which became a <a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">guerrilla war</a> that lasted 20 years. Surviving Roman senators, the pope, and the clergy of Rome looked forward to a period of reconstruction in the aftermath.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman2021298-235">[230]</a> Instead, in 554, Justinian asserted a <a href="/wiki/Pragmatic_Sanction" class="mw-redirect" title="Pragmatic Sanction">Pragmatic Sanction</a> that removed the Senate's support and effectively ended it as an institution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESalzman2021299–301,_335-236">[231]</a> In 630, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Honorius_I" title="Pope Honorius I">Pope Honorius I</a> consecrated the Senate building <a href="/wiki/Curia_Julia" title="Curia Julia">Curia Julia</a> as a church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBond201584-237">[232]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_Antique_art_and_literature_(c.350-500)">Late Antique art and literature (c.350-500)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Late Antique art and literature (c.350-500)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:VirgenNino.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="fourth century wall painting of mother and child" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/220px-VirgenNino.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/330px-VirgenNino.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1c/VirgenNino.jpg/440px-VirgenNino.jpg 2x" data-file-width="450" data-file-height="300" /></a><figcaption>Virgin and Child. Wall painting from the early Roman catacombs, fourth-century</figcaption></figure> In the fourth-century, Constantine's sponsorship produced an exuberant burst of Christian art and architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeitzmann1979xix-238">[233]</a> Christianity developed its first normative public architecture modeled after a type of audience hall used by municipal courts. The <a href="/wiki/Basilica" title="Basilica">basilica</a> became the norm for, and the root of, all later types of Christian architecture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite2017673-239">[234]</a> A hybrid form of poetry written in traditional classic forms with Latin style and Christian concepts emerged. The Christian innovation of mixing genrés and new methods of interpreting history began.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECroke2015414-240">[235]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAgosti2015362,_371–372-241">[236]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcGill2015343-242">[237]</a> The codex (the ancestor of modern books) was consistently used by Christians as early as the first-century. The church in Egypt had most likely invented the papyrus codex by the second-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoberts1949158–159,_160–161-243">[238]</a> In the late fourth century, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Damasus_I" title="Pope Damasus I">Pope Damasus I</a> commissioned <a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a> to translate the Greek biblical texts into the Latin language used by the educated governing classes. Called the <a href="/wiki/Vulgate" title="Vulgate">Vulgate</a>, it uses many terms common to Roman jurisprudence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann196582–83-244">[239]</a> In the fourth and fifth centuries, church fathers wrote hundreds of works from different traditions, cultural contexts, and languages (Greek, Latin, Syriac, Ethiopian, Armenian, Coptic, etc.) contributing to what is generally understood to be the "Golden Age of Patristic" Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumfress201597-245">[240]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20071–3-126">[124]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBardill20121-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregerman20162-128">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">John Chrysostom</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nyssa" title="Gregory of Nyssa">Gregory of Nyssa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius of Alexandria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Basil_of_Caesarea" title="Basil of Caesarea">Basil of Caesarea</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gregory_of_Nazianzus" title="Gregory of Nazianzus">Gregory of Nazianzus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cyril_of_Alexandria" title="Cyril of Alexandria">Cyril of Alexandria</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ambrose_of_Milan" class="mw-redirect" title="Ambrose of Milan">Ambrose of Milan</a> are among the many who made contributions to polemical works, orations, sermons, letters, poems, history, systematic theology, treatises on Christian doctrine, Biblical exegesis, scriptural commentary, and legal commentary.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHumfress2015100–101,_110-246">[241]</a> Around the year 400, art reflects optimism among traditional polytheists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWright2012355-247">[242]</a> This is likely connected to the revival of classical styles, overseen by Theodosius, in the Theodosian renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacobs2012150-131">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread">Spread</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Spread">edit</a>]</div> In the fourth-century the Persian Empire had as high a percentage of Christians as the Roman Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert20098-248">[243]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Britain_and_Ireland_(397)">Britain and Ireland (397)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Britain and Ireland (397)">edit</a>]</div> The conversion of the <a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a> began in the early fifth-century through missionary activity and without coercion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarney2017103;_122-249">[244]</a> Christianity had become an established minority faith in some parts of Britain in the second-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThomas1997506–507-250">[245]</a> In the fifth century, <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_settlement_of_Britain" title="Anglo-Saxon settlement of Britain">migration</a> led <a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a> forms of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a> to largely displace Christianity in south-eastern Britain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan201370-251">[246]</a> Irish missionaries went to <a href="/wiki/Iona" title="Iona">Iona</a> (563) and converted many <a href="/wiki/Picts" title="Picts">Picts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESharpe199530–33-252">[247]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_mission" title="Gregorian mission">Gregorian mission</a> in 597 led to the <a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">conversion of the first Anglo-Saxon king</a> <a href="/wiki/%C3%86thelberht" title="Æthelberht">Æthelberht</a> around 600.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKirby200035,_120–121-253">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asia">Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> There is no consensus on the origins of Christianity beyond Byzantium in Asia or East Africa. Though it is scattered throughout these areas by the fourth-century, there is little documentation and no complete record.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007119–122,_125-254">[249]</a> Asian and African Christians did not have access to structures of power, and their institutions developed without state support.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007118–119-255">[250]</a> Asian Christianity never developed the social, intellectual, and political power of Byzantium or the Latin West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007118-80">[79]</a> In 301, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> became the first country to adopt Christianity as its state religion. In an environment where the religious group was without cultural or political power, the merging of church and state is thought to represent ethnic identity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007144-256">[251]</a> In the fourth century, Asia Minor, and <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Georgia_(country)" title="Christianity in Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> forged national identities by adopting Christianity as their state religion, as did Ethiopia and <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>. In 314, <a href="/wiki/Urnayr" title="Urnayr">King Urnayr</a> of <a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albania" title="Caucasian Albania">Albania</a> adopted Christianity as the state religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowe2006404–405-257">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohan2005333-258">[253]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERapp2007138-259">[254]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrita2020252-260">[255]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasidayNorris20075-86">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_Middle_Ages_(476–842)">Early Middle Ages (476–842)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Early Middle Ages (476–842)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_Western_Europe,_Eastern_Byzantium,_and_Islamic_civilization">Germanic Western Europe, Eastern Byzantium, and Islamic civilization</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Germanic Western Europe, Eastern Byzantium, and Islamic civilization">edit</a>]</div> In 476, the Germanic king Odoacer deposed the last Roman emperor of the Western Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201424–25-261">[256]</a> Between the 600s and 750, three distinct cultures emerged: <a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic Western Europe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern Byzantium</a>, and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islamic civilization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201439-262">[257]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998177-263">[258]</a> In the early 600s, Christianity extended around the Mediterranean, across much of Europe into Spain and Britain, East to the edge of Central Asia as far as Zerang and Qandahar in modern Afghanistan, and into the Sassanian Persian Empire, with Christian churches concentrated in northern Iraq in the foothills of the Zagros, and in the trading posts of the Persian Gulf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20082;_6-8-264">[259]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen2008627–628,_643-265">[260]</a> Two main kinds of Christian communities had formed in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a>, Persia, and Armenia: urban churches which upheld the Council of Chalcedon, and Nestorian churches which came from the desert monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorfmann-Lazarev200865–66-266">[261]</a> Intense missionary activity between the fifth and eighth centuries led to eastern <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arabia" class="mw-redirect" title="Arabia">Arabia</a>, central <a href="/wiki/Asia" title="Asia">Asia</a>, China, and the coasts of <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and Indonesia adopting <a href="/wiki/Nestorian_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nestorian Christianity">Nestorian Christianity</a>. The rural areas of Upper Egypt were all Nestorian. <a href="/wiki/Copts" title="Copts">Coptic</a> missionaries spread the Nestorian faith up the Nile to <a href="/wiki/Nubia" title="Nubia">Nubia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eritrea" title="Eritrea">Eritrea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ethiopia" title="Ethiopia">Ethiopia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorfmann-Lazarev200866–67-267">[262]</a> Born in the seventh century, Islamic civilization, in a series of Arabic military campaigns, and diplomacy, between 632 and 750, conquered much of Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, Persia, North Africa, and Spain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998185,_189-268">[263]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton2009xvii-269">[264]</a> By 635, upper-class Christian refugees had moved <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East_in_China" title="Church of the East in China">further east to China</a> at <a href="/wiki/Chang%27an" title="Chang'an">Hsian-fu</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20083,_5–6-270">[265]</a> Inferior legal status and persecution of non-Muslims eventually devastated the Chalcedonian churches in the cities. The monastic background of the Nestorians made their churches more remote, making them the most able to survive and cultivate new traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDorfmann-Lazarev200866,_85-271">[266]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373-272">[267]</a> A vibrant Asian Christianity with nineteen metropolitans (and eighty-five bishops), centred on <a href="/wiki/Seleucia" title="Seleucia">Seleucia</a> (just south of Baghdad), flourished in the eighth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonald201531-273">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins20089–10-274">[269]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map showing Church of the East in the Middle Ages" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg/220px-Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="152" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg/330px-Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg/440px-Church_of_the_East_in_the_Middle_Ages.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="934" data-file-height="645" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a> during the Middle Ages</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Germanic_Europe">Germanic Europe</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Germanic Europe">edit</a>]</div> Multiple barbarian groups established kingdoms in the territory of the former empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201424–25-261">[256]</a> The new barbarian overlords were mostly Arian Christians which provided some unity and stability.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201423–25-275">[270]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998196-276">[271]</a> In 496, <a href="/wiki/Clovis_I" title="Clovis I">Clovis I</a> was baptized and became king of the Franks. After ousting the Merovingians, Francia became one kingdom, although much of the rest of Western Europe was still largely impoverished and fragmented politically.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201458,_61-277">[272]</a> The Franks effectively resisted Arabic inroads into southern France in 732.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998189,_196-278">[273]</a> <a href="/wiki/Charlemagne" title="Charlemagne">Charlemagne</a> began the first Medieval Renaissance, the <a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Renaissance" title="Carolingian Renaissance">Carolingian Renaissance</a>, a period of intellectual and cultural revival, in the 8th century. It continued through his descendants into the 9th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECollins19981-279">[274]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskins19714–7,_342,_345-280">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer201347-281">[276]</a> Christianity became dominant in England throughout the 7th century, during which suppression of <a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic paganism</a> began, with there being no recorded heathen kings after 954.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrams201632–41-282">[277]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHighamRyan2013159-283">[278]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanmark2004150–151-284">[279]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeaney2004462–478-285">[280]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Christendom">Christendom</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Christendom">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painted_panel_4,_The_Apostle%27s_Creed_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5743986.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="photo of a painted panel contains the Apostle's creed" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Painted_panel_4%2C_The_Apostle%27s_Creed_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5743986.jpg/220px-Painted_panel_4%2C_The_Apostle%27s_Creed_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5743986.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Painted_panel_4%2C_The_Apostle%27s_Creed_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5743986.jpg/330px-Painted_panel_4%2C_The_Apostle%27s_Creed_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5743986.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Painted_panel_4%2C_The_Apostle%27s_Creed_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5743986.jpg/440px-Painted_panel_4%2C_The_Apostle%27s_Creed_-_geograph.org.uk_-_5743986.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="1707" /></a><figcaption>Painted panel 4: The Apostle's Creed</figcaption></figure> In Europe, the Early Middle Ages were diverse, yet the concept of <a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a> was also pervasive and unifying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986552-286">[281]</a><a href="#cite_note-288">[note 6]</a> Medieval writers and ordinary folk used the term to identify themselves, their religious culture, and even their civilization. Mixed within and at the edges of this largely Christian world, barbarian invasion, deportation, and neglect also produced large “unchurched” populations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatter2008529–530-289">[283]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanson20217-290">[284]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown200811–13-291">[285]</a> In these areas, Christianity was one religion among many and could combine with aspects of local paganism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAbrams201632–41-282">[277]</a> Early medieval religious culture included "worldliness and devotion, prayer and superstition", but its inner dynamic sprang from a commitment to Christendom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986552-286">[281]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Education">Education</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Education">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="re-creation of a fifteenth century mystery play" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/220px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/330px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg/440px-ChesterMysteryPlay_300dpi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1178" data-file-height="1338" /></a><figcaption>A nineteenth century depiction of a <a href="/wiki/Passion_play" class="mw-redirect" title="Passion play">Passion play</a></figcaption></figure> The means and methods of teaching a mostly illiterate populace included mystery plays (which had developed out of the mass), wall paintings, vernacular sermons and treatises, and saints' lives in epic form.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986552-286">[281]</a> Christian motifs could function in non-Christian ways, while practices of non-Christian origin became endowed with Christian meaning.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986550-292">[286]</a> From the sixth to the eighth centuries most schools were monastery-based.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerzoco20012-293">[287]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Law">Law</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Law">edit</a>]</div> Throughout this period, a symbiotic relationship existed between ecclesiastical institutions and civil governments. Canon law and secular law were connected and often overlapped.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008299–300-294">[288]</a> Churches were dependent upon lay rulers, and it was those rulers - not the Pope - who determined who received what ecclesiastical job on their lands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176–177-200">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlthoff2019b173,_175-295">[289]</a> Canon law enabled the church to sustain itself as an institution and wield social authority with the laity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008303-296">[290]</a> In the East, Roman law remained the standard. After the Empire fell, the West was a world of relatively weak states, endowed aristocracies, and peasant communities that could no longer use law from a "fallen" empire to uphold church hierarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008300-297">[291]</a> Instead, the church adopted a feudalistic oath of loyalty, which became a condition of consecration which affected the hierarchy of church relations at every level.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-175">[171]</a> The church developed an oath of loyalty between men and their king to create a new model of consecrated kingship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008302-298">[292]</a> <a href="/wiki/Janet_Nelson" title="Janet Nelson">Janet Nelson</a> writes that:<blockquote>This rite has a continuous history in both Anglo-Saxon England and Francia from the eighth-century onward, with further refinements in the ninth and tenth. It is, among other things, a remarkable application of law by early medieval churchmen in the West, to which the East offers no parallel.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008302-298">[292]</a></blockquote> Canon laws were created by councils, kings, and bishops, and by lay assemblies. Law was not state-sponsored, systematized, professionalized, or university-taught in this period.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008303-296">[290]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Monasticism_2">Monasticism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Monasticism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Christian monasticism</a></div> The early Middle Ages was an age of uncertainty when monasteries became increasingly important.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201424,_27–29-299">[293]</a> The role of "holy men" and relics able to provide special access to the divine increased in this era.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarkus199026-300">[294]</a> Such "special access" meant that donations, which had previously been spent on the poor became donations for the dead in return for prayers for salvation after death thereby becoming a great source of wealth for the monasteries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2012514–517,_530-301">[295]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBonser1962236-302">[296]</a> Monasticism developed somewhat differently in each region and by 600, there was great diversity. It still shared basic elements: it followed a discipline that involved devotional practices that cultivated an awareness of God, such as formalized prayer, memorization of scripture, celibacy, fasting, manual labor, and alms giving.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStewart2017308–309-303">[297]</a><a href="#cite_note-307">[note 7]</a> Monasteries became more and more organized from 600 to 1100.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008275–277,_281,_298-308">[301]</a> The formation of these organized bodies of believers gradually carved out social spaces with authority separate from political and familial authority, thereby revolutionizing social history.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaight2004273-309">[302]</a><a href="#cite_note-322">[note 8]</a> Medical practice was highly important, and medieval monasteries are best known for their contributions to medical care.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPhipps1988abstract-323">[315]</a> For the majority of the faithful in the early Middle Ages of both East and West, the saint was first and foremost the monk.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008298-324">[316]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Art">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Hours_(Use_of_Metz)_Fol._27r,_Decorated_Initials.tif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif/lossy-page1-220px-Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif/lossy-page1-330px-Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/16/Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif/lossy-page1-440px-Book_of_Hours_%28Use_of_Metz%29_Fol._27r%2C_Decorated_Initials.tif.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4917" data-file-height="6862" /></a><figcaption>A page from the Book of Hours (Use of Metz) with a decorated Initial</figcaption></figure> Dedicated monks merged the Germanic practice of painting small objects and the classical tradition of fine metalwork to create "illuminated" psalters, collections of the Psalms, the gospels, and copies of the Bible. First using geometric designs, foliage, mythical animals, and biblical characters, the illustrations became more realistic in the Carolingian Renaissance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998202–203-325">[317]</a> In the 720s, the Byzantine Emperor <a href="/wiki/Leo_III_the_Isaurian" title="Leo III the Isaurian">Leo</a> banned the pictorial representation of Christ, saints, and biblical scenes, destroying much of early art history. The West condemned Leo's <a href="/wiki/Iconoclasm" title="Iconoclasm">iconoclasm</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHalsall2021-326">[318]</a> By the tenth and early eleventh centuries, Byzantine culture began to recover.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth200846-327">[319]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard20063-328">[320]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Papal_supremacy">Papal supremacy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Papal supremacy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jacopo_Vignali_-_Saint_Gregory_the_Great_-_Walters_372530.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="picture of painting from the ceiling of the library in the Dominican convent of Santa Maria Novella in Florence depicting St. Gregory the Great (AD 540-604) one of the four Latin Church Fathers (along with Sts. Jerome, Augustine, and Ambrose)" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Jacopo_Vignali_-_Saint_Gregory_the_Great_-_Walters_372530.jpg/220px-Jacopo_Vignali_-_Saint_Gregory_the_Great_-_Walters_372530.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="284" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Jacopo_Vignali_-_Saint_Gregory_the_Great_-_Walters_372530.jpg/330px-Jacopo_Vignali_-_Saint_Gregory_the_Great_-_Walters_372530.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/Jacopo_Vignali_-_Saint_Gregory_the_Great_-_Walters_372530.jpg/440px-Jacopo_Vignali_-_Saint_Gregory_the_Great_-_Walters_372530.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1393" data-file-height="1800" /></a><figcaption>painting by Jacopo Vignali - Saint Gregory the Great - from Walters museum collection</figcaption></figure> Popes led the sixth-century response to the invasion of northern Italy by the <a href="/wiki/Lombards" title="Lombards">Lombards</a> (569) producing an increase in papal autonomy and prestige.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008214-329">[321]</a> By the time <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Pope Gregory I</a> succeeded to the papacy in 590, the claim of Rome's supremacy as stemming from Peter was well established, even though large sections of both the Western and Eastern churches remained unconvinced they should be submissive to the Roman See.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson196049–50-330">[322]</a> Gregory held that papal supremacy concerned doctrine and discipline within the church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENicholson196054,_60-331">[323]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostambeys2000380,_393–394-332">[324]</a> In the century or so after Gregory the Great, the Pope's ability to lay down the law remained limited.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-175">[171]</a> Papal supremacy did not yet translate to legal authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-175">[171]</a> From the ninth to the eleventh-century, the Pope gave little general direction to the church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEichbauer20223-333">[325]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostambeys2000378–379,_380-334">[326]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176-335">[327]</a> Papal power rose as internecine competition increasingly led people to Rome to resolve disagreements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008301-175">[171]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson201636-336">[328]</a> The growing presence and involvement of the aristocracy in the papal bureaucracy, an increase in papal land-holdings from the second half of the sixth into the seventh-century, combined with changes in their administration that brought an increase in wealth, gradually shifted popes from being beneficiaries of patronage to becoming patrons themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostambeys2000367;_372;_376-337">[329]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_IX,_Duke_of_Aquitaine" title="William IX, Duke of Aquitaine">William IX, Duke of Aquitaine</a>, and other powerful lay founders of monasteries, placed their institutions under the protection of the papacy in the tenth-century thereby facilitating another rise in papal power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008287-338">[330]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016177–178-339">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECostambeys2000380,_393–394-332">[324]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Justinian_I_and_the_birth_of_Byzantium">Justinian I and the birth of Byzantium</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Justinian I and the birth of Byzantium">edit</a>]</div> Justinian's religious policies reflected his conviction that the unity of the Empire presupposed unity of faith. He persecuted pagans and religious minorities and purged the governmental bureaucracy of those who disagreed with him.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaldellis20121–3-340">[332]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown20088-341">[333]</a> He regulated everything in religion, and law, even interfering in papal elections.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBury2013374–401-342">[334]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELogan201331-343">[335]</a> Manichaeism rose in southern Mesopotamia in the third-century and expanded from the fourth to sixth centuries in almost all parts of the Roman Empire, especially Syria, Mesopotamia, Egypt, North Africa and Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieu2007279,_281,_289-344">[336]</a> Severe persecution instigated by emperor Justinian I marked their end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELieu2007293–294-345">[337]</a> Justinian integrated Christian social concepts with Roman law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennington2007386-346">[338]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Code_of_Justinian" title="Code of Justinian">Code of Justinian</a> became an essential part of the <a href="/wiki/Corpus_Juris_Civilis" title="Corpus Juris Civilis">Corpus Juris Civilis</a> which remains the basis of civil law in many modern states.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerrin2009213-347">[339]</a> Justinian made donations to the church, established foundations, and watched over church property. He supported the rights of bishops, priests, abbots, and monastic life. In 563 after earthquakes destroyed it, Justinian rebuilt the <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> using ten thousand workers, 40,000 pounds of silver, and covering the dome in gold.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor199666-348">[340]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201429-349">[341]</a> Byzantine culture blossomed during his reign.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeather2007283-350">[342]</a> After Justinian failed to retake the West, the East was reduced in size, but it still had an emperor, its towns thrived, and taxes were being collected. This allowed Byzantium to become like a Middle Eastern state in the style of the Persian Empire. However, that didn't turn the Eastern Roman Empire into a separate polity. It was war - with the Sassanids, the Slavs, and Islam - that forged the Eastern Roman Empire into the Byzantine Empire.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein201439–41-351">[343]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="High_Middle_Ages_(842–1299)">High Middle Ages (842–1299)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: High Middle Ages (842–1299)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_background_of_the_High_Middle_Ages">Historical background of the High Middle Ages</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Historical background of the High Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> In the second half of the eleventh century, three powerful groups – Seljuk Turks from the east, Almoravids from West Africa, and Crusaders from Europe – changed the politics, culture, and religious configurations of Byzantium and the European West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014163-352">[344]</a><a href="#cite_note-359">[note 9]</a> Byzantium was weakened from repeated invasion, and its territorial frontiers had become nebulous, but economically and spiritually the core of the Byzantine Empire had never been more prosperous.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014174-360">[351]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard20063-328">[320]</a> Conquest established a European economic foothold in the Middle East, and Europe became more connected to the world beyond it through commerce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014163-352">[344]</a> Ecclesiastical reform emerged in Europe, and influential new art and architecture were formed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014163-352">[344]</a> The medieval papacy of this era gained authority in every domain of life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014185-361">[352]</a> Bishops were given the task of "protecting" the faith, dealing with infringements of church law, refining the definition of heresy, and punishing those deemed to be heretics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20095–6-362">[353]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Parish" title="Parish">village parish</a> emerged as one of the fundamental institutions of medieval Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20092–3-363">[354]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986542-364">[355]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatter2008530-365">[356]</a> This era includes tremendous religious devotion and reform, technological advancement, the intellectual revolution of <a href="/wiki/High_Scholasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="High Scholasticism">High Scholasticism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance_of_the_12th_century" title="Renaissance of the 12th century">Renaissance of the twelfth-century</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20091,_7-366">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer201347-281">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongwell1928210,_214,_216,_224-367">[358]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christendom_842-1099">Christendom 842-1099</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Christendom 842-1099">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tenth_and_eleventh_century_reform">Tenth and eleventh century reform</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Tenth and eleventh century reform">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/History_of_European_universities" title="History of European universities">History of European universities</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mapa_cister.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="this is an image of a map showing the original sites of the Cistercians in Central Europe" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mapa_cister.svg/220px-Mapa_cister.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mapa_cister.svg/330px-Mapa_cister.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Mapa_cister.svg/440px-Mapa_cister.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1063" data-file-height="1289" /></a><figcaption>The spread of <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercians</a> from their original sites in <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western</a>-<a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central Europe</a> during the Middle Ages</figcaption></figure> Under <a href="/wiki/Hugh_of_Cluny" title="Hugh of Cluny">Hugh of Cluny</a> (1049–1109), the <a href="/wiki/Abbey_of_Cluny" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbey of Cluny">Abbey of Cluny</a> became the leading centre of reform in Western monasticism from the eleventh into the early twelfth-century. The <a href="/wiki/Cistercians" title="Cistercians">Cistercian movement</a>, a second wave of reform after 1098, also became a primary force of <a href="/wiki/Medieval_technology" title="Medieval technology">technological advancement and its spread in medieval Europe</a> contributing to economic growth.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009376–378-368">[359]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunter197860-369">[360]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstable19984–5-370">[361]</a> In Italy, <a href="/wiki/Gregorian_Reform" title="Gregorian Reform">Gregorian Reform</a> (1050–1080) reached into the church and outward into society setting new standards for marriage, celibacy for priests, and divorce.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShahar200333-371">[362]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitte199720–23,_29–30-372">[363]</a> Beginning in the twelfth-century, <a href="/wiki/Mendicant_orders" title="Mendicant orders">Mendicant orders</a> (<a href="/wiki/Franciscans" title="Franciscans">Franciscans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominicans</a>) embraced a significant and impactful reformation in understanding a monk's calling as a charge to actively reform the world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox1987298-373">[364]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJestice19971,_5–6-374">[365]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Investiture_controversy_(1078)">Investiture controversy (1078)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Investiture controversy (1078)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canossa-gate.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of painting of Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor, at the gate of Canossa Castle in 1077" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Canossa-gate.jpg/220px-Canossa-gate.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Canossa-gate.jpg/330px-Canossa-gate.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Canossa-gate.jpg/440px-Canossa-gate.jpg 2x" data-file-width="517" data-file-height="338" /></a><figcaption>1882 depiction of <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Holy Roman Emperor">Holy Roman Emperor</a> <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry IV</a> at the gate of <a href="/wiki/Canossa_Castle" title="Canossa Castle">Canossa Castle</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Investiture controversy">Investiture controversy</a></figcaption></figure> The church appointed its bishops and abbots, but it was the nobles who owned the land, and they were the ones who had control over who got "invested" into a paying job on their land.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176–177-200">[196]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlthoff2019b173,_175-295">[289]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEichbauer20223-333">[325]</a> Under Gregory VII, the Roman Catholic Church was determined to end this duality. This produced the <a href="/wiki/Investiture_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Investiture controversy">Investiture controversy</a> which began in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a> in 1078.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202325-375">[366]</a> Specifically, the dispute was between the Holy Roman Emperor <a href="/wiki/Henry_IV,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Henry IV, Holy Roman Emperor">Henry IV</a>, and Pope Gregory VII, over who had the right to invest a bishop or abbot, but more generally, it was over control of the church and its revenues.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrett19875–7-376">[367]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202351-377">[368]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016176–182-378">[369]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowley2018159-379">[370]</a><a href="#cite_note-381">[note 10]</a> In this controversy, <a href="/wiki/Papal_primacy" title="Papal primacy">papal supremacy</a> took a political turn. Gregory recorded a series of statements asserting that the church must be the higher of the two powers of church and state and that the church must no longer be treated as a servant to the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEThompson2016177–178-339">[331]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009324,_374-382">[372]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlthoff2019a199-383">[373]</a> Disobedience to the Pope became equated with heresy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlthoff2019b175-384">[374]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Dictatus_Papae" class="mw-redirect" title="Dictatus Papae">Dictatus Papae</a> of 1075 declared the pope alone could invest bishops.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202325-375">[366]</a> Henry IV rejected the decree. This led to his <a href="/wiki/Excommunication_(Catholic_Church)" class="mw-redirect" title="Excommunication (Catholic Church)">excommunication</a>, which contributed to a ducal revolt, that led to a civil war: the <a href="/wiki/Saxon_revolt_of_1077%E2%80%931088" title="Saxon revolt of 1077–1088">Great Saxon Revolt</a>. Eventually, Henry received absolution. The conflict of investiture lasted five decades with a disputed outcome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGarrett19878-385">[375]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202352-386">[376]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009375-387">[377]</a> A similar controversy occurred in England.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVaughn198061–86-388">[378]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Toledo_1085">Toledo 1085</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Toledo 1085">edit</a>]</div> King Alfonso VI of León and Castile captured Toledo in 1085. It was a major victory in the <a href="/wiki/Reconquista" title="Reconquista">Christian overthrow of Islam in Spain</a>, but the Almoravids prevented it from going further at that time.