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id="toc-Location_problem" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Location_problem"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Location problem</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Location_problem-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Eliminativism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Eliminativism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Eliminativism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Eliminativism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reductionism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reductionism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Reductionism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reductionism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Realism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> 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Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Relations_(philosophy)&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relations (philosophy)</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ways how entities stand to each other</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Relation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Symbolism in logic to express relations" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Relation.svg/220px-Relation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="88" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Relation.svg/330px-Relation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/39/Relation.svg/440px-Relation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="205" /></a><figcaption>In <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, relations are commonly represented by uppercase letters while lowercase letters are used for the relata.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Relations</b> are ways in which several <a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">entities</a> stand to each other. They usually connect distinct entities but some associate an entity with itself. The <a href="/wiki/Adicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Adicity">adicity</a> of a relation is the number of entities it connects. The direction of a relation is the order in which the elements are related to each other. The <a href="/wiki/Converse_(semantics)" title="Converse (semantics)">converse</a> of a relation carries the same information and has the opposite direction, like the contrast between "two is <a href="/wiki/Inequality_(mathematics)" title="Inequality (mathematics)">less than</a> five" and "five is greater than two". Both relations and <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> express features in reality with a key difference being that relations apply to several entities while properties belong to a single entity. </p><p>Many types of relations are discussed in the academic literature. Internal relations, like <a href="/wiki/Similarity_(philosophy)" title="Similarity (philosophy)">resemblance</a>, depend only on the monadic properties of the relata. They contrast with external relations, like spatial relations, which express characteristics that go beyond what their relata are like. Formal relations, like <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity</a>, involve abstract and topic-neutral ideas while material relations, like loving, have concrete and substantial contents. Logical relations are relations between <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a> while <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</a> relations connect concrete events. <a href="/wiki/Symmetric_relation" title="Symmetric relation">Symmetric</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transitive_relation" title="Transitive relation">transitive</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_relation" title="Reflexive relation">reflexive relations</a> are distinguished by their structural features. </p><p>Metaphysical difficulties like the question of where relations are located lie at the center of discussions of their ontological status. <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Eliminativism</a> is the thesis that relations are mental abstractions that are not a part of external reality. A less radical position is <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionism</a>, which claims that relations can be explained in terms of other entities, like monadic properties, and are not a substantial addition to reality. According to <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realists</a>, relations have a mind-independent existence. A strong form of realism is <a href="/wiki/Relationalism" title="Relationalism">relationalism</a>, which states that all of reality is relational at its most basic level. Historically, eliminativism and reductionism were the dominant views. This only changed toward the end of the 19th century, when various developments in the fields of <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Science" title="Science">science</a> prompted a more realist outlook. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition_and_essential_features">Definition and essential features</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Definition and essential features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A relation is a manner in which multiple <a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">entities</a> stand to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is a connection or association between entities and can be understood as a feature characterizing these entities as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many relations hold between distinct entities. For example, the first-born sibling stands in the relation of <i>being older than</i> to their other siblings. But an entity can also stand in a relation to itself. For instance, every entity stands in the relation of <a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">identity</a> to itself.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relations can hold between diverse entities, including <a href="/wiki/Subject_and_object_(philosophy)" title="Subject and object (philosophy)">objects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Person" title="Person">people</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">concepts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> If a relation holds between entities then the relation together with the entities constitutes a <a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">fact</a> or <a href="/wiki/State_of_affairs_(philosophy)" title="State of affairs (philosophy)">state of affairs</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto14_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto14-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The word "relationship" is often used as a synonym.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The entities related to each other are called the <i>relata</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The term "relation" comes from the Latin terms <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">relatio</i></span> and <span title="Latin-language text"><i lang="la">referre</i></span>, which mean <i>reference</i> or <i>towardness</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">mathematics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Relation_(mathematics)" title="Relation (mathematics)">relations</a> are defined as <a href="/wiki/Set_theory" title="Set theory">set-theoretic</a> structures. For example, the relation <i><a href="/wiki/Inequality_(mathematics)" title="Inequality (mathematics)">less than</a></i> is defined as the set of all ordered <a href="/wiki/Tuple" title="Tuple">pairs</a> in which the first element is less than the second element. This set includes pairs like [1,2], [1,3], and [2,17].<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Function_(mathematics)" title="Function (mathematics)">Mathematical functions</a> are a special type of relation in which one or several elements are uniquely associated with exactly one other element.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relations have various characteristic features, like the number of relata they have and the direction in which they connect them.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are closely associated with <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a> and share several aspects with them.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adicity">Adicity</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Adicity"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Adicity" class="mw-redirect" title="Adicity">adicity</a> of a relation is the number of places or relata it has. The terms "arity" and "degree" are used as synonyms. For instance, the relation <i>being larger than</i> has an adicity of two since it involves two entities: a smaller entity and a larger entity. Another example is the relation of <i>being adjacent to</i>. Relations with an adicity of two are called dyadic or <a href="/wiki/Binary_relation" title="Binary relation">binary</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Triadic or <a href="/wiki/Ternary_relation" title="Ternary relation">ternary relations</a> have an adicity of three, like the relation of <i>giving</i>, which involves a giver, a receiver, and a given object. The relation of <i>being between</i> is also triadic since it requires two entities on the sides and one in the middle, as in "5 is between 2 and 23".<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unigrade relations are relations that have a fixed adicity: they always apply to the same number of entities. They contrast with multigrade relations, for which the number of their relata varies from one occasion to another.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is controversial whether there are genuine multigrade relations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some theorists, like <a href="/wiki/David_M._Armstrong" class="mw-redirect" title="David M. Armstrong">David M. Armstrong</a>, argue that the adicity of a relation is an essential feature of it. According to this view, there are no multigrade relations on the fundamental level of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, this view is not generally accepted and some cases of multigrade relations have been suggested. Putative examples include <a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">causal</a> relations (which may relate several causes to several effects), <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">logical consequence</a> (which relates several <a href="/wiki/Premise" title="Premise">premises</a> to a conclusion they support), and expressions like <i>being the tallest among</i> (for which the adicity depends on the size of the comparison group).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multigrade predicates are also common in everyday language. For instance, the predicate "lift" is dyadic in the sentence "John is lifting a table" and triadic in the sentence "John and Mary are lifting a table". Other examples are predicates that have optional arguments, as in the sentences "John is eating a cake" and "John is eating".