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權力分立 - 维基百科,自由的百科全书

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class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="站点"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="目录" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">目录</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">序言</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-学说历史" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#学说历史"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>学说历史</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-学说历史-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关学说历史子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-学说历史-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-古代" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#古代"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>古代</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-古代-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-英国及其殖民地之早期现代混合政府" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#英国及其殖民地之早期现代混合政府"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>英国及其殖民地之早期现代混合政府</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-英国及其殖民地之早期现代混合政府-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-三方系統" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#三方系統"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.3</span> <span>三方系統</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-三方系統-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-约翰·洛克的立法、行政和聯邦權力" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#约翰·洛克的立法、行政和聯邦權力"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>约翰·洛克的立法、行政和聯邦權力</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-约翰·洛克的立法、行政和聯邦權力-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-孟德斯鳩的三權分立制度" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#孟德斯鳩的三權分立制度"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>孟德斯鳩的三權分立制度</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-孟德斯鳩的三權分立制度-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-制衡" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#制衡"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>制衡</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-制衡-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-分權之目的" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#分權之目的"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>分權之目的</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-分權之目的-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关分權之目的子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-分權之目的-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-典型三權" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#典型三權"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>典型三權</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-典型三權-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-第四、五權" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#第四、五權"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>第四、五權</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-第四、五權-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-其他分權" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#其他分權"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>其他分權</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-其他分權-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-權力分立的實行" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#權力分立的實行"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>權力分立的實行</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-權力分立的實行-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>开关權力分立的實行子章节</span> </button> <ul id="toc-權力分立的實行-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-美國的三权分立模式" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#美國的三权分立模式"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>美國的三权分立模式</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-美國的三权分立模式-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-英国的議會至上模式" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#英国的議會至上模式"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>英国的議會至上模式</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-英国的議會至上模式-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-日本的议会制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#日本的议会制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>日本的议会制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-日本的议会制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-德国的议会制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#德国的议会制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>德国的议会制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-德国的议会制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-马来西亚的议会制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#马来西亚的议会制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>马来西亚的议会制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-马来西亚的议会制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-法国的雙首長制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#法国的雙首長制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>法国的雙首長制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-法国的雙首長制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-瑞士的委员会制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#瑞士的委员会制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>瑞士的委员会制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-瑞士的委员会制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-其他模式的权力分立" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#其他模式的权力分立"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>其他模式的权力分立</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-其他模式的权力分立-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-匈牙利的四權分立制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#匈牙利的四權分立制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.1</span> <span>匈牙利的四權分立制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-匈牙利的四權分立制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-中華民國之五權憲法制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中華民國之五權憲法制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.2</span> <span>中華民國之五權憲法制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中華民國之五權憲法制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-香港的權力分立與制衡" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#香港的權力分立與制衡"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.3</span> <span>香港的權力分立與制衡</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-香港的權力分立與制衡-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-伊朗的伊斯兰共和制" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#伊朗的伊斯兰共和制"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.4</span> <span>伊朗的伊斯兰共和制</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-伊朗的伊斯兰共和制-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-泰国的多元化权力结构" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#泰国的多元化权力结构"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5.5</span> <span>泰国的多元化权力结构</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-泰国的多元化权力结构-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-中國共產黨的觀點" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#中國共產黨的觀點"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>中國共產黨的觀點</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-中國共產黨的觀點-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-参考文献" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#参考文献"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>参考文献</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-参考文献-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-延伸閱讀" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#延伸閱讀"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>延伸閱讀</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-延伸閱讀-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-參見" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#參見"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>參見</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-參見-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-外部連結" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#外部連結"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>外部連結</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-外部連結-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="目录" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="开关目录" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">开关目录</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">權力分立</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="前往另一种语言写成的文章。85种语言可用" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-85" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">85种语言</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trias_politica" title="Trias politica – 亚齐语" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Trias politica" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="亚齐语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trias_politica" title="Trias politica – 南非荷兰语" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Trias politica" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="南非荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Divisi%C3%B3n_de_poders" title="División de poders – 阿拉贡语" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="División de poders" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="阿拉贡语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B5%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فصل السلطات – 阿拉伯语" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فصل السلطات" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="阿拉伯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B5%D9%84_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D8%A7%D8%AA" title="فصل السلطات – 埃及阿拉伯文" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فصل السلطات" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="埃及阿拉伯文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separaci%C3%B3n_de_poderes" title="Separación de poderes – 阿斯图里亚斯语" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Separación de poderes" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="阿斯图里亚斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hakimiyy%C9%99t_b%C3%B6lg%C3%BCs%C3%BC" title="Hakimiyyət bölgüsü – 阿塞拜疆语" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Hakimiyyət bölgüsü" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="阿塞拜疆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%9E%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4" title="Раздзяленне ўлад – 白俄罗斯语" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Раздзяленне ўлад" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="白俄罗斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C%D0%BD%D0%B5_%D1%9E%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D1%8B" title="Падзяленьне ўлады – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Падзяленьне ўлады" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Разделение на властите – 保加利亚语" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Разделение на властите" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="保加利亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separaci%C3%B3_de_poders" title="Separació de poders – 加泰罗尼亚语" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Separació de poders" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="加泰罗尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C4%9Blba_moci" title="Dělba moci – 捷克语" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Dělba moci" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="捷克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magtadskillelse" title="Magtadskillelse – 丹麦语" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Magtadskillelse" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="丹麦语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gewaltenteilung" title="Gewaltenteilung – 德语" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Gewaltenteilung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%94%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%B7_%CF%84%CF%89%CE%BD_%CE%B5%CE%BE%CE%BF%CF%85%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%8E%CE%BD" title="Διάκριση των εξουσιών – 希腊语" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Διάκριση των εξουσιών" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="希腊语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers – 英语" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Separation of powers" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="英语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Disigo_de_povoj" title="Disigo de povoj – 世界语" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Disigo de povoj" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="世界语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separaci%C3%B3n_de_poderes" title="Separación de poderes – 西班牙语" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Separación de poderes" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="西班牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%B5imude_lahusus" title="Võimude lahusus – 爱沙尼亚语" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Võimude lahusus" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="爱沙尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Botere-banaketa" title="Botere-banaketa – 巴斯克语" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Botere-banaketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="巴斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%81%DA%A9%DB%8C%DA%A9_%D9%82%D9%88%D8%A7" title="تفکیک قوا – 波斯语" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تفکیک قوا" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="波斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vallanjako-oppi" title="Vallanjako-oppi – 芬兰语" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vallanjako-oppi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="芬兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valdstr%C3%ADb%C3%BDti" title="Valdstríbýti – 法罗语" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Valdstríbýti" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="法罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A9paration_des_pouvoirs" title="Séparation des pouvoirs – 法语" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Séparation des pouvoirs" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="法语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scaradh_cumhachta%C3%AD" title="Scaradh cumhachtaí – 爱尔兰语" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Scaradh cumhachtaí" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="爱尔兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separaci%C3%B3n_de_poderes" title="Separación de poderes – 加利西亚语" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Separación de poderes" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="加利西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%93%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%A8%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%99%D7%95%D7%AA" title="הפרדת הרשויות – 希伯来语" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="הפרדת הרשויות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="希伯来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%82_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="शक्तियों का पृथक्करण – 印地语" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="शक्तियों का पृथक्करण" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="印地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dioba_vlasti" title="Dioba vlasti – 克罗地亚语" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Dioba vlasti" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/A_hatalmi_%C3%A1gak_sz%C3%A9tv%C3%A1laszt%C3%A1sa" title="A hatalmi ágak szétválasztása – 匈牙利语" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="A hatalmi ágak szétválasztása" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="匈牙利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BB%D5%B7%D5%AD%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D5%B6%D5%A5%D6%80%D5%AB_%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%AA%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B4_(%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%BD%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6%D6%84)" title="Իշխանությունների բաժանում (ուսմունք) – 亚美尼亚语" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Իշխանությունների բաժանում (ուսմունք)" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="亚美尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pemisahan_kekuasaan" title="Pemisahan kekuasaan – 印度尼西亚语" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pemisahan kekuasaan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="印度尼西亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skipting_r%C3%ADkisvaldsins" title="Skipting ríkisvaldsins – 冰岛语" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Skipting ríkisvaldsins" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="冰岛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separazione_dei_poteri" title="Separazione dei poteri – 意大利语" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Separazione dei poteri" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="意大利语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%A8%A9%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="権力分立 – 日语" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="権力分立" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="日语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pamisahan_kakuwasan" title="Pamisahan kakuwasan – 爪哇语" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Pamisahan kakuwasan" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="爪哇语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AE%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A3%E1%83%A4%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AC%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%90" title="ხელისუფლების დანაწილება – 格鲁吉亚语" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ხელისუფლების დანაწილება" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="格鲁吉亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%96%D2%A3_%D0%B1%D3%A9%D0%BB%D1%96%D0%BD%D1%83%D1%96" title="Биліктердің бөлінуі – 哈萨克语" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Биліктердің бөлінуі" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="哈萨克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B6%8C%EB%A0%A5_%EB%B6%84%EB%A6%BD" title="권력 분립 – 韩语" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="권력 분립" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="韩语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%91%D0%B8%D0%B9%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%B1%D3%A9%D0%BB%D2%AF%D0%BD%D2%AF%D2%AF_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Бийликтин бөлүнүү теориясы – 柯尔克孜语" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Бийликтин бөлүнүү теориясы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="柯尔克孜语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trias_politica" title="Trias politica – 拉丁语" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Trias politica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="拉丁语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separazion_di_poder" title="Separazion di poder – 倫巴底文" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Separazion di poder" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="倫巴底文" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%81%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%99%E0%BB%81%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%81%E0%BB%83%E0%BA%8A%E0%BB%89%E0%BA%AD%E0%BA%B3%E0%BA%99%E0%BA%B2%E0%BA%94" title="ການແຍກໃຊ້ອຳນາດ – 老挝语" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ການແຍກໃຊ້ອຳນາດ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="老挝语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vald%C5%BEi%C5%B3_padalijimo_principas" title="Valdžių