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014170-389">[379]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="First_crusade_(1095)">First crusade (1095)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: First crusade (1095)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Crusader_states_1135-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Map Crusader states 1135" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Map_Crusader_states_1135-en.svg/220px-Map_Crusader_states_1135-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="303" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Map_Crusader_states_1135-en.svg/330px-Map_Crusader_states_1135-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/25/Map_Crusader_states_1135-en.svg/440px-Map_Crusader_states_1135-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="955" data-file-height="1315" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> with their strongholds in the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> at their height, between the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second</a> Crusade (1135)</figcaption></figure> In 1081, <a href="/wiki/Alexios_I_Komnenos" title="Alexios I Komnenos">Alexios I Komnenos</a> began to reform the Byzantine government. After a decade of addressing internal issues, he turned to Pope Urban and asked for help with the biggest external problem the Byzantines had: the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Turks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014173–174-390">[380]</a> Urban responded (1095) with an appeal to European Christians to "go to the aid of their brethren in the Holy Land".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFolda199536,_141-391">[381]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETyerman199215–16-392">[382]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009346–347-393">[383]</a> Urban's message had tremendous popular appeal, and there was much enthusiasm supporting it. It was new and novel and tapped into powerful aspects of folk religion. Voluntary poverty and its renunciation of self-will, along with a longing for the genuine "apostolic life," flourished in the late eleventh and twelfth centuries connecting pilgrimage, charity, remission of sins, and a willingness to fight.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009346;_347-349-394">[384]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986523-395">[385]</a><a href="#cite_note-397">[note 11]</a> Crusading involved the church in certain paradoxes: Gregorian reform was grounded in distancing spirituality from the secular and the political, while crusade made the church dependent upon financing from aristocrats and kings for the most political of all activities: war.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009342-398">[387]</a> Crusades led to the development of national identities in European nations, increased division with the East, and produced cultural change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKostick20102–6-399">[388]</a> Hotly debated by historians, the single most important contribution of the Crusades to Christian history was, possibly, the invention of the <a href="/wiki/Indulgence" title="Indulgence">indulgence</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009351-354">[346]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law_and_order_and_Papal_monarchy_(1099_-_1299)">Law and order and Papal monarchy (1099 - 1299)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Law and order and Papal monarchy (1099 - 1299)">edit</a>]</div> With <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_VII" title="Pope Gregory VII">Pope Gregory VII</a> (1073–1085), the scope of canon law had been extended, and the church had become a more imposing institution, consolidating its territory, and establishing a bureaucracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELogan20132–3-400">[389]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeane2022xxiii,_277-401">[390]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008326-402">[391]</a><a href="#cite_note-405">[note 12]</a> Throughout Christian Europe, church and civic rulers made efforts to support coherence and order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20097-406">[394]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014174-360">[351]</a> Canon law became a large and highly complex system of laws that left out early Christian principles of inclusivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPennington2007386-346">[338]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHastings2000382-407">[395]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20095–6-362">[353]</a><a href="#cite_note-412">[note 13]</a> New networks and new agencies were often manifested as legal services, and over it all watched an increasingly centralized and proactive church government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008326-402">[391]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2007125-413">[400]</a> Popes from 1159 to 1303 were predominantly lawyers, not theologians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESouthern2016cxvii-414">[401]</a> The papacy's power and influence gradually came to resemble that of the monarchs of its day.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014185-361">[352]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann196580–81-415">[402]</a> In a proper sense, papal monarchy was not theologically possible because the separation of church and state had long been a distinctive aspect of Western Christianity. Yet it is inescapable that popes between 1050 and 1250 adopted the dress, ceremony, and language of monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris19891-416">[403]</a> The church of the eleventh century provided hospitals and schools, had jurisdiction over marriage and probating wills, defended Christendom and preserved the peace, and Popes had responsibility for it all, making it appropriate to speak of papal monarchy as a special feature of these centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorris19891–2-417">[404]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Medieval_Inquisition">Medieval Inquisition</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Medieval Inquisition">edit</a>]</div> Moral misbehavior and heresy, by the folk and clerics, were prosecuted by inquisitorial courts that were composed of both church and civil authorities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018365-418">[405]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Medieval_Inquisition" title="Medieval Inquisition">Medieval Inquisition</a> includes the Episcopal Inquisition (1184–1230) and the Papal Inquisition (1230s–1240s), though these courts had no actual joint leadership or organization.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPeters1980189-419">[406]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMout2007229-420">[407]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZagorin20033-421">[408]</a> Created as needed, they were not permanent institutions but were limited to specific times and places.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018363-422">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmes200916-423">[410]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeane2022xv-424">[411]</a><a href="#cite_note-427">[note 14]</a> Medieval inquisitors did not possess absolute power, nor were they universally supported.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018365-418">[405]</a> Riots and public opposition formed as inquisition became stridently contested both in and outside the Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018363-422">[409]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmes20091–2,_4,_7,_16,_28,_34-428">[414]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiven200114-429">[415]</a> The universities of Oxford and Prague produced some of the church's greatest inquisitorial experts as well as some of its most bitter foes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeane2022xxiii-430">[416]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Learning">Learning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Learning">edit</a>]</div> Traditionally, schools had been attached to monasteries. By the end of the eleventh century, Cathedral schools were established, and independent schools arose in some of the larger cities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014197-431">[417]</a> For most folk, learning began at home, then continued in the parish where they had been born and were associated with for the rest of their lives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20093-432">[418]</a> The clergy, and the laity, became "more literate, more worldly, and more self-assertive" and they did not always agree with the hierarchy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatter2008530-365">[356]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scholasticism,_Renaissance_and_science_(1150-1200)">Scholasticism, Renaissance and science (1150-1200)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Scholasticism, Renaissance and science (1150-1200)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of students using geometry to study astronomy" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/200px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="121" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/300px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg/400px-Studying_astronomy_and_geometry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1248" data-file-height="752" /></a><figcaption>Studying astronomy and geometry. Early fifteenth-century painting, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a>.</figcaption></figure> Between 1150 and 1200, intrepid monks traveled to formerly Muslim locations in Sicily and Spain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer201346–47-433">[419]</a> Fleeing Muslims had abandoned their libraries, and among the treasure trove of books, the searchers found the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, <a href="/wiki/Euclid" title="Euclid">Euclid</a> and more. Adapting Aristotelian logical reasoning and Christian faith created a revolution in thinking called scholasticism which elevated reason and reconciled it with faith.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongwell1928210,_214,_216-434">[420]</a> Scholasticism was a departure from the Augustinian thinking that had dominated the church for centuries. The writings of <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> are considered the height of scholastic thinking. His reconciliation of reason, law, politics, and faith provided the foundation for much modern thinking and law.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaskins19714–7,_342,_345-280">[275]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBauer201347-281">[276]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELongwell1928224-435">[421]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeagrave2009491-436">[422]</a> Renaissance also included the revival of the scientific study of natural phenomena. Historians of science see this as the beginning of what led to <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">modern science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific revolution">scientific revolution</a> in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENoll20094-437">[423]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELindbergNumbers19865,_12-438">[424]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley2006164-439">[425]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Universities">Universities</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: Universities">edit</a>]</div> From the 1100s, <a href="/wiki/Medieval_university" title="Medieval university"> Western universities</a>, the first institutions of higher education since the sixth-century, were formed into self-governing corporations chartered by popes and kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVerger1995257-440">[426]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERüegg1992xix–xx-441">[427]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDen_Heijer201165-442">[428]</a> Bologna, Oxford and Paris were among the earliest (<abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1150). Divided into faculties which specialized in <a href="/wiki/Law" title="Law">law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Theology" title="Theology">theology</a> or <a href="/wiki/Liberal_arts" class="mw-redirect" title="Liberal arts">liberal arts</a>, each held <a href="/wiki/Quodlibeta" title="Quodlibeta">quodlibeta</a> (free-for-all) theological debates amongst faculty and students and awarded degrees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998219-443">[429]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPiron2006404–406-444">[430]</a> With this, both canon and civil law began to be professionalized.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENelson2008326-402">[391]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Art,_architecture_and_music">Art, architecture and music</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Art, architecture and music">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fig_44_Flying_Buttress_of_the_Nave_of_Amiens.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="ink diagram of flying buttresses at the cathedral of Amiens" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Fig_44_Flying_Buttress_of_the_Nave_of_Amiens.jpg/220px-Fig_44_Flying_Buttress_of_the_Nave_of_Amiens.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="484" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/f3/Fig_44_Flying_Buttress_of_the_Nave_of_Amiens.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="240" data-file-height="528" /></a><figcaption>Fig 44 Flying Buttress of the Nave of Amiens</figcaption></figure> This was a period of enormous creativity characterised by an imposing public Christian art full of light, colour, and rhythm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20094-445">[431]</a> <a href="/wiki/Romanesque_architecture" title="Romanesque architecture">Romanesque style</a> using Roman features with Christian influences, emerged in Europe between 1000 and 1200 as an aspect of the monastic revivals, especially the Cluniacs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998225-446">[432]</a> It was used primarily in architecture but also produced statuary, paintings, and illustrated manuscripts.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998227–229-447">[433]</a> Between 1137 and 1144 the <a href="/wiki/Gothic_architecture" title="Gothic architecture">Gothic style</a>, with <a href="/wiki/Rib_vault" title="Rib vault">ribbed vaults</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flying_buttress" title="Flying buttress">flying buttresses</a>, such as those found in <a href="/wiki/Notre-Dame_de_Paris" title="Notre-Dame de Paris">Notre Dame</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Amiens_Cathedral" title="Amiens Cathedral">cathedral at Amiens</a>, was invented.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998228–237-448">[434]</a> The monk <a href="/wiki/Guido_of_Arezzo" title="Guido of Arezzo">Guido of Arezzo</a> modernized musical notation, invented the music staff of lines and spaces, and began the naming of musical notes making modern music possible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHallBattaniNeitz2004100-449">[435]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998238-450">[436]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spread_and_retraction_of_Christianity">Spread and retraction of Christianity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: Spread and retraction of Christianity">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mesopotamia_and_Egypt">Mesopotamia and Egypt</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Mesopotamia and Egypt">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_(focused_on_the_original_Roman_building).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Hagia Sophia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/220px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/330px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg/440px-Hagia_Sophia_in_Istanbul_%28focused_on_the_original_Roman_building%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1940" data-file-height="1323" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> was the religious and spiritual centre of the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodox Church</a> for nearly one thousand years. The <a href="/wiki/Hagia_Sophia" title="Hagia Sophia">Hagia Sophia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Parthenon" title="Parthenon">Parthenon</a> were converted into mosques. Violent persecutions of Christians were common and reached their climax in the <a href="/wiki/Armenian_genocide" title="Armenian genocide">Armenian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Assyrian_genocide" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian genocide">Assyrian</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Greek_genocide" title="Greek genocide">Greek</a> genocides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarton1998bvii-451">[437]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorrisZe'evi20193–5-452">[438]</a></figcaption></figure> By the end of the eleventh-century, Christianity was in full retreat in Mesopotamia and inner Iran. Some Christian communities further to the east continued to exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006378-453">[439]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373,_381-454">[440]</a> The Christian churches in Egypt, Syria, and Iraq became subject to fervently Muslim militaristic regimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006403-455">[441]</a> Christians were <a href="/wiki/Dhimma" class="mw-redirect" title="Dhimma">dhimma</a>. This cultural status guaranteed Christian's rights of protection but discriminated against them through legal inferiority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006373-272">[267]</a> Various Christian communities adopted different strategies for preserving their identity while accommodating their rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006403-455">[441]</a> Some withdrew from interaction, others converted, while some sought outside help.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMicheau2006403-455">[441]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scandinavia">Scandinavia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Scandinavia">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Christianization of Scandinavia</a> (Sweden, Norway, and Denmark) occurred in two stages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanmark200414–15-456">[442]</a> In the first stage, missionaries arrived on their own, without secular support, in the ninth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanmark200415-457">[443]</a> Next, a secular ruler would take charge of Christianization in their territory. This stage ended once a defined and organized ecclesiastical network was established.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanmark200414-458">[444]</a> By 1350, Scandinavia was an integral part of Western Christendom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrink2004xvi-459">[445]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Russia">Russia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: Russia">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebedev_baptism.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Russian painting by Lebedev depicting first mass baptisms of Kievan Rus" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Lebedev_baptism.jpg/220px-Lebedev_baptism.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Lebedev_baptism.jpg/330px-Lebedev_baptism.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Lebedev_baptism.jpg/440px-Lebedev_baptism.jpg 2x" data-file-width="992" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>The Baptism of Kievans, by <a href="/wiki/Klavdiy_Lebedev" class="mw-redirect" title="Klavdiy Lebedev">Klavdiy Lebedev</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:80-391-0151_Kyiv_St.Sophia%27s_Cathedral_RB_18_2_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="St.Sophia's cathedral" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/80-391-0151_Kyiv_St.Sophia%27s_Cathedral_RB_18_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-80-391-0151_Kyiv_St.Sophia%27s_Cathedral_RB_18_2_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/80-391-0151_Kyiv_St.Sophia%27s_Cathedral_RB_18_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-80-391-0151_Kyiv_St.Sophia%27s_Cathedral_RB_18_2_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/80-391-0151_Kyiv_St.Sophia%27s_Cathedral_RB_18_2_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-80-391-0151_Kyiv_St.Sophia%27s_Cathedral_RB_18_2_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4800" data-file-height="3603" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saint_Sophia_Cathedral,_Kyiv" title="Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv">Saint Sophia Cathedral, Kyiv</a></figcaption></figure> From the 950s to the 980s, polytheism among the Kievan Rus declined, while many social and economic changes fostered the spread of the new religious ideology known as Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125-460">[446]</a> The event associated with the conversion of the Rus' has traditionally been the baptism of <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_of_Kiev" class="mw-redirect" title="Vladimir of Kiev">Vladimir of Kiev</a> in 989.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe19915–7-461">[447]</a> The new Christian religious structure was imposed by the state's rulers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199112-462">[448]</a> The Rus' dukes maintained control of the church which was financially dependent upon them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEŠtefan2022111-463">[449]</a><a href="#cite_note-465">[note 15]</a> While monasticism was the dominant form of piety, Christianity permeated daily life, for both peasants and elites, who identified themselves as Christian while keeping many pre-Christian practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008173–174-466">[451]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Baltic_and_central_Europe">Baltic and central Europe</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=61" title="Edit section: Baltic and central Europe">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cyril_Metodej.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of a monument depicting Saints Cyril and Methodius" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/220px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg/330px-Cyril_Metodej.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/10/Cyril_Metodej.jpg 2x" data-file-width="420" data-file-height="318" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Saints_Cyril_and_Methodius" class="mw-redirect" title="Saints Cyril and Methodius">St. Cyril and St. Methodius</a> monument on <a href="/wiki/Radho%C5%A1%C5%A5" title="Radhošť">Mt. Radhošť</a></figcaption></figure> Beginning under emperor <a href="/wiki/Basil_I" title="Basil I">Basil I</a> (r. 867–886), Byzantine Christianity was instrumental in forming what would become Eastern Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERadić2010232-467">[452]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanič2016126,_129-468">[453]</a> <a href="/wiki/Serbia" title="Serbia">Serbia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alania" title="Alania">Alania</a> (modern Iran), Russia and Armenia were nascent Christian states by the early eleventh-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVlasto1970208-469">[454]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard20064-470">[455]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20147-471">[456]</a> <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPop2009252-472">[457]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bulgaria" title="Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPop2009251-473">[458]</a> <a href="/wiki/Poland" title="Poland">Poland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBukowska2012467-474">[459]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hungary" title="Hungary">Hungary</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESedlar19951119–1120-475">[460]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoravcsik1947141-476">[461]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a> soon followed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAntoljak199443-477">[462]</a> Saints Cyril and Methodius translated the Bible, developing <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">the first Slavic written script</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Glagolitic alphabet">Cyrillic alphabet</a> in the process. This became the educational foundation for all Slavic nations and influenced the spiritual, religious, literary, and cultural development of the entire region for generations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199125-460">[446]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchaff1953161–162-478">[463]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIvanič2016127-479">[464]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_East_(1054)">The East (1054)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=62" title="Edit section: The East (1054)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Turks</a> triumphed in <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> (1071), the <a href="/wiki/Pechenegs" title="Pechenegs">Turkic Pechenegs</a> raided the <a href="/wiki/Balkans" title="Balkans">Balkans</a> (1087), and the Byzantine army could not stop them. Emperors turned to diplomacy and the church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014173-480">[465]</a> <a href="/wiki/Constantine_IX_Monomachos" title="Constantine IX Monomachos">Emperor Constantine IX</a> (r.1042–1055) welcomed the Turkic Pechenegs in the Balkans by administering baptism, conferring titles, and settling them in depopulated regions. Emperors at times welcomed the Turks in the same process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenwein2014174-360">[351]</a> The Byzantine East and the Catholic West had long had many irreconcilable differences. Along with a general lack of charity and respect on both sides, there were also many cultural and linguistic differences, along with geographical separation and geopolitical disagreements. In 1054, this produced the <a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a>, also known as the "Great Schism", which separated the Church into Western Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKolbaba2008214,_223-481">[466]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMeyendorff1979intro.-482">[467]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELorenzetti2023-483">[468]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Northern_crusades_(1147–1316)">Northern crusades (1147–1316)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=63" title="Edit section: Northern crusades (1147–1316)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of Baltic tribes 1200" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg/220px-Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg/330px-Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg/440px-Baltic_Tribes_c_1200.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="988" data-file-height="1088" /></a><figcaption>Baltic Tribes c 1200</figcaption></figure> When the <a href="/wiki/Second_Crusade" title="Second Crusade">Second Crusade</a> was called after <a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">Edessa</a> fell, the nobles in Eastern Europe refused to go.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200765-484">[469]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a>, the last major polytheistic population in Europe, had been raiding surrounding countries for several centuries, and subduing them was what mattered most to the Eastern-European nobles.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200723,_65-485">[470]</a><a href="#cite_note-487">[note 16]</a> In 1147, Eugenius' <a href="/wiki/Divina_dispensatione" title="Divina dispensatione">Divina dispensatione</a> gave eastern nobility indulgences for the first of the Baltic wars (1147–1316).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200765-484">[469]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristiansen199771-488">[472]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt2009119-489">[473]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Northern_Crusades" title="Northern Crusades">Northern Crusades</a> followed intermittently, with and without papal support, from 1147 to 1316.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChristiansen1997287-490">[474]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHunyadiLaszlovszky2001606-491">[475]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200765,_75–77-492">[476]</a> Priests and clerics developed a pragmatic acceptance of the forced conversions perpetrated by the nobles, despite the continued theological emphasis on voluntary conversion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFonnesberg-Schmidt200724-493">[477]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fourth_Crusade_(1204)">Fourth Crusade (1204)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=64" title="Edit section: Fourth Crusade (1204)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LatinEmpire.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of Byzantium showing Latin Empire after 1204" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/LatinEmpire.png/400px-LatinEmpire.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/LatinEmpire.png/600px-LatinEmpire.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/LatinEmpire.png/800px-LatinEmpire.png 2x" data-file-width="1715" data-file-height="848" /></a><figcaption>Latin Empire after 1204</figcaption></figure> In April of 1204, western crusaders in the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Crusade" title="Fourth Crusade">Fourth Crusade</a> stormed, captured, and looted Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELouth200847-494">[478]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20141–2,_8–9-495">[479]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBundy2007133-496">[480]</a> It was a severe blow.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacoby1999525,_536-497">[481]</a> Byzantine territories were divided among the Crusaders establishing the <a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin Empire</a> and the Latin takeover of the Eastern church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregory2011178-498">[482]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20141-499">[483]</a> By 1261, the Byzantines recaptured a much weakened and poorer Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris20144-500">[484]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGregory2011186-501">[485]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Albigensian_Crusade_(1209_-_1229)">Albigensian Crusade (1209 - 1229)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=65" title="Edit section: Albigensian Crusade (1209 - 1229)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Albigensian_Crusade" title="Albigensian Crusade">Albigensian Crusade</a></div> In 1209, Pope Innocent III and the King of France, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Augustus" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Augustus">Philip Augustus</a>, began a military campaign to eliminate the Albigensian heresy known as <a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Catharism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarvin20083,_4-502">[486]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKienzle200146,_47-503">[487]</a> Once begun, the campaign quickly took a political turn.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERummel200650-504">[488]</a> The king's army seized and occupied strategic lands of nobles who had not supported the heretics, but had been in the good graces of the Church. Throughout the campaign, Innocent vacillated, sometimes taking the side favouring crusade, then siding against it and calling for its end.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarvin2008229,_235–236-505">[489]</a> It did not end until 1229. The region was brought under the rule of the French king, thereby creating southern France, while Catharism continued for another hundred years (until 1350).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarvin2008216-506">[490]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunbabin2003178–179-507">[491]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Persecution_of_Jews_1239-">Persecution of Jews 1239-</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=66" title="Edit section: Persecution of Jews 1239-">edit</a>]</div> A turning point in Jewish-Christian relations took place in June 1239 when the <a href="/wiki/Talmud" title="Talmud">Talmud</a> was put "on trial", by <a href="/wiki/Gregory_IX" class="mw-redirect" title="Gregory IX">Gregory IX</a> (1237–1241) in a French court, over contents that mocked the central figures of Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERosenthal195668–72-508">[492]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchacter20112-509">[493]</a> This resulted in Talmudic Judaism being seen as so different from biblical Judaism that old Augustinian obligations to leave the Jews alone no longer applied.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShatzmiller1974339-510">[494]</a> As townfolk gained a measure of political power around 1300, they became one of Jewry's greatest enemies charging Jews with <a href="/wiki/Blood_libel" title="Blood libel">blood libel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deicide" title="Deicide">deicide</a>, ritual murder, poisoning wells and causing the plague, and various other crimes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundy200056-511">[495]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKampling2005-512">[496]</a> Although subordinate to religious, economic, and social themes, racial concepts also reinforced hostility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundy200060-513">[497]</a> Jews had often acted as financial agents for the lords providing them <a href="/wiki/Usury" title="Usury">loans with interest</a> while being exempt from taxes and other financial laws themselves. This attracted jealousy and resentment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2007110-514">[498]</a> <a href="/wiki/Emicho" title="Emicho">Emicho of Leiningen</a> massacred Jews in Germany in search of supplies, loot, and protection money. The <a href="/wiki/Josce_of_York" title="Josce of York">York massacre of 1190</a> also appears to have had its origins in a conspiracy by local leaders to liquidate their debts along with their creditors.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERose201570-515">[499]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_Middle_Ages_and_early_Renaissance_(c._1300–1520)">Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance (c. 1300–1520)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=67" title="Edit section: Late Middle Ages and early Renaissance (c. 1300–1520)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_setting">Historical setting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=68" title="Edit section: Historical setting">edit</a>]</div> Attitudes and behaviours against the clergy identify the beginning of this period as a time of “anticlerical revolution".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanson20219,_11,_12-516">[500]</a><a href="#cite_note-518">[note 17]</a> The many calamities of the "long fourteenth-century" - <a href="/wiki/Bubonic_plague" title="Bubonic plague">plague</a>, <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_1315%E2%80%931317" title="Great Famine of 1315–1317">famine</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_wars:_1000%E2%80%931499" title="List of wars: 1000–1499">multiple wars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Popular_revolts_in_late_medieval_Europe" title="Popular revolts in late medieval Europe">social unrest, urban riots, peasant revolts, and renegade feudal armies</a> – led folk to believe <a href="/wiki/Armageddon" title="Armageddon">the end of the world</a> was imminent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELazzariniBlanning20217–8-519">[502]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021109–110-520">[503]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998241–244-521">[504]</a> This belief ran throughout society and became intertwined with anticlerical and anti-papal sentiments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021118–119-522">[505]</a><a href="#cite_note-524">[note 18]</a> Intolerance is seen as a defining feature of the Late Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERiddle2008410-525">[507]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmelyansky2020xiv-526">[508]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2007154-527">[509]</a> Between 1300 and 1500, papal power stopped increasing, while kings continued to gain and consolidate power. A combination of events undermined the church's moral authority and constitutional legitimacy opening it to local fights of authority and control. Throughout this period, the church faced powerful challenges and vigorous political confrontations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986526,_532,_538,_552-528">[510]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20091,_7-366">[357]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood20161–2,_5-529">[511]</a><a href="#cite_note-535">[note 19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Avignon_Papacy_and_the_Western_Schism_(1309_-_1417)">Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism (1309 - 1417)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=69" title="Edit section: Avignon Papacy and the Western Schism (1309 - 1417)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Pope_John_XXII_Dueze_(by_Giuseppe_Franchi)_%E2%80%93_Pinacoteca_Ambrosiana.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Portrait by Giuseppe Franchi of Pope John XXII (1316–1334) who was referred to as "the banker of Avignon".[517]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portrait_of_Pope_John_XXII_Dueze_%28by_Giuseppe_Franchi%29_%E2%80%93_Pinacoteca_Ambrosiana.jpg/220px-Portrait_of_Pope_John_XXII_Dueze_%28by_Giuseppe_Franchi%29_%E2%80%93_Pinacoteca_Ambrosiana.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portrait_of_Pope_John_XXII_Dueze_%28by_Giuseppe_Franchi%29_%E2%80%93_Pinacoteca_Ambrosiana.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Pope_John_XXII_Dueze_%28by_Giuseppe_Franchi%29_%E2%80%93_Pinacoteca_Ambrosiana.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Portrait_of_Pope_John_XXII_Dueze_%28by_Giuseppe_Franchi%29_%E2%80%93_Pinacoteca_Ambrosiana.jpg/440px-Portrait_of_Pope_John_XXII_Dueze_%28by_Giuseppe_Franchi%29_%E2%80%93_Pinacoteca_Ambrosiana.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1553" data-file-height="2048" /></a><figcaption>17th century depiction of Pope <a href="/wiki/John_XXII" class="mw-redirect" title="John XXII">John XXII</a> (1316–1334) (by Giuseppe Franchi) who was referred to as "the banker of Avignon"</figcaption></figure> In 1309, <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_V" title="Pope Clement V">Pope Clement V</a> moved to Avignon in southern France in search of relief from Rome's factional politics. The <a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon Papacy</a> consisted of seven popes whose residence there produced unintended consequences for the papacy. The move away from the "seat of Peter" caused great indignation throughout the church and cost popes prestige and power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021109–110,_118–119-537">[518]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009375,_559,_561-538">[519]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_XI" title="Pope Gregory XI">Pope Gregory XI</a> returned to Rome in 1377.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKelly2009104-539">[520]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhalen201514-540">[521]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021109–110-520">[503]</a> After Gregory's death, the <a href="/wiki/Papal_conclave" title="Papal conclave">papal conclave</a> met in 1378, in Rome, and elected an Italian <a href="/wiki/Urban_VI" class="mw-redirect" title="Urban VI">Urban VI</a> to succeed Gregory. The French cardinals did not approve, so they held a second conclave electing <a href="/wiki/Robert_of_Geneva" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert of Geneva">Robert of Geneva</a> instead, giving the church two popes. This began the <a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Western Schism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOlson1999348-541">[522]</a> For the next thirty years the Church had two popes, then in 1409, the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Pisa" title="Council of Pisa">Pisan council</a> called for the resignation of both popes, electing a third to replace them. Both Popes refused to resign, leaving the Church with three popes. Five years later, <a href="/wiki/Sigismund,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Sigismund, Holy Roman Emperor">Sigismund the Holy Roman Emperor (1368-1437)</a> pressed Pope <a href="/wiki/Antipope_John_XXIII" title="Antipope John XXIII">John XXIII</a> to call the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Constance" title="Council of Constance">Council of Constance</a> (1414–1418) and depose all three popes. In 1417, the council elected <a href="/wiki/Pope_Martin_V" title="Pope Martin V">Pope Martin V</a> in their place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998245–246-542">[523]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUllmann2005xv-543">[524]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Criticism_and_reform_(1300_-_1500)">Criticism and reform (1300 - 1500)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=70" title="Edit section: Criticism and reform (1300 - 1500)">edit</a>]</div> Multiple strands of criticism of the clergy between 1100 and 1520 were voiced by clerics themselves. Such criticism condemned abuses and sought a more spiritual, less worldly, clergy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanson202115–17-544">[525]</a> However, there is a constancy of complaint in the historical record that indicates most attempts at reform between 1300 and 1500 failed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanson202115–17,_21-545">[526]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009378-546">[527]</a> During the Late Middle Ages, groups of laymen and non-ordained secular clerics sought a more sincere spiritual life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986547-547">[528]</a> A vernacular religious culture for the laity arose.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986523-395">[385]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Devotio_Moderna" title="Devotio Moderna">new devotion</a> worked toward the ideal of a pious society of ordinary non-ordained people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998246-548">[529]</a> Inside and outside the church, women were central to these movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986523-395">[385]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_and_literature_(c.1400_-_1600)">Art and literature (c.1400 - 1600)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=71" title="Edit section: Art and literature (c.1400 - 1600)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Michelangelo's famous sculpture the Pieta. Mary is seated looking at the body of her son draped across her lap." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg/220px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="231" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg/330px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1f/Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg/440px-Michelangelo%27s_Pieta_5450_cropncleaned_edit.