<sup id="cite_ref-auto14_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto14-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Direction_and_converse">Direction and converse</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Direction and converse"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The direction of a relation is the order in which the elements are related to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, if Abelard loves Eloise then the relation of loving goes from Abelard to Eloise. If Eloise loves Abelard then the direction goes in the opposite direction. Both of these facts have the same constituents. They are only distinguished by their direction.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Only non-symmetric relations have a direction since the order of the relata does not make a difference for symmetric relations.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Converse_(semantics)" title="Converse (semantics)">converse</a> of a non-symmetric relation is a second relation that always accompanies the first relation but has a different order of elements. For example, the converse of <i>above</i> is <i>below</i>. This means that whenever <i>x</i> is above <i>y</i> then <i>y</i> is below <i>x</i>. The same is the case for relations like <i>coming before</i> and <i>coming after</i> as well as <i>being a parent of</i> and <i>being a child of</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Binary relations have exactly one converse while tertiary and higher-degree relations have several converses.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A relation and its converse carry the same information. For this reason, it is controversial whether they should be considered as two distinct relations instead of seeing them as the same relation.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This difficulty has prompted some philosophers to conceptualize the directional aspect of non-symmetric relations differently or to deny the existence of converse relations. According to positionalism, relations do not have a direction but have different unique positions that are filled by their relata.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the relation <i>love</i> has two positions: one for the lover and one for the beloved.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This view explains how relata can play different roles in a relation without implying that the relation has a direction or a converse.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contrast_to_properties">Contrast to properties</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Contrast to properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Relations are usually contrasted with <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">properties</a>. Properties are held by a single entity and express what this entity is like. Relations connect several entities and are features that apply to them as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A closely associated contrast is that properties belong to entities or inhere in them while relations are not found in the relata but stand between them.<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, there are also many parallels between properties and relations and there is no general agreement on a strict dichotomy between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both are often used to describe and explain repeating patterns in the world<sup id="cite_ref-auto2_12-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto2-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many of the <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> distinctions applied to properties also affect relations.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, both properties and relations may be understood as <a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">universals</a> that are instantiated by individuals at a specific place and time. Like properties, relations are either <a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)#Determinate_and_determinable" title="Property (philosophy)">determinable or determinate</a>. Determinable relations are not specified, like the relation of <i>being distant from</i>. Determinate relations are fully specified, like the relation of <i>being exactly one meter distant from</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It is possible to conceptualize properties and <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a> as special types of relations. According to this view, the difference between these phenomena only concerns how many entities they apply to: regular relations are polyadic and thus apply to several entities; properties are monadic relations and only apply to a single entity; propositions are relations with a degree of zero and do not apply to any entities.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The opposite perspective is also possible: to conceptualize relations as polyadic or relational properties.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is usually accepted that relational properties accompany relations: if <i>x</i> stands in a relation to <i>y</i>, then <i>x</i> has the relational property of <i>bearing a relation to y</i>. For example, since Antony was married to Cleopatra, he had the relational property of <i>being married to Cleopatra</i>. However, it is not generally accepted that relations are correctly understood as or can be reduced to relational properties.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historically, properties have received significantly more attention from <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysicists</a> than relations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto11_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto11-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Types">Types</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Types"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various types of relations are distinguished in the academic literature based on their ontological status, the domains they apply to, and the structures they form.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Internal_and_external">Internal and external</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Internal and external"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>An influential distinction differentiates between internal and external relations. A relation is internal if it only depends on what the relata are like: it is determined by the characteristics or the nature of the relata alone. External relations are not fixed this way and carry characteristics that go beyond the intrinsic features of their relata.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mathematical relations between numbers are examples of internal relations. For instance, the number six stands in the relation of <i>being greater than</i> to the number five. This relation is internal because it is essential to the numbers six and five that six is greater than five.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other traditional examples of internal relations are <a href="/wiki/Similarity_(philosophy)" title="Similarity (philosophy)">resemblance</a> and difference.<sup id="cite_ref-auto13_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto13-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spatial relations are normally understood as external relations, like the relation of a book to the table it is lying on.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The same is true for temporal and causal relations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto13_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto13-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1914_George_Edward_Moore_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of George Edward Moore" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="289" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b9/1914_George_Edward_Moore_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="258" data-file-height="339" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a> introduced the distinction between internal and external relations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_16-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>However, the precise characterization of the distinction between internal and external relations is disputed and there are various incompatible ways to define them. According to <a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">G. E. Moore</a>, a relation is internal if it follows from the existence of its relata that the relation also exists. This means that the relation is <a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">essential</a> to the relata and the relata cannot exist without this relation. For Moore, external relations are different since they could fail to obtain even if its relata exist.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another definition is defended by philosophers like Armstrong, who hold that a relation is internal if it is necessitated by the properties or the intrinsic features of the relata.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/David_K._Lewis" class="mw-redirect" title="David K. Lewis">David K. Lewis</a> provides a slightly different formulation by claiming that internal relations <a href="/wiki/Supervenience" title="Supervenience">supervene</a> on the intrinsic properties of their elements.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some philosophers talk of <i>ideal relations</i> to refer to relations that solely depend on the <a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">qualities</a> of the related terms, in contrast to <i>real relations</i>, for which this is not the case.<sup id="cite_ref-auto8_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto8-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The difference between these definitions affects whether some relations are characterized as internal or external.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the relation of <i>having the same shape</i>. This relation applies if <i>x</i> is a cube and <i>y</i> is also a cube. According to Armstrong, this relation is internal since it only depends on the intrinsic nature of <i>x</i> and <i>y</i>. This is not the case for Moore since <i>y</i> could have been a sphere rather than a cube, meaning that the relation is external since it is not necessitated by the existence of <i>x</i> and <i>y</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_16-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The difference between internal and external relations has various consequences for the ontological status of relations.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to a common view, internal relations do not form part of reality on the most fundamental level since they supervene on their relata. In this regard, they are already included in some sense in the relata and constitute no addition to being.