padalijimo principas – 立陶宛语" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Valdžių padalijimo principas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="立陶宛语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Valsts_varas_dal%C4%AB%C5%A1ana" title="Valsts varas dalīšana – 拉脱维亚语" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Valsts varas dalīšana" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="拉脱维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fisaraham-pahefana" title="Fisaraham-pahefana – 马拉加斯语" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Fisaraham-pahefana" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="马拉加斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B1%D0%B0_%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B0" title="Поделба на власта – 马其顿语" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Поделба на власта" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="马其顿语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A7%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B0_%E0%B4%AA%E0%B5%83%E0%B4%A5%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="അധികാര പൃഥക്കരണം – 马拉雅拉姆语" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അധികാര പൃഥക്കരണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="马拉雅拉姆语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%96%E0%A4%BE" title="राज्यकारभाराच्या शाखा – 马拉地语" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="राज्यकारभाराच्या शाखा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="马拉地语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pembahagian_kuasa" title="Pembahagian kuasa – 马来语" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Pembahagian kuasa" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="马来语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scheden_vun_de_M%C3%A4cht" title="Scheden vun de Mächt – 低地德语" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Scheden vun de Mächt" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="低地德语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%83%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A3" title="शक्ति पृथकीकरण – 尼泊尔语" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="शक्ति पृथकीकरण" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="尼泊尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trias_politica" title="Trias politica – 荷兰语" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Trias politica" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="荷兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maktfordelingsprinsippet" title="Maktfordelingsprinsippet – 挪威尼诺斯克语" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Maktfordelingsprinsippet" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="挪威尼诺斯克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maktfordelingsprinsippet" title="Maktfordelingsprinsippet – 书面挪威语" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Maktfordelingsprinsippet" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="书面挪威语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separacion_dels_poders" title="Separacion dels poders – 奥克语" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Separacion dels poders" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="奥克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trias_politica" title="Trias politica – 帕皮阿门托语" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Trias politica" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="帕皮阿门托语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podzia%C5%82_w%C5%82adz" title="Podział władz – 波兰语" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Podział władz" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="波兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D9%88%D8%A7%DA%A9%D9%88%D9%86%D9%88_%D9%88%DB%90%D8%B4" title="د دولتي واکونو وېش – 普什图语" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د دولتي واکونو وېش" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="普什图语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separa%C3%A7%C3%A3o_de_Poderes" title="Separação de Poderes – 葡萄牙语" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Separação de Poderes" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="葡萄牙语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimsantin_atiy" title="Kimsantin atiy – 克丘亚语" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Kimsantin atiy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="克丘亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separaziun_da_las_pussanzas" title="Separaziun da las pussanzas – 罗曼什语" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Separaziun da las pussanzas" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="罗曼什语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separa%C8%9Bia_puterilor" title="Separația puterilor – 罗马尼亚语" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Separația puterilor" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="罗马尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%B5_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B9" title="Разделение властей – 俄语" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Разделение властей" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="俄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_o_pouers" title="Separation o pouers – 苏格兰语" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Separation o pouers" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="苏格兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Podjela_vlasti" title="Podjela vlasti – 塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Podjela vlasti" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚-克罗地亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%B6%E0%B6%BD%E0%B6%AD%E0%B6%BD_%E0%B6%B6%E0%B7%99%E0%B6%AF%E0%B7%93%E0%B6%B8%E0%B7%9A_%E0%B6%B1%E0%B7%8A%E2%80%8D%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%8F%E0%B6%BA" title="බලතල බෙදීමේ න්‍යාය – 僧伽罗语" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="බලතල බෙදීමේ න්‍යාය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="僧伽罗语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers" title="Separation of powers – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Separation of powers" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%C4%BEba_moci" title="Deľba moci – 斯洛伐克语" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Deľba moci" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="斯洛伐克语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lo%C4%8Ditev_oblasti" title="Ločitev oblasti – 斯洛文尼亚语" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ločitev oblasti" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="斯洛文尼亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%98%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B0_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B8" title="Подјела власти – 塞尔维亚语" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Подјела власти" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="塞尔维亚语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maktdelningsprincipen" title="Maktdelningsprincipen – 瑞典语" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Maktdelningsprincipen" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="瑞典语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mgawanyo_wa_madaraka" title="Mgawanyo wa madaraka – 斯瓦希里语" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Mgawanyo wa madaraka" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="斯瓦希里语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%85%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AA%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%88" title="அதிகாரப் பிரிவினை – 泰米尔语" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="அதிகாரப் பிரிவினை" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="泰米尔语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%81%E0%B9%83%E0%B8%8A%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B3%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%88" title="การแยกใช้อำนาจ – 泰语" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="การแยกใช้อำนาจ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="泰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paghihiwalay_ng_mga_kapangyarihan" title="Paghihiwalay ng mga kapangyarihan – 他加禄语" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Paghihiwalay ng mga kapangyarihan" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="他加禄语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kuvvetler_ayr%C4%B1l%C4%B1%C4%9F%C4%B1" title="Kuvvetler ayrılığı – 土耳其语" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kuvvetler ayrılığı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="土耳其语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BF%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%96%D0%BB_%D0%B4%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%BE%D1%97_%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8" title="Розподіл державної влади – 乌克兰语" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Розподіл державної влади" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="乌克兰语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separasion_dei_poderi" title="Separasion dei poderi – 威尼斯语" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Separasion dei poderi" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="威尼斯语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quy%E1%BB%81n_l%E1%BB%B1c_ph%C3%A2n_l%E1%BA%ADp" title="Quyền lực phân lập – 越南语" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Quyền lực phân lập" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="越南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pagbulagbulag_han_gahom" title="Pagbulagbulag han gahom – 瓦瑞语" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Pagbulagbulag han gahom" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="瓦瑞语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%9D%83%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="权力分立 – 吴语" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="权力分立" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="吴语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A2%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%92%D7%A1_%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%9B%D7%98_%D7%90%D7%91%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9C" title="רעגירונגס מאכט אבטייל – 意第绪语" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="רעגירונגס מאכט אבטייל" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="意第绪语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hun-ko%C3%A2n" title="Hun-koân – 闽南语" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Hun-koân" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="闽南语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="權力分立 – 粤语" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="權力分立" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="粤语" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q79896#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="编辑跨语言链接" class="wbc-editpage">编辑链接</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="命名空间"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="浏览条目正文[c]" accesskey="c"><span>条目</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" rel="discussion" title="关于此页面的讨论[t]" accesskey="t"><span>讨论</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="更改语言变体" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">不转换</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-varlang-0" class="selected ca-variants-zh mw-list-item"><a href="/zh/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh" hreflang="zh"><span>不转换</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-1" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hans/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hans" hreflang="zh-Hans"><span>简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-2" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hant/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hant" hreflang="zh-Hant"><span>繁體</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-3" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-CN mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-cn/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hans-CN" hreflang="zh-Hans-CN"><span>大陆简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-4" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-HK mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-hk/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hant-HK" hreflang="zh-Hant-HK"><span>香港繁體</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-5" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-MO mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-mo/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hant-MO" hreflang="zh-Hant-MO"><span>澳門繁體</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-6" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-MY mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-my/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hans-MY" hreflang="zh-Hans-MY"><span>大马简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-7" class="ca-variants-zh-Hans-SG mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-sg/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hans-SG" hreflang="zh-Hans-SG"><span>新加坡简体</span></a></li><li id="ca-varlang-8" class="ca-variants-zh-Hant-TW mw-list-item"><a href="/zh-tw/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" lang="zh-Hant-TW" hreflang="zh-Hant-TW"><span>臺灣正體</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="查看"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B"><span>阅读</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit" title="编辑该页面[e]" accesskey="e"><span>编辑</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=history" title="本页面的早前版本。[h]" accesskey="h"><span>查看历史</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="页面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="工具" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">工具</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">工具</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="更多选项" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 操作 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B"><span>阅读</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit" title="编辑该页面[e]" accesskey="e"><span>编辑</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=history"><span>查看历史</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 常规 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%93%BE%E5%85%A5%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="列出所有与本页相链的页面[j]" accesskey="j"><span>链入页面</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E9%93%BE%E5%87%BA%E6%9B%B4%E6%94%B9/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" rel="nofollow" title="页面链出所有页面的更改[k]" accesskey="k"><span>相关更改</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Project:%E4%B8%8A%E4%BC%A0" title="上传图像或多媒体文件[u]" accesskey="u"><span>上传文件</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%89%B9%E6%AE%8A%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2" title="全部特殊页面的列表[q]" accesskey="q"><span>特殊页面</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;oldid=84244807" title="此页面该修订版本的固定链接"><span>固定链接</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=info" title="关于此页面的更多信息"><span>页面信息</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:%E5%BC%95%E7%94%A8%E6%AD%A4%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2&amp;page=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;id=84244807&amp;wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="有关如何引用此页面的信息"><span>引用此页</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:URL%E7%BC%A9%E7%9F%AD%E7%A8%8B%E5%BA%8F&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E6%25AC%258A%25E5%258A%259B%25E5%2588%2586%25E7%25AB%258B"><span>获取短链接</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&amp;url=https%3A%2F%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2F%25E6%25AC%258A%25E5%258A%259B%25E5%2588%2586%25E7%25AB%258B"><span>下载二维码</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-electronpdfservice-sidebar-portlet-heading" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-electronpdfservice-sidebar-portlet-heading" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 打印/导出 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="electron-print_pdf" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&amp;page=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=show-download-screen"><span>下载为PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="javascript:print();" rel="alternate" title="本页面的可打印版本[p]" accesskey="p"><span>打印页面</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> 在其他项目中 </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Separation_of_powers" hreflang="en"><span>维基共享资源</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q79896" title="链接到连接的数据仓库项目[g]" accesskey="g"><span>维基数据项目</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="页面工具"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="外观"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">外观</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">移至侧栏</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">隐藏</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">维基百科,自由的百科全书</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(重定向自<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%B8%89%E6%9D%83%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="三权分立">三权分立</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="zh" dir="ltr"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84833064">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-size:small}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:2em;margin-bottom:0.8em;margin-top:0.8em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img::after{content:"\202f \202f \202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small::after{content:"\202f \202f "}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img,body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .hatnote-notice-img-small{display:none}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E6%B6%88%E6%AD%A7%E4%B9%89" title="Wikipedia:消歧义"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/25px-Disambig_gray.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="19" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/38px-Disambig_gray.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Disambig_gray.svg/50px-Disambig_gray.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="168" /></a></span><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r74069148">body:not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .ifmobile>.mobile{display:none}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .ifmobile>.nomobile{display:inherit;display:initial}</style><span class="ifmobile"><span class="nomobile">&#160;&#160;</span><span class="mobile"></span></span>「<b>分权</b>」重定向至此。关于权力的去中心化或垂直式權力分立,请见「<b><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E6%96%B9%E5%88%86%E6%9D%83" title="地方分权">地方分权</a></b>”和“<b><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%B0%E6%96%B9%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB" title="地方自治">地方自治</a></b>」。</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r83732972">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid 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.ambox-protection{border-left-color:#a2a9b1!important}}</style><table class="box-Refimprove plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div style="width:52px"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tango-nosources.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Tango-nosources.svg/45px-Tango-nosources.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="45" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Tango-nosources.svg/68px-Tango-nosources.