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1584" data-file-height="1660" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Piet%C3%A0_(Michelangelo)" title="Pietà (Michelangelo)">Michelangelo's Pietà</a> (1498–99) in <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">St. Peter's Basilica</a>, Vatican City</figcaption></figure> During the European <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a> of the 15th and 16th centuries, the Church was a leading patron of art and <a href="/wiki/Medieval_architecture" title="Medieval architecture">architecture</a>, directly commissioning many individual works and supporting many artists such as <a href="/wiki/Michelangelo" title="Michelangelo">Michelangelo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Brunelleschi" class="mw-redirect" title="Brunelleschi">Brunelleschi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bramante" class="mw-redirect" title="Bramante">Bramante</a>, <a href="/wiki/Raphael" title="Raphael">Raphael</a>, <a href="/wiki/Fra_Angelico" title="Fra Angelico">Fra Angelico</a>, <a href="/wiki/Donatello" title="Donatello">Donatello</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Leonardo_da_Vinci" title="Leonardo da Vinci">Leonardo da Vinci</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998299,_308–319-549">[530]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHebron2022Heritage_and_Rupture_with_the_Tradition-550">[531]</a> Scholars revealed the <a href="/wiki/Donation_of_Constantine" title="Donation of Constantine">Donation of Constantine</a> as a forgery.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998279-551">[532]</a> Literature was deeply affected by Dutch scholar <a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Desiderius Erasmus</a> (1466 - 1536), an outstanding figure of <a href="/wiki/Christian_humanism" title="Christian humanism">Christian humanism</a> which developed in the sixteenth century. Meant to further reform the church, humanists taught a simplified faith accessible by any Christian who could pray directly to God for themselves.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998377–338-552">[533]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Chivalry" title="Chivalry">cult of chivalry</a> evolved between the thirteenth and fifteenth centuries and became a true cultural force that influenced art, literature, and philosophy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009348-553">[534]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998208-554">[535]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Byzantium_and_the_Fall_of_Constantinople_in_1453">Byzantium and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=72" title="Edit section: Byzantium and the Fall of Constantinople in 1453">edit</a>]</div> In 1439, a reunion agreement between the Eastern and Western churches was made. However, there was popular resistance in the East, so it wasn't until 1452 that the decree of union was officially published in Constantinople. It was overthrown the very next year by the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a> to the Ottoman Turks in 1453.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDowley2018342–343-555">[536]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitromilides2006187-556">[537]</a><a href="#cite_note-558">[note 20]</a> Compulsory resettlement returned many Greek Orthodox to Constantinople.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006175-559">[539]</a> While Islamic law did not recognize the Patriarch as a "juristic person", nor acknowledge the Orthodox Church as an institution, it did identify the Orthodox Church with the Greek community, and concern for stability allowed it to exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006171,_173-560">[540]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-561">[541]</a> The monastery at Mt. Athos prospered from the fourteenth to the sixteenth centuries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008174-562">[542]</a> Ottomans were largely tolerant, and wealthy Byzantines who entered monastic life there were allowed to keep some control over their property until 1568.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008174-562">[542]</a> Leaders of the church were recognized by the Islamic state as administrative agents charged with supervising its Christian subjects and collecting their taxes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitromilides2006191-563">[543]</a> Compulsory taxes, higher and higher payments to the sultan in hopes of receiving his appointment to the Patriarchate, and other financial gifts, corrupted the process and impoverished Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006176–177,_179-564">[544]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-561">[541]</a> Conversion became an attractive solution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006181-565">[545]</a><a href="#cite_note-567">[note 21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Inquisition_(1478_-_twentieth_century)">Modern Inquisition (1478 - twentieth century)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=73" title="Edit section: Modern Inquisition (1478 - twentieth century)">edit</a>]</div> Between 1478 and 1542, the modern <a href="/wiki/Roman_Inquisition" title="Roman Inquisition">Roman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Inquisition" title="Spanish Inquisition">Spanish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Inquisition" title="Portuguese Inquisition">Portuguese</a> inquisitions were created with a much broader reach than previous inquisitions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlings20061,2-568">[547]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcocci20131–7-569">[548]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer20142–3-570">[549]</a> The infamous Spanish Inquisition was responsible to the crown and was used to consolidate state interests.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlings20061,_2-571">[550]</a> Authorized by the Pope in 1478, it was begun in answer to <a href="/wiki/Ferdinand_II_of_Aragon" title="Ferdinand II of Aragon">Ferdinand</a> and <a href="/wiki/Isabella_I_of_Castile" title="Isabella I of Castile">Isabella's</a> fears that Jewish converts (known as <a href="/wiki/Conversos" class="mw-redirect" title="Conversos">Conversos</a> or <a href="/wiki/Marranos" class="mw-redirect" title="Marranos">Marranos</a>) were spying and conspiring with Muslims to sabotage the new state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETarverSlape2016210–212-572">[551]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBernardiniFiering2001371-573">[552]</a> Of those condemned by the Inquisition of Valencia before 1530, ninety-two percent were Jews.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen198138-574">[553]</a> Initially, the Spanish Inquisition was so severe that the Pope attempted to shut it down. King Ferdinand is said to have threatened the Pope to prevent that.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathew201852–53-575">[554]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen201437,_57–59,_182-576">[555]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009587-577">[556]</a> Five years after its inception, a papal bull conceded control of the Spanish Inquisition to the Spanish crown in October 1483.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKamen2014182-578">[557]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2009587-577">[556]</a> It became the first national, unified, centralized institution of the nascent Spanish state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECasanova199475-579">[558]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawlings20061,_2-571">[550]</a> The Portuguese Inquisition was controlled by a state-level board of directors sponsored by the king who, during this period, was generally more concerned with ethnic ancestry than religion. According to Giuseppe Marcocci, there is a connection between the growth of the Inquisition and the statutes of blood purity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcocci20131–7-569">[548]</a> Anti-Judaism became part of the Inquisition in Portugal before the end of the fifteenth-century, and forced conversion led many Jewish converts to Portuguese colonies in India where they suffered as targets of the <a href="/wiki/Goa_Inquisition" title="Goa Inquisition">Goa Inquisition</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlannery201311-580">[559]</a> The Roman Inquisition operated to serve the papacy's long-standing political aims in Italy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer20143-581">[560]</a> The Roman Inquisition was bureaucratic, intellectual, and academic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer20142-582">[561]</a> It is probably best known for its condemnation of <a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMayer20145-583">[562]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Expulsion_of_Jews_(circa_1200s_-_1500s)">Expulsion of Jews (circa 1200s - 1500s)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=74" title="Edit section: Expulsion of Jews (circa 1200s - 1500s)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Expulsion_judios-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of Europe from 1100 to 1600 showing where and when Jews were expelled and exciled" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/220px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/330px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Expulsion_judios-en.svg/440px-Expulsion_judios-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="8960" data-file-height="6672" /></a><figcaption>Expulsion judios-en</figcaption></figure> While the medieval Catholic church never advocated the full expulsion of Jews from Christendom, nor did the Church ever repudiate Augustine's doctrine of Jewish witness, canon law supported discrimination. Secular rulers repeatedly evicted Jews from their lands and confiscated Jewish property.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBejczy1997374_fn43;_368-584">[563]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1998396-585">[564]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELacopo20162–3-586">[565]</a> In 1283, the <a href="/wiki/Archbishop_of_Canterbury" title="Archbishop of Canterbury">Archbishop of Canterbury</a> spearheaded a petition demanding restitution of usury and urging the Jewish expulsion in 1290.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMundy200056–59-587">[566]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2007110,_111-588">[567]</a> Frankfurt's Jews flourished between 1453 and 1613 despite harsh discrimination. They were restricted to one street and were subject to strict rules if they wished to leave this territory, but within their community, they were allowed to maintain some self-governance. They had their own laws, leaders, and a well-known Rabbinical school that also functioned as a religious and cultural centre.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECohen1998396-585">[564]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Early_modernity_(1500–1750)">Early modernity (1500–1750)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=75" title="Edit section: Early modernity (1500–1750)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_background">Historical background</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=76" title="Edit section: Historical background">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:348px;max-width:348px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Martin Luther" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/170px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/255px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b7/Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg/340px-Martin_Luther_by_Cranach-restoration.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="645" /></a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:172px;max-width:172px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Luther_95_Thesen.png" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of a page listing Luther's 95 theses." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Luther_95_Thesen.png/170px-Luther_95_Thesen.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Luther_95_Thesen.png/255px-Luther_95_Thesen.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Luther_95_Thesen.png/340px-Luther_95_Thesen.png 2x" data-file-width="3228" data-file-height="4611" /></a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">In 1517, <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a> initiated the <a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> with his <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a>.</div></div></div></div> Powerful and pervasive ecclesiastical reform developed from medieval critiques of the church, but the institutional unity of the church was shattered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeane2022278-589">[568]</a> Church critics of the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries had challenged papal authority. Kings and councils asserting their own power had also created challenges to church authority, while vernacular gospels challenged church authority amongst the laity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeane2022277-590">[569]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen2018324-591">[570]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Protestant_Reformation">Protestant Reformation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=77" title="Edit section: Protestant Reformation">edit</a>]</div> Though there was no actual schism until 1521, the Protestant Reformation (1517–1648) has been described (since the nineteenth-century) as beginning when <a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Martin Luther</a>, a Catholic monk advocating church reform, nailed his <a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a> to the church door in <a href="/wiki/Wittenberg" title="Wittenberg">Wittenberg</a> in 1517.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon2017535-592">[571]</a> Luther's theses challenged the church's selling of indulgences, the authority of the Pope, and various teachings of the late medieval Catholic church. This act of defiance and its social, moral, and theological criticisms brought Western Christianity to a new understanding of salvation, tradition, the individual, and personal experience in relationship with God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDixon2017535–536,_553-593">[572]</a> Edicts handed down by the <a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a> condemned Luther and officially banned citizens of the Holy Roman Empire from defending or propagating his ideas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFahlbuschBromiley2003362-594">[573]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199928-595">[574]</a> The three primary traditions to emerge directly from the Reformation were the <a href="/wiki/Lutheran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lutheran">Lutheran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Reformed_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Reformed tradition">Reformed</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Anglican" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglican">Anglican</a> traditions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1995xxx,_xxi,_xxviii-596">[575]</a> At the same time, a collection of loosely related groups that included <a href="/wiki/Anabaptists" class="mw-redirect" title="Anabaptists">Anabaptists</a>, Spiritualists, and <a href="/wiki/Theistic_rationalism" title="Theistic rationalism">Evangelical Rationalists</a>, began the <a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a> in Germany and Switzerland.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilliams1995xxix-597">[576]</a> Beginning in 1519, <a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Huldrych Zwingli</a> spread these teachings in Switzerland leading to the <a href="/wiki/Swiss_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Swiss Reformation">Swiss Reformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarabello2021abstract-598">[577]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=78" title="Edit section: Counter-Reformation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="picture of first page of the list of forbidden books in Latin from its first publication" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg/220px-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg/330px-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg/440px-Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1170" /></a><figcaption>The 1564 edition of the Index Librorum Prohibitorum listed books forbidden by the Catholic Church.</figcaption></figure> The Roman Catholic Church rebuked the Protestant challenge in what is called the <a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> or Catholic Reformation, spearheaded by a series of 10 reforming popes from 1534 to 1605, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Pope_Paul_III" title="Pope Paul III">Pope Paul III</a> (1534–1549).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998329,_335-599">[578]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Council of Trent</a> (1545–1563) denied each Protestant claim, and laid the foundation of Roman Catholic policies up to the twenty-first-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998336-600">[579]</a> A list of books detrimental to faith or morals was established, the <a href="/wiki/Index_Librorum_Prohibitorum" title="Index Librorum Prohibitorum">Index Librorum Prohibitorum</a>, which included the writings of Protestants and those condemned as obscene.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998335-601">[580]</a> New monastic orders were formed within the church, including the <a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Society of Jesus</a> - also known as the "Jesuits" - who adopted military discipline and a vow of loyalty to the Pope, leading them to be called "the shock troops of the papacy". They soon became the Church's chief weapon against Protestantism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998336-600">[579]</a> Monastic reform also led to developments within orthodox spirituality, such as that of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_mystics" title="Spanish mystics">Spanish mystics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/French_school_of_spirituality" title="French school of spirituality">French school of spirituality</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacCulloch2004404-602">[581]</a> The Counter-Reformation also created the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Uniate church</a> which used Eastern liturgy but recognized Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175–176-603">[582]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internecine_wars">Internecine wars</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=79" title="Edit section: Internecine wars">edit</a>]</div> Religion became entangled with local politics when the quarreling royal houses who were already involved in dynastic disagreements became polarized into the two religious camps.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998329–331-604">[583]</a> Warfare initially broke out in the Holy Roman Empire with the minor <a href="/wiki/Knights%27_War" title="Knights' War">Knights' War</a> in 1522, then intensified in the First <a href="/wiki/Schmalkaldic_War" title="Schmalkaldic War">Schmalkaldic War</a> (1546–1547) and the <a href="/wiki/Second_Schmalkaldic_War" title="Second Schmalkaldic War">Second Schmalkaldic War</a> (1552–1555).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnnekink20162–3-605">[584]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEngels1978442-606">[585]</a> In 1562, France became the centre of <a href="/wiki/French_Wars_of_Religion" title="French Wars of Religion">religious warfare</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2023-607">[586]</a> The largest and most disastrous of these wars was the <a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a> (1618–1648), which severely strained the continent's political system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnnekink20163-608">[587]</a> Theorists such as John Kelsay and James Turner Johnson argue that these wars were varieties of the <a href="/wiki/Just_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Just war">just war</a> tradition for liberty and freedom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnnekink201610-609">[588]</a> <a href="/wiki/William_T._Cavanaugh" title="William T. Cavanaugh">William T. Cavanaugh</a> identifies a view shared by many historians that the wars were not primarily religious, but were more about state-building, nationalism, and economics.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2014481-610">[589]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOnnekink20163,_6-611">[590]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParker2023-607">[586]</a> Historian Barbara Diefendorf argues that religious motives were always mixed with other motives, but the simple fact of Catholics fighting Catholics and Protestants fighting Protestants is not sufficient to prove the absence of religious motives.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMurphy2014484–485-612">[591]</a> According to Marxist theorist Henry Heller, there was "a rising tide of commoner hostility to noble oppression and growing perception of collusion between Protestant and Catholic nobles".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeller1996853–861-613">[592]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Witch_trials">Witch trials</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=80" title="Edit section: Witch trials">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Witch_trials_in_the_early_modern_period" title="Witch trials in the early modern period">Witch trials in the early modern period</a></div> Until the 1300s, the official position of the Roman Catholic Church was that <a href="/wiki/Witches" class="mw-redirect" title="Witches">witches</a> did not exist.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKwiatkowska201030-614">[593]</a> While historians have been unable to pinpoint a single cause of what became known as the "witch frenzy", scholars have noted that, without changing church doctrine, a new but common stream of thought developed at every level of society that witches were both real and malevolent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevack20136-615">[594]</a> Records show the belief in magic had remained so widespread among the rural people, that it has convinced some historians that Christianization had not been as successful as previously supposed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHerlihy2023-616">[595]</a> The main pressure to prosecute witches came from the common people, and trials were mostly civil trials.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevack20137-617">[596]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnkarlooClarkMonter2002xiii-618">[597]</a> There is broad agreement that approximately 100,000 people were prosecuted, of which 80% were women, and that 40,000 to 50,000 people were executed between 1561 and 1670.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMonter2023-619">[598]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELevack20136-615">[594]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eastern-Orthodox_Churches">Eastern-Orthodox Churches</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=81" title="Edit section: Eastern-Orthodox Churches">edit</a>]</div> The conquest of 1453 had effectively destroyed the Eastern Orthodox Church as an institution of the Christian empire as inaugurated by Constantine, sealing off Greek-speaking Orthodoxy from the West for almost a century and a half.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKitromilides2006187,_191-620">[599]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008173-621">[600]</a> However, the Seljuq sultans and the Ottoman sultans were relatively tolerant, recognizing Christians as fellow "people of the book". Still, the church was without one of its leaders, the Emperor, though it retained a patriarch in a lesser and more limited capacity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006169-622">[601]</a> This allowed the spiritual and cultural influence of the Eastern church, Constantinople, and <a href="/wiki/Mount_Athos" title="Mount Athos">Mount Athos the monastic peninsula</a> to continue in slightly altered form among Orthodox nations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008173-621">[600]</a> By the time of <a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCleyman_the_Magnificent" class="mw-redirect" title="Süleyman the Magnificent">Süleyman the Magnificent</a> (1520 – 1566), the patriarchate had become a part of the Ottoman system, and continued to influence the Orthodox world.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006181,_184-566">[546]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-561">[541]</a> Throughout all of this, Constantinople remained conservative and suspicious of Rome.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006185-623">[602]</a> <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_Zachariadou" title="Elizabeth Zachariadou">Elizabeth Zachariadou</a> writes that "The personality of <a href="/wiki/Jeremias_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Jeremias II">Jeremias II</a> dominates the history of the patriarchate during the second half of the sixteenth century".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006185-623">[602]</a> Jeremias (1536 - 1595) established contact with the new Protestant Lutherans. Nothing much resulted beyond Western Europeans becoming more aware of the problems of the church in captivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006185-623">[602]</a> Jeremias was the first Eastern patriarch to visit north-eastern Europe. Ending his visit in Moscow, he founded the Orthodox Patriarchate of Russia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006185-623">[602]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-561">[541]</a> A generation after Constantinople fell to the Turks <a href="/wiki/Ivan_III_of_Russia" title="Ivan III of Russia">Ivan III of Muscovy</a> adopted the style of the ancient Byzantine imperial court. This gained Ivan support among the late fifteenth and early sixteenth-century Rus elite who saw themselves as the New Israel and Moscow as the new Jerusalem.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShepard20068–9-624">[603]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Church_reform_of_Peter_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Church reform of Peter I">Church reform of Peter I</a> in the early eighteenth-century placed the Orthodox authorities under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Tsar" title="Tsar">tsar</a>. An ober-procurator appointed by the tsar ran the committee that governed the Church after 1721 until 1918: the <a href="/wiki/Most_Holy_Synod" title="Most Holy Synod">Most Holy Synod</a>. The Church became involved in the various campaigns of <a href="/wiki/Russification" title="Russification">russification</a> and contributed to antisemitism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShlikhta2004361–273-625">[604]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKlierLambroza2004306-626">[605]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Age_of_Enlightenment_(17th-18th_c.)">The Age of Enlightenment (17th-18th c.)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=82" title="Edit section: The Age of Enlightenment (17th-18th c.)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></div> The era of absolutist states followed the breakdown of Christian universalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAguilera-Barchet2015141-627">[606]</a> Abuses from political <a href="/wiki/Absolutism_(European_history)" title="Absolutism (European history)">absolutism</a> practiced by kings supported by Catholicism, gave rise to a virulent anti-clerical, anti-Catholic, and anti-Christian sentiment that emerged in the 1680s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob2006265–267-628">[607]</a> Critique of Christianity began among the more extreme Protestant reformers enraged by fear, tyranny, and persecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob2006265,_268,_270-629">[608]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAston200613–15-630">[609]</a> Secularisation spread as every level of European society began to embrace enlightenment ideals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJacob2006272–273,_279-631">[610]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_concepts_of_tolerance">Modern concepts of tolerance</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=83" title="Edit section: Modern concepts of tolerance">edit</a>]</div> Since the 1400s, Protestants steadfastly sought religious toleration for heresy, blasphemy, <a href="/wiki/Catholicism" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholicism">Catholicism</a>, non-Christian religions, and even <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffey1998961-632">[611]</a> Anglicans and other Christian moderates also wrote and argued for toleration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECoffey201412-633">[612]</a> In the 1690s, many secular thinkers were rethinking on a political level all of the State's reasons for persecution, and they also began advocating for religious toleration.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPatterson199764-634">[613]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMout2007227–233,_242-635">[614]</a> Over the next two and a half centuries, many treaties and political declarations of tolerance followed, until concepts of freedom of religion, freedom of speech, and freedom of thought became established in most western countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMout2007225–243-636">[615]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKaplan2009119-637">[616]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFranck1997594–595-638">[617]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art_2">Art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=84" title="Edit section: Art">edit</a>]</div> In the early seventeenth-century, <a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a> art, characterized by grandeur and opulence, offered the Catholic Church and secular rulers a means of expressing their magnificence and political power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998353-639">[618]</a> This was a period of turmoil, discovery, and change, and Baroque art reflected the search for stability and order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998353,_358-640">[619]</a> It originated in Rome and became an international style. <a href="/wiki/St._Peter%27s_Basilica" title="St. Peter's Basilica">The church of St.Peter in Rome</a>, <a href="/wiki/St_Paul%27s_Cathedral" title="St Paul's Cathedral">St. Paul's cathedral in London</a>, and the gardens at <a href="/wiki/Palace_of_Versailles" title="Palace of Versailles">Versailles</a> are probably the age's premiere examples.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998358-641">[620]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colonialism_and_missions">Colonialism and missions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=85" title="Edit section: Colonialism and missions">edit</a>]</div> Colonialism opened the door for Christian missions in many new regions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENowellMagdoffWebster2022-642">[621]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-643">[622]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobinson1952152-644">[623]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Sheridan_Gilley" title="Sheridan Gilley">Sheridan Gilley</a> "Catholic Christianity became a global religion through the Spanish and Portuguese colonial empires in the sixteenth-century and French missionaries in the seventeenth and eighteenth."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-643">[622]</a> However, Christian missionaries and colonial empires had separate agendas, and they were often in direct opposition to each other.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20063-645">[624]</a> Most missionaries avoided politics, yet they also generally identified themselves with the indigenous people amongst whom they worked and lived.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert2009105-646">[625]</a> On the one hand, vocal missionaries challenged colonial oppression and defended human rights, even opposing their own governments in matters of social justice for 500 years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert2009105-646">[625]</a> On the other hand, there are an equal number of examples of missionaries cooperating with colonial governments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007134-647">[626]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asia_2">Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=86" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> The sixteenth-century success of Christianity in Japan was followed by one of the greatest persecutions in Christian history. Sixteenth-century missions to China were undertaken primarily by the Jesuits.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacdonald201531-273">[268]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins200814–15-648">[627]</a> Sheridan Gilley writes that "The cruel martyrdom of Catholics in China, Indochina, Japan and Korea, another heroic missionary country, was connected to local fears of European invasion and conquest, which in some cases were not unjustified."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20062-649">[628]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Late_modernity_(1750–1945)">Late modernity (1750–1945)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=87" title="Edit section: Late modernity (1750–1945)">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_setting_2">Historical setting</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=88" title="Edit section: Historical setting">edit</a>]</div> Historians often refer to the period from 1760 to 1830 as a "historical watershed" because it embraces the beginnings of the <a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a>, the <a href="/wiki/American_Revolution" title="American Revolution">American Revolution</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a> all of which had long-term effect.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998427-650">[629]</a> The American Revolution (1776) and its aftermath included legal assurances of the separation of church and state and a general turn to religious plurality.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarty2006524-651">[630]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20068-652">[631]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2006347-653">[632]</a> In the decades following, France also experienced revolution, and by 1794, radical revolutionaries attempted to violently ‘de-Christianize’ France in what some scholars have termed a "deliberate genocidal policy of extermination" of Catholics in the Vendée region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDoyleHightower200310-654">[633]</a> When Napoleon came to power, he acknowledged Catholicism as the majority view and tried to make it dependent upon the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDesan2006556-655">[634]</a> For Eastern Orthodox church leaders, the French Revolution meant Enlightenment ideas were too dangerous to embrace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-561">[541]</a> Scholars have identified a positive correlation between the rise of Protestantism and <a href="/wiki/Human_capital" title="Human capital">human capital</a> formation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoppartFalkingerGrossmann2014874–895-656">[635]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchalteggerTorgler201099–101-657">[636]</a> <a href="/wiki/Economic_development" title="Economic development">economic development</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESpaterTranvik20191963–1994-658">[637]</a> and the development of the state system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckerPfaffRubin2016-659">[638]</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_Weber" title="Max Weber">Max Weber</a> says Protestantism contributed to the development of banking across Northern Europe and gave birth to <a href="/wiki/Capitalism" title="Capitalism">Capitalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWeberKalberg2012xi,_xxviii,_xxxiv–xxxvi,_xl,_3–5,_103–126-660">[639]</a><a href="#cite_note-662">[note 22]</a> However, the urbanization and industrialization that went hand in hand with capitalism created a plethora of new social problems.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkocpolTrimberger1977101–104-663">[641]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20064–5-664">[642]</a> In Europe and North America, both Protestants and Catholics provided massive aid to the poor, supporting family welfare, medicine, and education.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20065-665">[643]</a> In many cases, throughout this period, Christianity was weakened by social and political change.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20064–5-664">[642]</a> By the Nineteenth and Twentieth centuries, the influence of anticlerical socialism and communism produced secession and disruption in many locations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20068-666">[644]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biblical_criticism,_liberalism,_fundamentalism">Biblical criticism, liberalism, fundamentalism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=89" title="Edit section: Biblical criticism, liberalism, fundamentalism">edit</a>]</div> After the Scientific Revolution (1600–1750), an upsurge in skepticism subjected Western culture, including religious belief, to systematic doubt.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998388-667">[645]</a> <a href="/wiki/Biblical_criticism" title="Biblical criticism">Biblical criticism</a> emerged (c. 1650 – c. 1800), pioneered by Protestants, using historicism and human reason to make the study of the Bible more scholarly, secular, and democratic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELaw20128,224-668">[646]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBaird1992201,_118-669">[647]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20063-670">[648]</a> Depending upon how radical the individual scholar was, this produced different and often conflicting views, but it posed particular problems for the literal Bible interpretation which had emerged in the 1820s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20064-671">[649]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobson20131,_3,_4-672">[650]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasper202013-673">[651]</a> Before the Enlightenment of the eighteenth-century, <a href="/wiki/Liberal_Christianity" title="Liberal Christianity">liberalism</a> was synonymous with <a href="/wiki/Idealism_(Christian_eschatology)" title="Idealism (Christian eschatology)">Christian Idealism</a> in that it imagined a liberal State that embraced political and cultural tolerance and freedom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobson20131,_3,_4-672">[650]</a> Later liberalism embraced seventeenth-century rationalism, which was attempting to "wean" Christianity from its "irrational cultic" roots.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobson20133-674">[652]</a> This liberalism lost touch with the necessity of faith and ritual in maintaining Christianity which led to liberalism's decline and the birth of fundamentalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHobson20131,_4-675">[653]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist Christianity">Fundamentalist Christianity</a> arose in the late nineteenth and early twentieth-century as a reaction against <a href="/wiki/Modernist_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Modernist Christianity">modern rationalism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasper202013-673">[651]</a> The Roman Catholic Church became increasingly centralized, conservative, and focused on loyalty to the Pope.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20063-670">[648]</a> Early in the twentieth-century, the Pope required Catholic Bible scholars who used biblical criticism to take an anti-modernist oath.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20063-670">[648]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDei_verbum2014-676">[654]</a> In the same period (1925), supporters of a relatively new, loosely organized, and undisciplined Protestant fundamentalism participated in the <a href="/wiki/Scopes_trial" title="Scopes trial">Scopes trial</a>. By 1930, the movement appeared to be dying.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasper202014,_18-677">[655]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199822-678">[656]</a> Later in the 1930s, <a href="/wiki/Neo-orthodoxy" title="Neo-orthodoxy">Neo-orthodoxy</a>, a theology against liberalism with a reevaluation of Reformation teachings, began uniting moderates of both sides.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGasper202019-679">[657]</a> In the 1940s, "new-evangelicalism" established itself as separate from fundamentalism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarris199842,_57-680">[658]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="American_religious_revivals_(1730–1850)">American religious revivals (1730–1850)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=90" title="Edit section: American religious revivals (1730–1850)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_church_in_America_and_its_baptisms_of_fire;_being_an_account_of_the_progress_of_religion_in_America,_in_the_eighteenth_and_nineteenth_centuries,_as_seen_in_the_great_revivals_in_the_Christian_(14596666738).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="a collection of images of church leaders of the awakenings" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/The_church_in_America_and_its_baptisms_of_fire%3B_being_an_account_of_the_progress_of_religion_in_America%2C_in_the_eighteenth_and_nineteenth_centuries%2C_as_seen_in_the_great_revivals_in_the_Christian_%2814596666738%29.jpg/180px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="310" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/The_church_in_America_and_its_baptisms_of_fire%3B_being_an_account_of_the_progress_of_religion_in_America%2C_in_the_eighteenth_and_nineteenth_centuries%2C_as_seen_in_the_great_revivals_in_the_Christian_%2814596666738%29.jpg/270px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/The_church_in_America_and_its_baptisms_of_fire%3B_being_an_account_of_the_progress_of_religion_in_America%2C_in_the_eighteenth_and_nineteenth_centuries%2C_as_seen_in_the_great_revivals_in_the_Christian_%2814596666738%29.jpg/360px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1290" data-file-height="2220" /></a><figcaption>Great revivalists of the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries.</figcaption></figure> Religious revival, known as the <a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a>, swept through the American colonies between the 1730s and the 1770s.<a href="#cite_note-685">[note 23]</a> Verbal battles over the movement raged at both the congregational and denominational levels creating divisions which became 'Parties', which turned political and eventually led to critical support for the American Revolution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeimert20062-686">[663]</a> In places like Connecticut and Massachusetts, where one denomination received state funding, churches now began to lobby local legislatures to end that inequity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHeyrmann.d.-687">[664]</a> In 1791, the United States became the first Christian nation to mandate the separation of church and state. Theological pluralism became the new norm.