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> That is not the case for external relations, which are more than the entities they connect and thus introduce additional <a href="/wiki/Ontological_commitment" title="Ontological commitment">ontological commitments</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Discussions about the existence of relations usually focus on the question of whether external relations exist.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One difficulty in this regard is where to locate them since it seems that they are not contained within the relata while they also cannot exist without them.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Formal_and_material">Formal and material</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Formal and material"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Another distinction is between formal and material relations,<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> sometimes also termed thin and thick relations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Formal relations involve abstract ideas that do not carry any concrete content. According to a commonly held view, all formal relations are internal.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are often characterized as topic-neutral, meaning that they pertain to all <a href="/wiki/Categories_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Categories of being">categories of being</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Material relations are associated with concrete ideas. They involve specific and substantial contents that are accessible to perceptual experience. Examples of formal relations are identity, entailment, being greater than, <a href="/wiki/Set_membership" class="mw-redirect" title="Set membership">set membership</a>, and resemblance. By contrast, the relations of collision, smiling, loving, killing, and giving are material relations.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Logical_and_causal">Logical and causal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Logical and causal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Square_of_opposition,_set_diagrams.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of the square of opposition" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg/260px-Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg.png" decoding="async" width="260" height="337" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg/390px-Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/51/Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg/520px-Square_of_opposition%2C_set_diagrams.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="479" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Square_of_opposition" title="Square of opposition">square of opposition</a> shows logical relations between the four basic <a href="/wiki/Categorical_propositions" class="mw-redirect" title="Categorical propositions">categorical propositions</a> in Aristotelian logic.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Logical relations are relations between elements of thought, specifically between <a href="/wiki/Proposition" title="Proposition">propositions</a> or statements. Two propositions are logically related if the <a href="/wiki/Truth_value" title="Truth value">truth value</a> of one depends on the truth value of the other.<sup id="cite_ref-auto10_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto10-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, it is not important whether the propositions are true but only how the truth value of one proposition would affect the truth value of the other.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the claims "John has a high IQ and is immensely popular" and "John has a high IQ" are logically related since the first claim cannot be true if the second claim is false.<sup id="cite_ref-auto3_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto3-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Logical relations are discovered through <a href="/wiki/A_priori" class="mw-redirect" title="A priori">a priori</a> reasoning rather than <a href="/wiki/Perceptual_experience" class="mw-redirect" title="Perceptual experience">perceptual experience</a> and are studied by <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_56-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are often used to demonstrate or prove a claim.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Of primary interest in logic is the relation of <a href="/wiki/Logical_consequence" title="Logical consequence">logical consequence</a> or entailment. This relation holds between the premises of an argument and its conclusion if the argument is governed by a valid <a href="/wiki/Rule_of_inference" title="Rule of inference">rule of inference</a>. It determines what follows logically from what and is present if the truth of the premises ensures the truth of the conclusion. This means that if the premises are true, the conclusion cannot be false.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other examples of logical relations are <i><a href="/wiki/Square_of_opposition" title="Square of opposition">being contrary</a></i> and <i>being contradictory</i>. Two statements are contradictory if it is necessary that one is true and the other is false, like the statements "the coffee is cold" and "the coffee is not cold". Two statements are contraries if both can be false but both cannot be true, like the statements "the coffee is cold" and "the coffee is hot".<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causal</a> relations are cause-effect relations between concrete events.<sup id="cite_ref-auto10_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto10-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This is the case if an earlier event brings about a later event. An example is a white billiard ball that hits a red billiard ball, which in turn starts rolling toward a corner pocket. In this case, there is a causal relation between the collision-event and the rolling-event.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Causal relations are studied by the empirical sciences and can be known through perceptual experience.<sup id="cite_ref-auto5_56-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto5-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They play a role in explaining why something happened.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_57-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Causal relations are traditionally understood as external relations. According to this view, they obey external causal laws or <a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">laws of nature</a> that determine how effects follow from causes and are not fixed by the internal nature of the involved events. They are traditionally seen as contingent: they are the way they are but they could have been different because the causal laws could have been different.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An alternative position understands causation not in terms of causal laws but in terms of the <a href="/wiki/Disposition" title="Disposition">powers</a> of objects. In this case, the effect is a manifestation of the powers of the involved objects. According to this view, causal relations are internal relations if powers are understood as intrinsic properties of objects.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One difficulty in distinguishing between causal and logical relations is that both can be expressed with the term "because". For instance, the sentence "John came back because he loved her" expresses a causal relation with love being the cause of John's return. The sentence "John loved her, because he came back" expresses a logical relation in which the existence of John's love is inferred from the fact that he came back.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spatial_and_temporal">Spatial and temporal</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Spatial and temporal"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Spatial and temporal relations structure the physical world and organize how concrete objects and events stand to each other. Spatial relations affect where entities are located and how close or distant they are from each other. Examples are <i>being three feet from</i>, <i>being below</i>, and <i>being within</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temporal relations concern when something happens relative to something else. Examples are <i>occurring before</i>, <i>occurring after</i>, and <i>occurring simultaneously</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is usually held that spatiotemporal relations only hold between <a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">concrete objects</a> but not between abstract objects.<sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Spatial and temporal relations are normally categorized as external relations.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ontological status of spatial and temporal relations depends on how <a href="/wiki/Space" title="Space">space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">time</a> are conceived. The theory of relationalism states that spacetime is nothing but the spatial and temporal relations in which entities stand to each other. According to this view, spatial and temporal relations are fundamental and constitute spacetime. A different view is substantivalism, which holds that spacetime is a substance that exists independently of the entities that occupy it.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Both relationalists and substantivalists accept regular statements about spatiotemporal relations, for example, that "the two towers of the Golden Gate Bridge are 4,200 feet apart". According to relationalists, this sentence is true because there is a fundamental spatial relation between the towers themselves. According to substantivalists, this is true because the two towers occupy two distinct and spatially distant regions in the spacetime substance.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Classical_physics" title="Classical physics">classical physics</a>, space and time are understood as independent dimensions that are absolute and can be measured and analyzed separately from each other. In <a href="/wiki/Modern_physics" title="Modern physics">modern physics</a>, space and time are seen as interdependent dimensions that form a <a href="/wiki/Spacetime" title="Spacetime">unified continuum</a> whose <a href="/wiki/Curvature" title="Curvature">curvature</a> is affected by the presence of mass and energy.