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Tango-nosources.svg/90px-Tango-nosources.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">此條目<b>需要补充更多<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:%E5%88%97%E6%98%8E%E6%9D%A5%E6%BA%90" title="Wikipedia:列明来源">来源</a></b>。<span class="hide-when-compact"></span> <small 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-heading,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-above,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-below{background:inherit!important;color:inherit!important;border-color:#54595d!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar a:not(.new):not(.mw-selflink):link{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle" style="padding-bottom:0.1em;"><a href="/wiki/Category:%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB" title="Category:政治">系列条目</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#ededed;padding-bottom:0;font-size:200%;font-weight:normal;color:white;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB" title="政治">政治</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image" style="padding:0.4em 0 0.4em;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:A_coloured_voting_box.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="投票箱" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/70px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png" decoding="async" width="70" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/105px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/A_coloured_voting_box.svg/140px-A_coloured_voting_box.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="160" data-file-height="160" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;">基本主题</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%8F%B2" title="政治史">政治史</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="政治哲学">政治哲学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E7%BB%8F%E6%B5%8E%E5%AD%A6" title="政治经济学">政治经济学</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%96%E7%95%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%8F%B2" title="世界政治史">世界政治史</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E4%B8%BB%E9%A2%98%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="政治学基本主题列表(页面不存在)">各国政治</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E4%BD%93" title="政体">政治体系</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="无政府主义">无政府主义</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%8E%E9%82%A6" title="城邦">城邦</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB" title="民主">民主制</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="联盟制" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Federacy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%81%94%E7%9B%9F%E5%88%B6&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="联盟制(页面不存在)">联盟制</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federacy" class="extiw" title="en:Federacy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Federacy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%81%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6_(%E6%AD%90%E6%B4%B2)" title="封建制度 (歐洲)">封建制</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%8B%AC%E8%A3%81%E6%94%BF%E4%BD%93" class="mw-redirect" title="独裁政体">独裁制</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="委员会制">委员会制</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%B2%BE%E8%8B%B1%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB" title="精英政治">精英政治</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%90%9B%E4%B8%BB%E5%88%B6" title="君主制">君主制</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%AE%E4%BC%9A%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="议会制">议会制</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%80%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%88%B6" title="总统制">总统制</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E6%80%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%88%B6" title="半总统制">半总统制</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%A5%9E%E6%9D%83%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="神权政治">神权政治</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;">学术门类</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="政治学">政治学</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6%E5%AE%B6" title="政治学家">政治学家</a>)</small></div></li> <li><div style="padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em; line-height:1.15em;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82%E5%AD%B8" title="國際關係學">國際關係學</a><br /><small>(<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E9%9A%9B%E9%97%9C%E4%BF%82%E7%90%86%E8%AB%96" title="國際關係理論">理论</a>)</small></div></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%AF%94%E8%BE%83%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="比较政治学">比较政治学</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%AD%A6" title="公共行政学">公共行政</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E5%83%9A%E5%88%B6" title="官僚制">官僚制</a><small>(<a href="/wiki/%E5%9F%BA%E5%B1%82%E5%AE%98%E5%83%9A" title="基层官僚">基层</a>)</small></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="灵活组织机构" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Adhocracy"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%81%B5%E6%B4%BB%E7%BB%84%E7%BB%87%E6%9C%BA%E6%9E%84&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="灵活组织机构(页面不存在)">灵活组织机构</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adhocracy" class="extiw" title="en:Adhocracy"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Adhocracy</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;"><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="政策">政策</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="公共政策">公共政策</a><small>(<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="公共政策原则" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Public policy doctrine"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96%E5%8E%9F%E5%88%99&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="公共政策原则(页面不存在)">原则</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_policy_doctrine" class="extiw" title="en:Public policy doctrine"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Public policy doctrine</span></a></span>)</span></span>)</small></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E7%9C%BE%E5%88%A9%E7%9B%8A" title="公眾利益">公共利益</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E4%BA%A4%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="外交政策">外交政策</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;">政府机构</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">权力分立</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%BA%E5%85%B3" title="立法机关">立法机构</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%9C%BA%E5%85%B3" title="行政机关">行政机构</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" title="司法機關">司法机构</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B8%E8%88%89%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83" title="選舉委員會">选举机构</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;">相关主题</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%BB%E6%AC%8A" title="主權">主權</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="政治行为理论" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Theories of political behavior"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E8%A1%8C%E4%B8%BA%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="政治行为理论(页面不存在)">政治行为理论</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Theories_of_political_behavior" class="extiw" title="en:Theories of political behavior"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Theories of political behavior</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%BF%83%E7%90%86%E5%AD%B8" title="政治心理學">政治心理学</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="生理与政治导向" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Biology and political orientation"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%9F%E7%90%86%E4%B8%8E%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AF%BC%E5%90%91&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="生理与政治导向(页面不存在)">生理与政治导向</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biology_and_political_orientation" class="extiw" title="en:Biology and political orientation"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Biology and political orientation</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94" title="政治組織">政治組織</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:white;color:#3A5FCD;">下属系列</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E7%A5%A8%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="投票制度">选举制度</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%80%89%E4%B8%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="选举">选举</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%95%E7%A5%A8" title="投票">投票</a>)</li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="联邦主义">联邦主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="政府">政府</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%84%8F%E8%AD%98%E5%BD%A2%E6%85%8B" title="意識形態">意識形態</a></li></ul> <dl><dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E5%85%9A" title="政党">政党</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="padding-top:0.1em;font-weight:bold;"> <span typeof="mw:File"><span title="主题"><img alt="主题" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><a href="/wiki/Portal:%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB" title="Portal:政治">政治主题</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="line-height:1.6"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84244141">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:110%;margin:0 8em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:110%;margin:0 5em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Politics" title="Template:Politics"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Politics" title="Template talk:Politics"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:Politics" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:Politics"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>權力分立</b>(英語:<span lang="en">Separation of powers</span><sup id="cite_ref-元照张冠群2014_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-元照张冠群2014-1"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>),是一種现代國家統治模式,該設計將各種國家公權力分散,不使其集中在單一組織內,以讓這類掌政機關互相制衡。 </p><p>這一名詞首先在<a href="/wiki/%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99%E6%99%82%E4%BB%A3" title="啟蒙時代">啟蒙時代</a>由<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="英國">英國</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8%E5%AE%B6" title="哲學家">哲人</a><a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B" title="约翰·洛克">约翰·洛克</a>在《政府论》中所提出,而此種設計通常以<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法國">法國</a>哲學家<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%B3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="孟德斯鳩">孟德斯鳩</a>後繼提出的<b>三權分立</b>(<a href="/wiki/%E6%8B%89%E4%B8%81%E8%AA%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="拉丁語">拉丁語</a>:<span lang="la">trias politica</span>)而為人熟知,即是將<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%9C%BA%E5%85%B3" title="行政机关">行政</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%BA%E5%85%B3" title="立法机关">立法</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" title="司法機關">司法</a>三個政府權力分開,參照彼時英國,由<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%9B%E4%B8%BB" title="君主">君主</a>(或王室領袖)掌管行政權,但不能反抗<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="議會">議會</a>訂定的法律,否則國家有權替換新王。此外,君主亦須任命<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%96%E7%9B%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="首相">首相</a>為代表行使行政權,由首相領導的<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3" title="內閣">內閣</a>執行政策。若該國為共和國家,無王室亦無君主,則行政權歸於<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="政府">政府</a>,由<a href="/wiki/%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1" title="總統">總統</a>或總理代表行使,但總統須遵守<a href="/wiki/%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="憲法">憲法</a>和受<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="議會">議會</a>制約。此制度或類似體制可以促使一國從<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B2%BB" title="人治">人治</a>轉向<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E6%B2%BB" title="法治">法治</a>,是<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB" title="民主">民主國家</a>發展的重要階段。 </p><p>权力机构共同存在、互相制衡的政权组织形式,是当前世界上大多数国家所采用的<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" class="mw-redirect" title="政治制度">政治制度</a>。權力分立是民主國家的重要政治原則和政治制度,制度設計是通过互相制衡,達到避免政府濫用權力之目的<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="学说历史"><span id=".E5.AD.A6.E8.AF.B4.E5.8E.86.E5.8F.B2"></span>学说历史</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=1" title="编辑章节:学说历史"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="古代"><span id=".E5.8F.A4.E4.BB.A3"></span>古代</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=2" title="编辑章节:古代"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>分權思想可溯源到<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%A4%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98" class="mw-redirect" title="古希臘">古希臘</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E5%A3%AB%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="亞里士多德">亞里士多德</a>,在其著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%AD%B8_(%E4%BA%9E%E9%87%8C%E6%96%AF%E5%A4%9A%E5%BE%B7)" class="mw-redirect" title="政治學 (亞里斯多德)">政治學</a>》中,首先提及“混合政府”或混合政體的概念,他在其中藉鑑了古<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%8C%E8%87%98%E5%9F%8E%E9%82%A6" title="希臘城邦">希臘城邦</a>的許多憲法形式。在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="羅馬共和國">羅馬共和國</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%85%83%E8%80%81%E9%99%A2" title="羅馬元老院">羅馬元老院</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E9%A6%AC%E5%9F%B7%E6%94%BF%E5%AE%98" class="mw-redirect" title="羅馬執政官">羅馬執政官</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E9%A9%AC%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A" title="罗马人民大会">羅馬人民大會</a>展示了<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%A2%E5%88%A9%E6%AF%94%E7%83%8F%E6%96%AF" title="波利比烏斯">波利比烏斯</a>所說的<a href="/wiki/%E6%B7%B7%E5%90%88%E6%94%BF%E4%BD%93" title="混合政体">混合政體</a>的例子。波利比烏斯詳細描述和解釋制衡制度,并將第一個此類政府歸功於斯巴達的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BE%86%E5%8F%A4%E6%A0%BC%E5%A3%AB" title="來古格士">來古格士</a>。<sup id="cite_ref-Polibius_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Polibius-3"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="英国及其殖民地之早期现代混合政府"><span id=".E8.8B.B1.E5.9B.BD.E5.8F.8A.E5.85.B6.E6.AE.96.E6.B0.91.E5.9C.B0.E4.B9.8B.E6.97.A9.E6.9C.9F.E7.8E.B0.E4.BB.A3.E6.B7.B7.E5.90.88.E6.94.BF.E5.BA.9C"></span>英国及其殖民地之早期现代混合政府</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=3" title="编辑章节:英国及其殖民地之早期现代混合政府"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E5%96%80%E7%88%BE%E6%96%87" class="mw-redirect" title="約翰·喀爾文">約翰·喀爾文</a>贊成在<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB" title="民主">民主</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%B4%E6%97%8F" title="貴族">貴族</a>之間劃分政治權力的政府制度(混合政體)。喀爾文讚賞民主的優勢,他說:“如果上帝允許人民選舉自己的政府和行政長官,那將是一份無價的禮物。”<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>為了減少濫用政治權力的危險,喀爾文建议设立數個政治机构,在制衡系统中相互补充和控制。<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>藉此,喀爾文及其追隨者抵制了<a href="/wiki/%E7%8D%A8%E8%A3%81" class="mw-redirect" title="獨裁">獨裁</a>主義,促進了民主的發展。喀爾文的目标是保护普通人的权利和福祉。<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>1620年,一群英國分離主義公理會和聖公會教徒(後來被稱為<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%9D%E5%9C%A3%E5%85%88%E8%BE%88" title="朝圣先辈">朝聖先輩</a>)在北美建立了<a href="/wiki/%E6%99%AE%E5%88%A9%E8%8C%85%E6%96%AF%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0" title="普利茅斯殖民地">普利茅斯殖民地</a>。他们享有自治权,建立了兩權民主的政府制度。“<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="自由人 (殖民地)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Freeman (Colonial)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E4%BA%BA_(%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="自由人 (殖民地)(页面不存在)">自由人</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freeman_(Colonial)" class="extiw" title="en:Freeman (Colonial)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Freeman (Colonial)</span></a></span>)</span></span>”選舉出了<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="普通法院" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Plymouth General Court"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E9%80%9A%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="普通法院(页面不存在)">普通法院</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plymouth_General_Court" class="extiw" title="en:Plymouth General Court"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Plymouth General Court</span></a></span>)</span></span>,行使立法和司法职能,並反過來選舉了一位总督,总督與他的七名“助手”一起擔任提供行政權力的職能角色。<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E8%96%A9%E8%AB%B8%E5%A1%9E%E7%81%A3%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0" title="馬薩諸塞灣殖民地">馬薩諸塞灣殖民地</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%85%E5%BE%B7%E5%B3%B6%E5%B7%9E" title="羅德島州">羅德島州</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E6%B6%85%E7%8B%84%E6%A0%BC%E5%B7%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="康涅狄格州">康涅狄格州</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E6%BE%A4%E8%A5%BF%E5%B7%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="新澤西州">新澤西州</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%B3%93%E5%A4%95%E6%B3%95%E5%B0%BC%E4%BA%9E%E5%B7%9E" class="mw-redirect" title="賓夕法尼亞州">賓夕法尼亞州</a>都有類似的憲法——它們都將政治權力分開。(普利茅斯殖民地和马萨诸塞湾殖民地外,这些英国前哨基地在其民主制度中增加了宗教自由,这是发展人权的重要一步。<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>) </p><p><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="威廉·布拉德福德 (州長)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="William Bradford (governor)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%A8%81%E5%BB%89%C2%B7%E5%B8%83%E6%8B%89%E5%BE%B7%E7%A6%8F%E5%BE%B7_(%E5%B7%9E%E9%95%B7)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="威廉·布拉德福德 (州長)(页面不存在)">威廉·布拉德福德</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William_Bradford_(governor)" class="extiw" title="en:William Bradford (governor)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">William Bradford (governor)</span></a></span>)</span></span>的《<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="普利茅斯種植園" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Of Plymouth Plantation"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%99%AE%E5%88%A9%E8%8C%85%E6%96%AF%E7%A8%AE%E6%A4%8D%E5%9C%92&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="普利茅斯種植園(页面不存在)">普利茅斯種植園</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Of_Plymouth_Plantation" class="extiw" title="en:Of Plymouth Plantation"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Of Plymouth Plantation</span></a></span>)</span></span>》等書籍在英國廣為傳閱。因此,殖民地的政府形式在母國眾所周知,包括哲学家<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B" title="约翰·洛克">约翰·洛克</a>。他从对英国宪政制度的研究中,推断出将政治权力分为立法权(應分配給幾個機構,例如上議院和下議院)、负责保护国家和君主特权的行政權和联邦权(執掌外交等事務)之好处,因为<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E6%A0%BC%E5%85%B0%E7%8E%8B%E5%9B%BD" class="mw-redirect" title="英格兰王国">英格兰王国</a>没有成文宪法。<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="三方系統"><span id=".E4.B8.89.E6.96.B9.E7.B3.BB.E7.B5.B1"></span>三方系統</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=4" title="编辑章节:三方系統"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>在<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A7%E6%88%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="英國內戰">英國內戰</a>期間,議員們認為英國的政府體係由三個部門組成——國王、<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E4%B8%8A%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2" title="英國上議院">上議院</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E4%B8%8B%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="英國下議院">下議院</a>——其中第一个部门只拥有行政权力,而后两个部门拥有立法权力。