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20068-652">[631]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2006347-653">[632]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a> (1800–1830s) extolled moral reform as the Christian alternative to armed revolution. These reformers established nationwide societies, separate from any individual church, to begin social movements concerning <a href="/wiki/Abolitionism" title="Abolitionism">abolition</a>, <a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights" title="Women's rights">women's rights</a>, <a href="/wiki/Temperance_movement" title="Temperance movement">temperance</a> and literacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMastersYoung2022abstract-688">[665]</a> Developing nationwide organizations was pioneering, and many businesses adopted the practice leading to the consolidations and mergers that reshaped the American economy of the nineteenth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMintz199551–53-689">[666]</a> The second awakening produced the <a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restoration Movement</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECairns201526-690">[667]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Slavery19.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="example of an anti-slavery tract concerning the separation of black families" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Slavery19.jpg/220px-Slavery19.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="166" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Slavery19.jpg/330px-Slavery19.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Slavery19.jpg/440px-Slavery19.jpg 2x" data-file-width="760" data-file-height="572" /></a><figcaption>American anti-slavery tract, 1853</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a> began in 1857 and was most notable for taking the movement throughout the world, especially in English-speaking countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECairns201526-690">[667]</a> <a href="/wiki/Restorationists" class="mw-redirect" title="Restorationists">Restorationists</a> were prevalent in America. They have not described themselves as a reform movement but have, instead, described themselves as restoring the Church to its original form as found in the book of Acts. Restorationism gave rise to the Stone-Campbell Restoration Movement, <a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHughes2004635-691">[668]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMannionMudge2008217-692">[669]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Western_slavery">Western slavery</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=91" title="Edit section: Western slavery">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sojourner_Truth,_1870_(cropped,_restored).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="this is a restored photo of Sojourner Truth who escaped slavery and became an abolitionist" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Sojourner_Truth%2C_1870_%28cropped%2C_restored%29.jpg/220px-Sojourner_Truth%2C_1870_%28cropped%2C_restored%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="305" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Sojourner_Truth%2C_1870_%28cropped%2C_restored%29.jpg/330px-Sojourner_Truth%2C_1870_%28cropped%2C_restored%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Sojourner_Truth%2C_1870_%28cropped%2C_restored%29.jpg/440px-Sojourner_Truth%2C_1870_%28cropped%2C_restored%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3035" data-file-height="4210" /></a><figcaption>Born into slavery, <a href="/wiki/Sojourner_Truth" title="Sojourner Truth">Sojourner Truth</a> escaped and became an advocate for abolitionism, racial equality, women's rights, and alcohol temperance. Pictured <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1870</figcaption></figure> For over 300 years, many Christians in Europe and North America participated in the <a href="/wiki/Trans-Atlantic_slave_trade" class="mw-redirect" title="Trans-Atlantic slave trade">Trans-Atlantic slave trade</a> which began in the sixteenth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006517–518-693">[670]</a> Moral objections had arisen immediately but had small impact.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006521–523,_524-694">[671]</a> By the eighteenth-century, the Religious Society of Friends (<a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a>), followed by <a href="/wiki/Methodists" class="mw-redirect" title="Methodists">Methodists</a>, Presbyterians and <a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a>, began to campaign, write, and spread pamphlets against the trade and slavery itself.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006519–520-695">[672]</a> In the years after the American Revolution, black congregations led by black preachers provided an institutional base for keeping abolitionism alive.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006530-696">[673]</a> By the early nineteenth-century, American Protestants had organized the first <a href="/wiki/American_Anti-Slavery_Society" title="American Anti-Slavery Society">anti-slavery societies</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006525–528-697">[674]</a> Christian reformers in both England and America, African Americans themselves, and the new American republic eventually produced the "gradual but comprehensive abolition of slavery" in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2006525–526-698">[675]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protestant_missions">Protestant missions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=92" title="Edit section: Protestant missions">edit</a>]</div> Protestant missionaries had a significant role in shaping multiple nations, cultures, and societies as well as in making Christianity a global religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20062-649">[628]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert20091-77">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGonzalez2010302-699">[676]</a> Women made major contributions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20065-665">[643]</a> A missionary's first job was to get to know the indigenous people and work with them to translate the Bible into their local language. Approximately 90% were completed. Often, the process also generated a written <a href="/wiki/Grammar" title="Grammar">grammar</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Lexicon" title="Lexicon">lexicon</a> of native traditions, and a <a href="/wiki/Dictionary" title="Dictionary">dictionary</a> of the local language. These were used to teach in missionary schools resulting in the spread of literacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETáíwò201068–70-700">[677]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007xx-701">[678]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei19959-702">[679]</a> Many native cultures responded to Protestant missions with "movements of <a href="/wiki/Indigenization" title="Indigenization">indigenization</a> and cultural liberation" that generated many beneficial long-term effects.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007xx,_265-703">[680]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEde_JuanPierskalla2017161-704">[681]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETáíwò201068–70-700">[677]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Native_American_boarding_schools">Native American boarding schools</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=93" title="Edit section: Native American boarding schools">edit</a>]</div> In 1819, the U.S., and in 1831 the Canadian federal governments began boarding school systems (about 50 years before public school systems were instituted) for the education and assimilation of Native Tribal peoples. Funded by the federal government, schools were run by Catholics, Quakers, Methodists, Presbyterians, Episcopalians, and government representatives from the Indian Office, then the Indian Bureau, then the Bureau of Indian Affairs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEderReyhner2017xi-705">[682]</a> The majority of native children did not attend boarding school. Of those that did, many did so in response to requests for education sent by native families to the Federal government. Many others were forcibly taken from their homes. For Indigenous populations in Canada and the U.S., the history of <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">boarding schools</a> shows a continuum of experiences ranging from happiness and refuge to suffering, forced assimilation, mistreatment, and abuse. Some even died. Most survived and prospered. Over time, missionaries came to respect the virtues of native culture and spoke against national policies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEderReyhner2017xi,_1–3,_6,_185–190-706">[683]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLoughlin1984abstract-707">[684]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007134–137-708">[685]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Russian_Orthodoxy">Russian Orthodoxy</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=94" title="Edit section: Russian Orthodoxy">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of "Cathedral of Christ the Savior" in Moscow turning to dust as it collapses on the orders of Joseph Stalin in 1931.[686]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/220px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="168" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/330px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg/440px-Christ_saviour_explosion.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="610" /></a><figcaption>Demolition of the <a href="/wiki/Cathedral_of_Christ_the_Saviour" title="Cathedral of Christ the Saviour">Cathedral of Christ the Saviour</a> in Moscow on the orders of <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Stalin" title="Joseph Stalin">Joseph Stalin</a>, 5 December 1931, consistent with the doctrine of <a href="/wiki/State_atheism" title="State atheism">state atheism</a> in the USSR</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Bolsheviks" title="Bolsheviks">Bolsheviks</a> and other Russian revolutionaries saw the Church, like the tsarist state, as an <a href="/wiki/Enemy_of_the_people" title="Enemy of the people">enemy of the people</a>. Criticism of atheism was strictly forbidden and sometimes led to imprisonment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECalciu-Dumitreasa19835–8-710">[687]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEidintas200123-711">[688]</a> Some actions against Orthodox priests and believers included torture, being sent to <a href="/wiki/Gulags" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulags">prison camps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sharashka" title="Sharashka">labour camps</a> or <a href="/wiki/Psikhushka" title="Psikhushka">mental hospitals</a>, and execution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBouteneff1998vi–1-712">[689]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESullivan2006-713">[690]</a> Historian Scott Kenworthy describes the persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church under communism as "unparalleled by any in Christian history".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008178-714">[691]</a> In the first five years after the <a href="/wiki/October_Revolution" title="October Revolution">October Revolution</a>, one journalist reported that 28 bishops and 1,200 priests were executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEOstling2001-715">[692]</a> Others report that 8,000 people were killed in 1922.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPipes1995356-716">[693]</a> The <a href="/wiki/League_of_Militant_Atheists" title="League of Militant Atheists">League of Militant Atheists</a> adopted a five-year plan in 1932 "aimed at the total eradication of religion by 1937".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalters200515-717">[694]</a><a href="#cite_note-721">[note 24]</a> Despite oppression and martyrdom under hostile rule, the Orthodox churches of the twentieth-century continued to contribute to theology, spirituality, liturgy, music, and art. Kenworthy adds that "Important movements within the church have been the revival of a Eucharistic ecclesiology, of traditional iconography, of monastic life and spiritual traditions such as <a href="/wiki/Hesychasm" title="Hesychasm">Hesychasm</a>, and the rediscovery of the Greek Church Fathers".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008177–178-722">[698]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Christianity_and_Nazism">Christianity and Nazism</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=95" title="Edit section: Christianity and Nazism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Papst_Pius_XI._1JS.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Pope Pius XI seated on a throne" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Papst_Pius_XI._1JS.jpg/220px-Papst_Pius_XI._1JS.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Papst_Pius_XI._1JS.jpg/330px-Papst_Pius_XI._1JS.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Papst_Pius_XI._1JS.jpg/440px-Papst_Pius_XI._1JS.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1612" data-file-height="2188" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a></figcaption></figure> In the early twentieth-century, European states were advocating the separation of church and state, while also establishing authoritarian governments and state-supported churches. Such consanguinity would, after 1945, implicate the church in abuses of power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20067–8-723">[699]</a> <a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XI" title="Pope Pius XI">Pope Pius XI</a> declared in <a href="/wiki/Mit_brennender_Sorge" title="Mit brennender Sorge">Mit brennender Sorge</a> (English: "With rising anxiety") that <a href="/wiki/Fascist" class="mw-redirect" title="Fascist">fascist</a> governments had hidden "pagan intentions" and expressed the irreconcilability of the Catholic position with <a href="/wiki/Totalitarian" class="mw-redirect" title="Totalitarian">totalitarian</a> fascist state worship which placed the nation above God, fundamental <a href="/wiki/Human_rights" title="Human rights">human rights</a>, and dignity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmes1981116-724">[700]</a> In Poland, Catholic priests were arrested and <a href="/wiki/Nazi_persecution_of_the_Catholic_Church_in_Poland" title="Nazi persecution of the Catholic Church in Poland">Polish priests and nuns were executed</a> en masse.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossino200372,_169,_185,_285-725">[701]</a> Most leaders and members of the largest Protestant church in Germany, the <a href="/wiki/German_Evangelical_Church" title="German Evangelical Church">German Evangelical Church</a>, which had a long tradition of nationalism and support of the state, supported the Nazis when they came to power.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museun.d.-726">[702]</a> A smaller contingent, about a third of German Protestants, formed the <a href="/wiki/Confessing_Church" title="Confessing Church">Confessing Church</a> which opposed Nazism.<a href="#cite_note-728">[note 25]</a> Nazis interfered in The Confessing Church's affairs, harassed its members, executed mass arrests, and targeted well-known pastors like Martin Niemöller and <a href="/wiki/Dietrich_Bonhoeffer" title="Dietrich Bonhoeffer">Dietrich Bonhoeffer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkiles20174,_22–23-729">[704]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBarnett199240,_59,_79–81-730">[705]</a><a href="#cite_note-732">[note 26]</a> Bonhoeffer, a pacifist, was arrested, found guilty in the conspiracy to assassinate Hitler, and executed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGreen2015203-733">[707]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="After_1945">After 1945</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=96" title="Edit section: After 1945">edit</a>]</div> After World War II, Christianity became a global religion, faced major challenges, broke down denominational boundaries, was impacted by war, and gave substantive aid to the oppressed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20065–6-734">[708]</a> Within these five areas, the papacy, ecumenical movement, missionary movement, <a href="/wiki/Pentecostal_movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Pentecostal movement">Pentecostal movement</a>, and individualistic independence have had international significance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20062-735">[709]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="A_global_religion">A global religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=97" title="Edit section: A global religion">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Map of Protestant Christianity in 1938" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg/220px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg/330px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg/440px-Countries_by_percentage_of_Protestants_1938.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="940" data-file-height="477" /></a><figcaption>Countries by percentage of Protestants, 1938</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map of worldwide Christianity in 2011" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg/220px-Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="112" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg/330px-Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg/440px-Percent_of_Christians_by_Country%E2%80%93Pew_Research_2011.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="261" /></a><figcaption>Christian distribution globally based on PEW research in 2011<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPEW_Research_Center2022-736">[710]</a></figcaption></figure> The world's largest religion has been Christianity since the eighteenth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-643">[622]</a> Before 1945, about a third of the people in the world were Christians (with about half of those Roman Catholic), and about 80% of all Christians lived in Europe, Russia, and the Americas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061-737">[711]</a> After the collapse of communism in Eastern Europe and Russia, Christianity grew and expanded there and spread in Africa and Asia. By 2000, the percentage of Christians in the West dropped to around 40 percent, while the proportion living in Asia and Africa rose to 32 percent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061-737">[711]</a> Christianity's population center shifted east and south, making it a truly global religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-643">[622]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20068-652">[631]</a> In the first quarter of the twenty-first century, most Christians live outside North America and Western Europe. White Christians are a global minority, and slightly over half of worldwide Christians are female.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFord2013429-738">[712]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPEW_global2020-739">[713]</a> It remains the world's largest religion into the twenty-first-century with roughly 2.4 billion followers, constituting around 31.2% of the world population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061-643">[622]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20068-652">[631]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Center2017-740">[714]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Africa_(19th–21st_centuries)">Africa (19th–21st centuries)</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=98" title="Edit section: Africa (19th–21st centuries)">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Laying_on_of_hands,_Dr._Ebenezer_Markwei.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of modern-day African service in Ghana with laying on of hands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Laying_on_of_hands%2C_Dr._Ebenezer_Markwei.jpg/220px-Laying_on_of_hands%2C_Dr._Ebenezer_Markwei.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Laying_on_of_hands%2C_Dr._Ebenezer_Markwei.jpg/330px-Laying_on_of_hands%2C_Dr._Ebenezer_Markwei.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2b/Laying_on_of_hands%2C_Dr._Ebenezer_Markwei.jpg/440px-Laying_on_of_hands%2C_Dr._Ebenezer_Markwei.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4496" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption>Laying on of hands during a service in a <a href="/wiki/Neo-charismatic_movement" title="Neo-charismatic movement">neo-charismatic church</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a></figcaption></figure> In 1900, under colonial rule, there were just under 9 million Christians in Africa. By 1960, and the end of colonialism, there were about 60 million. By 2005, African Christians had increased to 393 million, about half of the continent's total population.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007xx-701">[678]</a> Population in Africa has continued to grow with the percentage of Christians remaining at about half in 2022.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPEW_Research_Center2022-736">[710]</a> This expansion has been labeled a "fourth great age of Christian expansion".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei1995[httpsarchiveorgdetailshistoryofchristi0000isicpagen13mode2up_1]-741">[715]</a><a href="#cite_note-746">[note 27]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Asia_3">Asia</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=99" title="Edit section: Asia">edit</a>]</div> Christianity has grown rapidly in China and the rest of Southeast Asia, especially Korea, where it grew faster after colonialism than before it.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins201189–90-747">[720]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZurlo20203–9-748">[721]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20066-749">[722]</a> A rapid expansion of charismatic Christianity began in the 1980s, leading Asia to rival Latin America in the population of Charismatic and Pentecostal Christians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingapore_Management_University2017-750">[723]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersonTang20052-751">[724]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Council_on_Foreign_Relations" title="Council on Foreign Relations">Council on Foreign Relations</a> data shows a 10% yearly growth in Chinese Christian populations since 1979. Increasingly, this includes young people more than any other group.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYoo201927_fn.7-752">[725]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAlbert2018Introduction-753">[726]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmerica_magazine2018-754">[727]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Challenges">Challenges</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=100" title="Edit section: Challenges">edit</a>]</div> Traditional Christianity has faced multiple challenges in the twentieth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061,_7–8-755">[728]</a> In the U.S., Pew has reported that "As recently as the early 1990s, about 90% of U.S. adults identified as Christians. But [in 2015], about two-thirds of adults are Christians".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFahmy2022section_1-756">[729]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20061,_3-757">[730]</a> Secularism, the changing moral climate in the West, and various types of political opposition have led to a decline in church attendance.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20062,_7–8-758">[731]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20063-645">[624]</a> Hugh McLeod writes that, <blockquote>The most powerful and effective criticism of Christianity in the twentieth-century has been the charge that it has been too closely identified with the rich and powerful, and too ready to legitimate the status quo. These political criticisms have had a far wider impact than those deriving from scientific or philosophical objections to religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200612-759">[732]</a></blockquote> Highly authoritarian and totalitarian governments have brought about crises and decline in churches in many areas.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20061,_7–8-755">[728]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20063-645">[624]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007305-760">[733]</a> From 1945 into the 1980s, the world's first Marxist super-power, along with the many other communist governments, pursued anti-religious policies that were often violent.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20067–8-723">[699]</a> In 2013, 17 Muslim majority states reported 28 of the 29 types of religious discrimination against 45 of the 47 religious minorities in their countries, including Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFox2013abstract-761">[734]</a> Anti-Christian persecution has become a consistent human rights concern.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAllen_Jr.2016x–xi-762">[735]</a> The challenges of secularism, and the changing moral climate of the 1960s and 1970s, caused controversy within the churches concerning sexual ethics, gender, and exclusivity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20062,_7–8-758">[731]</a> A growing demand for greater individual freedom led to new forms of religion that embrace the sacred as a deeper understanding of the self.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007305,_315-763">[736]</a> This "New Age" spirituality is private and individualistic and differs radically from Christian tradition, dogma, and ritual.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHoutmanAupers2007317-764">[737]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPalmer-Fernandes1991511–512-765">[738]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Prosperity_gospel" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosperity gospel">Prosperity gospel</a> formed as an adaptation of Pentecostalism. It challenges traditional Christianity because it has moved away from the Reformation view of biblical authority to the authority of personal <a href="/wiki/Spiritual_gift" title="Spiritual gift">charisma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColeman2016277,_289–290-766">[739]</a> Begun in the twentieth-century's last decades, it has become a trans-national movement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColeman2016280,_287,_290-767">[740]</a><a href="#cite_note-769">[note 28]</a> In 2000, approximately one-quarter of all Christians worldwide were part of Pentecostalism and its associated movements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBurgess2006xiii-770">[742]</a> By 2025, Pentecostals are expected to constitute one-third of the nearly three billion Christians worldwide making it the largest branch of Protestantism and the fastest-growing religious movement in global Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDeininger20141–2,_5-771">[743]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20064-772">[744]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diversity_and_commonality">Diversity and commonality</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=101" title="Edit section: Diversity and commonality">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Franciscus_in_2015.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="image of Pope Francis in 2015" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Franciscus_in_2015.jpg/170px-Franciscus_in_2015.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Franciscus_in_2015.jpg/255px-Franciscus_in_2015.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Franciscus_in_2015.jpg/340px-Franciscus_in_2015.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1086" data-file-height="1598" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pope_Francis" title="Pope Francis">Pope Francis</a></figcaption></figure> Collaboration between Protestants and Catholics made little progress until 11 October 1962, when <a href="/wiki/Pope_John_XXIII" title="Pope John XXIII">Pope John XXIII</a> opened the <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Second Vatican Council</a>, the 21st <a href="/wiki/Ecumenical_council" title="Ecumenical council">ecumenical council</a> of the Catholic Church.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Collins201416–23-773">[745]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20069-774">[746]</a> On 21 November 1964, the Second Vatican Council published <a href="/wiki/Unitatis_Redintegratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Unitatis Redintegratio">Unitatis Redintegratio</a>, stating that Roman Catholic ecumenical goals are to establish full communion amongst all the various Christian churches including Protestants.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChinnici201222-775">[747]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECassidy2005106-776">[748]</a> Amongst Evangelicals, there is no agreed-upon definition, strategy, or goal for ecumenism.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPintarić2014abstract-777">[749]</a> Different <a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">theologies on the nature of the Church</a> have produced some hostility toward it instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClifton2012544-778">[750]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEO'Connell2006-779">[751]</a> While the sentiment is widespread that ecumenism at the upper levels of leadership has stalled, the trend at the local level has been toward discussion and prayer meetings, pulpit exchanges, and shared social action.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAsprey20083-780">[752]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod20069-774">[746]</a> The common threat of secularisation and a recognition of the destructive potential of religious hatred has encouraged cooperation between churches.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200610-781">[753]</a> In the U.S. there has been an increase in inter-marriage. Almost 40% of couples married since 2010, compared to 19% before 1960, have married someone outside of their faith, according to Pew Research Center.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEInterfaith_marriage2015-782">[754]</a> Christianity is still diverse, and Christians still disagree, but the grounds have changed to topics that engage the deepest and most controversial issues of the twenty-first-century - "race, gender, colonialism, and liberation" - bringing these to the forefront of the larger more traditional Christian agenda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFord2013ix,_429-783">[755]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200610,_14-784">[756]</a> In Hugh MacLeod's view, "A liberal Catholic is likely to have a lot in common with a liberal Methodist", and this commonality is only likely to increase with the influence of the internet.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200610,_14-784">[756]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="War">War</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=102" title="Edit section: War">edit</a>]</div> Twentieth-century history with its multiple wars has brought questions of <a href="/wiki/Theodicy" title="Theodicy">theodicy</a> to the forefront.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200611-785">[757]</a> Wars have had contradictory effects on the church, sometimes producing a loss of faith in human solutions to human suffering, an upsurge in religiosity and patriotism, or an alienation from Christianity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200611-785">[757]</a> For the first time since the pre-Constantinian era, Christian pacifism became an advocated Christian option to war in the twentieth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200612-759">[732]</a> The nineteenth-century revolutions that established Orthodoxy in the Serbian, Greek, Romanian, and Bulgarian nations were changed in the twentieth-century from a universal church into a series of national churches that became subordinate to nationalism and the state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-561">[541]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Particularizng_Emancipation">Particularizng Emancipation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=103" title="Edit section: Particularizng Emancipation">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a> has been especially active in aiding the Latin American poor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChoppRegan2013469-786">[758]</a> By using the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Kingdom of God (Christianity)">"kingdom ideals"</a> from Jesus' <a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a>, the Social Gospel combined with liberation theology to redefine <a href="/wiki/Social_justice" title="Social justice">social justice</a>, and focus on the community's sins to expose institutionalized sin and redeem the institutions of society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkins201724–28-787">[759]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERauschenbusch19175-788">[760]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWogaman2011325-789">[761]</a> Originating in America in 1966, <a href="/wiki/Black_theology" title="Black theology">Black theology</a> developed a combined social gospel and liberation theology that mixes Christianity with questions of civil rights, aspects of the Black Power movement, and responses to black Muslims claiming Christianity was a "White man's" religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkanji2010177–178-790">[762]</a> Spreading to the United Kingdom, then parts of Africa, confronting apartheid in South Africa, Black theology explains Christianity as liberation for this life not just the next.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAkanji2010177–178-790">[762]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeod200613-791">[763]</a><a href="#cite_note-794">[note 29]</a> The feminist movement of the mid to late twentieth-century began with an anti-Christian ethos but soon developed a significant and influential <a href="/wiki/Feminist_theology" title="Feminist theology">Feminist theology</a> dedicated to transforming the churches and society.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995abstract-795">[766]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMuers2013431-796">[767]</a> In the last years of the twentieth-century, the re-examination of old religious texts through diversity, otherness, and difference developed <a href="/wiki/Womanist_theology" title="Womanist theology">womanist theology</a> of African-American women, the <a href="/wiki/Ada_Maria_Isasi-Diaz" title="Ada Maria Isasi-Diaz">"mujerista" theology</a> of Hispanic women, and insights from <a href="/wiki/Asian_feminist_theology" title="Asian feminist theology">Asian feminist theology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHilkert1995327-797">[768]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Missions">Missions</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=104" title="Edit section: Missions">edit</a>]</div> After World War II, Christian missionaries played a transformative role in many colonial societies, moving them toward independence through <a href="/wiki/Decolonization" title="Decolonization">decolonization</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFontaine20166–8-798">[769]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007285-799">[770]</a> In the mid to late 1990s, <a href="/wiki/Postcolonial_theology" title="Postcolonial theology">postcolonial theology</a> emerged globally from multiple sources.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20074–5-800">[771]</a> It analyzes structures of power and ideology to recover what colonialism erased or suppressed in indigenous cultures.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESegoviaMoore20076,_11-801">[772]</a> According to historian <a href="/wiki/Lamin_Sanneh" title="Lamin Sanneh">Lamin Sanneh</a>, Protestant missionaries began the "largest, most diverse and most vigorous movement of cultural renewal in history" in Africa.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2007xx–xxii-802">[773]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESanneh2016279;_285-803">[774]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGilley20063-645">[624]</a> The missionary movement of the twenty-first-century has transformed into a multi-cultural, multi-faceted global network of <a href="/wiki/NGO%27s" class="mw-redirect" title="NGO's">NGO's</a>, short-term amateur volunteers, and traditional long-term bilingual, bicultural professionals who focus on evangelism and local development and not on 'civilizing' native people.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERobert200973-804">[775]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECooper20053–4-805">[776]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=105" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1259569809">.mw-parser-output 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of early Christian monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chronology_of_Jesus" title="Chronology of Jesus">Chronology of Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cluniac_Reforms" title="Cluniac Reforms">Cluniac Reforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donation_of_Pepin" title="Donation of Pepin">Donation of Pepin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Reformed_Church" title="Dutch Reformed Church">Dutch Reformed Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Benedictine_Reform" title="English Benedictine Reform">English Benedictine Reform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frankish_Papacy" title="Frankish Papacy">Frankish Papacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Germanic Christianity">Germanic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_Judaism" title="Hellenistic Judaism">Hellenistic Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Historical background of the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Jesus" title="Historical Jesus">Historical Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Christianization_of_the_Roman_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire">Historiography of Christianization of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Calvinism">History of Calvinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_of_the_Late_Modern_era" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity of the Late Modern era">History of Christianity of the Late Modern era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_universalism" title="History of Christian universalism">History of Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">History of the Eastern Orthodox Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">History of Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">History of Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">History of the Catholic Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Pius_XII_and_the_Holocaust" title="Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust">Pope Pius XII and the Holocaust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positive_Christianity" title="Positive Christianity">Positive Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Soviet_Union" title="Religion in the Soviet Union">Religion in the Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_policies_of_Constantius_II" title="Religious policies of Constantius II">Religious policies of Constantius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_Christianity_during_the_Fall_of_Rome" class="mw-redirect" title="Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome">Rise of Christianity during the Fall of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Timeline of Christian missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church">Timeline of the Roman Catholic Church</a></li></ul> <table class="wikitable noprint" style="margin:0.5em auto; font-size:95%; text-align:center"> <tbody><tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="11">Christian history </th></tr> <tr style="font-weight:bold; text-align:center;"> <td colspan="11" style="padding:0;display:none"> <table style="margin:0; border-spacing:0; border-collapse:collapse;width:100%"> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <td style="border-left:#aaa 1px solid; border-right:#aaa 1px solid"> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">BC</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">C1</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_2nd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 2nd century">C2</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_3rd_century" class="mw-redirect" title="Christianity in the 3rd century">C3</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">C4</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">C5</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">C6</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">C7</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">C8</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">C9</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">C10</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">C11</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">C12</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">C13</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">C14</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">C15</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">C16</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">C17</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">C18</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">C19</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">C20</a> </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">C21</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=106" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> Church structure also provided unity. Bishops were central. A bishop's authority was seen as grounded in apostolic authority, and they used that authority to establish a common "rule of faith" for newly baptized members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017216–217-59">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECullmann20181-60">[60]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a> Some of the Pauline comments upon marriage can be interpreted as being highly subversive. For example, the counsel provided to women married to non-believers in I Cor. 7:12–16 and 1 Pet. 3:1–6, far from enforcing the [Roman] status quo, advises a radical course of action at direct odds with the ideal wife of the Greco-Roman household.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcLeese1998150–151-107">[106]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMacDonald1996202,_242-108">[107]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a> Constantine devoted personal and public funds to building multiple churches, endowed his churches with wealth and lands, and provided revenue for their clergy and upkeep.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameron2006b546–547-140">[138]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> There were occasional bursts of violence from pagan, Christian and Jew. For example, between 410 and 415 there was rioting in Alexandria among all three groups, and the teacher <a href="/wiki/Hypatia" title="Hypatia">Hypatia</a> was murdered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECameronLongSherry199358-62-147">[144]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-232"><a href="#cite_ref-232">^</a> The criminalization of certain pagan practices, imperial support for Christianity, genuine religious conviction, and pressure from family and friends were likely all factors in the process.