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="By_structural_features">By structural features</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: By structural features"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Binary_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Binary relations">Binary relations</a> are often distinguished based on several formal or structural features of how their elements are connected to one another. <a href="/wiki/Symmetric_relation" title="Symmetric relation">Symmetric relations</a> always come in pairs: if <i>x</i> is related to <i>y</i> then <i>y</i> is related to <i>x</i>. An example is the relation <i>being as old as</i>: if Tom is as old as Zoe then Zoe is as old as Tom. Symmetric relations contrast with non-symmetric relations, for which this pair-like behavior is not always observed. An example is the love-relation: if Dave loves Sara then it is possible but not necessary that Sara loves Dave. A special case of non-symmetric relations is <a href="/wiki/Asymmetric_relation" title="Asymmetric relation">asymmetric relations</a>, which only go one way. An example is the relation <i>being heavier than</i>: if Ben is heavier than Nia then it is not possible at the same time that Nia is heavier than Ben.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symmetric relations are not sensitive to how their elements are ordered since they go both ways. However, the order of the elements matters for non-symmetric relations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto7_16-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto7-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A further distinction is between <a href="/wiki/Transitive_relation" title="Transitive relation">transitive</a> and intransitive relations. Transitive relations exhibit a chain-like nature: if <i>x</i> is related to <i>y</i> and <i>y</i> is related to <i>z</i>, then <i>x</i> is related to <i>z</i>. An example is the relation <i>being larger than</i>: if a truck is larger than a car and a car is larger than a bicycle then a truck is larger than a bicycle. A relation is intransitive if this chain-like behavior is not always present. An example is the relation <i>being a parent</i>: if Tess is a parent of Bob and Bob is a parent of Carol, then it is not automatically the case that Tess is a parent of Carol.<sup id="cite_ref-auto9_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto9-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Another distinction is between <a href="/wiki/Reflexive_relation" title="Reflexive relation">reflexive</a> and irreflexive relations. Reflexive relations are those in which each entity is related to itself. An example is the relation <i>being as old as</i> since every entity is as old as itself. Irreflexive relations are relations that never connect an entity to itself.<sup id="cite_ref-auto9_72-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto9-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example is the relation <i>being a sibling of</i>: no one is their own sibling.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These structural features are used to define further types of relations, like <a href="/wiki/Equivalence_relation" title="Equivalence relation">equivalence</a> and strict <a href="/wiki/Partial_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial order">partial order</a>. An equivalence relation is a relation that is reflexive, symmetric, and transitive, like <a href="/wiki/Equality_(mathematics)" title="Equality (mathematics)">equality</a> expressed through the symbol "=".<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A strict <a href="/wiki/Partial_order" class="mw-redirect" title="Partial order">partial order</a> is a relation that is irreflexive, anti-symmetric, and transitive, like the relation <i><a href="/wiki/Inequality_(mathematics)" title="Inequality (mathematics)">being less than</a></i> expressed through the symbol "<".<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ontological_status">Ontological status</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ontological status"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Various debates in metaphysics are concerned with the <a href="/wiki/Ontological" class="mw-redirect" title="Ontological">ontological</a> status of relations. Relations come with certain problems that are not present for other ontological categories, like <a href="/wiki/Ousia" title="Ousia">substances</a> and monadic properties.<sup id="cite_ref-auto12_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto12-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are different from substances because they depend on the entities they connect. They are different from properties since they apply to several entities and cannot be located in any one of their relata.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ontological status of relations is disputed and various theories have been proposed. They are often divided into <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">realism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">anti-realism</a>. Realists hold that relations have mind-independent existence in external reality, which is denied by anti-realists.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, various intermediate positions between these views can be distinguished. Strict anti-realists or eliminativists deny that there are any relations. A slightly weaker position sees relations as mental inventions or <a href="/wiki/Projectivism" title="Projectivism">projections</a>. Another perspective is to accept that relations exist while regarding them as non-fundamental entities. This type of position is taken by <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">reductionists</a>, who claim that relations are emergent entities that can be reduced to other entities. Strong realists advance a more robust view and see relations as part of the fundamental ontological inventory of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difference between internal and external relations is central to their ontological status and the two types are often treated separately.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The issue of the ontological status of relations is closely connected to the <i>problem of the one and the many</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto8_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto8-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This problem consists in explaining how reality can at the same time be both a multiplicity (because there are many distinct entities) and a unity (because all the distinct entities participate in one common reality).<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Location_problem">Location problem</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Location problem"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Many of the difficulties associated with the ontological status of relations are connected to the location problem.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The location problem consists of the question of where relations are located.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the sentence "<a href="/wiki/Glasgow" title="Glasgow">Glasgow</a> is west of <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>" describes the location of two cities based on the relation <i>being west of</i>. However, it does not specify where the relation itself is located.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Different solutions to the location problem have been suggested. One suggestion is that the location of relations is divided.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this view, the relation of <i>being west of</i> resides in both Glasgow and Edinburgh together.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A different approach is to hold that relations exist in a place between their relata.<sup id="cite_ref-auto12_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto12-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further theory states that relations are <a href="/wiki/Abstract_object" class="mw-redirect" title="Abstract object">abstract objects</a> that do not have a location in space and time.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A closely connected issue concerns how relations depend on their relata. Like properties, relations are traditionally conceived as <a href="/wiki/Accident_(philosophy)" title="Accident (philosophy)">accidents</a> or dependent entities.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A traditionally common view says that properties are located in the object they characterize. However, this solution is more difficult for relations, specifically for external relations, since they do not inhere in a single entity but form connections between entities. Their external location makes it more difficult to conceive how they can be dependent entities at the same time.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The difficulties concerning the location of relations have prompted some philosophers to deny that relations exist or to hold that they exist only as ideas in the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Eliminativism">Eliminativism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Eliminativism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Eliminativists about relations hold that relations do not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They often see relations as intellectual abstractions that are not part of reality at the most fundamental level.<sup id="cite_ref-auto11_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto11-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some eliminativists defend this view for all relations while others focus specifically on external relations.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They often justify their position by the ontological problems associated with relations, such as the location problem.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Metaphysical monists</a>, like some defenders of <a href="/wiki/Absolute_idealism" title="Absolute idealism">absolute idealism</a>, often reject the existence of genuine relations by claiming that there exists only one ultimate subject of predication.<sup id="cite_ref-auto8_42-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto8-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:F.H._Bradley.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of F. H. Bradley" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/F.H._Bradley.jpg/220px-F.H._Bradley.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="335" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/F.H._Bradley.jpg/330px-F.H._Bradley.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/F.H._Bradley.jpg/440px-F.H._Bradley.jpg 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="1143" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a> formulated <a href="/wiki/Bradley%27s_regress" title="Bradley's regress">a regress argument</a> to defend the claim that relations do not exist.</figcaption></figure> <p>A well-known argument for eliminativism is called <a href="/wiki/Bradley%27s_regress" title="Bradley's regress">Bradley's regress</a>. It was formulated by <a href="/wiki/F._H._Bradley" title="F. H. Bradley">F. H. Bradley</a>, who argues that relations do not exist because they involve a <a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress#Viciousness" title="Infinite regress">vicious infinite regress</a>. Bradley understands relations as universals and holds that a relation can only connect two entities if it is related to them. He claims that to be related to them, a second relation is required to relate the first relation to its relata. However, the same problem is repeated on the level of the second relation, which requires a third relation, and so on. This leads to a vicious infinite regress since the same problem arises for all additional relations. Bradley concludes from the resulting paradox that relations do not exist.