最早提出三權分立制度的文件之一,是《政府約法》,由英國將軍<a href="/wiki/%E7%BA%A6%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E5%85%B0%E4%BC%AF%E7%89%B9_(%E5%B0%86%E9%A2%86)" title="约翰·兰伯特 (将领)">約翰·蘭伯特</a>於1653年撰寫,并在<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B7%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%AC%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" title="護國公時期">護國公時期</a>很快被采纳为英国的宪法,为期数年。该制度包括一个立法部门(议会)和两个行政部门,即<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%8A%A1%E4%BC%9A%E8%AE%AE_(%E8%8B%B1%E6%A0%BC%E5%85%B0)" title="国务会议 (英格兰)">英国國務會議</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%8A%A4%E5%9B%BD%E5%85%AC" title="护国公">护国公</a>,所有这些部门都由选举产生(尽管护国公是终身制),并相互制约。<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>英國思想的進一步發展,係司法權應該與行政部門分立。這是由於<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%AF%E5%9B%BE%E4%BA%9A%E7%89%B9%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D%E5%A4%8D%E8%BE%9F" title="斯图亚特王朝复辟">斯圖亞特王朝復辟</a>期間,王室使用司法制度起訴反對派領導人。<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>第一個確立立法、行政和司法部門三權分立原則的憲法文件,是<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%8F%E5%85%8B%E8%98%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="烏克蘭">烏克蘭</a>指揮官<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%AE%E9%87%8C%E6%99%AE%C2%B7%E5%A5%A5%E9%87%8C%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="皮里普·奥里克">皮里普·奥里克</a>於1710年編寫的《<a href="/wiki/%E4%BD%A9%E5%88%A9%E6%99%AE%C2%B7%E5%A5%A7%E7%88%BE%E9%9B%B7%E5%85%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="佩利普·奧爾雷克憲法">关于扎波罗热军队权利和自由的条约和决议</a>》。<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="约翰·洛克的立法、行政和聯邦權力"><span id=".E7.BA.A6.E7.BF.B0.C2.B7.E6.B4.9B.E5.85.8B.E7.9A.84.E7.AB.8B.E6.B3.95.E3.80.81.E8.A1.8C.E6.94.BF.E5.92.8C.E8.81.AF.E9.82.A6.E6.AC.8A.E5.8A.9B"></span>约翰·洛克的立法、行政和聯邦權力</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=5" title="编辑章节:约翰·洛克的立法、行政和聯邦權力"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:John_Locke_by_John_Greenhill.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/John_Locke_by_John_Greenhill.jpg/220px-John_Locke_by_John_Greenhill.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="267" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/John_Locke_by_John_Greenhill.jpg/330px-John_Locke_by_John_Greenhill.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/John_Locke_by_John_Greenhill.jpg/440px-John_Locke_by_John_Greenhill.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2245" data-file-height="2729" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="約翰·洛克">約翰·洛克</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%B4%84%E7%BF%B0%C2%B7%E6%B4%9B%E5%85%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="約翰·洛克">約翰·洛克</a>在他的著作《<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E8%AB%96" title="政府論">政府論</a>》中,闡明了孟德斯鳩三方體系的早期先驅。<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在政府論中,洛克區分了立法權、行政權和聯邦權。洛克將立法權定義為“有權指導如何使用聯邦的力量”,而行政權則意味著“执行已制定并保持效力的法律”。洛克進而區分了聯邦權力,它包含“战争与和平、联盟与同盟,以及与联邦以外的所有人和团体的所有交易的权力”以及<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%96%E4%BA%A4%E6%94%BF%E7%AD%96" title="外交政策">外交政策</a>。洛克区分了不同的权力,但没有区分不同的机构,并指出一个机构或个人可以分享两个或更多的权力。<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>例如,洛克指出,雖然行政權和聯邦權不同,但它們通常合併在一個機構中。 </p><p>洛克认为,立法权高于行政权和联邦权,后二者处于从属地位。洛克推断,立法权乃至高无上,因为它有制定法律的权力;“凡是能给别人制定法律的,就必须高于他”。據其說法,立法權來自人民,人民有權制定和取消立法機構:<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r61209892">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{margin-top:0;overflow:hidden}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite{line-height:1em;text-align:left;padding-left:2em;margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .templatequote .templatequotecite cite{font-size:small}</style> <blockquote class="templatequote"><p>當人們說我們將服從規則,並受這些人制定的法律管轄時……沒有其他人可以說其他人將為他們制定法律; 人民也不受任何法律的約束,除非那些法律是由他們選擇的人制定的,並被授權為他們制定法律。</p></blockquote> <p>洛克認為,对立法权應設有一些限制。他说,立法机构不能任意治理,未經<a href="/wiki/%E8%A2%AB%E6%B2%BB%E8%80%85%E7%9A%84%E5%90%8C%E6%84%8F" title="被治者的同意">被治者的同意</a>不能征稅或沒收財產(參見“<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A0%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%EF%BC%8C%E4%B8%8D%E7%BA%B3%E7%A8%8E" title="无代表,不纳税">無代表,不納稅</a>”),也不能將其立法權轉移給另一個機構,即所謂的<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="非授權原則" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Nondelegation doctrine"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%9D%9E%E6%8E%88%E6%AC%8A%E5%8E%9F%E5%89%87&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="非授權原則(页面不存在)">非授權原則</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nondelegation_doctrine" class="extiw" title="en:Nondelegation doctrine"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Nondelegation doctrine</span></a></span>)</span></span>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="孟德斯鳩的三權分立制度"><span id=".E5.AD.9F.E5.BE.B7.E6.96.AF.E9.B3.A9.E7.9A.84.E4.B8.89.E6.AC.8A.E5.88.86.E7.AB.8B.E5.88.B6.E5.BA.A6"></span>孟德斯鳩的三權分立制度</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=6" title="编辑章节:孟德斯鳩的三權分立制度"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Montesquieu_1.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/220px-Montesquieu_1.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/330px-Montesquieu_1.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Montesquieu_1.png/440px-Montesquieu_1.png 2x" data-file-width="1177" data-file-height="1447" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%B3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="孟德斯鳩">孟德斯鳩</a></figcaption></figure> <p>“三權分立”一詞通常歸於<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法國">法國</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%95%9F%E8%92%99%E9%81%8B%E5%8B%95" class="mw-redirect" title="啟蒙運動">啟蒙運動</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E6%B2%BB%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="政治哲學">政治哲學家</a><a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%B3%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="孟德斯鳩">孟德斯鳩</a>男爵,儘管他沒有使用這個詞,而是指權力的“分配”。在《<a href="/wiki/%E8%AB%96%E6%B3%95%E7%9A%84%E7%B2%BE%E7%A5%9E" title="論法的精神">論法的精神</a>》中,<sup id="cite_ref-Espritdeslois3_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Espritdeslois3-17"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>孟德斯鳩描述了<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="立法機關">立法機關</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="行政機關">行政機關</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" title="司法機關">司法機關</a>之間政治<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B" title="權力">權力</a>分配的各種形式。孟德斯鳩的方法,是提出並捍衛一種政府形式,其權力不會過度集中在單一君主或類似的統治者身上(當時稱為“貴族制”)。他以羅馬共和國憲法和英国的憲政制度为基础,提出了这种模式。孟德斯鸠认为,罗马共和国的权力分離,因此無人可以篡夺全部权力。<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在英國憲法體系中,孟德斯鳩發現了君主、議會和法院之間的三權分立。<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209892"> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>每个政府都有三种权力:立法权;对于依赖國際法的事物的行政权;以及对于依赖民法的事物的行政权。 </p><p>根据第一种权力,君主或地方官颁布临时或永久的法律,并修改或废除那些已经颁布的法律。根据第二项规定,他可以和談或宣戰,派遣或接收使館,建立公共安全,並提供防禦入侵。第三,他惩罚罪犯,或决定个人之间出现的争端。后者我们将称之为司法权,而另一种則簡稱為国家的行政权。 </p> </blockquote> <p>孟德斯鳩鸠认为,每个国家只应行使自己的职能。他在这里说得很明确。<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209892"> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>当立法权和行政权集中在同一个人身上,或集中在同一个行政机构中时,就不可能有自由;因为人们可能会担心,同一个君主或元老院会制定暴虐的法律,以暴虐的方式执行这些法律。 </p><p>同样,如果司法权不与立法权和行政权分开,就不会有自由。如果它与立法权结合在一起,臣民的生命和自由就会受到任意的控制;因为法官就会成为立法者。如果它与行政权结合在一起,法官就可能以暴力和压迫的方式行事。 </p><p> 如果由同一个人或同一个机构,无论是贵族还是人民,来行使这三种权力,即制定法律、执行公共决议和审判个人的原因,那么一切就都完了。 </p></blockquote> <p>權力分立需要不同的合法來源,或來自同一來源的不同合法行為,對於每個單獨權力。如果立法部門如孟德斯鳩所指出的,那樣任命行政和司法權力,則不會出現權力分離或劃分,因為任命權伴隨著撤銷權。<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209892"> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>行政权应该掌握在君主手中,因为政府的这一部门需要迅速行动,由一个人管理比由许多人管理要好;另一方面,凡是取决于立法权的事情,由许多人管理往往比由一个人管理要好。 </p><p>但是,如果没有君主,而将行政权交给从立法机构中选出的一定数量的人,那么自由就会结束;因为这两种权力会结合在一起,因为同一个人有时会拥有,而且总是能够拥有这两种权力的份额。 </p> </blockquote> <p>孟德斯鳩明確指出,司法獨立必須有實質性,而不僅是形式性。<sup id="cite_ref-Przeworski_26_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Przeworski_26-24"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>司法機關通常被視為三種權力中最重要的一支,獨立且不受約束。<sup id="cite_ref-Przeworski_13_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Przeworski_13-25"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="制衡"><span id=".E5.88.B6.E8.A1.A1"></span>制衡</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=7" title="编辑章节:制衡"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见:<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%86%E8%80%8C%E6%B2%BB%E4%B9%8B" title="分而治之">分而治之</a></div> <p>根據制衡原則,國家各部門都應該有限制或制衡其他部門的權力,在國家的三個獨立權力之間建立平衡。每个部门为防止其他部门成为最高权力而做出的努力,构成了永恒冲突的一部分,这使人民不受政府滥用的影响。<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9B%BC%E7%BA%BD%E5%B0%94%C2%B7%E5%BA%B7%E5%BE%B7" class="mw-redirect" title="伊曼纽尔·康德">伊曼紐爾·康德</a>是這一點的倡導者,他指出“建立国家的问题即使是由魔鬼组成的国家也能解决”,只要他们拥有一部适当的宪法,让对立的派别相互对抗。<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>其理念是,仅仅分离权力和保证其独立性尚且不足,各部门还需要有宪法手段,以捍卫自身的合法权力,不受其他部门的侵犯。<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>它们保证各部门有相同的权力水平共同平等,即為平衡,從而可以相互限制,避免權力的濫用。 </p><p>制衡之起源,如同三權分立本身,在啟蒙運動中特別歸功於孟德斯鳩的 《論法的精神》。在這種影響下,它於1787年在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="美國憲法">美國憲法</a>。在<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="聯邦黨人第78號" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Federalist No. 78"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6%E9%BB%A8%E4%BA%BA%E7%AC%AC78%E8%99%9F&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="聯邦黨人第78號(页面不存在)">聯邦黨人第78號</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_No._78" class="extiw" title="en:Federalist No. 78"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Federalist No. 78</span></a></span>)</span></span>中,<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%9E%E6%AD%B7%E5%B1%B1%E5%A4%A7%C2%B7%E6%BC%A2%E5%BD%8C%E7%88%BE%E9%A0%93" class="mw-redirect" title="亞歷山大·漢彌爾頓">亞歷山大·漢彌爾頓</a>引用孟德斯鳩的話,將司法部門重新定義為與立法和行政部門同等的獨立政府部門。<sup id="cite_ref-Wood_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wood-28"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>在漢密爾頓之前,美洲殖民地的許多殖民者都堅持英國的政治理念,並認為政府分為行政和立法部門(法官作為行政部門的附屬機構)。 </p><p>以下從美國憲法(特別是<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="聯邦黨人第51號" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Federalist No. 51"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6%E9%BB%A8%E4%BA%BA%E7%AC%AC51%E8%99%9F&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="聯邦黨人第51號(页面不存在)">聯邦黨人第51號</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Federalist_No._51" class="extiw" title="en:Federalist No. 51"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Federalist No. 51</span></a></span>)</span></span>)经验中,分权及相互制衡的例子,可以说明类似形式的政府也适用的一般原则:<sup id="cite_ref-federalistNo51_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-federalistNo51-29"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61209892"> <blockquote class="templatequote"> <p>但是,防止幾個權力逐漸集中在同一部門中的重大保障在於,給予管理每個部門的人必要的憲法手段和個人動機,以抵抗其他部門的侵犯。與所有其他情況一樣,在這方面的防禦規定必須與受到攻擊的危險相稱。必須有野心來抵消野心。人的利益必須與地方的憲法權利相聯繫。這可能是對人性的一種反思,即这种手段对于控制政府的滥用是必要的。政府本身不就是對人性的最大反思嗎?如果人是天使,就不需要政府了。如果天使要統治人類,那麼對政府的外部或內部控制都不是必要的。建立一個人治人的政府,最大的困難在於:你必须首先使政府能够控制被统治者;其次使它有义务控制自己。 </p><p> 對人民的依賴無疑是對政府的主要控制;但經驗告訴人類必須採取輔助預防措施。這種通过相反和對立的利益來彌補更好動機的缺陷的政策,可以追溯到整個人類事務系統,无论是私人还是公共事务。我们看到它特别表现在所有的权力分配上,我们看到它特别表现在所有的权力分配上,即每个职位都可以对另一个职位的制约,以使每个人的私人利益可以成为公共权利的哨兵。在国家最高权力的分配中,这些审慎的发明是必不可少的。</p></blockquote> <table> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:33%;"><a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="立法機關">立法</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="美國國會">國會</a>) </th> <th style="width:33%;"><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="行政機關">行政</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="美國總統">總統</a>) </th> <th style="width:33%;"><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" title="司法機關">司法</a>(<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="美國最高法院">最高法院</a>) </th></tr> <tr> <td valign="top"> <ul><li>通過法案;拥有广泛的<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="稅收和支出权" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Taxing and Spending Clause"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%A8%85%E6%94%B6%E5%92%8C%E6%94%AF%E5%87%BA%E6%9D%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="稅收和支出权(页面不存在)">稅收和支出权</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taxing_and_Spending_Clause" class="extiw" title="en:Taxing and Spending Clause"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Taxing and Spending Clause</span></a></span>)</span></span>;規範州際貿易;控制<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="聯邦預算" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="United States federal budget"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6%E9%A0%90%E7%AE%97&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="聯邦預算(页面不存在)">聯邦預算</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_federal_budget" class="extiw" title="en:United States federal budget"><span lang="en" dir="auto">United States federal budget</span></a></span>)</span></span>;有權以美國的名義借錢(可能會被總統否決,但<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%A6%E6%B1%BA%E6%AC%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="否決權">否決權</a>可能會被兩院三分之二的投票否決)</li> <li>擁有唯一的<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%A3%E6%88%B0" title="宣戰">宣戰</a>權,以及籌集、支持和管理軍隊的權力。</li> <li>監督、調查並為政府及其官員制定規則。</li> <li>在憲法未規定的情況下,通過法律確定聯邦司法機構的管轄權。</li> <li>批准總統簽署的條約,并对总统在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%BA%E6%9E%84" title="美国联邦司法机构">联邦司法机构</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E9%83%A8%E9%96%80" class="mw-redirect" title="美國聯邦行政部門">联邦行政部门</a>和其他职位的任命提出<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="意见和同意" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Advice and consent"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%84%8F%E8%A7%81%E5%92%8C%E5%90%8C%E6%84%8F&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="意见和同意(页面不存在)">意见和同意</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Advice_and_consent" class="extiw" title="en:Advice and consent"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Advice and consent</span></a></span>)</span></span>(僅限參議院)。</li> <li>擁有<a href="/wiki/%E5%BD%88%E5%8A%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="彈劾">彈劾</a>(眾議院)和彈劾審判(參議院)的唯一權力;可以因<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="重罪和輕罪" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="High crimes and misdemeanors"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%87%8D%E7%BD%AA%E5%92%8C%E8%BC%95%E7%BD%AA&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="重罪和輕罪(页面不存在)">重罪和輕罪</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/High_crimes_and_misdemeanors" class="extiw" title="en:High crimes and misdemeanors"><span lang="en" dir="auto">High crimes and misdemeanors</span></a></span>)</span></span>將聯邦行政和司法官員免職</li></ul> </td> <td valign="top"> <ul><li>是<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E8%BB%8D%E9%9A%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="美國軍隊">軍隊</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B8%BD%E5%8F%B8%E4%BB%A4" title="總司令">總司令</a></li> <li>執行國會的指示。</li> <li>可以否決國會通過的法案(但否決權可能會被兩院三分之二多數推翻)</li> <li>執行國會授權的支出</li> <li>宣布緊急狀態並發布<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%B3%95%E8%A6%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="行政法規">行政法規</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%91%BD%E4%BB%A4_(%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD)" title="行政命令 (美国)">行政命令</a>。</li> <li>制定行政協議(不需要批准)並簽署條約(批准需要參議院三分之二的批准)</li> <li>在參議院的建議和同意下任命聯邦司法機構、聯邦行政部門和其他職位。有權在參議院<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="休會期間進行臨時任命" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Recess appointment"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E4%BC%91%E6%9C%83%E6%9C%9F%E9%96%93%E9%80%B2%E8%A1%8C%E8%87%A8%E6%99%82%E4%BB%BB%E5%91%BD&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="休會期間進行臨時任命(页面不存在)">休會期間進行臨時任命</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Recess_appointment" class="extiw" title="en:Recess appointment"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Recess appointment</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li>有權“對針對美國的罪行給予緩刑和赦免”,彈劾案除外。</li></ul> </td> <td valign="top"> <ul><li>確定國會打算適用於任何特定案件的法律</li> <li>行使<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E5%AF%A9%E6%9F%A5%E6%AC%8A" title="美國司法審查權">司法審查</a>,審查法律的合憲性</li> <li>確定國會如何將法律應用於爭議</li> <li>確定法律如何確定囚犯的處置方式</li> <li>確定法律如何採取行動迫使證詞和出示證據</li> <li>確定應如何解釋法律,以通过<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8A%E8%A8%B4" title="上訴">上訴</a>程式以自上而下的方式確保統一的政策,但將個別案件的自由裁量權交給低級法官。酌處權的數額取決於審查標準,而<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="審查標準" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Standard of review"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AF%A9%E6%9F%A5%E6%A8%99%E6%BA%96&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="審查標準(页面不存在)">審查標準</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Standard_of_review" class="extiw" title="en:Standard of review"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Standard of review</span></a></span>)</span></span>取決於所涉案件的類型。</li></ul> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="分權之目的"><span id=".E5.88.86.E6.AC.8A.E4.B9.8B.E7.9B.AE.E7.9A.84"></span>分權之目的</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=8" title="编辑章节:分權之目的"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>分權之目的,在於避免<a href="/wiki/%E7%8D%A8%E8%A3%81%E8%80%85" title="獨裁者">獨裁者</a>的產生。古代的<a href="/wiki/%E7%9A%87%E5%B8%9D" title="皇帝">皇帝</a>乃至地方<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%98%E5%93%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="官員">官員</a>,均集立法、執法(行政)、司法三大權於一身,容易造成權力的濫用。即使在現代,立法、運用稅款的權力通常掌握在代表人民意願的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="議會">議會</a>中,司法權的獨立在於防止執法機構濫權。同時各種權力由於在行使過程中獨立於其他公權力之外,不會受到其他權力所帶來的干擾,使權力的行使有一定彈性,並可為國家的運行提高效率。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="典型三權"><span id=".E5.85.B8.E5.9E.8B.E4.B8.89.E6.AC.8A"></span>典型三權</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=9" title="编辑章节:典型三權"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%AC%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="行政權">行政權</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%9D%83" class="mw-redirect" title="立法权">立法權</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%9D%83" class="mw-redirect" title="司法权">司法權</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="第四、五權"><span id=".E7.AC.AC.E5.9B.9B.E3.80.81.E4.BA.94.E6.AC.8A"></span>第四、五權</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=10" title="编辑章节:第四、五權"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见:<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E5%9B%9B%E6%AC%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="第四權">第四權</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%94%E6%AC%8A" title="第五權">第五權</a></div> <ul><li>第四權指的是新聞媒體,指除了基本的三權以外,新聞媒體逐漸發展茁壯,形成對當前政府的監督力量;另外,現代有新提倡經過<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%AF%E7%B6%B2" class="mw-redirect" title="互聯網">網路</a>發展後,形成第五權的個人監督力量。</li> <li>然則,上述說法是為誤用,因為新聞權與網路權皆不具備政府公權力之公共性質,且就行使者而言,二者僅為人民之<a href="/wiki/%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="權利">權利</a>(主要為<a href="/wiki/%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="出版自由">出版自由</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%A8%E9%81%94%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="表達自由">表達自由</a>權)(Right)而非國家之<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%9D%83%E5%8A%9B" title="公权力">權力</a>(Power)。