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathisen2002262-231">[227]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-288"><a href="#cite_ref-288">^</a> Membership in Christendom began with baptism at birth. Members were required to have a rudimentary knowledge of the <a href="/wiki/Apostles%27_Creed" title="Apostles' Creed">Apostles' Creed</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Lord%27s_Prayer" title="Lord's Prayer">Lord's Prayer</a>. From peasant to pope, all were required to rest on Sunday and feast days, attend mass, fast at specified times, take communion at Easter, pay various fees, tithes, and alms for the needy, and receive last rites at death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986539,_540,_541,_546-287">[282]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-307"><a href="#cite_ref-307">^</a> Christian monasticism had emerged in the third-century, and by the fifth-century, it had become a dominant force in all areas of late antique culture. During the sixth-century, it flourished nearly everywhere Christianity existed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008279–280,_298-304">[298]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrislip20053-305">[299]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubenson2007abstract-306">[300]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-322"><a href="#cite_ref-322">^</a> Medieval monasteries provided orphanages, hostels (inns) for travelers, distributed food during famine, and regularly provided food to the poor.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrodman200966–68-310">[303]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHelvétiusKaplan2008295-311">[304]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEConstable200435–36-312">[305]</a> They supported <a href="/wiki/Literacy" title="Literacy">literacy</a>, ran schools, and copied and preserved ancient texts in their <a href="/wiki/Scriptoria" class="mw-redirect" title="Scriptoria">scriptoria</a> and libraries. They practiced classical craft and artistic skills, while maintaining an intellectual and spiritual culture that developed and taught new skills and technologies.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunn201660-313">[306]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWhite1978ix,_244–245-314">[307]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPohlWood20156-315">[308]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFerzoco20011–3-316">[309]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodsCanizares20125-317">[310]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeGoff2000120-318">[311]</a> In the early sixth-century, <a href="/wiki/Benedict_of_Nursia" title="Benedict of Nursia">Benedict of Nursia</a> wrote the <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_Saint_Benedict" title="Rule of Saint Benedict">Rule of Saint Benedict</a> which would become the most common monastic rule, the starting point for others, and would impact politics and law throughout the Middle Ages.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETruran200068–69-319">[312]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEButler1919intro.-320">[313]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDunn2003137-321">[314]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-359"><a href="#cite_ref-359">^</a> Modern style preaching began through the call for crusade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKienzle200953-353">[345]</a> <a href="/wiki/Affective_piety" title="Affective piety">Affective piety</a> emerged, (empathy with the human Christ and his suffering), producing demonstrable compassion toward others. The opening of the Holy Land helped spread veneration of the <a href="/wiki/Virgin_Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Virgin Mary">Virgin Mary</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009351-354">[346]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShoemaker201621-355">[347]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFulton2009284–285,_294-356">[348]</a> <a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a> increased and spread.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKing20014,_22-357">[349]</a> New monastic military orders such as the <a href="/wiki/Teutonic_Order" title="Teutonic Order">Military Order of the Teutonic Knights</a> (founded in 1189–90) developed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009349-358">[350]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-381"><a href="#cite_ref-381">^</a> Bishoprics were lifetime appointments, so a king could better control their powers and revenues than those of hereditary noblemen. Even better, he could leave the post vacant and collect the revenues himself, theoretically in trust for the new bishop, or give a bishopric to compensate a helpful noble. For the church, ending this would better separate church from state, help with reform, and provide better <a href="/wiki/Pastoral_care" title="Pastoral care">pastoral care</a>, but ending lay investiture would also reduce the power of the Holy Roman Emperor and the <a href="/wiki/European_nobility" class="mw-redirect" title="European nobility">European nobility</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrzymała-Busse202351–52-380">[371]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-397"><a href="#cite_ref-397">^</a> Crusading gave ordinary Christians a tangible means of expressing brotherhood with the East and promoted the sense of a "joined-up Christendom". It had spiritual merit for those who went as a direct result of the "dangers, the time, the cost, and the sheer physical and mental effort" that crusading took. Being a part of crusading also carried a sense of historical responsibility.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBull2009340–341,_342,_346,_349–350,_352-396">[386]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-405"><a href="#cite_ref-405">^</a> Many Roman Catholic fundamentals - "the meaning of the sacraments, the just price and reward for labour, the terms of Christian marriage, the nature of clerical celibacy and the appropriate lifestyle for priests" - were conceived in the twelfth-century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERubinSimons20092–3-363">[354]</a> <a href="/wiki/Purgatory" title="Purgatory">Purgatory</a> became an official doctrine, and in 1215, <a href="/wiki/Confession_(religion)" title="Confession (religion)">confession</a> became required for all.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood201611-403">[392]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_Engen1986543-404">[393]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-412"><a href="#cite_ref-412">^</a> In 1215, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Lateran_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="Fourth Lateran Council">Fourth Lateran Council</a> met and accepted 70 canon laws.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchacter201158-408">[396]</a> The last three canons required Jews to distinguish themselves from Christians in their dress, prohibited them from holding public office, and prohibited Jewish converts from continuing to practice Jewish rituals.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore20077-409">[397]</a> This same council also empowered inquisitors to search out moral and religious "crimes" even when there was no accuser. In theory, this granted them extraordinary powers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018368-410">[398]</a> In practice, without local secular support, their task became so overwhelmingly difficult that inquisitors themselves became endangered.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018365,_368-411">[399]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-427"><a href="#cite_ref-427">^</a> The Medieval Inquisition brought somewhere between 8,000 and 40,000 people to interrogation and sentence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018363-422">[409]</a> Death sentences were a relatively rare occurrence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEArnold2018367-425">[412]</a> The penalty imposed most often by Medieval Inquisitorial courts was an act of penance which could include public confession.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWood20169-426">[413]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-465"><a href="#cite_ref-465">^</a> The prince appointed the clergy to positions in government service, satisfied their material needs, determined who would fill the higher ecclesiastical positions, and directed the synods of bishops in the Kievan metropolitanate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoppe199115-464">[450]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-487"><a href="#cite_ref-487">^</a> These rulers saw crusade as a tool for territorial expansion, alliance building, and the empowerment of their own nascent church and state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFirlej2021–2022121-486">[471]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-518"><a href="#cite_ref-518">^</a> Scholars have generally referred to "anticlericalism" even though the term is considered biased, and there is a lack of consensus on its elements and form in pre-Reformation Europe.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESwanson20219,_11-517">[501]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-524"><a href="#cite_ref-524">^</a> Some claimed the clergy did little to help the suffering, although the high mortality rate amongst clerics indicates many continued to care for the sick.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021114–115-523">[506]</a> Other medieval folk claimed it was the "corrupted" and "vice-ridden" clergy that had caused the many calamities that people believed were punishments from God.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETaylor2021114–115-523">[506]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-535"><a href="#cite_ref-535">^</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">John Wycliffe</a> (1320–1384), an English scholastic philosopher and theologian, attended the Council of Constance and urged the Church to give up its property (which produced much of the Church's wealth), and to once again embrace poverty and simplicity, to stop being subservient to the state and its politics, and to deny papal authority.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998247-530">[512]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep198658–77-531">[513]</a> He was accused of heresy, convicted, and sentenced to death, but died before implementation. The <a href="/wiki/Lollards" class="mw-redirect" title="Lollards">Lollards</a> followed his teachings, played a role in the <a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">English Reformation</a>, and were persecuted for heresy after Wycliffe's death.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep198658–77-531">[513]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007151–174-532">[514]</a> <div class="paragraphbreak" style="margin-top:0.5em"></div> <a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Jan Hus</a> (1369–1415), a Czech based in <a href="/wiki/Prague" title="Prague">Prague</a>, was influenced by Wycliffe and spoke out against the abuses and corruption he saw in the Catholic Church there.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007175–198-533">[515]</a> He was also accused of heresy and condemned to <a href="/wiki/Death_penalty" class="mw-redirect" title="Death penalty">death</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007151–174-532">[514]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007175–198-533">[515]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep198658–77-531">[513]</a> After his death, Hus became a powerful symbol of Czech nationalism and the impetus for the <a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian (aka the Czech) Reformation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHaberkern20161–3-534">[516]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFrassetto2007175–198-533">[515]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEstep198658–77-531">[513]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-558"><a href="#cite_ref-558">^</a> The flight of <a href="/wiki/Greek_scholars_in_the_Renaissance" title="Greek scholars in the Renaissance">Eastern Christians from Constantinople</a>, and the manuscripts they carried with them, were important factors in generating literary renaissance in the West.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHudson2023-557">[538]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-567"><a href="#cite_ref-567">^</a> The oldest Ottoman document lists 57 bishoprics in Constantinople of 1483. By 1525, bishoprics had decreased to fifty, and only forty are recorded from 1641–1651.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEZachariadou2006181,_184-566">[546]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenworthy2008175-561">[541]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-662"><a href="#cite_ref-662">^</a> In opposition to Weber, historians such as <a href="/wiki/Fernand_Braudel" title="Fernand Braudel">Fernand Braudel</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Trevor-Roper" title="Hugh Trevor-Roper">Hugh Trevor-Roper</a> assert that capitalism developed in pre-Reformation Catholic communities. <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schumpeter" title="Joseph Schumpeter">Joseph Schumpeter</a>, an economist of the twentieth-century, has referred to the <a href="/wiki/Scholastics" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastics">Scholastics</a> as "they who come nearer than does any other group to having been the 'founders' of scientific economics".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchumpeter195493-661">[640]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-685"><a href="#cite_ref-685">^</a> It had roots in German <a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> and British Evangelicalism, and was a response to the extreme rationalism of biblical criticism, the anti-Christian tenets of the Enlightenment, and its threat of assimilation by the modern state.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWard2006329,_347-681">[659]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmith2014b19-682">[660]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValkenburgh1994172-683">[661]</a> Beginning among the <a href="/wiki/Presbyterians" class="mw-redirect" title="Presbyterians">Presbyterians</a>, revival quickly spread to <a href="/wiki/Congregationalists" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregationalists">Congregationalists</a> (Puritans) and <a href="/wiki/Baptist" class="mw-redirect" title="Baptist">Baptists</a>, creating <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism_in_the_United_States" title="Evangelicalism in the United States">American Evangelicalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wesleyan_theology" title="Wesleyan theology">Wesleyan Methodism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesWhite2012xi;_xv-684">[662]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-721"><a href="#cite_ref-721">^</a> Soviet authorities used "persecution, arrests and trials, imprisonment in psychiatric hospitals, house raids and searches, confiscations of Bibles and New Testaments and other Christian literature, disruption of worship services by the militia and KGB, slander campaigns against Christians in magazines and newspapers, on TV and radio" to eradicate religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUnited_States_Congress1985129-718">[695]</a> The Russian Orthodox Church suffered unprecedented persecution.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECunninghamTheokritoff2008261-719">[696]</a> From 1927 on, the League of Militant Atheists published anti-religious literature in large quantities. During the 1930s, violence was used. Bishops, priests, and lay believers were arrested, shot, and sent to labour camps. Churches were closed, destroyed, and converted to other uses.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWalters200514–15-720">[697]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-728"><a href="#cite_ref-728">^</a> In a study of sermon content, William Skiles says "Confessing Church pastors opposed the Nazi regime on three fronts... first, they expressed harsh criticism of Nazi persecution of Christians and the German churches; second, they condemned National Socialism as a false ideology that worships false gods; and third, they challenged Nazi anti-Semitic ideology by supporting Jews as the chosen people of God and Judaism as a historic foundation of Christianity".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkiles20174-727">[703]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-732"><a href="#cite_ref-732">^</a> By October 1944, 45% of all pastors and 98% of non-ordained vicars and candidates had been drafted into military service; 117 German pastors of Jewish descent served at this time, and yet at least 43% fled Nazi Germany because it became impossible for them to continue in their ministries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESkiles201722–23-731">[706]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-746"><a href="#cite_ref-746">^</a> Examples include Simon Kimbangu's movement, the <a href="/wiki/Kimbanguism" title="Kimbanguism">Kimbanguist church</a>, which had a radical reputation in its early days in the <a href="/wiki/Democratic_Republic_of_the_Congo" title="Democratic Republic of the Congo">Congo</a>, was suppressed for forty years, and has now become the largest independent church in Africa with upwards of 3 million members.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFernandez1979284,_285-742">[716]</a> In 2019, 65% of <a href="/wiki/Melillans" class="mw-redirect" title="Melillans">Melillans</a> in Northern Africa across from Spain identified themselves as Roman Catholic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPonce_HerreroMartí_Ciriquián2019101–124-743">[717]</a> In the early twenty-first-century, <a href="/wiki/Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> has the largest yearly meeting of <a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a> outside the United States. In <a href="/wiki/Uganda" title="Uganda">Uganda</a>, more <a href="/wiki/Anglicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Anglicans">Anglicans</a> attend church than do so in <a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a>. Ahafo, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> is recognized as more vigorously Christian than any place in the United Kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei19951-744">[718]</a> There is revival in East Africa, and vigorous women's movements called Rukwadzano in <a href="/wiki/Zimbabwe" title="Zimbabwe">Zimbabwe</a> and Manyano in <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>. <a href="/wiki/Apostles_of_Johane_Maranke" title="Apostles of Johane Maranke">The Apostles of John Maranke</a>, which began in Rhodesia, now have branches in seven countries.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEIsichei19952-745">[719]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-769"><a href="#cite_ref-769">^</a> Prosperity ideas have diffused in countries such as <a href="/wiki/Brazil" title="Brazil">Brazil</a> and other parts of <a href="/wiki/South_America" title="South America">South America</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nigeria" title="Nigeria">Nigeria</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghana" title="Ghana">Ghana</a> and other parts of <a href="/wiki/West_Africa" title="West Africa">West Africa</a>, <a href="/wiki/China" title="China">China</a>, <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Philippines" title="Philippines">Philippines</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColeman2016281,_283,_286–287,_290-768">[741]</a> It has suffered from accusations of financial fraud and sex scandals around the world, but it is most heavily challenged by Christian evangelicals who question its theology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEColeman2016277,_289–290-766">[739]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-794"><a href="#cite_ref-794">^</a> Historian of race and religion, Paul Harvey, says that, in 1960s America, "The religious power of the <a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">civil rights movement</a> transformed the American conception of race."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2016189-792">[764]</a> Then the social power of the <a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">religious right</a> responded in the 1970s by recasting evangelical concepts in political terms that included racial separation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2016189-792">[764]</a> In the twenty-first-century, the <a href="/wiki/Prosperity_Gospel" class="mw-redirect" title="Prosperity Gospel">Prosperity Gospel</a> promotes racial reconciliation and has become a powerful force in American religious life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHarvey2016196–197-793">[765]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=107" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPew_Research2011-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPew_Research2011_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPew_Research2011">Pew Research 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBritannica2022"It_has_become_the_largest_of_the_world's_religions_and,_geographically,_the_most_widely_diffused_of_all_faiths."-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBritannica2022"It_has_become_the_largest_of_the_world's_religions_and,_geographically,_the_most_widely_diffused_of_all_faiths."_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBritannica2022">Britannica 2022</a>, "It has become the largest of the world's religions and, geographically, the most widely diffused of all faiths.". </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJenkins2011101–133-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJenkins2011101–133_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJenkins2011">Jenkins 2011</a>, pp. 101–133. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFreston2008109–133-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFreston2008109–133_4-0">^</a> <a 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEThiessen2014373–391-31"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEThiessen2014373–391_31-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFThiessen2014">Thiessen 2014</a>, pp. 373–391. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESeifrid1992210–211,_246–247-32"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESeifrid1992210–211,_246–247_32-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSeifrid1992">Seifrid 1992</a>, pp. 210–211, 246–247. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998202-33"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHopkins1998202_33-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHopkins1998">Hopkins 1998</a>, p. 202. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMathews1909337-34"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMathews1909337_34-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMathews1909">Mathews 1909</a>, p. 337. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchott20082-35"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchott20082_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchott2008">Schott 2008</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoss2012129-36"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoss2012129_36-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMoss2012">Moss 2012</a>, p. 129. </li> <li 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id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHorrell1997324-43"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHorrell1997324_43-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHorrell1997">Horrell 1997</a>, p. 324. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudge20104-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJudge20104_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJudge20104_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFJudge2010">Judge 2010</a>, p. 4. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECarrington1957375–376-45">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrington1957375–376_45-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECarrington1957375–376_45-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCarrington1957">Carrington 1957</a>, pp. 375–376. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017197-46"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017197_46-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiker2017">Siker 2017</a>, p. 197. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017216-47"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017216_47-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiker2017">Siker 2017</a>, p. 216. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017207–212,_213–217-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017207–212,_213–217_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiker2017">Siker 2017</a>, pp. 207–212, 213–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus200687–88,_99–100-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarcus200687–88,_99–100_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarcus2006">Marcus 2006</a>, pp. 87–88, 99–100. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENeusner1972313-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENeusner1972313_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNeusner1972">Neusner 1972</a>, p. 313. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017198–200-51"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017198–200_51-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiker2017">Siker 2017</a>, pp. 198–200. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWylen1995190–193-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWylen1995190–193_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWylen1995">Wylen 1995</a>, pp. 190–193. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMarcus200696–99,_101-53"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMarcus200696–99,_101_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMarcus2006">Marcus 2006</a>, pp. 96–99, 101. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPittsPorter201889–107-54"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPittsPorter201889–107_54-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPittsPorter2018">Pitts & Porter 2018</a>, pp. 89–107. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017205-55"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017205_55-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiker2017">Siker 2017</a>, p. 205. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTENoll199736–37-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTENoll199736–37_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFNoll1997">Noll 1997</a>, pp. 36–37. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDe_Jonge2003315-57"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDe_Jonge2003315_57-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDe_Jonge2003">De Jonge 2003</a>, p. 315. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017212–217-58"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017212–217_58-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiker2017">Siker 2017</a>, pp. 212–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESiker2017216–217-59">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017216–217_59-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESiker2017216–217_59-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFSiker2017">Siker 2017</a>, pp. 216–217. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECullmann20181-60">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullmann20181_60-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECullmann20181_60-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCullmann2018">Cullmann 2018</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148-62"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148_62-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1998">Matthews & Platt 1998</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrabar20237-63"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrabar20237_63-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGrabar2023">Grabar 2023</a>, p. 7. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–149-64"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–149_64-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1998">Matthews & Platt 1998</a>, pp. 148–149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJudith_Anne_Testa80-65"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJudith_Anne_Testa80_65-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFJudith_Anne_Testa">Judith Anne Testa</a>, p. 80. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGoodenough1962138-66"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGoodenough1962138_66-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGoodenough1962">Goodenough 1962</a>, p. 138. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–151-67"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998148–151_67-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1998">Matthews & Platt 1998</a>, pp. 148–151. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998149-68"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthewsPlatt1998149_68-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1998">Matthews & Platt 1998</a>, p. 149. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERives1999141-69"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERives1999141_69-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRives1999">Rives 1999</a>, p. 141. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTECroix2006139–140-70"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTECroix2006139–140_70-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCroix2006">Croix 2006</a>, pp. 139–140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGaddis200530–31-71"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGaddis200530–31_71-0">^</a> <a 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a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output 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href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=109" title="Edit section: Books & periodicals">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbrams2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lesley_Abrams" title="Lesley Abrams">Abrams, Lesley</a> (2016). "The conversion of the Danelaw". Vikings and the Danelaw: Select Papers from the Proceedings of the Thirteenth Viking Congress, Nottingham and York, 21-30 August 1997 (Repr. ed.). 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Early medieval Jewish policy in Western Europe. Minneapolis: University of Minnesota Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0814-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8166-0814-0"><bdi>978-0-8166-0814-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+medieval+Jewish+policy+in+Western+Europe&rft.place=Minneapolis&rft.pub=University+of+Minnesota+Press&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-8166-0814-0&rft.aulast=Bachrach&rft.aufirst=Bernard+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaird1992" class="citation book cs1">Baird, William (1992). History of New Testament Research, Volume One: From Deism to Tübingen. Fortress. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-2017-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4514-2017-3"><bdi>978-1-4514-2017-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+New+Testament+Research%2C+Volume+One%3A+From+Deism+to+T%C3%BCbingen&rft.pub=Fortress&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-1-4514-2017-3&rft.aulast=Baird&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1992" class="citation book cs1">Barnett, Victoria (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=u3Y8DwAAQBAJ">For the Soul of the People: Protestant Protest Against Hitler</a>. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512118-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-512118-6"><bdi>978-0-19-512118-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=For+the+Soul+of+the+People%3A+Protestant+Protest+Against+Hitler&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-19-512118-6&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=Victoria&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Du3Y8DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBardill2012" class="citation book cs1">Bardill, Jonathan (2012). Constantine, Divine Emperor of the Christian Golden Age. New York: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76423-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-76423-0"><bdi>978-0-521-76423-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Constantine%2C+Divine+Emperor+of+the+Christian+Golden+Age&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-76423-0&rft.aulast=Bardill&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnett1999" class="citation journal cs1">Barnett, S. J. (1999). "Where Was Your Church before Luther? Claims for the Antiquity of Protestantism Examined". <a href="/wiki/Church_History_(journal)" title="Church History (journal)">Church History</a>. 68 (1): 14–41. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F3170108">10.2307/3170108</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/3170108">3170108</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:154764488">154764488</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Church+History&rft.atitle=Where+Was+Your+Church+before+Luther%3F+Claims+for+the+Antiquity+of+Protestantism+Examined&rft.volume=68&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=14-41&rft.date=1999&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A154764488%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F3170108%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F3170108&rft.aulast=Barnett&rft.aufirst=S.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnish1988" class="citation journal cs1">Barnish, SJB (1988). "Transformation and Survival in the Western Senatorial Aristocracy, c. A.D. 400–700". 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Holy Writings, Sacred Text: The Canon in Early Christianity (Repr. ed.). Westminster John Knox. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25778-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25778-1"><bdi>978-0-664-25778-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Holy+Writings%2C+Sacred+Text%3A+The+Canon+in+Early+Christianity&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25778-1&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton1998b" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_L._Barton" title="James L. Barton">Barton, James Levi</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=66lCvqqLGpUC">Turkish Atrocities: Statements of American Missionaries on the Destruction of Christian Communities in Ottoman Turkey, 1915–1917</a>. Armenian Genocide Documentation Series. Vol. 2. Gomidas Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-884630-04-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-884630-04-0"><bdi>978-1-884630-04-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Turkish+Atrocities%3A+Statements+of+American+Missionaries+on+the+Destruction+of+Christian+Communities+in+Ottoman+Turkey%2C+1915%E2%80%931917&rft.series=Armenian+Genocide+Documentation+Series&rft.pub=Gomidas+Institute&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-1-884630-04-0&rft.aulast=Barton&rft.aufirst=James+Levi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D66lCvqqLGpUC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarton2009" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Simon_F._Barton" title="Simon F. 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Norton. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05976-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-05976-2"><bdi>978-0-393-05976-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+the+Renaissance+World%3A+From+the+Rediscovery+of+Aristotle+to+the+Conquest+of+Constantinople&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-393-05976-2&rft.aulast=Bauer&rft.aufirst=Susan+Wise&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBeckerPfaffRubin2016" class="citation journal cs1">Becker, Sascha O.; Pfaff, Steven; Rubin, Jared (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1177&context=esi_working_papers">"Causes and Consequences of the Protestant Reformation"</a>. ESI Working Paper 16–13. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2572-1496">2572-1496</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230625032557/https://digitalcommons.chapman.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1177&context=esi_working_papers">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2023. 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 366–379. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812399.021">10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.021</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Gaul&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=366-379&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812399.021&rft.aulast=Behr&rft.aufirst=John&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBejczy1997" class="citation journal cs1">Bejczy, István (1997). 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Berghahn. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-430-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57181-430-2"><bdi>978-1-57181-430-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Jews+and+the+Expansion+of+Europe+to+the+West%2C+1450+to+1800&rft.pub=Berghahn&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-57181-430-2&rft.aulast=Bernardini&rft.aufirst=Paolo&rft.au=Fiering%2C+Norman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dm0JAGMuePO0C%26pg%3DPA371&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerndtSteinacher2014" class="citation book cs1">Berndt, Guido M.; <a href="/wiki/Roland_Steinacher" title="Roland Steinacher">Steinacher, Roland</a> (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8RsGDAAAQBAJ">Arianism: Roman Heresy and Barbarian Creed</a> (1st ed.). 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Translated by Vera Bouteneff. St. Vladmir's Seminary Press. 1998. pp. vi–1. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-180-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88141-180-5"><bdi>978-0-88141-180-5</bdi></a>. 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Given at the Chapel of the Romanian Orthodox Church Seminary"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Word_Magazine" title="Word Magazine">Word Magazine</a>. Antiochian Orthodox Christian Archdiocese of North America. pp. 5–8. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070302105717/http://www.orthodoxresearchinstitute.org/resources/sermons/calciu_christ_calling.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 2 March 2007. 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Retrieved 11 May 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Attempts+at+Reform%3A+Wycliffe+and+Huss&rft.btitle=Renaissance+and+Reformation&rft.place=Grand+Rapids%2C+MI&rft.pages=58-77&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-0050-3&rft.aulast=Estep&rft.aufirst=William+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdUENoh0ey4QC%26pg%3DPA58&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahlbuschBromiley2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Erwin_Fahlbusch" title="Erwin Fahlbusch">Fahlbusch, Erwin</a>; <a href="/wiki/Geoffrey_W._Bromiley" title="Geoffrey W. Bromiley">Bromiley, Geoffrey William</a>, eds. (2003). The Encyclopedia of Christianity. Vol. 3. Wm. B. 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London: Profile. pp. 7–198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-744-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86197-744-1"><bdi>978-1-86197-744-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heretic+Lives%3A+Medieval+Heresy+from+Bogomil+and+the+Cathars+to+Wyclif+and+Hus&rft.place=London&rft.pages=7-198&rft.pub=Profile&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-1-86197-744-1&rft.aulast=Frassetto&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3C4lAwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrend2020" class="citation book cs1">Frend, W. H. C. 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Christianity in Ancient Rome: The First Three Centuries. London: A&C Black. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-5670-3250-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-5670-3250-8"><bdi>978-0-5670-3250-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+Ancient+Rome%3A+The+First+Three+Centuries&rft.place=London&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-5670-3250-8&rft.aulast=Green&rft.aufirst=Bernard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregerman2016" class="citation book cs1">Gregerman, Adam (2016). Building on the Ruins of the Temple Apologetics and Polemics in Early Christianity and Rabbinic Judaism. Mohr Siebeck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-16-154322-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-16-154322-7"><bdi>978-3-16-154322-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Building+on+the+Ruins+of+the+Temple+Apologetics+and+Polemics+in+Early+Christianity+and+Rabbinic+Judaism&rft.pub=Mohr+Siebeck&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-3-16-154322-7&rft.aulast=Gregerman&rft.aufirst=Adam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGregory2011" class="citation book cs1">Gregory, Timothy E. (2011). A History of Byzantium (2nd ed.). 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New York: Continuum. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8264-1630-8"><bdi>978-0-8264-1630-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Community+in+History&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Continuum&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8264-1630-8&rft.aulast=Haight&rft.aufirst=Roger+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHallBattaniNeitz2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_R._Hall_(author)" title="John R. Hall (author)">Hall, John R.</a>; Battani, Marshall; Neitz, Mary Jo (2004). Sociology On Culture. 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In Johnston, David (ed.). The Cambridge Companion to Roman Law. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89564-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-89564-4"><bdi>978-0-521-89564-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=7+Patristic+sources&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+Companion+to+Roman+Law&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-521-89564-4&rft.aulast=Humfress&rft.aufirst=Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHunter1978" class="citation book cs1">Hunter, Dard (1978) [1947]. Papermaking: The History and Technique of an Ancient Craft. 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A history of Christianity in Africa: From antiquity to the present. Wm. B. 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Harvard University Press. p. 191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03930-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03930-8"><bdi>978-0-674-03930-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Divided+by+Faith+Religious+Conflict+and+the+Practice+of+Toleration+in+Early+Modern+Europe&rft.pages=191&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0-674-03930-8&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Benjamin+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly2009" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Joseph Francis (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jLrn2Nx-g2YC&pg=PA104">The Ecumenical Councils of the Catholic Church: A History</a>. 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Cistercians, Heresy, and Crusade in Occitania, 1145–1229: Preaching in the Lord's Vineyard. Boydell. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-00-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-903153-00-0"><bdi>978-1-903153-00-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cistercians%2C+Heresy%2C+and+Crusade+in+Occitania%2C+1145%E2%80%931229%3A+Preaching+in+the+Lord%27s+Vineyard&rft.pub=Boydell&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-1-903153-00-0&rft.aulast=Kienzle&rft.aufirst=Beverly+Mayne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKienzle2009" class="citation book cs1">Kienzle, Beverly Mayne (2009). "Religious poverty and the search for perfection". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). 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Cambridge University Press. pp. 330–350. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812399.020">10.1017/CHOL9780521812399.020</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05483-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05483-6"><bdi>978-1-139-05483-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Egypt&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity%3A+Origins+to+Constantine&rft.pages=330-350&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812399.020&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05483-6&rft.aulast=Pearson&rft.aufirst=Birger+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPennington2007" class="citation book cs1">Pennington, K. (2007). "The growth of church law". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 386–402. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812443.018">10.1017/CHOL9780521812443.018</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05413-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05413-3"><bdi>978-1-139-05413-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+growth+of+church+law&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=386-402&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812443.018&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05413-3&rft.aulast=Pennington&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPeters1980" class="citation book cs1">Peters, Edward, ed. (1980). Heresy and Authority in Medieval Europe. Pittsburgh: University of Pennsylvania Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1103-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8122-1103-0"><bdi>978-0-8122-1103-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Heresy+and+Authority+in+Medieval+Europe&rft.place=Pittsburgh&rft.pub=University+of+Pennsylvania+Press&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=978-0-8122-1103-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhipps1988" class="citation journal cs1">Phipps, W. E. (1988). "The origin of hospices/hospitals". Death Studies. 12 (2): 91–99. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F07481188808252226">10.1080/07481188808252226</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10302347">10302347</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Death+Studies&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+hospices%2Fhospitals&rft.volume=12&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=91-99&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F07481188808252226&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10302347&rft.aulast=Phipps&rft.aufirst=W.+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPintarić2014" class="citation journal cs1">Pintarić, Damir (16 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hrcak.srce.hr/215547">"Ecumenism – yes and/or no?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Kairos_(journal)" title="Kairos (journal)">Kairos: Evangelical Journal of Theology</a>. 8 (2): 175–186. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1846-4599">1846-4599</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230806175549/https://hrcak.srce.hr/215547">Archived</a> from the original on 6 August 2023. Retrieved 6 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Kairos%3A+Evangelical+Journal+of+Theology&rft.atitle=Ecumenism+%E2%80%93+yes+and%2For+no%3F&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=175-186&rft.date=2014-11-16&rft.issn=1846-4599&rft.aulast=Pintari%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Damir&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fhrcak.srce.hr%2F215547&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPipes1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Pipes" title="Richard Pipes">Pipes, Richard</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=rWK14Na4Cl0C">Russia Under the Bolshevik Regime</a>. Knopf Doubleday. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76184-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-679-76184-6"><bdi>978-0-679-76184-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia+Under+the+Bolshevik+Regime&rft.pub=Knopf+Doubleday&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-679-76184-6&rft.aulast=Pipes&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DrWK14Na4Cl0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPiron2006" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-interwiki-linked-name"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sylvain_Piron" class="extiw" title="fr:Sylvain Piron">Piron, Sylvain</a> [in French] (2006). "Franciscan Quodlibeta in Southern Studia and at Paris, 1280–1300". In Schabel, Christopher (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1JtBAQAAIAAJ">Theological Quodlibeta in the Middle Ages</a>. Brill. pp. 403–438. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12333-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-12333-5"><bdi>978-90-04-12333-5</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Franciscan+Quodlibeta+in+Southern+Studia+and+at+Paris%2C+1280%E2%80%931300&rft.btitle=Theological+Quodlibeta+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.pages=403-438&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-90-04-12333-5&rft.aulast=Piron&rft.aufirst=Sylvain&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1JtBAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPittsPorter2018" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_E._Porter" title="Stanley E. Porter">Porter, Stanley E.</a>; Pitts, Andrew W., eds. (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=FJByDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA89">"The Pre-citation Fallacy in New Testament Scholarship and Sanders's Tendencies of the Synoptic Tradition"</a>. Christian Origins and the Establishment of the Early Jesus Movement. Texts and Editions for New Testament Study. Vol. 12. Brill. pp. 89–107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004372740_007">10.1163/9789004372740_007</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-37274-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-37274-0"><bdi>978-90-04-37274-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2018025547">2018025547</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:201462965">201462965</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Pre-citation+Fallacy+in+New+Testament+Scholarship+and+Sanders%E2%80%99s+Tendencies+of+the+Synoptic+Tradition&rft.btitle=Christian+Origins+and+the+Establishment+of+the+Early+Jesus+Movement&rft.series=Texts+and+Editions+for+New+Testament+Study&rft.pages=89-107&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2018&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004372740_007&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A201462965%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2018025547&rft.isbn=978-90-04-37274-0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFJByDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA89&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPohlWood2015" class="citation book cs1">Pohl, Walter; Wood, Ian (2015). "Introduction". In Gantner, Clemens; McKitterick, Rosamond; Meeder, Sven (eds.). The Resources of the Past in Early Medieval Europe (illustrated ed.). Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09171-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-09171-9"><bdi>978-1-107-09171-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Resources+of+the+Past+in+Early+Medieval+Europe&rft.edition=illustrated&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1-107-09171-9&rft.aulast=Pohl&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft.au=Wood%2C+Ian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPomeroy1995" class="citation book cs1">Pomeroy, Sarah (1995). "Women in the Bronze Age and Homeric Epic". Goddesses, Whores, Wives, and Slaves: Women in Classical Antiquity. New York: Schocken. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1030-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8052-1030-9"><bdi>978-0-8052-1030-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Women+in+the+Bronze+Age+and+Homeric+Epic&rft.btitle=Goddesses%2C+Whores%2C+Wives%2C+and+Slaves%3A+Women+in+Classical+Antiquity&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Schocken&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-8052-1030-9&rft.aulast=Pomeroy&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPonce_HerreroMartí_Ciriquián2019" class="citation journal cs1">Ponce Herrero, Gabino; Martí Ciriquián, Pablo (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rua.ua.es/dspace/bitstream/10045/99969/1/Investigaciones_Geograficas_72_05.pdf">"El complejo urbano transfronterizo Melilla-Nador"</a> (PDF). Investigaciones Geográficas (72). Alicante: <a href="/wiki/San_Vicente_del_Raspeig" class="mw-redirect" title="San Vicente del Raspeig">San Vicente del Raspeig</a>: 101–124. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.14198%2FINGEO2019.72.05">10.14198/INGEO2019.72.05</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/10045%2F99969">10045/99969</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1989-9890">1989-9890</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213966829">213966829</a>. Retrieved 26 June 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Investigaciones+Geogr%C3%A1ficas&rft.atitle=El+complejo+urbano+transfronterizo+Melilla-Nador&rft.issue=72&rft.pages=101-124&rft.date=2019&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F10045%2F99969&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213966829%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1989-9890&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.14198%2FINGEO2019.72.05&rft.aulast=Ponce+Herrero&rft.aufirst=Gabino&rft.au=Mart%C3%AD+Ciriqui%C3%A1n%2C+Pablo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Frua.ua.es%2Fdspace%2Fbitstream%2F10045%2F99969%2F1%2FInvestigaciones_Geograficas_72_05.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPop2009" class="citation book cs1">Pop, Ioan-Aurel (2009). "Romania and Romanians in Europe: A Historical Perspective". In Boari, Vasile; Gherghina, Sergiu (eds.). Weighting Differences: Romanian Identity in the Wider European Context. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1215-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4438-1215-3"><bdi>978-1-4438-1215-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Romania+and+Romanians+in+Europe%3A+A+Historical+Perspective&rft.btitle=Weighting+Differences%3A+Romanian+Identity+in+the+Wider+European+Context&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-4438-1215-3&rft.aulast=Pop&rft.aufirst=Ioan-Aurel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoppe1991" class="citation journal cs1">Poppe, Andrzej (1991). 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Canadian-American Slavic Studies. 25 (1–4): 3–26. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F221023991X00038">10.1163/221023991X00038</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Canadian-American+Slavic+Studies&rft.atitle=Christianity+and+Ideological+change+in+Kievan+Rus%27%3A+The+First+Hundred+Years&rft.volume=25&rft.issue=1%E2%80%934&rft.pages=3-26&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F221023991X00038&rft.aulast=Poppe&rft.aufirst=Andrzej&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorter2011" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stanley_E._Porter" title="Stanley E. 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(2014). A Short History of the Middle Ages. Vol. 1 (fourth ed.). University of Toronto Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0611-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4426-0611-1"><bdi>978-1-4426-0611-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Short+History+of+the+Middle+Ages&rft.edition=fourth&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-4426-0611-1&rft.aulast=Rosenwein&rft.aufirst=Barbara+H.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossino2003" class="citation book cs1">Rossino, Alexander B. (2003). Hitler Strikes Poland: Blitzkrieg, Ideology, and Atrocity (Rev. ed.). University Press of Kansas. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1392-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7006-1392-2"><bdi>978-0-7006-1392-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hitler+Strikes+Poland%3A+Blitzkrieg%2C+Ideology%2C+and+Atrocity&rft.edition=Rev.&rft.pub=University+Press+of+Kansas&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-7006-1392-2&rft.aulast=Rossino&rft.aufirst=Alexander+B.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoth1994" class="citation journal cs1">Roth, Norman (January 1994). "Bishops and Jews in the Middle Ages". The Catholic Historical Review. 80 (1). Catholic University of America Press: 1–17. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25024201">25024201</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Catholic+Historical+Review&rft.atitle=Bishops+and+Jews+in+the+Middle+Ages&rft.volume=80&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=1994-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25024201%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Roth&rft.aufirst=Norman&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubenson2007" class="citation book cs1">Rubenson, Samuel (2007). "Asceticism and monasticism, I: Eastern". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. pp. 637–668. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812443.029">10.1017/CHOL9780521812443.029</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05413-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05413-3"><bdi>978-1-139-05413-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Asceticism+and+monasticism%2C+I%3A+Eastern&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=637-668&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521812443.029&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05413-3&rft.aulast=Rubenson&rft.aufirst=Samuel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRubinSimons2009" class="citation book cs1">Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (2009). "Introduction". In Rubin, Miri; Simons, Walter (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05602-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05602-1"><bdi>978-1-139-05602-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Introduction&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05602-1&rft.aulast=Rubin&rft.aufirst=Miri&rft.au=Simons%2C+Walter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRüegg1992" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Rüegg, Walter (1992). "Foreword. The University as a European Institution". In <a href="/wiki/Hilde_De_Ridder-Symoens" title="Hilde De Ridder-Symoens">de Ridder-Symoens, Hilde</a> (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5Z1VBEbF0HAC">A History of the University in Europe</a>. Vol. 1: Universities in the Middle Ages. Cambridge University Press. pp. xix–xx. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54113-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-54113-8"><bdi>978-0-521-54113-8</bdi></a>. Retrieved 17 August 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Foreword.+The+University+as+a+European+Institution&rft.btitle=A+History+of+the+University+in+Europe&rft.pages=xix-xx&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-521-54113-8&rft.aulast=R%C3%BCegg&rft.aufirst=Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5Z1VBEbF0HAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRummel2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rummel, Eric O. (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nku.edu/content/dam/hisgeo/docs/archives/Vol21_2005-2006perspectives.pdf">"The Albigensian Crusade: A Historiographical Essay"</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Perspectives_on_History" class="mw-redirect" title="Perspectives on History">Perspectives on History</a>. XXI: 45–57. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20240224095445/https://www.nku.edu/content/dam/hisgeo/docs/archives/Vol21_2005-2006perspectives.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 24 February 2024. Retrieved 11 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Perspectives+on+History&rft.atitle=The+Albigensian+Crusade%3A+A+Historiographical+Essay&rft.volume=XXI&rft.pages=45-57&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Rummel&rft.aufirst=Eric+O.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nku.edu%2Fcontent%2Fdam%2Fhisgeo%2Fdocs%2Farchives%2FVol21_2005-2006perspectives.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSabo2018" class="citation book cs1">Sabo, Theodore (2018). From Monophysitism to Nestorianism: AD 431–681. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0959-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-5275-0959-7"><bdi>978-1-5275-0959-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Monophysitism+to+Nestorianism%3A+AD+431%E2%80%93681&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars+Publishing&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=978-1-5275-0959-7&rft.aulast=Sabo&rft.aufirst=Theodore&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS">better source needed</a>]</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSághySchoolman2017" class="citation book cs1">Sághy, Marianne; Schoolman, Edward M. (2017). Pagans and Christians in the Late Roman Empire: New Evidence, New Approaches (4th–8th centuries). Central European University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-963-386-256-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-963-386-256-8"><bdi>978-963-386-256-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pagans+and+Christians+in+the+Late+Roman+Empire%3A+New+Evidence%2C+New+Approaches+%284th%E2%80%938th+centuries%29&rft.pub=Central+European+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-963-386-256-8&rft.aulast=S%C3%A1ghy&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rft.au=Schoolman%2C+Edward+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michele_R._Salzman" title="Michele R. Salzman">Salzman, Michele Renee</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9JGzYaUQyt4C">The Making of a Christian Aristocracy: Social and Religious Change in the Western Roman Empire</a>. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00641-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-00641-6"><bdi>978-0-674-00641-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Making+of+a+Christian+Aristocracy%3A+Social+and+Religious+Change+in+the+Western+Roman+Empire&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Harvard+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-674-00641-6&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michele+Renee&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9JGzYaUQyt4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman1993" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michele_R._Salzman" title="Michele R. Salzman">Salzman, Michele Renee</a> (1993). "The Evidence for the Conversion of the Roman Empire to Christianity in Book 16 of the 'Theodosian Code". Historia: Zeitschrift für Alte Geschichte. 42 (3). Franz Steiner Verlag: 362–378. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4436297">4436297</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historia%3A+Zeitschrift+f%C3%BCr+Alte+Geschichte&rft.atitle=The+Evidence+for+the+Conversion+of+the+Roman+Empire+to+Christianity+in+Book+16+of+the+%27Theodosian+Code&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=362-378&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4436297%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michele+Renee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalzman2021" class="citation book cs1">Salzman, Michelle Renee (2021). The Falls of Rome: Crises, Resilience, and Resurgence in Late Antiquity. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11142-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-11142-4"><bdi>978-1-107-11142-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Falls+of+Rome%3A+Crises%2C+Resilience%2C+and+Resurgence+in+Late+Antiquity&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-107-11142-4&rft.aulast=Salzman&rft.aufirst=Michelle+Renee&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanmark2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexandra_Sanmark" title="Alexandra Sanmark">Sanmark, Alexandra</a> (2004). Power and Conversion. A Comparative Study of Christianization in Scandinavia. The University of Uppsala. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-91-506-1739-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-91-506-1739-9"><bdi>978-91-506-1739-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Power+and+Conversion.+A+Comparative+Study+of+Christianization+in+Scandinavia&rft.pub=The+University+of+Uppsala&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-91-506-1739-9&rft.aulast=Sanmark&rft.aufirst=Alexandra&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanneh2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Lamin_Sanneh" title="Lamin Sanneh">Sanneh, Lamin O.</a> (2007). Disciples of all nations: Pillars of world Christianity. Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1980-4084-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1980-4084-2"><bdi>978-0-1980-4084-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Disciples+of+all+nations%3A+Pillars+of+world+Christianity&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-1980-4084-2&rft.aulast=Sanneh&rft.aufirst=Lamin+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSanneh2016" class="citation book cs1">Sanneh, Lamin O. (2016). "Bible Translation, Culture, and Religion". In Sanneh, Lamin; McClymond, Michael (eds.). The Wiley Blackwell Companion to World Christianity. John Wiley & Sons. pp. 263–281. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-118-55604-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-118-55604-7"><bdi>978-1-118-55604-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Bible+Translation%2C+Culture%2C+and+Religion&rft.btitle=The+Wiley+Blackwell+Companion+to+World+Christianity&rft.pages=263-281&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-118-55604-7&rft.aulast=Sanneh&rft.aufirst=Lamin+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaradi-Mendelovici1990" class="citation journal cs1">Saradi-Mendelovici, Helen (1990). "Christian Attitudes toward Pagan Monuments in Late Antiquity and Their Legacy in Later Byzantine Centuries". Dumbarton Oaks Papers. 44: 47–61. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1291617">10.2307/1291617</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/1291617">1291617</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dumbarton+Oaks+Papers&rft.atitle=Christian+Attitudes+toward+Pagan+Monuments+in+Late+Antiquity+and+Their+Legacy+in+Later+Byzantine+Centuries&rft.volume=44&rft.pages=47-61&rft.date=1990&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1291617&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1291617%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Saradi-Mendelovici&rft.aufirst=Helen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchacter2011" class="citation book cs1">Schacter, Jacob J. (2011). Carlebach, Elisheva; Schacter, Jacob J. (eds.). New Perspectives on Jewish-Christian Relations: In Honor of David Berger. Netherlands: Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9-00422-118-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-9-00422-118-5"><bdi>978-9-00422-118-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+Jewish-Christian+Relations%3A+In+Honor+of+David+Berger&rft.place=Netherlands&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-9-00422-118-5&rft.aulast=Schacter&rft.aufirst=Jacob+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchäferdiek2007" class="citation book cs1">Schäferdiek, Knut (2007). "Germanic and Celtic Christianities". In Casiday, Augustine; Norris, Frederick W. (eds.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. 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Economics Letters. 107 (2): 99–101. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.econlet.2009.12.037">10.1016/j.econlet.2009.12.037</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230522192658/https://eprints.qut.edu.au/32407/1/COVERSHEET_C32407.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 22 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Economics+Letters&rft.atitle=Work+ethic%2C+Protestantism%2C+and+human+capital&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=99-101&rft.date=2010-05-01&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.econlet.2009.12.037&rft.aulast=Schaltegger&rft.aufirst=Christoph+A.&rft.au=Torgler%2C+Benno&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.qut.edu.au%2F32407%2F1%2FCOVERSHEET_C32407.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchott2008" class="citation book cs1">Schott, Jeremy M. 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A General Survey of the History of the Canon of the New Testament. Wipf and Stock Publishers. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-7252-1423-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-7252-1423-1"><bdi>978-1-7252-1423-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+General+Survey+of+the+History+of+the+Canon+of+the+New+Testament&rft.pub=Wipf+and+Stock+Publishers&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-7252-1423-1&rft.aulast=Westcott&rft.aufirst=Brooke+Foss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhalen2015" class="citation book cs1">Whalen, Brett Edward (2015). "The Papacy". In Swanson, R. N. (ed.). The Routledge History of Medieval Christianity: 1050–1500 (Illustrated ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66014-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-66014-3"><bdi>978-0-415-66014-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Papacy&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+History+of+Medieval+Christianity%3A+1050%E2%80%931500&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-415-66014-3&rft.aulast=Whalen&rft.aufirst=Brett+Edward&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite2017" class="citation book cs1">White, L. Michael (2017). "Early Christian Architecture the first five centuries". In Esler, Philip F. (ed.). The Early Christian World. Vol. II (second ed.). Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-032-19935-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-032-19935-1"><bdi>978-1-032-19935-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Early+Christian+Architecture+the+first+five+centuries&rft.btitle=The+Early+Christian+World&rft.edition=second&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-1-032-19935-1&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=L.+Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1978" class="citation book cs1">White, Lynn Townsend (1978). Medieval Religion and Technology: Collected Essays (Illustrated ed.). 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New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11884-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-300-11884-1"><bdi>978-0-300-11884-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/j.ctt32bd7m.5">j.ctt32bd7m.5</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:160590164">160590164</a>. 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IVP Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-4023-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8308-4023-6"><bdi>978-0-8308-4023-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christian+Ethics%3A+Four+Views&rft.pub=IVP+Academic&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0-8308-4023-6&rft.aulast=Wilkins&rft.aufirst=Steve&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams2015" class="citation book cs1">Williams, Henry Smith (2015). The Historians' History of the World: A Comprehensive Narrative of the Rise and Development of Nations as Recorded by Over Two Thousand of the Great Writers of All Ages. Vol. 6 (reproduction of classic work ed.). Arkose Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1344644556" title="Special:BookSources/978-1344644556"><bdi>978-1344644556</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Historians%27+History+of+the+World%3A+A+Comprehensive+Narrative+of+the+Rise+and+Development+of+Nations+as+Recorded+by+Over+Two+Thousand+of+the+Great+Writers+of+All+Ages&rft.edition=reproduction+of+classic+work&rft.pub=Arkose+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1344644556&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Henry+Smith&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliams1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/George_Huntston_Williams" title="George Huntston Williams">Williams, George Huntston</a> (1995). The Radical Reformation (3rd ed.). Penn State Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-271-09134-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-271-09134-1"><bdi>978-0-271-09134-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Radical+Reformation&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=Penn+State+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-271-09134-1&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=George+Huntston&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitte1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/John_Witte_Jr." title="John Witte Jr.">Witte, John Jr.</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fromsacramenttoc0000witt">From Sacrament to Contract Marriage, Religion, and Law in the Western Tradition</a>. Westminster John Knox Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25543-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-664-25543-5"><bdi>978-0-664-25543-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+Sacrament+to+Contract+Marriage%2C+Religion%2C+and+Law+in+the+Western+Tradition&rft.pub=Westminster+John+Knox+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-664-25543-5&rft.aulast=Witte&rft.aufirst=John+Jr.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffromsacramenttoc0000witt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWogaman2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/J._Philip_Wogaman" title="J. Philip Wogaman">Wogaman, J. Philip</a> (2011). Christian Ethics A Historical Introduction. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-191-57776-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-191-57776-5"><bdi>978-0-191-57776-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Christianity%3A+A+Very+Short+Introduction&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-191-57776-5&rft.aulast=Woodhead&rft.aufirst=Linda&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodsCanizares2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tom_Woods" title="Tom Woods">Woods, Thomas Jr.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Antonio_Ca%C3%B1izares_Llovera" title="Antonio Cañizares Llovera">Canizares, Antonio</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jYvmAgAAQBAJ">How the Catholic Church Built Western Civilization</a>. 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"The Great Church in captivity 1453–1586". In Angold, Michael (ed.). The Cambridge History of Christianity. Vol. 5. Cambridge University Press. pp. 169–186. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCHOL9780521811132.009">10.1017/CHOL9780521811132.009</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05408-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-139-05408-9"><bdi>978-1-139-05408-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Great+Church+in+captivity+1453%E2%80%931586&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Christianity&rft.pages=169-186&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FCHOL9780521811132.009&rft.isbn=978-1-139-05408-9&rft.aulast=Zachariadou&rft.aufirst=Elizabeth&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZagorin2003" class="citation book cs1">Zagorin, Perez (2003). How the Idea of Religious Toleration Came to the West (Repr. ed.). Princeton University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09270-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-09270-6"><bdi>978-0-691-09270-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=How+the+Idea+of+Religious+Toleration+Came+to+the+West&rft.edition=Repr.&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-691-09270-6&rft.aulast=Zagorin&rft.aufirst=Perez&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZurlo2020" class="citation book cs1">Zurlo, Gina A. (2020). "A Demographic Profile of Christianity in East and Southeast Asia". In Ross, Kenneth R.; Alvarez, Francis D.; Johnson, Todd M. (eds.). Christianity in East and Southeast Asia (Illustrated ed.). Edinburgh University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-5162-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4744-5162-8"><bdi>978-1-4744-5162-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Demographic+Profile+of+Christianity+in+East+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.btitle=Christianity+in+East+and+Southeast+Asia&rft.edition=Illustrated&rft.pub=Edinburgh+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-1-4744-5162-8&rft.aulast=Zurlo&rft.aufirst=Gina+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Encyclopedia_&_web_sources">Encyclopedia & web sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=110" title="Edit section: Encyclopedia & web sources">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239549316"><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAmerica_magazine2018" class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2018/05/01/chinese-government-targeting-young-christians-229592">"Why the Chinese government is targeting young Christians in its latest crackdown"</a>. America magazine. 14 May 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210720202015/https://www.americamagazine.org/faith/2018/05/01/chinese-government-targeting-young-christians-229592">Archived</a> from the original on 20 July 2021. Retrieved 17 October 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=America+magazine&rft.atitle=Why+the+Chinese+government+is+targeting+young+Christians+in+its+latest+crackdown&rft.date=2018-05-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.americamagazine.org%2Ffaith%2F2018%2F05%2F01%2Fchinese-government-targeting-young-christians-229592&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPentarchy2024" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/pentarchy">"pentarchy"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. Britannica. 2016. Retrieved 4 May 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=pentarchy&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.pub=Britannica&rft.date=2016&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2Fpentarchy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDei_verbum2014" class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html">"Dei verbum"</a>. www.vatican.va. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140531175312/https://www.vatican.va/archive/hist_councils/ii_vatican_council/documents/vat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html">Archived</a> from the original on 31 May 2014. Retrieved 15 September 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.vatican.va&rft.atitle=Dei+verbum&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.vatican.va%2Farchive%2Fhist_councils%2Fii_vatican_council%2Fdocuments%2Fvat-ii_const_19651118_dei-verbum_en.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFahmy2022" class="citation web cs1">Fahmy, Dalia (2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.pewresearch.org/religion/2022/09/13/how-u-s-religious-composition-has-changed-in-recent-decades/">"How U.S. religious composition has changed in recent decades"</a>. Modeling the Future of America in American Religion. Pew. 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New York: Fordham University Center for Medieval Studies at the <a href="/wiki/Fordham_University" title="Fordham University">Fordham University</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220321165741/https://sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/icono-cncl754.asp">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2022. Retrieved 11 April 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Medieval+Sourcebook%3A+Iconoclastic+Council%2C+754+%E2%80%93+Epitome+of+the+definition+of+the+iconoclastic+Conciliabulum%2C+held+in+Constantinople%2C+A.D.+754&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Internet+History+Sourcebooks+Project&rft.pub=Fordham+University+Center+for+Medieval+Studies+at+the+Fordham+University&rft.date=2021&rft.aulast=Halsall&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsourcebooks.fordham.edu%2Fsource%2Ficono-cncl754.asp&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHebron2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Hebron, M. (2022). "Patronage in the Renaissance". In Sgarbi, M. (ed.). Encyclopedia of Renaissance Philosophy. 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Eerdmans. pp. 635–638. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3898-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8028-3898-8"><bdi>978-0-8028-3898-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Restoration%2C+Historical+Models+of&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+the+Stone-Campbell+Movement&rft.pages=635-638&rft.pub=Wm.+B.+Eerdmans&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-8028-3898-8&rft.aulast=Hughes&rft.aufirst=Richard+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-3UtqrX56rgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBritannica2022" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jaroslav_Pelikan" title="Jaroslav Pelikan">Jan Pelikan, Jaroslav</a> (13 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Christianity">Christianity</a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141101193717/http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/115240/Christianity/67592/Forms-of-Christian-education">Archived</a> from the original on 1 November 2014. 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Retrieved 19 July 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=schoolinfosystem.org&rft.atitle=A+Dramatic+Revival%3A+The+first+great+awakening+in+Connecticut&rft.date=1994&rft.aulast=Valkenburgh&rft.aufirst=Sarah&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.schoolinfosystem.org%2Fpdf%2F2014%2F04%2FEPGreatAwakening62.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoo2019" class="citation web cs1">Yoo, Wonji (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/2279903082">"The making of god's subject: Christian conversion and urban youth in china"</a>. ProQuest. University of Pittsburgh. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.proquest.com/docview/2279903082">2279903082</a>. Retrieved 1 November 2024. <q>recent Chinese converts in Beijing seem to be mainly young people. In her study on churches in Beijing, Gao Shining (2005) points out that Christians under 35 accounted for 39% of Beijing's Christian population until 1990s, but the number increased by 70% in 2000s. Moreover, a survey of college students at Renmin University of China in Beijing shows that 61.5% of respondents were interested in Christianity (Goossaert and Palmer 2011). See - Page 27 Footnote 7</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=ProQuest&rft.atitle=The+making+of+god%27s+subject%3A+Christian+conversion+and+urban+youth+in+china&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Yoo&rft.aufirst=Wonji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.proquest.com%2Fdocview%2F2279903082&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Christianity&action=edit&section=111" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1216972533">.mw-parser-output .col-begin{border-collapse:collapse;padding:0;color:inherit;width:100%;border:0;margin:0}.mw-parser-output .col-begin-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .col-break{vertical-align:top;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .col-break-2{width:50%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-3{width:33.3%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-4{width:25%}.mw-parser-output .col-break-5{width:20%}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .col-begin,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr,.mw-parser-output .col-begin>tbody>tr>td{display:block!important;width:100%!important}.mw-parser-output .col-break{padding-left:0!important}}</style><div> <table class="col-begin" role="presentation"> <tbody><tr> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> The following links give an overview of the history of Christianity: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.amazon.com/dp/B0CPM1XS9K9">Historical Christianity: The Ancient Communal Faith</a>: Print, ebook, and audiobook</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/history">History of Christianity Reading Room:</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190828102942/https://www.tyndale.ca/seminary/mtsmodular/reading-rooms/history">Archived</a> 28 August 2019 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Extensive online resources for the study of global church history (Tyndale Seminary).</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20071016200443/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1%E2%80%9349">Dictionary of the History of Ideas</a>: Christianity in History</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120111152750/http://etext.lib.virginia.edu/cgi-local/DHI/dhi.cgi?id=dv1%E2%80%9350">Dictionary of the History of Ideas</a>: Church as an Institution</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.biblestudytools.com/history/sketches-of-church-history/">Sketches of Church History</a> From AD 33 to the Reformation by Rev. J. C Robertson, M.A., Canon of Canterbury</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Church_History">"Church History" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 6 (11th ed.). 1911. pp. 330–45.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Church+History&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=330-45&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Christianity" class="Z3988"></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170420050908/http://historyofchristianity.org.uk/">A History of Christianity in 15 Objects</a> online series in association with Faculty of Theology, Uni. of Oxford from September 2011</li></ul> </td> <td class="col-break col-break-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_Christianity" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of Christianity">History of Christianity</a>.</div></div> </div> The following links provide quantitative data related to Christianity and other major religions, including rates of adherence at different points in time: <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.thearda.com">American Religion Data Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070202101418/http://baptistpillar.com/bd0547.htm">Historical Christianity</a>, A timeline with references to the descendants of the early church.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150924101404/http://www.shol.com/featheredprop/Timeline.htm">Reformation Timeline</a>, A short timeline of the Protestant Reformation.