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The conclusion of Bradley's regress is not generally accepted and various arguments have been formulated to reject it. One approach is to distinguish between relations as universals and relational facts corresponding to particular instances. According to this view, the connection between a relation and its relata is made by the fact that instantiates the relation without the need for a second relation. A closely connected explanation understands relations not as universals but as particular entities, so-called <a href="/wiki/Trope_(philosophy)" title="Trope (philosophy)">tropes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Opponents of these approaches have argued that they fail to truly solve the problem since they do not explain how facts or tropes connect a relation to its relata without requiring a second relation.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another argument against Bradley's regress rejects the initial assumption that relations need to be related to the relata.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Objections to eliminativism are often based on the idea that relations are required to describe reality. For instance, relations seem to be an <a href="/wiki/Quine%E2%80%93Putnam_indispensability_argument" title="Quine–Putnam indispensability argument">indispensable</a> part of mathematics and the empirical sciences.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reductionism">Reductionism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Reductionism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reductionism is the view that relations can ultimately be reduced to or explained in terms of non-relational entities. In this regard, they are not a substantial addition to reality but only accompany other phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some theorists understand reductionism as a form of anti-realism while others hold that reductionism allows that relations exist in a weak sense but denies that they are part of the most fundamental level of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A common form of reductionism states that relations can be understood in terms of the monadic properties of the related entities.<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the mountain <a href="/wiki/Ben_Vorlich,_Loch_Lomond" title="Ben Vorlich, Loch Lomond">Ben Vorlich</a> stands in the relation of <i>being taller than</i> to its neighbor <a href="/wiki/Ben_Vane" title="Ben Vane">Ben Vane</a>. This is explained by the properties of the two mountains: Ben Vorlich is 3094 feet high while Ben Vane is 3002 feet high. According to this view, no additional relational facts besides these properties are required.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_50-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Another example is the relation of similarity, which is often analyzed in terms of shared properties.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The claim that all relations, including external relations, can be reduced to monadic properties is controversial. For instance, it is not clear how spatial relations can be analyzed this way.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further argument against reductionism comes from modern physics and holds that the non-relational properties it discusses are not sufficient to explain all phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_50-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Reductionism is common when applied to internal relations,<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but it is not universally accepted. One anti-reductionist argument holds that some kind of minimal formal relation between the monadic properties themselves is required even in the case of internal relations. For example, to explain that Ben Vorlich is higher than Ben Vane, the properties <i>being 3094 feet high</i> and <i>being 3002 feet high</i> by themselves are not sufficient if one does not assume that the relation of <i>being greater than</i> holds between these properties.<sup id="cite_ref-auto6_50-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto6-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Realism">Realism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Realism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Realists hold that relations are part of reality. This view is usually combined with the claim that relations have mind-independent existence. In a strong form, it states that relations belong to the most fundamental level of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, there are also weaker forms of realism. They hold that relations are real but do not exist on the most fundamental level. According to this view, they emerge from non-relational features and are in this sense "no addition to being".<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some realists understand relations as universals. According to this view, relations are repeatable and can be instantiated by different groups of individuals.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A different view holds that relations are tropes or non-repeatable particulars.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Relationalism">Relationalism</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Relationalism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Relationalism" title="Relationalism">Relationalism</a> is a strong form of realism about relations. In its widest sense, it states that all of reality is relational at its most fundamental level and denies the existence of non-relational properties.<sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The terms "relationism" and "relational ontology" are sometimes used as synonyms.<sup id="cite_ref-103" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Relationalism contrasts with substantivalism, also known as substantivism, which sees substances, and not relations, as the fundamental constituents of reality.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One core intuition motivating relationalism is that a key to understanding any object is to grasp how it is related to other objects.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some relationalists state that objects do not exist at all while others hold that they only exist as dependent entities.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the position of <a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">ontic structuralism</a> claims that objects are structures made up of relations.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to philosopher Randal Dipert, the world is made up of relations that form the structure of a <a href="/wiki/Graph_(discrete_mathematics)" title="Graph (discrete mathematics)">mathematical graph</a> and the concrete entities in it are subgraphs.<sup id="cite_ref-108" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Relationalism is a controversial view when understood in its strongest form as a theory of reality in general. Besides its clash with common sense, one difficulty is that relations are usually understood as dependent entities that apply to the objects they connect rather than as independent entities that could exist without their relata. Another difficulty is that purely relational structures seem to be abstract objects that cannot by themselves account for the concrete reality they aim to describe.<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some relationalists defend more restricted theories by limiting their claims to specific domains rather than trying to explain reality as a whole.<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the philosophy of space and time, <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time#Absolutism_and_relationalism" title="Philosophy of space and time">relationalism</a> is the view that spacetime is not a substance, as substantivalists claim, but a network of spatiotemporal relations between individual physical phenomena.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_perception" title="Philosophy of perception">philosophy of perception</a>, relationalism about color is the view that colors are not regular monadic properties of objects but relations between perceptual circumstances and the subjects that perceive them.<sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_sociology" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of sociology">philosophy of sociology</a>, relationalism is an approach that investigates wide social phenomena by studying the relations between interactants. Examples are seeing <a href="/wiki/Society" title="Society">society</a> as the totality of interactions between people or understanding the world of <a href="/wiki/Art" title="Art">art</a> in terms of the relations between artists, producers, audiences, and critics.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:De_Morgan_Augustus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Picture of Augustus De Morgan" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/De_Morgan_Augustus.jpg/220px-De_Morgan_Augustus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="271" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/De_Morgan_Augustus.jpg/330px-De_Morgan_Augustus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/De_Morgan_Augustus.jpg/440px-De_Morgan_Augustus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="958" data-file-height="1182" /></a><figcaption>The nature of relations was reconceptualized following various academic developments in the 19th century, such as the formulation of the logic of relations by <a href="/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan" title="Augustus De Morgan">Augustus De Morgan</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/History_of_philosophy" title="History of philosophy">history of the philosophy</a> of relations can roughly be divided into two periods. Traditionally up until the late 19th century, metaphysicists were suspicious about the nature of relations. They usually regarded them as lower entities that do not play a role on the fundamental level of reality. This outlook changed in the 19th century, when various developments in the fields of mathematics, logic, and science prompted philosophers to reconceptualize the nature of relations and the need for relations to describe reality on its most basic level.<sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s distinction between substances and accidents was influential in how relations were conceived by later philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Substances are the fundamental constituents of reality. They exist in themselves and are not predicable of something else, like an individual man or a horse. Accidents cannot exist without a substance. They are possible but non-necessary modifications of substances, like <i>being in a sitting position</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Aristotle conceived relations as the lowest form of accidents that depend not just on substances but also on other accidents. Many subsequent philosophers accepted the idea that relations are non-substantial entities that are unable to exist on their own and depend on other entities.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the neo-Platonists <a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(philosopher)" title="Porphyry (philosopher)">Porphyry</a> followed Aristotle in seeing relations as accidents while emphasizing at the same time that relations are real entities.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The nature and role of relations were discussed in detail in <a href="/wiki/Medieval_philosophy" title="Medieval philosophy">medieval philosophy</a>, specifically by <a href="/wiki/Scholasticism" title="Scholasticism">scholastic</a> philosophers.<sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They agreed with Aristotle that relations are accidents. A common approach was to reduce relations to pairs of monadic properties.<sup id="cite_ref-120" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This approach was exemplified by <a href="/wiki/Peter_Abelard" title="Peter Abelard">Peter Abelard</a> and <a href="/wiki/William_Ockham" class="mw-redirect" title="William Ockham">William Ockham</a>, who explained relations in terms of non-relational qualities possessed by the relata. For instance, they held that if Socrates is similar to Theaetetus then this is because they share certain qualities, like color.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some scholastic philosophers, like <a href="/wiki/Peter_Auriol" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Auriol">Peter Auriol</a>, rejected relations and held instead that they are merely mental associations of entities not found outside the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A different approach was followed by <a href="/wiki/Albert_the_Great" class="mw-redirect" title="Albert the Great">Albert the Great</a> and <a href="/wiki/John_Duns_Scotus" class="mw-redirect" title="John Duns Scotus">John Duns Scotus</a>, who understood relations as a distinct and irreducible type of entity.<sup id="cite_ref-auto1_121-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto1-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Thomas Aquinas</a> defended a middle position by holding that some relations have a substantial foundation in reality, like <i>being a father</i>, while others merely exist on the verbal level, like <i>being moved by</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to a common view in the modern period, relations are reducible to other entities or exist merely in the mind.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Hobbes" title="Thomas Hobbes">Thomas Hobbes</a> defended a form of <a href="/wiki/Nominalism" title="Nominalism">nominalism</a> according to which only individuals have full existence. This implies that relations lack a proper ontological status and only exist in the mind as a form of mental comparison.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Picture of Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.jpg/220px-Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/3b/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="346" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> held that relations do not have fundamental reality and described the world instead as a collection of unconnected <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">monads</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz</a> rejected the fundamental reality of relations based on the claim that they would lack a proper location in this case. These ontological difficulties prompted Leibniz to propose his <a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">monadology</a>, according to which reality is made up of windowless and unconnected <a href="/wiki/Monad_(philosophy)" title="Monad (philosophy)">monads</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto8_42-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto8-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For him, relations are emergent entities that arise from the intrinsic properties of the relata.<sup id="cite_ref-126" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They are understood as pairs of monadic properties and not as ontologically distinct entities. For instance, if Adam is the father of Cain then Adam has the property of <i>being a father of Cain</i> and Cain has the property of <i>being a child of Adam</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-auto8_42-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto8-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this regard, relations have a foundation in reality but are at the same time mental constructions that arise by comparing things.<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Leibniz's <a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">idealist</a> outlook on relations influenced <a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Immanuel Kant</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-auto4_127-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto4-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who included <i>relation</i> in his <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_categories" title="Theory of categories">system of categories</a> as one of the four basic groups of categories. It covers the topic of how human minds organize and understand objects and concepts in terms of their mutual connections, dependencies, and interactions, for example, how properties inhere in substances and how effects depend on their causes.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kant gave a prominent role to relations and held that phenomenal reality is at its core constituted by relations.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This idealist outlook on the importance of relations was also defended by <a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, who argued that the nature, meaning, and value of things arises from how they participate in relations.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tleft"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:142px;max-width:142px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:145px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:H2O_relation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of the H2O molecule" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/H2O_relation.svg/138px-H2O_relation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="138" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/H2O_relation.svg/207px-H2O_relation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/H2O_relation.svg/276px-H2O_relation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="541" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:140px;max-width:140px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:85px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Love_relation.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Diagram of the love relation" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Love_relation.svg/138px-Love_relation.svg.png" decoding="async" width="138" height="86" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Love_relation.svg/207px-Love_relation.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Love_relation.svg/276px-Love_relation.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="319" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> compared relations to molecules formed by bonds between elements.</div></div></div></div> <p>Difficulties about the ontological status of relations were also reflected in how they were treated in the field of <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> before modern formal logic. For example, <a href="/wiki/Aristotelian_logic" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotelian logic">Aristotelian logic</a> restricts itself to propositions in a subject-predicate form in which the <a href="/wiki/Predicate_(logic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Predicate (logic)">predicate</a> expresses qualities or attributes of a single entity in the subject position.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern logic, by contrast, also allows reasoning with relations to express how several entities stand to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important early development in this regard was the formulation of the logic of relations by <a href="/wiki/Augustus_De_Morgan" title="Augustus De Morgan">Augustus De Morgan</a> in the 19th century. It introduces formal devices to assess the validity of reasoning regarding relations, including compound relations like combining the relations of <i>father of</i> and <i>brother of</i> into <i>uncle of</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> De Morgan's logic of relations was further developed by <a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a>, who conceptualized the adicity of relations in analogy to chemical elements that form molecules based on their <a href="/wiki/Valence_(chemistry)" title="Valence (chemistry)">valency</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-134" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The problem of relations played a central role in Bradley's philosophy. He defended a form of monist idealism. According to it, there are no real separate entities and only one substance exists in the form of an idea or experience. For Bradley, the plurality of things in the world, as it appears to us, is ultimately an illusion. A consequence of this view is that there are no genuine relations since there are no distinct entities that could be related to each other.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He argued for this conclusion by trying to show that relations cannot exist because they would involve a vicious <a href="/wiki/Infinite_regress" title="Infinite regress">infinite regress</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-136" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Russell1907-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Bertrand Russell" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell1907-2.jpg/220px-Russell1907-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="322" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell1907-2.jpg/330px-Russell1907-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Russell1907-2.jpg/440px-Russell1907-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="460" data-file-height="673" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> argued that external relations exist because they are required to give an accurate scientific description of the external world.