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="其他分權"><span id=".E5.85.B6.E4.BB.96.E5.88.86.E6.AC.8A"></span>其他分權</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=11" title="编辑章节:其他分權"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>部分國家會將更多政府機構分立於三權之外,常見有: </p> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="最高審計組織" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Supreme audit institution"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E5%AF%A9%E8%A8%88%E7%B5%84%E7%B9%94&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="最高審計組織(页面不存在)">審計機構</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_audit_institution" class="extiw" title="en:Supreme audit institution"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Supreme audit institution</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E9%8A%80%E8%A1%8C" class="mw-redirect" title="中央銀行">中央銀行</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="公共服務委員會" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Public Service Commission"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E5%85%B1%E6%9C%8D%E5%8B%99%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="公共服務委員會(页面不存在)">公共服務委員會</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_Service_Commission" class="extiw" title="en:Public Service Commission"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Public Service Commission</span></a></span>)</span></span>(<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="公務員委員會" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Civil service commission"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%85%AC%E5%8B%99%E5%93%A1%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="公務員委員會(页面不存在)">公務員委員會</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Civil_service_commission" class="extiw" title="en:Civil service commission"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Civil service commission</span></a></span>)</span></span>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%8B%99%E5%93%A1%E6%95%98%E7%94%A8%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="公務員敘用委員會">公務員敘用委員會</a>、民事服務委員會)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="憲法法院">憲法法院</a><span id="noteTag-cite_ref-sup"><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>註 1<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B8%E8%88%89%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83" title="選舉委員會">選舉委員會</a><span id="noteTag-cite_ref-sup"><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>註 2<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="調解權 (巴西帝國)" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Moderating power (Empire of Brazil)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%AA%BF%E8%A7%A3%E6%AC%8A_(%E5%B7%B4%E8%A5%BF%E5%B8%9D%E5%9C%8B)&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="調解權 (巴西帝國)(页面不存在)">調解權</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moderating_power_(Empire_of_Brazil)" class="extiw" title="en:Moderating power (Empire of Brazil)"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Moderating power (Empire of Brazil)</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="國家人權機構" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="National human rights institution"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E4%BA%BA%E6%AC%8A%E6%A9%9F%E6%A7%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="國家人權機構(页面不存在)">國家人權機構</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_human_rights_institution" class="extiw" title="en:National human rights institution"><span lang="en" dir="auto">National human rights institution</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%94%B3%E8%A8%B4%E5%B0%88%E5%93%A1" title="申訴專員">申訴專員</a>(如<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83%E7%9B%A3%E5%AF%9F%E4%BD%BF" title="議會監察使">議會監察使</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%A3%E5%AF%9F%E9%99%A2" title="監察院">監察院</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E6%A3%80%E5%AF%9F%E5%AE%98" class="mw-redirect" title="检察官">检察官</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="權力分立的實行"><span id=".E6.AC.8A.E5.8A.9B.E5.88.86.E7.AB.8B.E7.9A.84.E5.AF.A6.E8.A1.8C"></span>權力分立的實行</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=12" title="编辑章节:權力分立的實行"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="美國的三权分立模式"><span id=".E7.BE.8E.E5.9C.8B.E7.9A.84.E4.B8.89.E6.9D.83.E5.88.86.E7.AB.8B.E6.A8.A1.E5.BC.8F"></span>美國的三权分立模式</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=13" title="编辑章节:美國的三权分立模式"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E9%96%8B%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%83%E5%8B%B3" class="mw-redirect" title="美國開國元勳">美國開國元勳</a>對<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="政府">政府</a>權力普遍採取不信任的態度。為了保障公民自由和限制政府的權力,他們接納了<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%9F%E5%BE%B7%E6%96%AF%E9%B8%A0" title="孟德斯鸠">孟德斯鸠</a>的想法,在<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95" title="美国宪法">美国宪法</a>之內清楚地把<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="行政">行政</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="司法">司法</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="立法">立法</a>分隔且使其互相制衡。其時,這種憲制是前所未有的嶄新嘗試。至今<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="美国联邦政府">美国联邦政府</a>的三權分立,仍然是眾多<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E6%94%BF%E4%BD%93" class="mw-redirect" title="民主政体">民主政體</a>中實行最徹底的。而美國多數<a href="/wiki/%E5%B7%9E" title="州">州</a>政府亦有相同的憲制架構。 </p><p>三權分立常見的問題,是如何解決行政及立法機關之間的矛盾。方法之一是採用<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83%E5%88%B6" title="議會制">議會制</a>。在議會制之下,<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="行政機關">行政機關</a>的領導來自立法機關的多數派。<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="行政">行政</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="立法">立法</a>二權並不完全分離。現代一般認為,成功和穩定的自由民主政制未必需要徹底三權分立。事實上,除了美國以外,所有開始實行民主便使用<a href="/wiki/%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="總統制">總統制</a>的國家,它們的首次民主嘗試都以失敗告終。相反,議會制政府因議會是最高權力,成功率反而較高。就算是三權分立典範的美國,如何解決權力機關之間的矛盾,仍然不時出現阻礙。 </p><p>美國總統根據憲法擁有行政權,並隨著時間不斷擴權。1930年代<a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%A7%E8%90%A7%E6%9D%A1" title="大萧条">大萧条</a>时期,<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%8C%E5%85%B0%E5%85%8B%E6%9E%97%C2%B7%E5%BE%B7%E6%8B%89%E8%AF%BA%C2%B7%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E7%A6%8F" title="富兰克林·德拉诺·罗斯福">罗斯福</a>總統上台颁布一系列法令,并通过<a href="/wiki/%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E5%85%9A_(%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD)" title="民主党 (美国)">民主黨</a>国会授权,取得<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E6%80%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="美国总统">美国总统</a>史上前所未有的巨大行政权力。但由<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E9%BB%A8_(%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B)" title="共和黨 (美國)">共和黨</a>總統任命、保守派控制的<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="美国联邦最高法院">美国联邦最高法院</a>,却经常驳回一些新政法令,認為這些法令違憲。结果,1935年1月,最高法院以8比1的票数,宣布罗斯福的《全国工业复兴法》等新政法律违宪。罗斯福为加快推行<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%97%E6%96%AF%E7%A6%8F%E6%96%B0%E6%94%BF" title="罗斯福新政">新政</a>,于1936年3月6日进行了“<a href="/wiki/%E7%82%89%E8%BE%B9%E8%B0%88%E8%AF%9D" title="炉边谈话">炉边谈话</a>”,将矛头直指最高法院,要求<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A" title="美国国会">美国国会</a>讓他無限制增加<a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%98" title="美國最高法院大法官">美國最高法院大法官</a>的數目,間接将司法置于行政管辖下,全面掌握三權,这就引起了全国范围的激烈爭議。後來,大法官認為《最低工资法》大部分並無違宪。有人認為,當時大法官是为了保证三权分立,避免總統擴大最高法院削弱司法獨立,維持三權分立的格局而退让。自由派及民主黨通常希望通过最高法院,來實現他們的政治議程,包括牽涉<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E6%9D%83%E5%88%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="公民权利">公民權利</a>的法律通过最高法院來落實,例如備受爭議的<a href="/wiki/%E5%A2%AE%E8%83%8E" class="mw-redirect" title="墮胎">墮胎</a>權、<a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%AA%E6%A2%B0%E7%AE%A1%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="枪械管制">槍械管制</a>和<a href="/wiki/LGBT%E6%AC%8A%E7%9B%8A" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT權益">LGBT權益</a>等;保守派和共和黨則希望通过控制最高法院,來捍衛開國元勳對原憲法的設計構想和價值觀。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="英国的議會至上模式"><span id=".E8.8B.B1.E5.9B.BD.E7.9A.84.E8.AD.B0.E6.9C.83.E8.87.B3.E4.B8.8A.E6.A8.A1.E5.BC.8F"></span>英国的議會至上模式</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=14" title="编辑章节:英国的議會至上模式"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD" title="英国">英国</a>和大多数<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="英联邦国家">英联邦国家</a>使用<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%95%8F%E5%88%B6" title="西敏制">西敏制</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%AE%E4%BC%9A%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="议会制">议会制</a>,奉行“<b>议会至上</b>”的原则,且行政权和立法权有较大的联系,政府的主要官員同時是議員,行政、立法兩權集於一身而不是分開,但司法权基本独立。相較於三權分立源於美國,司法獨立可謂英國起源。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E9%A6%96%E7%9B%B8" title="英国首相">英国首相</a>和内阁通常都来自<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%8B%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2" title="英国下议院">下议院</a>,并对下议院负责,首相和内阁如果失去下议院的支持或信任,要么辞职,或提请君主解散下议院重新选举。过去,<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E4%B8%8A%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="英国上议院">英国上议院</a>拥有<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E4%B8%8A%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E8%81%B7%E8%83%BD" title="英國上議院司法職能">司法职能</a>,专门负责对贵族进行聆讯的议员,称作<a href="/wiki/%E5%B8%B8%E4%BB%BB%E4%B8%8A%E8%A8%B4%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%98" title="常任上訴法官">常任上诉法官</a>。二战后,上议院的司法职能基本上由“上议院受理上诉委员会”行使。这种设置使得上议院集立法、司法职能于一身。自《2005年宪制改革法令》生效以来,上议院不再保留司法职能。<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E6%9E%A2%E5%AF%86%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="英国枢密院">英国枢密院</a>也拥有一定司法职能,但2005年以后,仅对海外领地的案件拥有管辖权。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="日本的议会制"><span id=".E6.97.A5.E6.9C.AC.E7.9A.84.E8.AE.AE.E4.BC.9A.E5.88.B6"></span>日本的议会制</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=15" title="编辑章节:日本的议会制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Politics_Under_Constitution_of_Japan_03.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Politics_Under_Constitution_of_Japan_03.png/160px-Politics_Under_Constitution_of_Japan_03.png" decoding="async" width="160" height="160" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Politics_Under_Constitution_of_Japan_03.png/240px-Politics_Under_Constitution_of_Japan_03.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/Politics_Under_Constitution_of_Japan_03.png/320px-Politics_Under_Constitution_of_Japan_03.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption> <a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95" title="日本国宪法">日本国宪法</a>的權力分立</figcaption></figure> <p>英国的议会制度在世界各国也有相当的影响力,例如,在1952年<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC" title="日本">日本</a>恢復主權後,「法案源自外國」的問題曾引起爭議。但在1945年未及1946年,已有許多憲法改革的公眾討論,<a href="/wiki/%E9%A7%90%E6%97%A5%E7%9B%9F%E8%BB%8D%E7%B8%BD%E5%8F%B8%E4%BB%A4" title="駐日盟軍總司令">駐日盟軍總司令</a><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%93%E6%A0%BC%E6%8B%89%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E9%BA%A5%E5%85%8B%E9%98%BF%E7%91%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="道格拉斯·麥克阿瑟">道格拉斯·麥克阿瑟</a>五星上將草擬的<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="日本國憲法">日本國憲法</a>,明顯受到日本<a href="/wiki/%E8%87%AA%E7%94%B1%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="自由主義">自由主義</a>思想所影響,日本自由主義分子視之為取代<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E9%99%B8" class="mw-redirect" title="歐陸">歐陸</a>式<a href="/wiki/%E5%B0%88%E5%88%B6%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" class="mw-redirect" title="專制主義">專制主義</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%98%8E%E6%B2%BB%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="明治憲法">明治憲法</a>的最佳選擇。麥克阿瑟的草擬法案,並不打算推行美國式的<a href="/wiki/%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="總統制">總統制</a>或<a href="/wiki/%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="聯邦制">聯邦制</a>;相反的,草案採用英國式的<a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83%E5%88%B6" title="議會制">議會制</a>,實行兩院制,但兩院的議員和美國一樣,皆由公民直接選出,只不過取代原<a href="/wiki/%E8%B2%B4%E6%97%8F%E9%99%A2_(%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC)" title="貴族院 (日本)">貴族院</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%8F%83%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="日本參議院">日本參議院</a>的權力不及<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E7%9C%BE%E8%AD%B0%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="日本眾議院">日本眾議院</a>,在實行眾議院優越制下,<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3%E7%B8%BD%E7%90%86%E5%A4%A7%E8%87%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="日本內閣總理大臣">內閣總理大臣</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3" title="日本內閣">內閣成員</a>皆由众议院产生。 </p><p>宪法规定<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="日本国会">日本国会</a>为“国家权力的最高机关”,内阁应当对国会集体负责,国会被赋予至上的政治权力。但是,宪法赋予了<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E5%86%85%E9%98%81" class="mw-redirect" title="日本内阁">内阁</a>提交法案的权力,国会通过的法案大部分是由内阁提出,因此实际上内阁的权限最大,所谓行政国家现象非常显著。内阁下辖各<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" title="日本行政機關">省厅</a>,负责日本的国家行政事务。值得一提者,在行政机关内部有不受内阁领导的獨立机关,<a href="/wiki/%E6%9C%83%E8%A8%88%E6%AA%A2%E6%9F%A5%E9%99%A2" title="會計檢查院">會計檢查院</a>,在宪法地位上平行内阁。日本的法院称作“<a href="/wiki/%E6%97%A5%E6%9C%AC%E8%A3%81%E5%88%A4%E6%89%80" title="日本裁判所">裁判所</a>”,包括最高裁判所和下级裁判所,有权对内阁或国会的行为进行违宪审查。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="德国的议会制"><span id=".E5.BE.B7.E5.9B.BD.E7.9A.84.E8.AE.AE.E4.BC.9A.E5.88.B6"></span>德国的议会制</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=16" title="编辑章节:德国的议会制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>另外,<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%8C%E6%88%98" class="mw-redirect" title="二战">二战</a>的战败国德国也重新确立了国家实行议会制,德国的国家机构的主要职能,主要分为六大部分,分别是总统、内阁、联邦议院、联邦参议院、联邦大会和宪法法院。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1" title="德國聯邦總統">总统</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E5%86%85%E9%98%81" title="德国内阁">内阁</a>主要负责国家行政事务,内阁由<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2" title="德国联邦议院">联邦议院</a>产生并对其负责。与先前魏玛宪法的不同是,1949年的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E6%84%8F%E5%BF%97%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="德意志联邦共和国基本法">德意志联邦共和国基本法</a>并未像<a href="/wiki/%E9%AD%8F%E7%8E%9B%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95" title="魏玛宪法">魏玛宪法</a>那样,赋予总统较大的权力(希特勒就是利用魏玛宪法赋予总统的权力,逐步为自己实现独裁统治铺路的),为避免出现独裁覆辙,基本法僅给予总统象徵性職權,例如作为<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%85%83%E9%A6%96" class="mw-redirect" title="国家元首">国家元首</a>,对外代表德国、根据联邦议院的决定,任免联邦总理、根据联邦总理的提名,任免联邦政府各部部长等。战后,德国真正的权力中心是联邦议院(国会下院),及其产生的由<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E6%80%BB%E7%90%86" title="德国总理">总理</a>领导的内阁。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E5%A4%A7%E4%BC%9A" title="德国联邦大会">联邦大会</a>也是德国的国家机构之一,其唯一职能,是依据《基本法》第54章第1节第1条(Artikel 54 Absatz 1 Satz 1 GG)的规定,选举德国联邦总统。 </p><p>拥有德国国家立法职能的机构,为联邦议院和<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E5%8F%82%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2" title="德国联邦参议院">联邦参议院</a>,两院共同行使立法权。联邦参议院没有选举任期,為连续性的国家机关,党派比例随着联邦州议会的选举而变化;而联邦议院则為非连续的国家机关,每4年重新选举一次。 </p><p>德国还设有非常权威的<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9B%BD%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="德国联邦宪法法院">宪法法院</a>,主要职责包括就政府单位间的争端做出裁判,对法律进行审查,审理宪法诉讼以及确定政党是否违宪。如果对某个政党的合宪性存在质疑,联邦议院、联邦参议院和联邦政府有权向宪法法院申请取缔政党令,宪法法院随即依法审查该党纲领和党员行为。此外,德国公民认为自己在基本法中所规定的权利,受到政府权力的侵害,就可向联邦宪法法院起诉。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="马来西亚的议会制"><span id=".E9.A9.AC.E6.9D.A5.E8.A5.BF.E4.BA.9A.E7.9A.84.E8.AE.AE.E4.BC.9A.E5.88.B6"></span>马来西亚的议会制</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=17" title="编辑章节:马来西亚的议会制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A" title="马来西亚">马来西亚</a>过去曾是<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9B%BD%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="英国殖民地">英国殖民地</a>,因而受到<a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%95%8F%E5%88%B6" title="西敏制">西敏制</a>影响,在1957年独立后也沿用英国的三权分立制,即<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="行政">行政</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="立法">立法</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="司法">司法</a>三权分立。三权分立下,各权力之首脑皆直属<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E5%85%83%E9%A6%96" title="马来西亚最高元首">最高元首</a>陛下,由<a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%9F%E6%B2%BB%E8%80%85%E4%BC%9A%E8%AE%AE" title="统治者会议">统治者会议</a>选举产生,皇玺是马来统治者传统权威的象征,设有<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E6%8E%8C%E7%8E%BA%E5%A4%A7%E8%87%A3" title="马来西亚掌玺大臣">掌玺大臣</a>。但在国家权力的实际运作上,最高元首必须依照首相以及内阁的意见行使职权,宪法也限制了他的权力,亦即是虚位元首。 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E5%86%85%E9%98%81" class="mw-redirect" title="马来西亚内阁">内阁</a>:由<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E9%A6%96%E7%9B%B8" title="马来西亚首相">首相</a>所领导,是负责马来西亚行政事务的国家机关。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A" title="马来西亚国会">国会</a>:由<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%8A%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD" title="马来西亚国会上议院主席">上议院主席</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A%E4%B8%8B%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2%E8%AE%AE%E9%95%BF" title="马来西亚国会下议院议长">下议院议长</a>所领导,马来西亚国会实行两院制,即<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E4%B8%8A%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="马来西亚上议院">上议院</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E4%B8%8B%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="马来西亚下议院">下议院</a>,是负责马来西亚立法事务的国家机关。</li> <li>法院:由<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E9%A6%96%E5%B8%AD%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%98" class="mw-redirect" title="马来西亚首席大法官">联邦首席大法官</a>所领导,包括联邦法院、上诉庭、高等法院、<a href="/wiki/%E9%A9%AC%E6%9D%A5%E8%A5%BF%E4%BA%9A%E5%9B%9E%E6%95%99%E6%B3%95%E5%BA%AD" title="马来西亚回教法庭">回教法庭</a>等,是负责马来西亚司法事务的国家机关。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="法国的雙首長制"><span id=".E6.B3.95.E5.9B.BD.E7.9A.84.E9.9B.99.E9.A6.96.E9.95.B7.E5.88.B6"></span>法国的雙首長制</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=18" title="编辑章节:法国的雙首長制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>在<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%A5%BF%E7%AC%AC%E4%BA%94%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B" title="法蘭西第五共和國">法蘭西第五共和國</a>建立時,汲取了前幾次<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E8%98%AD%E8%A5%BF%E7%AC%AC%E4%B8%89%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法蘭西第三共和國">法蘭西第三共和國</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%85%B0%E8%A5%BF%E7%AC%AC%E5%9B%9B%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD" title="法兰西第四共和国">法蘭西第四共和國</a>時期,議會民主制度失敗的教訓(國民議會是法國的最高權力,經常行使倒閣權,以保證共和派控制國民議會,阻止保王派復辟,但造成政府長期不穩定,內閣經常改組及解散。),因此開始創立並執行半總統半議會民主制(<a href="/wiki/%E9%9B%99%E9%A6%96%E9%95%B7%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="雙首長制">雙首長制</a>),加強總統以及總理領導的內閣的權力,削弱<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E6%B0%91%E8%AE%AE%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="法国国民议会">法国国民议会</a>的倒閣權,总统甚至有权解散国民议会,但不能解散<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD%E5%8F%82%E8%AE%AE%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="法国参议院">法国参议院</a>。維持到現時法國的政體,並未改變。而最近幾年,<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="法國">法國</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%B7%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="德國">德國</a>的密切合作,成為歐洲經濟一體化不可或缺的主要動力,例如在1999年<a href="/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E5%85%83" class="mw-redirect" title="歐元">歐元</a>的流通就是一例。 </p><p>某方面上,法国总统的权力比美国总统的权力要大,因为法国总统拥有解散议会、提议举行公民投票等权力,甚至可以在国家出现紧急状态时,行使非常权力,而美国总统一般不具备这些权力。所以法国双首长制实质上成了围绕总统的权力,因为无论在法律上还是实际上,总统都凌驾于政府内阁、<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD%E8%AE%AE%E4%BC%9A" title="法国议会">国会两院</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BF%BB%E6%A1%88%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="翻案法院">翻案法院</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%95%E5%9B%BD%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="法国最高行政法院">国务委员会</a>之上。