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130126010821/http://www.fourthcentury.com/">Fourth-Century Christianity</a></li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output 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tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Christianity" title="Template talk:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Christianity" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Christianity"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Christianity" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">Spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Centuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_1st_century" title="Christianity in the 1st century">1st</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">2nd and 3rd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_4th_century" title="Christianity in the 4th century">4th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_5th_century" title="Christianity in the 5th century">5th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_6th_century" title="Christianity in the 6th century">6th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_7th_century" title="Christianity in the 7th century">7th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_8th_century" title="Christianity in the 8th century">8th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_9th_century" title="Christianity in the 9th century">9th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_10th_century" title="Christianity in the 10th century">10th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_11th_century" title="Christianity in the 11th century">11th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_12th_century" title="Christianity in the 12th century">12th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_13th_century" title="Christianity in the 13th century">13th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_14th_century" title="Christianity in the 14th century">14th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_15th_century" title="Christianity in the 15th century">15th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_16th_century" title="Christianity in the 16th century">16th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_17th_century" title="Christianity in the 17th century">17th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_18th_century" title="Christianity in the 18th century">18th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_19th_century" title="Christianity in the 19th century">19th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_20th_century" title="Christianity in the 20th century">20th</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_21st_century" title="Christianity in the 21st century">21st</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Origins and Apostolic Age</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_background_of_the_New_Testament" title="Historical background of the New Testament">Background</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life_of_Jesus" title="Life of Jesus">Life of Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles in the New Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_Christian" class="mw-redirect" title="Jewish Christian">Jewish Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_the_Apostle" title="Paul the Apostle">Paul the Apostle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Jerusalem" title="Council of Jerusalem">Council of Jerusalem</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gospel" title="Gospel">Gospels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acts_of_the_Apostles" title="Acts of the Apostles">Acts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pauline_epistles" title="Pauline epistles">Pauline epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_epistles" title="Catholic epistles">General epistles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Revelation" title="Book of Revelation">Revelation</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diversity_in_early_Christian_theology" title="Diversity in early Christian theology">Diversity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adoptionism" title="Adoptionism">Adoptionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arianism" title="Arianism">Arianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Docetism" title="Docetism">Docetism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donatism" title="Donatism">Donatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcionism" title="Marcionism">Marcionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Montanism" title="Montanism">Montanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Development_of_the_New_Testament_canon" title="Development of the New Testament canon">Canon development</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians_in_the_Roman_Empire" title="Persecution of Christians in the Roman Empire">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic</a> / <a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church Fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Clement_of_Rome" title="Clement of Rome">Clement of Rome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polycarp" title="Polycarp">Polycarp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignatius_of_Antioch" title="Ignatius of Antioch">Ignatius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irenaeus" title="Irenaeus">Irenaeus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Justin_Martyr" title="Justin Martyr">Justin Martyr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tertullian" title="Tertullian">Tertullian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origen" title="Origen">Origen</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Roman_Africa_province" title="Christianity in the Roman Africa province">Early African</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a> (<a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constantinian_shift" title="Constantinian shift">Constantinian shift</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">Roman state religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">Councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Christianity" title="Nicene Christianity">Christianity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Athanasius_of_Alexandria" title="Athanasius of Alexandria">Athanasius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jerome" title="Jerome">Jerome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Augustine_of_Hippo" title="Augustine of Hippo">Augustine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Constantinople" title="First Council of Constantinople">Constantinople I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ephesus" title="Council of Ephesus">Ephesus I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Chalcedonian Christianity">Chalcedonian</a> / <a href="/wiki/Non-Chalcedonian_Christianity" title="Non-Chalcedonian Christianity">Non-Chalcedonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_papacy" title="History of the papacy">Papacy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_papal_primacy" title="History of papal primacy">Development of primacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_opposition_to_papal_supremacy" title="Eastern Orthodox opposition to papal supremacy">Eastern Orthodox opposition</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Council_of_the_Lateran" title="Fourth Council of the Lateran">Lateran IV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_patronage_of_Julius_II" title="Art patronage of Julius II">Art patronage of Julius II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Leo_X" title="Pope Leo X">Leo X</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Counter-Reformation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Trent" title="Council of Trent">Trent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Art_in_the_Protestant_Reformation_and_Counter-Reformation" title="Art in the Protestant Reformation and Counter-Reformation">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Reformation" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_Jesus" class="mw-redirect" title="Society of Jesus">Jesuits</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Xavier" title="Francis Xavier">Xavier</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_More" title="Thomas More">Thomas More</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_monasteries" title="Dissolution of the monasteries">Monastery dissolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_wars_of_religion" title="European wars of religion">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_rock" title="Mass rock">Mass rocks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Priest_hole" title="Priest hole">priest holes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Our_Lady_of_Guadalupe" title="Our Lady of Guadalupe">Guadalupe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jansenism" title="Jansenism">Jansenists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molinism" title="Molinism">Molinists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Neo-Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Neo-Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teresa_of_%C3%81vila" title="Teresa of Ávila">Teresa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modernism_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Modernism in the Catholic Church">Modernism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Vatican_Council" title="First Vatican Council">Vatican I</a> and <a href="/wiki/Second_Vatican_Council" title="Second Vatican Council">Vatican II</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesial_community" title="Ecclesial community">Ecclesial community</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="Timeline of the Catholic Church">Timeline</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Eastern_Christianity" title="History of Eastern Christianity">Eastern Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Chrysostom" title="John Chrysostom">Chrysostom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nestorianism" title="Nestorianism">Nestorianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icon#History" title="Icon">Icons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iconodulism" title="Iconodulism">Iconodulism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Iconoclasm" title="Byzantine Iconoclasm">Iconoclasm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">Great Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_Constantinople" title="Fall of Constantinople">Fall of Constantinople</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Armenia" title="Christianization of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iberia" title="Christianization of Iberia">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_Greece" title="Eastern Orthodoxy in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_history" title="Coptic history">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_Christianity" title="Syriac Christianity">Syriac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Orthodox_Church" title="Serbian Orthodox Church">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Orthodox_Tewahedo_Church" title="Ethiopian Orthodox Tewahedo Church">Ethiopia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church_under_the_Ottoman_Empire" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church under the Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Russian_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Russian Orthodox Church">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Eastern_Orthodoxy_in_North_America" title="Timeline of Eastern Orthodoxy in North America">North America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pelagianism" title="Pelagianism">Pelagianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pope_Gregory_I" title="Pope Gregory I">Gregory I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_the_Germanic_peoples" title="Christianisation of the Germanic peoples">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianisation_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="Christianisation of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Franks" title="Christianization of the Franks">Franks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Christianity" title="Gothic Christianity">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Scandinavia" title="Christianization of Scandinavia">Scandinavian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Iceland" title="Christianization of Iceland">Iceland</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_the_Slavs" title="Christianization of the Slavs">Slavs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bohemia" title="Christianization of Bohemia">Bohemia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Bulgaria" title="Christianization of Bulgaria">Bulgaria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Kievan_Rus%27" title="Christianization of Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Moravia" title="Christianization of Moravia">Moravia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Poland" title="Christianization of Poland">Poland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianization_of_Pomerania" title="Christianization of Pomerania">Pomerania</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anselm_of_Canterbury" title="Anselm of Canterbury">Anselm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Abelard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_of_Clairvaux" title="Bernard of Clairvaux">Bernard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogomilism" title="Bogomilism">Bogomils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Church" title="Bosnian Church">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catharism" title="Catharism">Cathars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Brethren" title="Apostolic Brethren">Apostolic Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dulcinian" class="mw-redirect" title="Dulcinian">Dulcinian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waldensians" title="Waldensians">Waldensians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquisition" title="Inquisition">Inquisition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scholasticism#Early_Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">Early Scholasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Christian mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint_Dominic" title="Saint Dominic">Dominic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_of_Assisi" title="Francis of Assisi">Francis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bonaventure" title="Bonaventure">Bonaventure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Five_Ways_(Aquinas)" title="Five Ways (Aquinas)">Five Ways</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Wycliffe" title="John Wycliffe">Wycliffe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avignon_Papacy" title="Avignon Papacy">Avignon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Schism" title="Western Schism">Papal Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bohemian_Reformation" title="Bohemian Reformation">Bohemian Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jan_Hus" title="Jan Hus">Hus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conciliarism" title="Conciliarism">Conciliarism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Synod" title="Synod">Synods</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Erasmus" title="Erasmus">Erasmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharistic_theology" title="Eucharistic theology">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Calvinist%E2%80%93Arminian_debate" title="History of the Calvinist–Arminian debate">Calvinist–Arminian debate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arminianism" title="Arminianism">Arminianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation#Politics" title="Counter-Reformation">Wars</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_theory_in_the_Early_Modern_period#Christian_resistance_theories_of_the_early_modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance theory in the Early Modern period">Resistance theories</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Separation_of_church_and_state#Reformation" title="Separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicodemite" title="Nicodemite">Nicodemites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hymnody_of_continental_Europe" title="Hymnody of continental Europe">Hymnody of continental Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formal_and_material_principles_of_theology" title="Formal and material principles of theology">Formal and material principles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Law_and_Gospel" title="Law and Gospel">Law and Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Reformation_literature" title="Template:Reformation literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_work_ethic" title="Protestant work ethic">Protestant work ethic</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lutheranism" title="History of Lutheranism">Lutheranism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Luther" title="Martin Luther">Luther</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ninety-five_Theses" title="Ninety-five Theses">Ninety-five Theses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diet_of_Worms" title="Diet of Worms">Diet of Worms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theology_of_Martin_Luther" title="Theology of Martin Luther">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luther_Bible" title="Luther Bible">Bible</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philip_Melanchthon" title="Philip Melanchthon">Melanchthon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Concord" title="Book of Concord">Book of Concord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_orthodoxy" title="Lutheran orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacramental_union" title="Sacramental union">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheran_art" title="Lutheran art">Art</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Reformed_Christianity" title="History of Reformed Christianity">Calvinism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Huldrych_Zwingli" title="Huldrych Zwingli">Zwingli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Calvin" title="John Calvin">Calvin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huguenots" title="Huguenots">Huguenots</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Reformation" title="Scottish Reformation">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Knox" title="John Knox">Knox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_points_of_Calvinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Five points of Calvinism">TULIP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_baptismal_theology" title="Reformed baptismal theology">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Synod_of_Dort" title="Synod of Dort">Dort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Forms_of_Unity" title="Three Forms of Unity">Three Forms of Unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Westminster_Assembly" title="Westminster Assembly">Westminster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_orthodoxy" title="Reformed orthodoxy">Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metrical_psalter" title="Metrical psalter">Metrical psalters</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/English_Reformation" title="English Reformation">Anglicanism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_the_English_Reformation" title="Timeline of the English Reformation">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henry_VIII" title="Henry VIII">Henry VIII</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Cranmer" title="Thomas Cranmer">Cranmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elizabethan_Religious_Settlement" title="Elizabethan Religious Settlement">Elizabethan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty-nine_Articles" title="Thirty-nine Articles">39 Articles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Puritans" title="Puritans">Puritans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_Civil_War" title="English Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglican_church_music" title="Anglican church music">Church music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Book_of_Common_Prayer" title="Book of Common Prayer">Book of Common Prayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_James_Version" title="King James Version">King James Version</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptist_theology" title="Anabaptist theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radical_Reformation" title="Radical Reformation">Radical Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conrad_Grebel" title="Conrad Grebel">Grebel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swiss_Brethren" title="Swiss Brethren">Swiss Brethren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_M%C3%BCntzer" title="Thomas Müntzer">Müntzer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs%27_Synod" title="Martyrs' Synod">Martyrs' Synod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Menno_Simons" title="Menno Simons">Menno Simons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Smyth_(English_theologian)" title="John Smyth (English theologian)">Smyth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martyrs_Mirror" title="Martyrs Mirror">Martyrs Mirror</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ausbund" title="Ausbund">Ausbund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1640–1789</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_revival" title="Christian revival">Revivalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Missionaries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptists</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptists_in_the_history_of_separation_of_church_and_state" title="Baptists in the history of separation of church and state">Separation of church and state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edict_of_toleration#Early_modern_period" title="Edict of toleration">Edicts of toleration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Congregational_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Congregational church">Congregationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_Great_Awakening" title="First Great Awakening">First Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Millerism" title="Millerism">Millerism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietism" title="Pietism">Pietism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Merton_thesis" title="Merton thesis">Fostering of early experimental science</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Lutheranism" title="Neo-Lutheranism">Neo-</a> and <a href="/wiki/Old_Lutherans" title="Old Lutherans">Old Lutherans</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">1789–present</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Camp_meeting" title="Camp meeting">Camp meeting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Great_Awakening" title="Second Great Awakening">Second Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_Movement" title="Restoration Movement">Restorationists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="History of Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="History of the Latter Day Saint movement">Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Seventh-day_Adventist_Church" title="History of the Seventh-day Adventist Church">Seventh-day Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxford_Movement" title="Oxford Movement">Oxford Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laestadianism" title="Laestadianism">Laestadianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Awakening_(Finnish_religious_movement)" title="Awakening (Finnish religious movement)">Finnish Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Christian existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Great_Awakening" title="Third Great Awakening">Third Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azusa_Street_Revival" title="Azusa Street Revival">Azusa Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gospel_music" title="Gospel music">Gospel music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundamentalist%E2%80%93Modernist_controversy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fundamentalist–Modernist controversy">Fundamentalist – Modernist controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_solae" title="Five solae">Five solae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_movement" title="Jesus movement">Jesus movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Charismatic Movement">Charismatics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_epistemology" title="Reformed epistemology">Reformed epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth_Great_Awakening" title="Fourth Great Awakening">Fourth Great Awakening</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mainline_Protestant" title="Mainline Protestant">Mainline</a> Protestants</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Christian right</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">left</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Political_influence_of_Evangelicalism_in_Latin_America" title="Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America">Political influence of Evangelicalism in Latin America</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">Timeline</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christian_missions" title="Timeline of Christian missions">Missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_martyrs" title="List of Christian martyrs">Martyrs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christian_theology" title="History of Christian theology">Theology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="History of the Eastern Orthodox Church">Eastern Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oriental_Orthodoxy" title="History of Oriental Orthodoxy">Oriental Orthodoxy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Protestantism" title="History of Protestantism">Protestantism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Catholic_Church" title="History of the Catholic Church">Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Christianity" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Christianity_footer" title="Template talk:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity_footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Christianity footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Christianity" class="wraplinks" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Christianity-related_articles" title="Index of Christianity-related articles">Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Christianity" title="Outline of Christianity">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_Christianity" title="Glossary of Christianity">Glossary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prophets_of_Christianity" title="Prophets of Christianity">Prophets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">People</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Christians" title="Lists of Christians">Lists of Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_by_country" title="Christianity by country">By country</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Bible" title="Bible">Bible</a> <a href="/wiki/List_of_religious_texts#Christianity" title="List of religious texts">(Scriptures)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biblical_canon" title="Biblical canon">Canon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Testament" title="Old Testament">Old Testament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Testament" title="New Testament">New Testament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Foundations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_(congregation)" title="Church (congregation)">Church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creed" title="Creed">Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_gospel" title="The gospel">Gospel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Covenant" title="New Covenant">New Covenant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_tradition" title="Christian tradition">Christian tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a> (<a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Christianity" title="Timeline of Christianity">timeline</a>) (<a href="/wiki/Spread_of_Christianity" title="Spread of Christianity">spread</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus" title="Jesus">Jesus</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jesus_in_Christianity" title="Jesus in Christianity">in Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nativity_of_Jesus" title="Nativity of Jesus">Nativity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptism_of_Jesus" title="Baptism of Jesus">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Jesus" title="Ministry of Jesus">Ministry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sermon_on_the_Mount" title="Sermon on the Mount">Sermon on the Mount</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parables_of_Jesus" title="Parables of Jesus">Parables</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Miracles_of_Jesus" title="Miracles of Jesus">Miracles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commandment" title="Great Commandment">Great Commandment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crucifixion_of_Jesus" title="Crucifixion of Jesus">Crucifixion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resurrection_of_Jesus" title="Resurrection of Jesus">Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Commission" title="Great Commission">Great Commission</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apostles_in_the_New_Testament" title="Apostles in the New Testament">Apostles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_Fathers" title="Church Fathers">Church fathers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apostolic_Fathers" title="Apostolic Fathers">Apostolic fathers</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Great_Church" title="Great Church">Great Church</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_ante-Nicene_period" title="Christianity in the ante-Nicene period">Ante-Nicene period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constantine_the_Great_and_Christianity" title="Constantine the Great and Christianity">Constantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/First_seven_ecumenical_councils" title="First seven ecumenical councils">First seven ecumenical councils</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Council_of_Nicaea" title="First Council of Nicaea">Nicaea I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Chalcedon" title="Council of Chalcedon">Chalcedon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_as_the_Roman_state_religion" title="Christianity as the Roman state religion">State church of the Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_biblical_canon" class="mw-redirect" title="Christian biblical canon">Christian biblical canon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_monasticism" title="Christian monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/East%E2%80%93West_Schism" title="East–West Schism">East–West Schism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Investiture_Controversy" title="Investiture Controversy">Investiture Controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church_and_the_Age_of_Discovery" title="Catholic Church and the Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Modern era</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Protestant Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-Reformation" title="Counter-Reformation">Catholic Reformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dechristianization_of_France_during_the_French_Revolution" title="Dechristianization of France during the French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Islam" title="Christianity and Islam">Relations with Islam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christian_influences_on_the_Islamic_world" title="Christian influences on the Islamic world">Influences</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_denomination" title="Christian denomination">Denominations</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations" title="List of Christian denominations">list</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_denominations_by_number_of_members" title="List of Christian denominations by number of members">members</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Christianity" title="Western Christianity">Western</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_Church" title="Catholic Church">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Catholic_Church" title="Old Catholic Church">Old Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_Catholicism" title="Independent Catholicism">Independent Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestantism" title="Protestantism">Protestant</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adventism" title="Adventism">Adventist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anabaptism" title="Anabaptism">Anabaptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglicanism" title="Anglicanism">Anglican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baptists" title="Baptists">Baptist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_Christianity" title="Charismatic Christianity">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">Evangelical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holiness_movement" title="Holiness movement">Holiness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lutheranism" title="Lutheranism">Lutheran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Methodism" title="Methodism">Methodist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pentecostalism" title="Pentecostalism">Pentecostal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quakers" title="Quakers">Quakers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reformed_Christianity" title="Reformed Christianity">Reformed</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Rite_Orthodoxy" title="Western Rite Orthodoxy">Western Rite Orthodoxy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Christianity" title="Eastern Christianity">Eastern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodoxy" title="Eastern Orthodoxy">Eastern Orthodox</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Church" title="Eastern Orthodox Church">Church</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oriental_Orthodox_Churches" title="Oriental Orthodox Churches">Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_of_the_East" title="Church of the East">Church of the East (Nestorian)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_Churches" title="Eastern Catholic Churches">Eastern Catholic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Restorationism" title="Restorationism">Restorationist</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jehovah%27s_Witnesses" title="Jehovah's Witnesses">Jehovah's Witnesses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latter_Day_Saint_movement" title="Latter Day Saint movement">Latter Day Saint movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iglesia_ni_Cristo" title="Iglesia ni Cristo">Iglesia ni Cristo</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_theology" title="Christian theology">Theology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/God_in_Christianity" title="God in Christianity">God</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity" title="Trinity">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father" title="God the Father">Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_of_God_(Christianity)" title="Son of God (Christianity)">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christianity" title="Holy Spirit in Christianity">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christology" title="Christology">Christology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicene_Creed" title="Nicene Creed">Nicene Creed</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacred_tradition" title="Sacred tradition">Tradition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Original_sin" title="Original sin">Original sin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salvation_in_Christianity" title="Salvation in Christianity">Salvation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Born_again" title="Born again">Born again</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_liturgy" title="Christian liturgy">Liturgy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catholic_liturgy" title="Catholic liturgy">Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Catholic_liturgy" title="Eastern Catholic liturgy">Eastern Catholic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_worship" title="Eastern Orthodox worship">Eastern Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protestant_liturgy" title="Protestant liturgy">Protestant</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_worship" title="Christian worship">Worship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mariology" title="Mariology">Mariology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theotokos" title="Theotokos">Theotokos</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saint" title="Saint">Saints</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angels_in_Christianity" title="Angels in Christianity">Angel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecclesiology" title="Ecclesiology">Ecclesiology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Marks_of_the_Church" title="Four Marks of the Church">Four marks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_of_Christ" title="Body of Christ">Body of Christ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/One_true_church" title="One true church">One true church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People_of_God" title="People of God">People of God</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canon_law" title="Canon law">Canon law</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sacrament" title="Sacrament">Sacraments</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baptism" title="Baptism">Baptism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eucharist" title="Eucharist">Eucharist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_marriage" title="Christian views on marriage">Marriage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation" title="Confirmation">Confirmation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penance" title="Penance">Penance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anointing_of_the_sick" title="Anointing of the sick">Anointing of the Sick</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_orders" title="Holy orders">Holy orders</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mission" title="Christian mission">Mission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ablution_in_Christianity" title="Ablution in Christianity">Ablution</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hygiene_in_Christianity" title="Hygiene in Christianity">Hygiene</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_philosophy" title="Christian philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Natural_law" title="Natural law">Natural law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_ethics" title="Christian ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_science" title="Christianity and science">Science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rejection_of_evolution_by_religious_groups" title="Rejection of evolution by religious groups">Evolution</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_politics" title="Christianity and politics">Politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_poverty_and_wealth" title="Christian views on poverty and wealth">Views on poverty and wealth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Christian_culture" title="Christian culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Church_architecture" title="Church architecture">Architecture</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_cathedrals_and_great_churches" title="Architecture of cathedrals and great churches">Architecture of cathedrals and great churches</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_art" title="Christian art">Art</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depiction_of_Jesus" title="Depiction of Jesus">Jesus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marian_art_in_the_Catholic_Church" title="Marian art in the Catholic Church">Mary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Trinity_in_art" title="The Trinity in art">Trinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/God_the_Father_in_Western_art" title="God the Father in Western art">God the Father</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Spirit_in_Christian_art" title="Holy Spirit in Christian art">Holy Spirit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catechesis" title="Catechesis">Education</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Catechism" title="Catechism">Catechism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Flag" title="Christian Flag">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_literature" title="Christian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_music" title="Christian music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mythology" title="Christian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pilgrimage" title="Christian pilgrimage">Pilgrimage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Popular_piety" title="Popular piety">Popular piety</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Church_(building)" title="Church (building)">Church buildings</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_cathedrals" title="Lists of cathedrals">Cathedrals</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Role_of_Christianity_in_civilization" title="Role of Christianity in civilization">Role in civilization</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Christian_movements" title="List of Christian movements">Movements</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_anarchism" title="Christian anarchism">Anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charismatic_movement" title="Charismatic movement">Charismatic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_democracy" title="Christian democracy">Democracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_views_on_environmentalism" title="Christian views on environmentalism">Environmentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_existentialism" title="Christian existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_fundamentalism" title="Christian fundamentalism">Fundamentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberation_theology" title="Liberation theology">Liberation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_left" title="Christian left">Left</a>/<a href="/wiki/Christian_right" title="Christian right">Right</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_mysticism" title="Christian mysticism">Mysticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_pacifism" title="Christian pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prosperity_theology" title="Prosperity theology">Prosperity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditionalist_Catholicism" title="Traditionalist Catholicism">Traditionalist Catholicism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cooperation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christendom" title="Christendom">Christendom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecumenism" title="Ecumenism">Ecumenism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Charta_Oecumenica" title="Charta Oecumenica">Charta Oecumenica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Council_of_Churches" title="World Council of Churches">World Council of Churches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Evangelical_Alliance" title="World Evangelical Alliance">World Evangelical Alliance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nondenominational_Christianity" class="mw-redirect" title="Nondenominational Christianity">Nondenominationalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Christian_sentiment" title="Anti-Christian sentiment">Anti-Christian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_universalism" title="Christian universalism">Christian universalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_Christianity" title="Criticism of Christianity">Criticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Christians" title="Cultural Christians">Cultural Christians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Christians" title="Persecution of Christians">Persecution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_other_religions" title="Christianity and other religions">Relations with other religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unlimited_atonement" title="Unlimited atonement">Unlimited atonement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:P_christianity.