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="瑞士的委员会制"><span id=".E7.91.9E.E5.A3.AB.E7.9A.84.E5.A7.94.E5.91.98.E4.BC.9A.E5.88.B6"></span>瑞士的委员会制</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=19" title="编辑章节:瑞士的委员会制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%A3%AB" title="瑞士">瑞士</a>的委员会制,本质上是代议制及议会制的混合民主政体,<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%A3%AB%E8%81%AF%E9%82%A6%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83" title="瑞士聯邦委員會">联邦委员会</a>按照<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%A3%AB%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="瑞士国会">国会</a>选举结果产生,各委员不能兼任议员,并采合议多数决。被选举成为联邦委员会成员的国会议员,将失去在国会中的议员资格,职位将会由其他人来递补。 </p><p>联邦委员会作为最高行政权力机关,各委员权力均等,除非委员自己辞职,否则任何机关均无权对其罢免或将其免职。国会不能对委员提出<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%BB%E5%8A%A8%E8%AE%AE" title="不信任动议">不信任案</a>,委员会也无权解散国会。联邦委员会通常设置七名委员,<a href="/wiki/%E7%91%9E%E5%A3%AB%E8%81%94%E9%82%A6%E4%B8%BB%E5%B8%AD" class="mw-redirect" title="瑞士联邦主席">瑞士联邦主席</a>由这七名委员轮流担任,任期一年,不能连任。联邦委员会主席没有特殊权力,仅负责主持会议,各委员均具有相同的权限。同时,各委员兼任政府各部门的首长,主管所属部门的行政职能。 </p><p>为了协调国会与联邦委员会的关系,瑞士还设立了联邦秘书处,除了以上职能外,该秘书处还负责同时处理联邦国会与联邦委员会的秘书业务。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="其他模式的权力分立"><span id=".E5.85.B6.E4.BB.96.E6.A8.A1.E5.BC.8F.E7.9A.84.E6.9D.83.E5.8A.9B.E5.88.86.E7.AB.8B"></span>其他模式的权力分立</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=20" title="编辑章节:其他模式的权力分立"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="匈牙利的四權分立制"><span id=".E5.8C.88.E7.89.99.E5.88.A9.E7.9A.84.E5.9B.9B.E6.AC.8A.E5.88.86.E7.AB.8B.E5.88.B6"></span>匈牙利的四權分立制</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=21" title="编辑章节:匈牙利的四權分立制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>在<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9" title="匈牙利">匈牙利</a>有四个国家机构独立行使四项权力,除国民议会、政府、法院系统外,还有一个公诉机构系统,由首席检察官领导,这项特殊制度的建立,是受到1974年葡萄牙<a href="/wiki/%E5%BA%B7%E4%B9%83%E9%A6%A8%E9%9D%A9%E5%91%BD" title="康乃馨革命">康乃馨革命</a>影响而设立,但首席检察官的官职则早在1872年便已设立。 </p><p>匈牙利的公诉机构,成为独立于三权之外的第四项权力,是1989年<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%9C%E6%AC%A7%E5%89%A7%E5%8F%98" title="东欧剧变">东欧剧变</a>之后开始的,这一年匈牙利修改宪法,公诉机构“公诉办公室”独立设置的目的,是防止国家权力被滥用,尤其是被针对用于对反对派的诬告陷害。如果公诉办公室不认真履行职责,当事人有权直接向法院提起<a href="/wiki/%E8%AF%89%E8%AE%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="诉讼">诉讼</a>指控,如果法院认为这些指控是有价值的,则会命令警察采取行动,避免因为公诉办公室的不作为侵害当事人合法权益,但是2005年匈牙利宪法法院认为,警察代表的政府不拥有这项特权。 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E6%B0%91%E8%AE%AE%E4%BC%9A_(%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9)" title="国民议会 (匈牙利)">匈牙利议会</a>:在一个高度复杂的两轮投票制度下,每4年由人民选举产生,匈牙利议会实行一院制。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="匈牙利政府">匈牙利政府</a>:议会以过半数票之相对多数原则,使政府要员就职或离职,任期4年,其中<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E6%80%BB%E7%90%86" title="匈牙利总理">总理</a>由具有礼节性质的<a href="/wiki/%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E6%80%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="匈牙利总统">总统</a>指定议会最大党派的领导人担任。</li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="匈牙利最高法院" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Supreme Court of Hungary"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="匈牙利最高法院(页面不存在)">匈牙利最高法院</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_Hungary" class="extiw" title="en:Supreme Court of Hungary"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Supreme Court of Hungary</span></a></span>)</span></span>和<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="匈牙利宪法法院" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Constitutional Court of Hungary"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8C%88%E7%89%99%E5%88%A9%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="匈牙利宪法法院(页面不存在)">匈牙利宪法法院</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_Court_of_Hungary" class="extiw" title="en:Constitutional Court of Hungary"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Constitutional Court of Hungary</span></a></span>)</span></span>:皆由议会选举产生,最高法院法官任期8年,宪法法院法官每届任期为6年。</li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="首席检察官" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Chief Prosecutor of Hungary"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E9%A6%96%E5%B8%AD%E6%A3%80%E5%AF%9F%E5%AE%98&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="首席检察官(页面不存在)">首席检察官</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chief_Prosecutor_of_Hungary" class="extiw" title="en:Chief Prosecutor of Hungary"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Chief Prosecutor of Hungary</span></a></span>)</span></span>:由议会选举产生,每届任期9年,<a href="/wiki/%E9%A0%90%E7%AE%97" title="預算">预算</a>较为固定,不受政府在财政上的制约。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="中華民國之五權憲法制"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E8.8F.AF.E6.B0.91.E5.9C.8B.E4.B9.8B.E4.BA.94.E6.AC.8A.E6.86.B2.E6.B3.95.E5.88.B6"></span>中華民國之五權憲法制</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=22" title="编辑章节:中華民國之五權憲法制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B" title="中華民國">中華民國</a>採用<a href="/wiki/%E5%AD%AB%E4%B8%AD%E5%B1%B1" title="孫中山">孫文</a>所提出的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E6%AC%8A%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="五權憲法">五權憲法</a>设计,除了行政、立法、司法三权外,外加考试与监察二权。五权憲法的思想是孙中山針對於新民主的制度運作方式思考後,结合西方的三权分立与中国古代政治制度結合,創造出具中國傳統特色的政治制度。此制度目前為中華民國獨有,世界諸國多採行三權分立或自行獨創制度。但<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%B6%E6%86%B2%E5%9C%8B%E6%B0%91%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%83" title="制憲國民大會">制憲國民大會</a>所制定的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="中華民國憲法">中華民國憲法</a>,與孫文原始的五權憲法規劃存有差異。 </p><p>按中華民國憲法本文,<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1" title="中華民國總統">總統</a>是<a href="/wiki/%E8%99%9B%E4%BD%8D%E5%85%83%E9%A6%96" class="mw-redirect" title="虛位元首">虛位元首</a>,<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E9%95%B7" title="行政院院長">行政院院長</a>為最高行政首長,總統提名及<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="立法院">立法院</a>同意後上任;<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E6%B0%91%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%83" title="國民大會">國民大會</a>是最高政权机构,除有<a href="/wiki/%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E4%BF%AE%E6%AD%A3" title="憲法修正">修宪权</a>外,还行使<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%89%E4%B8%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="选举">选举</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%BD%A2%E5%85%8D" title="罢免">罢免</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%88%9B%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="创制">创制</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%A4%87%E6%B1%BA" title="複決">复决</a>四项权力(后两项权力事实上受延宕),並負責選出總統與<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%89%AF%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1" title="中華民國副總統">副總統</a>。中央政府在國民大會及總統之下,設<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E9%99%A2" title="行政院">行政院</a>、立法院、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2" title="司法院">司法院</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E8%80%83%E8%AF%95%E9%99%A2" class="mw-redirect" title="考试院">考试院</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E7%9B%A3%E5%AF%9F%E9%99%A2" title="監察院">監察院</a>等5个<a href="/wiki/%E6%B2%BB%E6%9D%83" class="mw-redirect" title="治权">治权</a>机构,分别行使行政、立法、司法、考试、监察等5权;其他國家由立法部門單獨行使的<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="國會">國會</a>職權,由國民大會、立法院、監察院<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E9%99%A2%E5%88%B6" title="三院制">共同行使</a>。 </p><p>而經1990年代以來的多次修憲後,部分憲法本文被<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E5%A2%9E%E4%BF%AE%E6%A2%9D%E6%96%87" title="中華民國憲法增修條文">憲法增修條文</a>取代,總統改為<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%8F%8A%E5%89%AF%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%9C%A8%E8%87%BA%E7%81%A3%E4%B9%8B%E5%85%AC%E6%B0%91%E7%9B%B4%E6%8E%A5%E9%81%B8%E8%88%89%E8%88%87%E7%BD%B7%E5%85%8D" title="中華民國總統及副總統在臺灣之公民直接選舉與罷免">公民直選</a>,國民大會停止運作;現行實施<a href="/wiki/%E5%8D%8A%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="半總統制">雙首長制</a>,實務上則接近<a href="/wiki/%E6%80%BB%E7%BB%9F%E5%88%B6" title="总统制">总统制</a>,總統掌握大部分行政權。 </p> <ul><li>總統(不在五權分立內):與行政院院長共同為中華民國的行政首長。配屬兩個機關輔佐總統,分別為<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E7%B8%BD%E7%B5%B1%E5%BA%9C" title="中華民國總統府">總統府</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%9C%8B%E5%AE%B6%E5%AE%89%E5%85%A8%E6%9C%83%E8%AD%B0_(%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B)" title="國家安全會議 (中華民國)">國家安全會議</a>。此外,總統可授權副總統處理特定政務。</li> <li>行政院:最高行政机关,行政院院長領導<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A7%E9%96%A3%E5%88%97%E8%A1%A8" title="中華民國內閣列表">內閣</a>,並與總統為共同主导行政的双首长。行政院院長由總統直接任命,不須再經立法院同意;總統向全國人民負責,行政院院長與<a href="/wiki/%E9%83%A8%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="部會">部會</a>首長則代表總統向立法院負責。</li> <li>立法院:最高立法机关,国民大会结束运作后成为中华民国国会,实行<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%80%E9%99%A2%E5%88%B6" title="一院制">一院制</a>,負責質詢行政院院長及其部會首長、審查預算、同意人事任命,擁有对行政院院长有<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%8D%E4%BF%A1%E4%BB%BB%E5%8A%A8%E8%AE%AE" title="不信任动议">不信任权</a>,以及彈劾總統、副總統權。此外,依照《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E5%A2%9E%E4%BF%AE%E6%A2%9D%E6%96%87" title="中華民國憲法增修條文">憲法增修條文</a>》規定,<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E9%99%A2%E9%95%B7" title="司法院院長">司法院院長</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%89%AF%E9%99%A2%E9%95%B7" title="司法院副院長">司法院副院長</a>以及<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%A4%A7%E6%B3%95%E5%AE%98" title="司法院大法官">大法官</a>等職務之候選人,除由總統提名外,還須由立法院決議同意,始得任命之。<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup></li> <li>司法院:最高司法机关,实务上并不职司审判,由辖下的<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%8B%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2%E5%88%B6%E5%BA%A6" title="中華民國法院制度">各级法院</a>、行政法院及惩戒法院任之,而实际为一个司法行政机关。司法院設有憲法法庭,執掌政黨違憲解散等事項。</li> <li>考試院:最高考试机关,其衔称中的“考试”一词,不仅指<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%87%E5%AE%98" title="文官">文官</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%AC%E5%8B%99%E4%BA%BA%E5%93%A1" class="mw-redirect" title="公務人員">公務人员</a>的考选,也包括有关文官<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E4%BA%8B%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="人事行政">人事行政</a>的相关事务,与教育界的“考试”无关。</li> <li>監察院:最高监察机关,行使彈劾權(彈劾除了總統及副總統的公務人員)、糾舉權、監察權(調查權)、監試權及審計權。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="香港的權力分立與制衡"><span id=".E9.A6.99.E6.B8.AF.E7.9A.84.E6.AC.8A.E5.8A.9B.E5.88.86.E7.AB.8B.E8.88.87.E5.88.B6.E8.A1.A1"></span>香港的權力分立與制衡</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=23" title="编辑章节:香港的權力分立與制衡"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见:<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="香港的三權分立">香港的三權分立</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%8D%80%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E4%BF%AE%E6%94%B9%E6%AD%B7%E5%8F%B2%E7%9A%84%E8%B3%AA%E7%96%91" title="香港特區政府修改歷史的質疑">香港特區政府修改歷史的質疑</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF" title="香港">香港</a>自港英年代以來,一直實行<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E4%B8%BB%E5%B0%8E" title="行政主導">行政主導</a>。與英國近似,有基本的權力分立,雖然並沒有明文規定。 </p><p><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E6%AE%96%E6%B0%91%E5%9C%B0%E6%99%82%E6%9C%9F" class="mw-redirect" title="香港殖民地時期">香港殖民地時期</a>的政制,港督由<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E5%90%9B%E4%B8%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="英國君主">英國君主</a>任命,而<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E5%B1%80" title="香港立法局">立法局</a>在1984年之前,仍全由<a href="/wiki/%E6%B8%AF%E7%9D%A3" class="mw-redirect" title="港督">港督</a>委任產生(僅分為官守及非官守議員),可說政府完全控制行政、立法權,另外,司法權是獨立於二權以外,但香港政府理論上受<a href="/wiki/%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="英國議會">英國議會</a>監察。1997年6月,港府印製,在主權交接典禮時,派給中外記者介紹香港的背景資料中,提及香港的政治制度是按照「三權分立」原則建立,有一個行政主導的政府。<sup id="cite_ref-#1_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-#1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>《<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95" class="mw-redirect" title="香港基本法">香港基本法</a>》起草時,經過反覆討論,起草委員會的多數委員認為,根據<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8B%B1%E8%81%AF%E5%90%88%E8%81%B2%E6%98%8E" title="中英聯合聲明">中英聯合聲明</a>,未來香港特別行政區享有行政權和立法權,行政機關和立法機關都具有一定權力,保證權力行到正確行使,受到有效監督,防止某一方面權力過大,失去制衡,將有利於香港特別行政區政治體制運行、經濟發展和香港長期穩定和繁榮;行政機關和立法機關之間應相互制衡;為保證香港特別行政區之高效率,行政機關和立法機關之間還應相互配合;香港特區政治體制被中共形容為「司法獨立,行政機關和立法機關既相互制衡又相互配合」<sup id="cite_ref-本_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-本-34"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup class="reference" style="white-space:nowrap;">:131</sup>。 </p><p>1997年<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E4%B8%BB%E6%AC%8A%E7%A7%BB%E4%BA%A4" class="mw-redirect" title="香港主權移交">香港主權移交</a>後,關於權力分立的見解,有兩派不同意見。 </p><p>《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A5%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8D%80%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95" title="中華人民共和國香港特別行政區基本法">基本法</a>》第二條規定,<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%A8%E5%9C%8B%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E4%BB%A3%E8%A1%A8%E5%A4%A7%E6%9C%83" class="mw-redirect" title="中華人民共和國全國人民代表大會">中華人民共和國全國人民代表大會</a>授權<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A5%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8D%80" class="mw-redirect" title="香港特別行政區">香港特別行政區</a>,依照本法的規定實行<a href="/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E5%BA%A6%E8%87%AA%E6%B2%BB" class="mw-redirect" title="高度自治">高度自治</a>,享有行政權、立法權、獨立的司法權(包括終審權)。<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E6%B0%91%E4%B8%BB%E6%B4%BE" class="mw-redirect" title="香港民主派">民主派</a>認為香港基本上行使三權分立的政治架構,因為《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A5%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8D%80%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95" title="中華人民共和國香港特別行政區基本法">基本法</a>》將行政、立法和司法置於三個不同權力單位上,是互相制衡。<a href="/wiki/%E5%BB%BA%E5%88%B6%E6%B4%BE_(%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF)" title="建制派 (香港)">建制派</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A5%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8D%80%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C" title="香港特別行政區政府">香港特別行政區政府</a>在主權移交後的幾年內,仍認為三權分立為香港核心價值,但後來認為,按照《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A5%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8D%80%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95" title="中華人民共和國香港特別行政區基本法">基本法</a>》,香港屬<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E4%B8%BB%E5%B0%8E" title="行政主導">行政主導</a>,由政府主導立法程序,不屬三權分立,但司法權是獨立於二權以外,因此香港有獨立的司法權。2001年及2010年,首任<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%B5%82%E5%AF%A9%E6%B3%95%E9%99%A2#首席法官" title="香港終審法院">終審法院首席法官</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%9D%8E%E5%9C%8B%E8%83%BD" title="李國能">李國能</a>均於公開場合對外表示,認為香港行政、立法及司法機關「互相制衡,三權分立」。2011年,時任終審法院常任法官陳兆愷,及2014年,時任終審法院首席法官<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%AC%E9%81%93%E7%AB%8B" title="馬道立">馬道立</a>亦公開表明,香港實行三權分立<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。前香港<a href="/wiki/%E6%94%BF%E5%88%B6%E4%BA%8B%E5%8B%99%E5%B1%80" class="mw-redirect" title="政制事務局">政制事務局</a>局長<a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E7%91%9E%E9%BA%9F" title="林瑞麟">林瑞麟</a>曾在立法會會議上表示,香港「已經有三權分立」,後來卻形容行政與立法機關是「互相制衡、互相配合」,香港三權分立不同外國<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。2007年,時任中華人民共和國<a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A8%E5%9B%BD%E4%BA%BA%E5%A4%A7%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E9%95%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="全国人大委员长">全國人大委員長</a>的<a href="/wiki/%E5%90%B3%E9%82%A6%E5%9C%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="吳邦國">吳邦國</a>認為,香港的制度不是三權分立而是<a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E4%B8%BB%E5%B0%8E" title="行政主導">行政主導</a>,是處於中華人民共和國的完全主權之下<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> 。但直至2018年,時任<a href="/wiki/%E9%81%8B%E8%BC%B8%E5%8F%8A%E6%88%BF%E5%B1%8B%E5%B1%80" title="運輸及房屋局">運輸及房屋局</a>局長陳帆在立法會的「一地兩檢」會議時指出,香港實行「三權分立」。<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>事实上香港政局出现了“立法会有票无权、政府有权无票”的情况,体现在: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%AB%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8C%BA%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E9%83%A8%E9%97%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="香港特别行政区政府部门">政府部门</a>:基本法赋予了<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%AB%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8C%BA%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E9%95%BF%E5%AE%98" class="mw-redirect" title="香港特别行政区行政长官">行政长官</a>在立法会否决政府提案時,在征询行政会议意见后,可提请解散立法会,但若重选后的立法会再度否决该议案,行政长官必须辞职。而政府部门向立法会提出的法案<a href="/wiki/%E7%AE%80%E5%8D%95%E5%A4%9A%E6%95%B0%E5%88%B6" class="mw-redirect" title="简单多数制">简单多数制</a>就可通过。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="香港立法会">立法会</a>:《<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E8%8F%AF%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9C%8B%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A5%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8D%80%E5%9F%BA%E6%9C%AC%E6%B3%95" title="中華人民共和國香港特別行政區基本法">基本法</a>》赋予立法会拥有监察政府施政的权力,《<a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%83%EF%BC%88%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%8F%8A%E7%89%B9%E6%AC%8A%EF%BC%89%E6%A2%9D%E4%BE%8B" title="立法會(權力及特權)條例">立法会(权力及特权)条例</a>》则赋予立法会不同調查特权,以达致有效监察政府的功能。议会提案不涉及公共开支或政治体制或政府运作者,可由立法会议员个别或联名提出,得到通过须地区直选及功能组别两组议员同时通过;凡涉及政府政策者,在提出前必须得到行政长官的书面同意,否则不得提出。立法会虽然也能调查并弹劾行政长官,但不能直接使其下台。</li></ul> <p>这使得政府能够有力地制衡立法会,在一定程度上主导政府运转,但其对<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E6%A7%8B" title="香港司法機構">司法機構</a>及<a href="/wiki/%E5%BB%89%E6%94%BF%E5%85%AC%E7%BD%B2_(%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF)" title="廉政公署 (香港)">廉政公署</a>、<a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A9%E8%A8%88%E7%BD%B2" class="mw-disambig" title="審計署">審計署</a>等独立机构的制衡,则相对较弱。 </p><p>而<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%B1%80_(%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF)" title="教育局 (香港)">教育局</a>網站曾存取2011年法官<a href="/wiki/%E9%99%B3%E5%85%86%E6%84%B7" title="陳兆愷">陳兆愷</a>所撰寫的簡報《基本法、法治與香港的優勢》,文件當中的「法治作為一種制度」章節,列出了「權力分立(或稱三權)」,解釋政府的職能可由立法、行政及司法機關執行各別的功能,又指機關的設置能避免權力集中和權力濫用。相關文件在2020年被刪除<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。而一本2013年出版的初中經濟及公共事務科課本,提及香港是「權力分立」、「Separation of Powers」,行政、立法、司法互相制衡。<sup id="cite_ref-#1_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-#1-33"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup> </p><p>2020年8月31日,時任<a href="/wiki/%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%B1%80_(%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF)" title="教育局 (香港)">教育局</a>局長<a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%8A%E6%BD%A4%E9%9B%84" title="楊潤雄">楊潤雄</a>於宣佈全香港學校下月復課的記者會上,回應有<a href="/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E8%AD%98%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2" title="通識教育">通識科</a>教科書出版社,接受當局諮詢計劃後,刪走書上有關香港實行三權分立的內容時,表示香港無論主權移交前及移交後,都沒有三權分立制度,此點需要在教科書上說出<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。翌日,<a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%89%B9%E5%88%A5%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E5%8D%80%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E9%95%B7%E5%AE%98" title="香港特別行政區行政長官">行政長官</a><a href="/wiki/%E6%9E%97%E9%84%AD%E6%9C%88%E5%A8%A5" title="林鄭月娥">林鄭月娥</a>於記者會上公開表示,完全支持<a href="/wiki/%E6%A5%8A%E6%BD%A4%E9%9B%84" title="楊潤雄">楊潤雄</a>的說法,指香港無三權分立。強調行政、立法和司法機關互相配合和制衡,但都是要經行政長官向中央負責。形容香港的三權關係是各司其職,希望可以互相配合<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p><p>此外,香港的政策,主權移交前由港督會同行政局決定,97後變成行政長官會同行政會議決定。不論是行政局或行政會議,部分成員也同時是立法局或立法會的成員。當同一個人同時擔任行政和立法機關的職務時,兩權集於一身而不是分開,所以這並不構成嚴緊的三權分立,因為制衡的作用已經失去。 這種運作模式在1992年前英國統治期間早已存在,並且在1997年後一直沿用至今。