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/16px-P_christianity.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/24px-P_christianity.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/P_christianity.svg/32px-P_christianity.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Christianity" title="Portal:Christianity">Christianity portal</a></li> <li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Christianity" title="Category:Christianity">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_religions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_religions" title="Template:History of religions"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_religions" title="Template talk:History of religions"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_religions" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of religions"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_religions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion" title="History of religion">History of religions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_religion" title="Timeline of religion">Timeline of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_religions_and_spiritual_traditions" title="List of religions and spiritual traditions">List of religions and spiritual traditions</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Major_religious_groups" title="Major religious groups">Major groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Abrahamic_religions" title="Abrahamic religions">Abrahamic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith" title="History of the Baháʼí Faith">Baháʼí</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jewish_history" title="Jewish history">Judaism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Rastafari" title="History of Rastafari">Rastafari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Mythologies_of_the_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Mythologies of the indigenous peoples of the Americas">Amerindian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_religion" title="Aztec religion">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_religion" title="Maya religion">Mayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_the_Inca_Empire" title="Religion in the Inca Empire">Inca</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/East_Asian_religions" title="East Asian religions">East Asian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Confucianism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Confucianism">Confucianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taoism" title="History of Taoism">Taoism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shintoism#History" class="mw-redirect" title="Shintoism">Shinto</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Buddhism" title="History of Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hinduism" title="History of Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jainism" title="History of Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sikhism" title="History of Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mithraism" title="Mithraism">Mithraism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism#History" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaeism#Origins" title="Manichaeism">Manichaeanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal; line-height:1.4em; padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/New_religious_movement" title="New religious movement">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Wicca" title="History of Wicca">Wicca</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_New_Thought" title="History of New Thought">New Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">Kardecist spiritism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Historical</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_religion" title="Prehistoric religion">Prehistoric</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_religion" title="Paleolithic religion">Paleolithic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Religions_of_the_ancient_Near_East" title="Religions of the ancient Near East">Near East</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egyptian_religion" title="Ancient Egyptian religion">Egyptian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Semitic_religion" title="Ancient Semitic religion">Semitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Mesopotamian_religion" title="Ancient Mesopotamian religion">Mesopotamian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;;padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.4em;padding-bottom:0.25em;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Indo-European</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Baltic religion">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_polytheism" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic polytheism">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gnosticism" title="Gnosticism">Gnosticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neoplatonism" title="Neoplatonism">Neoplatonism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Illyro-thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic Hinduism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;background:transparent;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evolution_of_morality" title="Evolution of morality">Evolution of morality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_origin_of_religions" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary origin of religions">Evolutionary origin of religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_psychology_of_religion" title="Evolutionary psychology of religion">Evolutionary psychology of religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_atheism" title="History of atheism">History of atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_theology" title="History of theology">History of theology (Greco-Abrahamic)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanism" title="Humanism">Humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion" title="Irreligion">Irreligion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_School_(history_of_religion)" title="Roman School (history of religion)">Roman School</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secularism" title="Secularism">Secularism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Europe" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Europe" title="Template talk:History of Europe"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Europe" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Europe"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Europe" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Europe" title="History of Europe">History of Europe</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Europe" title="Prehistoric Europe">Prehistory</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_Europe" title="Paleolithic Europe">Paleolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neolithic_Europe" title="Neolithic Europe">Neolithic Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Bronze Age Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Europe" title="Iron Age Europe">Iron Age Europe</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Classical_antiquity" title="Classical antiquity">Classical antiquity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Greece" title="Classical Greece">Classical Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Republic" title="Roman Republic">Roman Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Christianity" title="Early Christianity">Early Christianity</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_late_antiquity" title="Christianity in late antiquity">Christianity in late antiquity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crisis_of_the_Third_Century" title="Crisis of the Third Century">Crisis of the Third Century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">Fall of the Western Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_antiquity" title="Late antiquity">Late antiquity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Middle_Ages" title="Early Middle Ages">Early Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migration_Period" title="Migration Period">Migration Period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="Christianity in the Middle Ages">Christianity in the Middle Ages</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christianization" title="Christianization">Christianization</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francia" title="Francia">Francia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Anglo-Saxon_England" title="History of Anglo-Saxon England">Anglo-Saxon England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Papal_States" title="Papal States">Papal States</a></li> <li>Bulgarian Empire <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_republics" title="Maritime republics">Maritime republics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Pisa" title="Republic of Pisa">Pisa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duchy_of_Amalfi" title="Duchy of Amalfi">Amalfi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Viking_Age" title="Viking Age">Viking Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kievan_Rus%27" title="Kievan Rus'">Kievan Rus'</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Crown of Aragon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aragon" title="Kingdom of Aragon">Aragon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Catalonia" title="Principality of Catalonia">Catalonia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Valencia" title="Kingdom of Valencia">Valencia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Majorca" title="Kingdom of Majorca">Majorca</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_Middle_Ages" title="High Middle Ages">High Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Florence" title="Republic of Florence">Republic of Florence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feudalism" title="Feudalism">Feudalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasion_of_Europe" title="Mongol invasion of Europe">Mongol invasion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Middle_Ages" title="Late Middle Ages">Late Middle Ages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hundred_Years%27_War" title="Hundred Years' War">Hundred Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmar_Union" title="Kalmar Union">Kalmar Union</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern period">Modern period</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_Europe" title="Early modern Europe">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_the_modern_era" title="Christianity in the modern era">Christianity in the modern era</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroque" title="Baroque">Baroque</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thirty_Years%27_War" title="Thirty Years' War">Thirty Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absolute_monarchy" title="Absolute monarchy">Absolute monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_France" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern France">Early modern France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cossack_Hetmanate" title="Cossack Hetmanate">Cossack Hetmanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Republic" title="Dutch Republic">Dutch Republic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habsburg_monarchy" title="Habsburg monarchy">Habsburg monarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Divergence" title="Great Divergence">Great Divergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_Revolution" title="Industrial Revolution">Industrial Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonic_Wars" title="Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rise_of_nationalism_in_Europe" title="Rise of nationalism in Europe">Nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1848" title="Revolutions of 1848">Revolutions of 1848</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Revolution" title="Russian Revolution">Russian Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interwar_period" title="Interwar period">Interwar period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_integration" title="European integration">European integration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_debt_crisis" title="European debt crisis">European debt crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Europe" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Europe">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_invasion_of_Ukraine" title="Russian invasion of Ukraine">Russian invasion of Ukraine</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Art_of_Europe" title="Art of Europe">Art of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliography_of_European_history" title="Bibliography of European history">Bibliography of European history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_Europe" title="Genetic history of Europe">Genetic history of Europe</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Mediterranean_region" title="History of the Mediterranean region">History of the Mediterranean region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_European_Union" title="History of the European Union">History of the European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Western_civilization" title="History of Western civilization">History of Western civilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_history_of_Europe" title="Maritime history of Europe">Maritime history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Europe" title="Military history of Europe">Military history of Europe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusading_movement" title="Crusading movement">Crusading movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a>: National <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q235329#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4030720-7">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85025619">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph114283&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph492508&CON_LNG=ENG">2</a></li></ul></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX56469">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000054745&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987012438377005171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img 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Template:Refn"," 3.46% 195.629 931 Template:Main_other"," 3.42% 193.515 19 Template:Cite_web"," 2.14% 121.045 2 Template:Lang"," 1.73% 97.636 1 Template:Short_description"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"4.165","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":18065800,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFAbrams2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAbulafia2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAdams2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAgosti2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAguilera-Barchet2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAguzzi2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAkanji2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlbert2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAllen_Jr.2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlthoff2019a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlthoff2019b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmerica_magazine2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAmes2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAndersonTang2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAnkarlooClarkMonter2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAntoljak1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFArnold2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAsprey2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAston2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBachrach1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaird1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBardill2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnett1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnett1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarnish1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarton1998a\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarton1998b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBarton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBauer2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBeckerPfaffRubin2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBehr2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBejczy1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBernardiniFiering2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerndtSteinacher2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBible_history1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBokenkotter2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBond2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBonser1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBoppartFalkingerGrossmann2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBouteneff1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBradbury1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBremmer2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrink2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrita2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBritannica2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBroadhead2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrodman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1976\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBrown2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBruce1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBukowska2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBull2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBundy2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBurgess2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBury2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBussell1910\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFButler1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCairns2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCalciu-Dumitreasa1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2006b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameron2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCameronLongSherry1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCarrington1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasanova1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCasidayNorris2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCassidy2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCastelli2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChamberlin1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChinnici2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChoppRegan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChristiansen1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFClifton2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCloke1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoffey1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCoffey2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohan2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCohen1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFColeman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCollins1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstable1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstable2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFConstantelos1964\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCooper2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCostambeys2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCowe2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCrislip2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroix2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCroke2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCropp2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCross2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCullmann2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCunninghamTheokritoff2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCurran1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDaviesFinkelstein1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_Jonge2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeane2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDei_verbum2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeininger2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDen_Heijer2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDesan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDixon2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDorfmann-Lazarev2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDowley2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDoyleHightower2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDrake2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunbabin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunn2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDunn2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEderReyhner2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdmundson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEichbauer2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEidintas2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEngels1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFErrington2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEsler2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEstep1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahlbuschBromiley2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFahmy2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerguson2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFernandez1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFerzoco2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFirlej2021–2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlannery2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFolda1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFonnesberg-Schmidt2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFonnesberg-Schmidt2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFontaine2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFord2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFousek_et_al2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFox2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFranck1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrassetto2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrend2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFreston2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFulton2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGaddis2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrett1987\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarrison1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGasper2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerberdingMoran_Cruz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGerdmar2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGilley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiven2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGonzalez2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodenough1962\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGoodman2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrabar2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGreen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregerman2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGregory2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGrzymała-Busse2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGuy2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaberkern2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaight2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHall2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHallBattaniNeitz2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHalsall2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarnett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarney2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarper2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarriesWood2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarris2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarvey2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaskins1971\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHastings2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeather2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHebblewhite\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHebron2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeimert2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeller1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHellerman2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHelvétiusKaplan2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerlihy2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHerrin2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeyrmann.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHighamRyan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHilkert1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHobson2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolmes1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHopkins1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHorrell1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoutmanAupers2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudson2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHughes2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumfress2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumfress2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunter1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHunyadiLaszlovszky2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInglebert2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFInterfaith_marriage2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIricinschiZellentin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIsichei1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIvanič2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacob2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacobs2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJacoby1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJenkins2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJestice1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJonesWhite2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJudge2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJudith_Anne_Testa\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKahlos2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaldellis2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamen1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKamen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKampling2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKaplan2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKelly2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenworthy2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKienzle2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKienzle2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKim2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKing2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKirby2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKitromilides2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlierLambroza2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlutz2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKolbaba2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKostick2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKraemer1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKwiatkowska2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKöstenbergerKellumQuarles2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaFosse2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLacopo2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaw2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLazzariniBlanning2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeGoff2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLevack2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieu1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLieu2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLindbergNumbers1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLogan2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLogan2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLongwell1928\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLorenzetti2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLouth2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLöhr2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacCulloch2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacDonald1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacdonald2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMannionMudge2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarabello2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcocci2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarcus2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarkus1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarty2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarvin2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMastersYoung2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathew2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathews1909\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMathisen2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatter2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatthewsPlatt1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayer2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGill2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGinn2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcGowan2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLeese1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLeod2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcLoughlin1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeaney2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeeks2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMeyendorff1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMicheau2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMilnor2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMintz1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMonter2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoore2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoravcsik1947\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorris1989\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorrisZe\u0026#039;evi2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoss2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMout2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuers2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMuir2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMundy2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMurphy2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNelson2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNeusner1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNicholson1960\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoll1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNoll2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNowellMagdoffWebster2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Collins2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Connell2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOlson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOnnekink2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOstling2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPEW_Research_Center2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPEW_global2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPalmer-Fernandes1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPapaconstantinou2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParker2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPatterson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPearson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPennington2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPentarchy2024\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPeters1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPew_Center2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPew_Research2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPhipps1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPintarić2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPipes1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPiron2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPittsPorter2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPohlWood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPomeroy1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPonce_HerreroMartí_Ciriquián2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPop2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoppe1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPorter2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPraet1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFQinisext_Council2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRadić2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRahner2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRankin2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRapp2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRappaport1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRauschenbusch1917\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRawlings2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRiddle2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRives1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobbins2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobert2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoberts1949\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRobinson1952\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRose2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenthal1956\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRosenwein2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRossino2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRoth1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubenson2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRubinSimons2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRummel2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRüegg1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSabo2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzman1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzman2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSalzman2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanmark2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanneh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSanneh2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSaradi-Mendelovici1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchacter2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchaff1953\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchalteggerTorgler2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchott2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchumpeter1954\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchwartz2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchäferdiek2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeagrave2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSedlar1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSegoviaMoore2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeifrid1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShahar2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSharpe1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShatzmiller1974\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShepard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShlikhta2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShoemaker2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiker2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingapore_Management_University2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkiles2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSkocpolTrimberger1977\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmelyansky2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSmith2014b\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSouthern2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSpaterTranvik2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStewart2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStroumsa2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStrout2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSullivan2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwanson2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSághySchoolman2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTapie2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTarverSlape2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2021\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThiessen2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomas1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThompson2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTilley1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTilley2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTov2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrebilco2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrevett2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTrombley2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTruran2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTulloch2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTyerman1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTáíwò2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllmann1965\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUllmann2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Congress1985\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUnited_States_Holocaust_Memorial_Museun.d.\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValkenburgh1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Engen1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Engen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_Engen2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVaughn1980\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVerger1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVlach2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVlasto1970\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalters2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWard2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeberKalberg2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWeitzmann1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelchPulham2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestcott2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhalen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWhite2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilken2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkins2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilliams2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitte1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWogaman2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWood2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodhead2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWoodsCanizares2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWright2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWylen1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYasin2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoo2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZachariadou2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZagorin2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZurlo2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_JuanPierskalla2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFŠtefan2022\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Bsn\"] = 2,\n [\"Christian History\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity by century\"] = 1,\n [\"Christianity footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Circa\"] = 5,\n [\"Citation\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite AV media\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 319,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 101,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 19,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-1-of-2\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-2-of-2\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-begin\"] = 1,\n [\"Col-end\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Endash\"] = 2,\n [\"For timeline\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Googlebooks\"] = 4,\n [\"Harvid\"] = 18,\n [\"History of Europe\"] = 1,\n [\"History of religion\"] = 1,\n [\"History of religions\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langr\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 6,\n [\"Multiple image\"] = 1,\n [\"Neutrality\"] = 1,\n [\"NoteFoot\"] = 1,\n [\"Paragraph break\"] = 1,\n [\"Portal\"] = 1,\n [\"ProQuest\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 2,\n [\"Refend\"] = 2,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Refn\"] = 29,\n [\"See also\"] = 4,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 918,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 9,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Snd\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\ntable#1 {\n [\"size\"] = \"tiny\",\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","1200","28.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","460","10.8"],["?","440","10.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::getAllExpandedArguments","260","6.1"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","220","5.2"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","200","4.7"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","140","3.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::find","120","2.8"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","100","2.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::anchorEncode","100","2.3"],["[others]","1020","23.9"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.canary-7df8cc9775-f462g","timestamp":"20241127172115","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of Christianity","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_Christianity","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q235329","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q235329","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-16T22:16:08Z","dateModified":"2024-11-27T17:21:01Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/2\/24\/Stele_Licinia_Amias_Terme_67646.jpg","headline":"historical development of Christianity"}</script> </body> </html>