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="伊朗的伊斯兰共和制"><span id=".E4.BC.8A.E6.9C.97.E7.9A.84.E4.BC.8A.E6.96.AF.E5.85.B0.E5.85.B1.E5.92.8C.E5.88.B6"></span>伊朗的伊斯兰共和制</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=24" title="编辑章节:伊朗的伊斯兰共和制"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97" title="伊朗">伊朗</a>是一个由<a href="/wiki/%E4%BB%80%E5%8F%B6%E6%B4%BE" title="什叶派">什叶派</a>主导的伊斯兰共和制国家。伊斯兰教在伊朗拥有至高无上的道德权威,是公共生活的最高准则。 </p><p>根据伊朗宪法,<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E6%9C%80%E9%AB%98%E9%A2%86%E8%A2%96" title="伊朗最高领袖">最高领袖</a>是伊朗在宗教上及中央政治的最高领导人,以及伊朗军队的最高统帅,并终生任职,而民选的<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E6%80%BB%E7%BB%9F" title="伊朗总统">总统</a>居于次要地位。伊朗的建国领袖即明确拒绝西方民主体制,首任最高领袖<a href="/wiki/%E9%9C%8D%E6%A2%85%E5%B0%BC" class="mw-redirect" title="霍梅尼">霍梅尼</a>清楚地表示,在理想的政体中,国家权力应该由<a href="/wiki/%E7%83%8F%E7%90%86%E7%91%AA" title="烏理瑪">乌理玛</a>执掌,这使得民主选举产生的国家机关权力受到限制,这种将神权统治和民主相结合的制度,使其政治体制和权力分配十分独特,并设立了特殊的国家机构。 </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E5%B0%88%E5%AE%B6%E6%9C%83%E8%AD%B0" class="mw-redirect" title="伊朗專家會議">专家会议</a>:是督察最高领袖的机构,并有权选举最高领袖,必要时甚至可将最高领袖罢免,不过这种情况还从未发生过。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%9C%97%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%88%A9%E7%9B%8A%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="伊朗国家利益委员会">系统确定国家利益委员会</a>:是由最高领袖委任的行政议会,主要职能是调节议会和宪法监督委员会之间的矛盾,并作为最高领袖顾问。</li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95%E7%9B%91%E7%9D%A3%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="宪法监督委员会">宪法监督委员会</a>:由6名乌理玛和6名律师组成的集立法、行政、司法职责于一身的特殊机构,掌握驳回<a href="/wiki/%E4%BC%8A%E6%96%AF%E5%85%B0%E8%AE%AE%E4%BC%9A" class="mw-redirect" title="伊斯兰议会">议会</a>法案、审查选举候选人和解释宪法权力。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="泰国的多元化权力结构"><span id=".E6.B3.B0.E5.9B.BD.E7.9A.84.E5.A4.9A.E5.85.83.E5.8C.96.E6.9D.83.E5.8A.9B.E7.BB.93.E6.9E.84"></span>泰国的多元化权力结构</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=25" title="编辑章节:泰国的多元化权力结构"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%9B%BD" title="泰国">泰国</a>的政治局势比较复杂,近年来制定的新宪法设立了“<span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="宪法机构" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Constitutional organizations of Thailand"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%AE%AA%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%BA%E6%9E%84&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="宪法机构(页面不存在)">宪法机构</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional_organizations_of_Thailand" class="extiw" title="en:Constitutional organizations of Thailand"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Constitutional organizations of Thailand</span></a></span>)</span></span>”,这些机构并不隶属于政府,且独立于<a href="/wiki/%E6%B3%B0%E5%9B%BD%E5%9B%BD%E4%BC%9A" title="泰国国会">国会</a>和法院之外,独立行使宪法赋予的职权,在传统的、以三权分立为样板的权力分立模式之外,添加了很多职能部门。 </p> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="选举委员会" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Election Commission of Thailand"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B8%E8%88%89%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83" title="選舉委員會">选举委员会</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Election_Commission_of_Thailand" class="extiw" title="en:Election Commission of Thailand"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Election Commission of Thailand</span></a></span>)</span></span>:是最高选举机构,有权对全国的选举工作进行督查。</li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="申诉办公室" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Office of the Ombudsmen Thailand"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E7%94%B3%E8%AF%89%E5%8A%9E%E5%85%AC%E5%AE%A4&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="申诉办公室(页面不存在)">申诉办公室</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Office_of_the_Ombudsmen_Thailand" class="extiw" title="en:Office of the Ombudsmen Thailand"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Office of the Ombudsmen Thailand</span></a></span>)</span></span>:是最高申诉机构,主要受理并调查公民对政府提出的各种投诉。</li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="审计委员会" data-lang-code="th" data-lang-name="泰语" data-foreign-title="คณะกรรมการตรวจเงินแผ่นดิน"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/wiki/%E5%AF%A9%E8%A8%88%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83" title="審計委員會">审计委员会</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">泰语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%88%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%9C%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%94%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99" class="extiw" title="th:คณะกรรมการตรวจเงินแผ่นดิน"><span lang="th" dir="auto">คณะกรรมการตรวจเงินแผ่นดิน</span></a></span>)</span></span>:是最高审计机构,对各国家机构的财政收支状况进行审计。</li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="反贪委员会" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="National Anti-Corruption Commission"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8D%E8%B4%AA%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="反贪委员会(页面不存在)">反贪委员会</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Anti-Corruption_Commission" class="extiw" title="en:National Anti-Corruption Commission"><span lang="en" dir="auto">National Anti-Corruption Commission</span></a></span>)</span></span>:是最高反贪机构,主要对调查侦查公务员的<a href="/wiki/%E8%B4%AA%E6%B1%A1" title="贪污">贪污</a>受贿案。</li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="国家人权委" data-lang-code="th" data-lang-name="泰语" data-foreign-title="คณะกรรมการสิทธิมนุษยชนแห่งชาติ (ประเทศไทย)"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83%E5%A7%94&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="国家人权委(页面不存在)">国家人权委</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">泰语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%93%E0%B8%B0%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%98%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B8%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%AB%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4_(%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B0%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A8%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2)" class="extiw" title="th:คณะกรรมการสิทธิมนุษยชนแห่งชาติ (ประเทศไทย)"><span lang="th" dir="auto">คณะกรรมการสิทธิมนุษยชนแห่งชาติ (ประเทศไทย)</span></a></span>)</span></span>:是最高人权机构,调查公民对侵犯<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%9D%83" title="人权">人权</a>的行为或与宪法相违背的投诉。</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="中國共產黨的觀點"><span id=".E4.B8.AD.E5.9C.8B.E5.85.B1.E7.94.A2.E9.BB.A8.E7.9A.84.E8.A7.80.E9.BB.9E"></span>中國共產黨的觀點</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=26" title="编辑章节:中國共產黨的觀點"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84833064"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">参见:<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%83%E4%B8%8D%E8%AE%B2" title="七不讲">七不讲</a>和<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E4%B8%8D%E6%90%9E" title="五不搞">五不搞</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655521">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:#f9f9f9;display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox" style="font-size:small;"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r82655520">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/%E7%BB%B4%E5%9F%BA%E6%96%87%E5%BA%93" title="维基文库">维基文库</a>中的相关原始文献:<b><a href="https://zh.wikisource.org/wiki/%E5%85%B3%E4%BA%8E%E5%8A%A0%E5%BC%BA%E6%96%B0%E6%97%B6%E4%BB%A3%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6%E6%95%99%E8%82%B2%E5%92%8C%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6%E7%90%86%E8%AE%BA%E7%A0%94%E7%A9%B6%E7%9A%84%E6%84%8F%E8%A7%81" class="extiw" title="s:关于加强新时代法学教育和法学理论研究的意见">关于加强新时代法学教育和法学理论研究的意见</a></b></div></div> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%9C%8B%E5%85%B1%E7%94%A2%E9%BB%A8" class="mw-redirect" title="中國共產黨">中國共產黨</a>认为,美国三权分立的分权和制衡,成为了协调<a href="/wiki/%E8%B5%84%E4%BA%A7%E9%98%B6%E7%BA%A7" class="mw-redirect" title="资产阶级">资产阶级</a>内部权力分配的机制;其次,实行三权分立、权力制衡的结果,是三大权力机关之间互相扯皮,导致效率低下;最后,三权分立的原则难以在政治实践中真正贯彻,在当代,<a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%85%83%E9%A6%96" class="mw-redirect" title="国家元首">国家元首</a>的行政权力居于主导地位。究其本质而言,美式的三权分立本质上是资产阶级民主制度。 </p><p>2017年8月6日,《<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E6%97%A5%E5%A0%B1" class="mw-redirect" title="人民日報">人民日報</a>》發表署名評論文章,指出三權分立令政府未能及時應對社會經濟問題,會窒礙政府施政,更是導致西方國家「普選民主走進死胡同」<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。2019年2月,<a href="/wiki/%E6%96%B0%E5%8D%8E%E7%A4%BE" title="新华社">新华社</a>引述<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%85%B1%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE" class="mw-redirect" title="中共中央">中共中央</a>报刊《<a href="/wiki/%E6%B1%82%E6%98%AF" title="求是">求是</a>》报道称,中共中央总书记<a href="/wiki/%E4%B9%A0%E8%BF%91%E5%B9%B3" title="习近平">习近平</a>在<a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%A4%AE%E5%85%A8%E9%9D%A2%E4%BE%9D%E6%B3%95%E6%B2%BB%E5%9B%BD%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A" title="中央全面依法治国委员会">中央全面依法治国委员会</a>首次会议上发言,指出要从中国国情和实际出发,走适合自己的法治道路,决不能照搬别国模式和做法,决不能走西方<a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%AA%E6%94%BF" class="mw-redirect" title="宪政">宪政</a>、三权鼎立和<a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B" title="司法獨立">司法独立</a>的路。<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>2023年2月,中共中央办公厅、国务院办公厅印发的《关于加强新时代法学教育和法学理论研究的意见》重申了这一立场<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">&#91;</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">&#93;</span></a></sup>。 </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="参考文献"><span id=".E5.8F.82.E8.80.83.E6.96.87.E7.8C.AE"></span>参考文献</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=27" title="编辑章节:参考文献"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="reflist columns references-column-width" style="-moz-column-width: 30em; -webkit-column-width: 30em; column-width: 30em; list-style-type: decimal;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-元照张冠群2014-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-元照张冠群2014_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">元照; 张冠群; 元照出版专书. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=drjfDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP9">基础法学英文</a>. 元照. 2014年10月1日: 9– <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;2020年7月26日&#93;</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-986-255-279-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-986-255-279-7"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;978-986-255-279-7</a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210301160513/https://books.google.com/books?id=drjfDwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PP9">存档</a>于2021年3月1日).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.au=%E5%85%83%E7%85%A7&amp;rft.au=%E5%85%83%E7%85%A7%E5%87%BA%E7%89%88%E4%B8%93%E4%B9%A6&amp;rft.au=%E5%BC%A0%E5%86%A0%E7%BE%A4&amp;rft.btitle=%E5%9F%BA%E7%A1%80%E6%B3%95%E5%AD%A6%E8%8B%B1%E6%96%87&amp;rft.date=2014-10-01&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=978-986-255-279-7&amp;rft.pages=9-&amp;rft.pub=%E5%85%83%E7%85%A7&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DdrjfDwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPP9&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">桂宏誠. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npf.org.tw/1/4257">什麼是制衡?</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2021-10-24</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211024164315/https://www.npf.org.tw/1/4257">存档</a>于2021-10-24).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.au=%E6%A1%82%E5%AE%8F%E8%AA%A0&amp;rft.btitle=%E4%BB%80%E9%BA%BC%E6%98%AF%E5%88%B6%E8%A1%A1%EF%BC%9F&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.npf.org.tw%2F1%2F4257&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Polibius-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Polibius_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Polibius. (~150 B.C.). The Rise of the Roman Empire. Translated by Ian Scott-Kilvert (1979). Penguin Classics. London, England.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Quoted in Jan Weerda, <i>Calvin</i>, in <i>Evangelisches Soziallexikon</i>, Third Edition (1960), Stuttgart (Germany), col. 210</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <cite class="citation book"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lee_Ward&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Lee Ward(页面不存在)">Ward, Lee</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YuUaBgAAQBAJ">Modern Democracy and the Theological-Political Problem in Spinoza, Rousseau, and Jefferson</a>. Recovering Political Philosophy. Palgrave Macmillan. 2014-12-04: 25–26 (2014). <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781137475053" title="Special:网络书源/9781137475053"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;9781137475053</a>. <q>Calvin's republican sympathies derived from his view of human nature as deeply flawed. Compound or mixed governments reflect the reality that human frailty justifies and necessitates institutional checks and balances to the magistrate's presumed propensity to abuse power. It was this commitment to checks and balances that became the basis of Calvin's resistance theory, according to which inferior magistrates have a duty to resist or restrain a tyrannical sovereign.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.aufirst=Lee&amp;rft.aulast=Ward&amp;rft.btitle=Modern+Democracy+and+the+Theological-Political+Problem+in+Spinoza%2C+Rousseau%2C+and+Jefferson&amp;rft.date=2014-12-04&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9781137475053&amp;rft.pages=25-26&amp;rft.pub=Palgrave+Macmillan&amp;rft.series=Recovering+Political+Philosophy&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYuUaBgAAQBAJ&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span> <span style="display:none;font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment">请检查<code style="color:inherit; border:inherit; padding:inherit;">&#124;publication-date=</code>中的日期值 (<a href="/wiki/Help:%E5%BC%95%E6%96%87%E6%A0%BC%E5%BC%8F1%E9%94%99%E8%AF%AF#bad_date" title="Help:引文格式1错误">帮助</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clifton E. Olmstead (1960), <i>History of Religion in the United States</i>, Prentice-Hall, Englewood Cliffs, N.J., pp. 9–10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web">Fennell, Christopher. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html">Plymouth Colony Legal Structure</a>. Histarch.uiuc.edu. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2022-07-14</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120429000512/http://www.histarch.uiuc.edu/plymouth/ccflaw.html">存档</a>于2012-04-29).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.aufirst=Christopher&amp;rft.aulast=Fennell&amp;rft.btitle=Plymouth+Colony+Legal+Structure&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.pub=Histarch.uiuc.edu&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.histarch.uiuc.edu%2Fplymouth%2Fccflaw.html&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html">Hanover Historical Texts Project</a> <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" class="mw-redirect" title="Wayback Machine">互联网档案馆</a>的<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130112050540/http://history.hanover.edu/texts/masslib.html">存檔</a>,存档日期12 January 2013.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Clifton E. Olmstead, <i>History of Religion in the United States</i>, pp. 69–76, 99–105, 114–16</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <cite class="citation book">Galdia, Marcus. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wVVXqe0cvYEC">Legal Linguistics</a>. Frankfurt am Main: Peter Lang. 2009: 249. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9783631594636" title="Special:网络书源/9783631594636"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;9783631594636</a>. <q>[...] in the absence of a written constitution in England it may at times be difficult to determine whether a particular text belongs to the constitutional law, i.e. forms the corpus of legal constitutional acts of England [...].</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.aufirst=Marcus&amp;rft.aulast=Galdia&amp;rft.btitle=Legal+Linguistics&amp;rft.date=2009&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.isbn=9783631594636&amp;rft.pages=249&amp;rft.place=Frankfurt+am+Main&amp;rft.pub=Peter+Lang&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwVVXqe0cvYEC&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In: Greene, J. P., &amp; Pole, J. R. (Eds.). (2008). <i>A companion to the American Revolution</i>, Ch. 87. John Wiley &amp; Sons..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Marshall J. (2013). Whig Thought and the Revolution of 1688–91. In: Harris, T., &amp; Taylor, S. (Eds.). (2015). <i>The final crisis of the Stuart monarchy: the revolutions of 1688-91 in their British, Atlantic and European contexts</i>, Chapter 3. Boydell &amp; Brewer.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iraq.mfa.gov.ua/en/news/constitution-philip-orlik-1710">Embassy of Ukraine in the Republic of Iraq - the constitution of Philip Orlik in 1710</a>. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2022-07-14</span>&#93;</span>. 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Michigan Law Review. 1986, <b>85</b> (3): 595 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2022-07-14</span>&#93;</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.worldcat.org/issn/0026-2234"><span title="国际标准连续出版物号">ISSN&#160;0026-2234</span></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//www.jstor.org/stable/1288758"><span title="JSTOR">JSTOR&#160;1288758</span></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F1288758"><span title="數位物件識別號">doi:10.2307/1288758</span></a>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221026113147/https://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/journal_articles/8021/">存档</a>于2022-10-26).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.atitle=The+Rise+and+Fall+of+the+%22Doctrine%22+of+Separation+of+Powers&amp;rft.aufirst=Phillip&amp;rft.aulast=Kurland&amp;rft.date=1986&amp;rft.genre=article&amp;rft.issn=0026-2234&amp;rft.issue=3&amp;rft.jtitle=Michigan+Law+Review&amp;rft.pages=595&amp;rft.volume=85&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F1288758&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fchicagounbound.uchicago.edu%2Fjournal_articles%2F8021&amp;rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F1288758&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Tuckness, Alex. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=i-YA3RtI5boC&amp;pg=PA133">Institutional Roles, Legislative View</a>. Locke and the Legislative Point of View: Toleration, Contested Principles, and the Law. Princeton University Press. 2002: 133. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0691095043" title="Special:网络书源/0691095043"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;0691095043</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.atitle=Institutional+Roles%2C+Legislative+View&amp;rft.aufirst=Alex&amp;rft.aulast=Tuckness&amp;rft.btitle=Locke+and+the+Legislative+Point+of+View%3A+Toleration%2C+Contested+Principles%2C+and+the+Law&amp;rft.date=2002&amp;rft.genre=bookitem&amp;rft.isbn=0691095043&amp;rft.pages=133&amp;rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Di-YA3RtI5boC%26pg%3DPA133&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" class="mw-redirect" title="John Locke">Locke, John</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=K1UBAAAAYAAJ&amp;pg=PA215">Two Treatises of Government</a>. C. and J. Rivington. 1824: 2151824.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.aufirst=John&amp;rft.aulast=Locke&amp;rft.btitle=Two+Treatises+of+Government&amp;rft.date=1824&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft.pages=215&amp;rft.pub=C.+and+J.+Rivington&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DK1UBAAAAYAAJ%26pg%3DPA215&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Espritdeslois3-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Espritdeslois3_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web"><a class="external text" href="https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Esprit_des_lois_(1777)/L11/C6">Esprit des lois (1777)/L11/C6 - Wikisource</a>. fr.wikisource.org. <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2018-03-11</span>&#93;</span>. (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180301164427/https://fr.wikisource.org/wiki/Esprit_des_lois_(1777)/L11/C6">存档</a>于2018-03-01) <span style="font-family: sans-serif; cursor: default; color:var(--color-subtle, #54595d); font-size: 0.8em; bottom: 0.1em; font-weight: bold;" title="连接到法语网页">(法语)</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.atitle=Esprit+des+lois+%281777%29%2FL11%2FC6+-+Wikisource&amp;rft.genre=unknown&amp;rft.jtitle=fr.wikisource.org&amp;rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ffr.wikisource.org%2Fwiki%2FEsprit_des_lois_%281777%29%2FL11%2FC6&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFPrice2011" class="citation">Price, Sara, The Roman Republic in Montesquieu and Rousseau – Abstract, 22 February 2011, <span class="plainlinks"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//ssrn.com/abstract=1766947"><span title="社会科学研究网络">SSRN&#160;1766947</span></a>&#8239;<span typeof="mw:File"><span title="可免费查阅"><img alt="可免费查阅" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png" decoding="async" width="9" height="14" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/14px-Lock-green.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/18px-Lock-green.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="813" /></span></span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.aufirst=Sara&amp;rft.aulast=Price&amp;rft.btitle=The+Roman+Republic+in+Montesquieu+and+Rousseau+%E2%80%93+Abstract&amp;rft.date=2011-02-22&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=%2F%2Fssrn.com%2Fabstract%3D1766947&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFSchindler" class="citation">Schindler, Ronald, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131012023735/http://www.rschindler.com/montesquieu.htm">Montesquieu's Political Writings</a>, <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">19 November</span> 2012&#93;</span>, (<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rschindler.com/montesquieu.htm">原始内容</a>存档于12 October 2013)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.aufirst=Ronald&amp;rft.aulast=Schindler&amp;rft.btitle=Montesquieu%27s+Political+Writings&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rschindler.com%2Fmontesquieu.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFLloyd1998" class="citation">Lloyd, Marshall Davies, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm">Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers</a>, 22 September 1998 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">17 November</span> 2012&#93;</span>, (原始内容<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110927221044/http://mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm">存档</a>于2011-09-27)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&amp;rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fzh.wikipedia.org%3A%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;rft.aufirst=Marshall+Davies&amp;rft.aulast=Lloyd&amp;rft.btitle=Polybius+and+the+Founding+Fathers%3A+the+separation+of+powers&amp;rft.date=1998-09-22&amp;rft.genre=book&amp;rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fmlloyd.org%2Fmdl-indx%2Fpolybius%2Fintro.htm&amp;rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook" class="Z3988"><span style="display:none;">&#160;</span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles de Secondat, Baron de Montesquieu, <i>The Spirit of Laws</i>, trans. by Thomas Nugent, revised ed. (New York: Colonial Press, 1899), Book 11, s. 6, pp. 151–162 at 151.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montesquieu, <i>The Spirit of Laws</i>, at pp. 151–52.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Montesquieu, <i>The Spirit of Laws</i>, at p. 156.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Przeworski_26-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Przeworski_26_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stephen Holmes, "Lineages of the Rule of Law", in Adam Przeworski &amp; José María Maravall, eds., <i>Democracy &amp; the Rule of Law</i>, Cambridge Studies in the Theory of Democracy Series, № 5 (Cambridge University Press, 2003), pp. 19–61 at 26, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r61200749">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Lock-green.svg/9px-Lock-green.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-gray-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg/9px-Lock-red-alt-2.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration{color:#555}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription span,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration span{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/12px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png")no-repeat;background-position:right .1em center}.mw-parser-output code.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:inherit;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#33aa33;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-subscription,.mw-parser-output .cs1-registration,.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right,.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-wl-right{padding-right:0.2em}</style><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="国际标准书号">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-521-53266-3" title="Special:网络书源/0-521-53266-3">0-521-53266-3</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Przeworski_13-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Przeworski_13_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Przeworski 2003, p.13</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book">Kant, Immanuel. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v7v3CwAAQBAJ&amp;pg=PT79">Perpetual Peace</a>. Reiss, Hans (编). Political Writings. Cambridge, England: Cambridge U.P. 1971: 112–13 <span class="reference-accessdate"> &#91;<span class="nowrap">2022-07-14</span>&#93;</span>. <a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/9781107268364" title="Special:网络书源/9781107268364"><span title="国际标准书号">ISBN</span>&#160;9781107268364</a>. 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Rahe, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110716145832/http://www.hillsdalesites.org/personal/prahe/logicofliberty.html"><i>Montesquieu and the Logic of Liberty</i></a> (2009) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61200749"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="国际标准书号">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-300-14125-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-300-14125-2">978-0-300-14125-2</a> (hbk), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61200749"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="国际标准书号">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-300-16808-2" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-300-16808-2">978-0-300-16808-2</a> (pbk)</li> <li>Iain Stewart, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120319161702/http://www.law.mq.edu.au/research/law_journals/macquarie_law_journal/">"Men of Class: Aristotle, Montesquieu and Dicey on 'Separation of Powers' and 'the Rule of Law'"</a> 4 <i>Macquarie Law Journal</i> 187 (2004)</li> <li>Iain Stewart, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110408194916/http://ouclf.iuscomp.org/articles/montesquieu.shtml">"Montesquieu in England: his 'Notes on England', with Commentary and Translation"</a> (2002)</li> <li>Alec Stone Sweet, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=61AzsGk7EW0C">Governing with Judges: Constitutional Politics in Europe</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210217210200/https://books.google.com/books?id=61AzsGk7EW0C">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>)</i> (2000) <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61200749"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="国际标准书号">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-0-19-829730-7" title="Special:网络书源/978-0-19-829730-7">978-0-19-829730-7</a></li> <li>M. J. C. Vile, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140704001044/http://oll.libertyfund.org/Home3/Book.php?recordID=0024">Constitutionalism and the Separation of Powers</a></i> (1967, Indianapolis: Liberty Fund, 1998) Second edition. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61200749"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="国际标准书号">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-86597-174-9" title="Special:网络书源/0-86597-174-9">0-86597-174-9</a> (hbk), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61200749"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="国际标准书号">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/0-86597-175-7" title="Special:网络书源/0-86597-175-7">0-86597-175-7</a> (pbk)</li> <li>Reinhold Zippelius, <i>Allgemeine Staatslehre/Politikwissenschaft (= Political Science)</i>, 16th edition, § 31, C.H. Beck, Munich, 2010, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r61200749"><a href="/wiki/%E5%9B%BD%E9%99%85%E6%A0%87%E5%87%86%E4%B9%A6%E5%8F%B7" title="国际标准书号">ISBN</a>&#160;<a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BD%91%E7%BB%9C%E4%B9%A6%E6%BA%90/978-3-406-60342-6" title="Special:网络书源/978-3-406-60342-6">978-3-406-60342-6</a></li> <li>Evan C. Zoldan, <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3106780">Is the Federal Judiciary Independent of Congress?</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20210224130418/https://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=3106780">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>)</i>, 70 Stan. L. Rev. Online 135 (2018).</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="參見"><span id=".E5.8F.83.E8.A6.8B"></span>參見</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=29" title="编辑章节:參見"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%AE%AA%E6%94%BF%E4%B8%BB%E4%B9%89" title="宪政主义">宪政主义</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E8%A3%A1%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="美國憲法裡的三權分立">美國憲法裡的三權分立</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" class="mw-redirect" title="五權分立">五權分立</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%AE%E8%A1%8C%E5%90%88%E4%B8%80" title="议行合一">议行合一</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%85%A9%E9%99%A2%E5%88%B6" title="兩院制">兩院制</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%8A%E5%90%88%E4%BD%9C" class="mw-redirect" title="三權合作">三權合作</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="香港的三權分立">香港的三權分立</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="外部連結"><span id=".E5.A4.96.E9.83.A8.E9.80.A3.E7.B5.90"></span>外部連結</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;section=30" title="编辑章节:外部連結"><span>编辑</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm">Polybius and the Founding Fathers: the separation of powers</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110927221044/http://www.mlloyd.org/mdl-indx/polybius/intro.htm">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bartleby.com/43/9.html">Arbitrary Government Described and the Government of the Massachusetts Vindicated from that Aspersion (1644)</a>(<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="//web.archive.org/web/20110629024050/http://www.bartleby.com/43/9.html">页面存档备份</a>,存于<a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%92%E8%81%94%E7%BD%91%E6%A1%A3%E6%A1%88%E9%A6%86" title="互联网档案馆">互联网档案馆</a>)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r84261037">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output 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.navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em;width:auto;padding-left:0.2em;position:absolute;left:1em}.mw-parser-output .navbox .mw-collapsible-toggle{margin-left:0.5em;position:absolute;right:1em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="權力分立" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84265675"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r84244141"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="Template:權力分立"><abbr title="查看该模板">查</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Template_talk:%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Template talk:權力分立(页面不存在)"><abbr title="讨论该模板">论</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:%E7%BC%96%E8%BE%91%E9%A1%B5%E9%9D%A2/Template:%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="Special:编辑页面/Template:權力分立"><abbr title="编辑该模板">编</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="權力分立" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">權力分立</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">典型分支機構</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E6%9C%BA%E5%85%B3" title="行政机关">行政機構</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A1%8C%E6%94%BF%E4%B8%BB%E5%B0%8E" title="行政主導">行政主導</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%AB%8B%E6%B3%95%E6%9C%BA%E5%85%B3" title="立法机关">立法機構</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%A4%9A%E9%99%A2%E5%88%B6" title="多院制">多院制</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AD%B0%E6%9C%83%E4%B8%BB%E6%AC%8A" title="議會主權">議會主權</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E8%A5%BF%E6%95%8F%E5%88%B6" title="西敏制">西敏制</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E8%AE%AE%E8%A1%8C%E5%90%88%E4%B8%80" title="议行合一">议行合一</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E6%A9%9F%E9%97%9C" title="司法機關">司法機構</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E7%8D%A8%E7%AB%8B" title="司法獨立">司法獨立</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%8F%B8%E6%B3%95%E8%A6%86%E6%A0%B8" title="司法覆核">司法覆核</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">非典型分支機構</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E9%8A%93%E6%95%98" title="銓敘">銓敘机关</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="政府績效监督" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Government performance auditing"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%94%BF%E5%BA%9C%E7%B8%BE%E6%95%88%E7%9B%91%E7%9D%A3&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="政府績效监督(页面不存在)">政府績效监督</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Government_performance_auditing" class="extiw" title="en:Government performance auditing"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Government performance auditing</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E5%8F%8D%E8%85%90%E8%B4%A5%E6%9C%BA%E6%9E%84&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="反腐败机构(页面不存在)">监察机关(反腐败机构)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%B8%AD%E5%8D%8E%E4%BA%BA%E6%B0%91%E5%85%B1%E5%92%8C%E5%9B%BD%E5%90%84%E7%BA%A7%E7%9B%91%E5%AF%9F%E5%A7%94%E5%91%98%E4%BC%9A" title="中华人民共和国各级监察委员会">监察委员会</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%81%B8%E8%88%89%E5%A7%94%E5%93%A1%E6%9C%83" title="選舉委員會">选举管理机关</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E5%BE%8B%E6%94%BF%E5%8F%B8" title="律政司">律政司</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">各國的權力分立</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%E4%BA%94%E6%AC%8A%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95" title="五權憲法">五權分立</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="澳洲權力分立" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Separation of powers in Australia"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%BE%B3%E6%B4%B2%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="澳洲權力分立(页面不存在)">澳洲權力分立</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_Australia" class="extiw" title="en:Separation of powers in Australia"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Separation of powers in Australia</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E9%A6%99%E6%B8%AF%E7%9A%84%E4%B8%89%E6%AC%8A%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="香港的三權分立">香港的三權分立</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="英國權力分立" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Separation of powers in the United Kingdom"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E8%8B%B1%E5%9C%8B%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="英國權力分立(页面不存在)">英國權力分立</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="extiw" title="en:Separation of powers in the United Kingdom"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Separation of powers in the United Kingdom</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%E7%BE%8E%E5%9C%8B%E6%86%B2%E6%B3%95%E4%B8%AD%E7%9A%84%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B" title="美國憲法中的權力分立">美國憲法中的權力分立</a></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="新加坡權力分立" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Separation of powers in Singapore"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E6%96%B0%E5%8A%A0%E5%9D%A1%E6%AC%8A%E5%8A%9B%E5%88%86%E7%AB%8B&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="新加坡權力分立(页面不存在)">新加坡權力分立</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_powers_in_Singapore" class="extiw" title="en:Separation of powers in Singapore"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Separation of powers in Singapore</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">參見</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0px"><div style="padding:0em 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="Separation of duties" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Separation of duties"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Separation_of_duties&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Separation of duties(页面不存在)">Separation of duties</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Separation_of_duties" class="extiw" title="en:Separation of duties"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Separation of duties</span></a></span>)</span></span></li> <li><span class="ilh-all" data-orig-title="Dual mandate" data-lang-code="en" data-lang-name="英语" data-foreign-title="Dual mandate"><span class="ilh-page"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dual_mandate&amp;action=edit&amp;redlink=1" class="new" title="Dual mandate(页面不存在)">Dual mandate</a></span><span class="noprint ilh-comment">(<span class="ilh-lang">英语</span><span class="ilh-colon">:</span><span class="ilh-link"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_mandate" class="extiw" title="en:Dual mandate"><span lang="en" dir="auto">Dual mandate</span></a></span>)</span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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aria-labelledby="-&amp;#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&amp;#125;--&amp;#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&amp;#125;-_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79896#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="collapsible-title navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="-&amp;#123;zh-cn:规范控制;zh-tw:權威控制;&amp;#125;--&amp;#123;zh-cn:数据库;zh-tw:資料庫&amp;#125;-_frameless&amp;#124;text-top&amp;#124;10px&amp;#124;alt=編輯維基數據鏈接&amp;#124;link=https&amp;#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q79896#identifiers&amp;#124;class=noprint&amp;#124;編輯維基數據鏈接" style="font-size:110%;margin:0 5em"><a href="/wiki/Help:%E8%A7%84%E8%8C%83%E6%8E%A7%E5%88%B6" title="Help:规范控制">规范控制数据库</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a 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