</figcaption></figure> <p>Various early <a href="/wiki/Analytic_philosophers" class="mw-redirect" title="Analytic philosophers">analytic philosophers</a>, like Moore and <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a>, rejected Bradley's monist idealism and the associated theory of relations.<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moore based his rejection of Bradley's doctrine on the claim that it is not in tune with <a href="/wiki/Common_sense" title="Common sense">common sense</a>, which favors a pluralistic ontology with genuine relations. Moore was further influential in developing the distinction between internal and external relations. <sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russell argued in favor of the reality of external relations by pointing out that they are required to give an accurate scientific description of the external world.<sup id="cite_ref-auto15_77-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Arguments for the reality of relations based on science were also defended by <a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">David Malet Armstrong</a>. He conceived relations as universals that are instantiated in spacetime. According to him, it is the role of science to determine which relational universals exist.<sup id="cite_ref-139" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Various other solutions to the problem of relations have been suggested. For example, <a href="/wiki/Gottlob_Frege" title="Gottlob Frege">Gottlob Frege</a> understood them as incomplete objects with open positions. They are completed when these positions are filled by the relata. In this regard, relations do not occur on their own and exist only insofar as they establish connections between other entities.<sup id="cite_ref-140" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A further approach is found in <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>'s early philosophy, where he stated that objects can form connections with each other without requiring any additional elements. In this way, they are similar to chains: the different links of the chain are directly connected to each other without the additional need for relational entities to establish the connection.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBorchert2006">Borchert 2006</a>, pp. 24–25, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO">Ontology</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHC_staff2022">HC staff 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSider2010">Sider 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">13</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFThompson2000">Thompson 2000</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/relation">Relation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto14-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto14_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto14_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, lead section, §1.5 Relations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMW_staff2023">MW staff 2023</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMW_staff">MW staff</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2003">Mattingly 2003</a>, p. 40, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/relation">relation</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHoad1993">Hoad 1993</a>, p. 396</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSider2010">Sider 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">14</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLancey2017">DeLancey 2017</a>, p. 200</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFEvenMedina2012">Even & Medina 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bmAhAwAAQBAJ&pg=PA9">9</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLancey2017">DeLancey 2017</a>, p. 203</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLe_PoidevinPeterAndrewCameron2009">Le Poidevin et al. 2009</a>, p. 579</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions, §4. The Nature of Relations: Order and Direction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBaconDetlefsenMcCarty2013">Bacon, Detlefsen & McCarty 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ci3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">7</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto2-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_12-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_12-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto2_12-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, lead section, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLe_PoidevinPeterAndrewCameron2009">Le Poidevin et al. 2009</a>, p. 579</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBaconDetlefsenMcCarty2013">Bacon, Detlefsen & McCarty 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ci3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLe_PoidevinPeterAndrewCameron2009">Le Poidevin et al. 2009</a>, p. 579</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBaconDetlefsenMcCarty2013">Bacon, Detlefsen & McCarty 2013</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ci3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7">7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSider2010">Sider 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">14</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, pp. 23–24, 3. Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFEhring2011">Ehring 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N4tbZGDa0JIC&pg=PA21">21</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto7-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_16-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_16-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto7_16-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, pp. 23–24, 3. Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2018">MacBride 2018</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WBFQDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA232">232</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, pp. 23–24, 3. Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §4. The Nature of Relations: Order and Direction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2007">MacBride 2007</a>, p. 25</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §4. The Nature of Relations: Order and Direction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2007">MacBride 2007</a>, p. 25</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFParryHacker1991">Parry & Hacker 1991</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7OBHkRKaleQC&pg=PA251">251</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §4. The Nature of Relations: Order and Direction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §4. The Nature of Relations: Order and Direction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2007">MacBride 2007</a>, pp. 26–27</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §4. The Nature of Relations: Order and Direction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKoonsPickavance2017">Koons & Pickavance 2017</a>, pp. 213–214</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKoonsPickavance2017">Koons & Pickavance 2017</a>, pp. 213–214</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §4. The Nature of Relations: Order and Direction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 23, 3. Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, lead section, §1.5 Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSider2010">Sider 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA13">13</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 23, 3. Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, lead section, §1.5 Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBorchert2006">Borchert 2006</a>, pp. 24–25, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO">Ontology</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 23, 3. Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, lead section, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 23, 3. Relations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, lead section, §1.5 Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 23, 3. Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 310, 313–314</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto11-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto11_33-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto11_33-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, pp. 798–799</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 316</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, pp. 24–25, 3. Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 313</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto13-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto13_37-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto13_37-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 25, 3. Relations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRickabaughMoreland2023">Rickabaugh & Moreland 2023</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uZbTEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA47">47</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHazlett2016">Hazlett 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uVcYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA220">220</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, pp. 798–799</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 313</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, pp. 798–799</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMaurin2013">Maurin 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ht2LBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT114">144–145</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMonnoyer2013">Monnoyer 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RNg2n2yVrCUC&pg=PA110">110–111</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMaurin2013">Maurin 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ht2LBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT114">144–145</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMonnoyer2013">Monnoyer 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RNg2n2yVrCUC&pg=PA110">110–111</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLewis1999">Lewis 1999</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lorRScXDRNgC&pg=PA129">129</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto8-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_42-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_42-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_42-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_42-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto8_42-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMaurin2013">Maurin 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Ht2LBQAAQBAJ&pg=PT114">144–145</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMonnoyer2013">Monnoyer 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=RNg2n2yVrCUC&pg=PA110">110–111</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, pp. 798–799</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 25, 3. Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 25, 3. Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 314</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 313–314</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, pp. 798–799</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 315</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTrautwein2011">Trautwein 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BqXxgRMZm6gC&pg=PA126">126</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto6-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_50-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_50-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_50-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto6_50-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §3. Reductionism about Internal Relations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §3. Reductionism about Internal Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTrautwein2011">Trautwein 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BqXxgRMZm6gC&pg=PA126">126</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFClementz2014">Clementz 2014</a>, p. 218</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFClementz2014">Clementz 2014</a>, p. 218</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §3. Reductionism about Internal Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFTrautwein2011">Trautwein 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BqXxgRMZm6gC&pg=PA126">126</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFClementz2014">Clementz 2014</a>, pp. 217–218</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto3-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto3_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFEB_staff1998">EB staff 1998</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto10-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto10_55-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto10_55-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPatardBrisard2011">Patard & Brisard 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5xO5nmHGGvoC&pg=PT126">126</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFEB_staff1998">EB staff 1998</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPiaget2002">Piaget 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGR9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10">10</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFTuretzky2019">Turetzky 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xka6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64">64–67</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto5-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_56-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_56-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto5_56-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFTuretzky2019">Turetzky 2019</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xka6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64">64–67</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto_57-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto_57-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPiaget2002">Piaget 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGR9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10">10</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMcKeon">McKeon</a>, lead section</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPapineau2012">Papineau 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zi0UDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA146">146</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFEB_staff1998">EB staff 1998</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLyons1977">Lyons 1977</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jQA6wVLCINUC&pg=PA272">272</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 317</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 317</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMumford2004">Mumford 2004</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uvtnofppGcIC&pg=PA94">94</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 317</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 139</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPatardBrisard2011">Patard & Brisard 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5xO5nmHGGvoC&pg=PT126">126</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPiaget2002">Piaget 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bGR9AwAAQBAJ&pg=PT10">10</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDasgupta2015">Dasgupta 2015</a>, p. 601</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHazlett2016">Hazlett 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uVcYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA220">220</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFAndrienkoAndrienko2006">Andrienko & Andrienko 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oqq7oP31EycC&pg=PA348">348</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGnassounou2016">Gnassounou 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ujk3DAAAQBAJ&pg=PA139">139</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDaly2010">Daly 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wilaDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA162">162</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFalgueraMartínez-VidalRosen2022">Falguera, Martínez-Vidal & Rosen 2022</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLouxZimmerman2005">Loux & Zimmerman 2005</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cgVVvyQ4lIMC&pg=RA1-PA1858">1858</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHazlett2016">Hazlett 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uVcYDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA220">220</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFRickles2008">Rickles 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gDwJYtfoCh8C&pg=PA24">24</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFDasgupta2015">Dasgupta 2015</a>, pp. 601–602</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 318</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFDasgupta2015">Dasgupta 2015</a>, pp. 601–602</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLevich1996">Levich 1996</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xi9qDQAAQBAJ&pg=PA206">206</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFPorcuMonteroSchlather2012">Porcu, Montero & Schlather 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uCFwP2nDAR4C&pg=PA8">8</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFFinsterMüllerNardmannTolksdorf2012">Finster et al. 2012</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4xcpVYyCEtoC&pg=PA38">38</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLancey2017">DeLancey 2017</a>, pp. 201–202</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSider2010">Sider 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">114</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto9-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto9_72-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto9_72-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFDeLancey2017">DeLancey 2017</a>, pp. 201–202</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSider2010">Sider 2010</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-KkPEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA14">114</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMakridis2022">Makridis 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DoBgEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA456">456</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWallis2003">Wallis 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xtGSjn6iNyQC&pg=PA98">98</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBerztiss2014">Berztiss 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YA7jBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73">73</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWallis2003">Wallis 2003</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xtGSjn6iNyQC&pg=PA100">100</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto12-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto12_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto12_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto15-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto15_77-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 312, 319–320</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 52</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBorchert2006">Borchert 2006</a>, pp. 24–25, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO">Ontology</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGalluzzoLoux2015">Galluzzo & Loux 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JMvSCQAAQBAJ&pg=PA130">130</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 312, 319–320</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress, §3. Reductionism about Internal Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFClarke2015">Clarke 2015</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iUYFDgAAQBAJ&pg=PT109">109–110</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFJoad1929">Joad 1929</a>, pp. 87–88</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 74</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 315–316</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 74</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 76</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 312</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHood2004">Hood 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aarT1bCQlyAC&pg=PA1">1–3, 6–7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 310, 315–316</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 315–316</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 74</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 315–316</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 310, 315</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFCowling2017">Cowling 2017</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-DAlDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA124">124–125</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 315–316</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFSzatkowski2022">Szatkowski 2022</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aLZZEAAAQBAJ&pg=PT120">120</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 312</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §3. Reductionism about Internal Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §3. Reductionism about Internal Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, pp. 312, 315–316</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, pp. 41, 47</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, pp. 60–61</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 61</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 61</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 61</li><li><a href="#CITEREFOriliaPaolini_Paoletti2022">Orilia & Paolini Paoletti 2022</a>, §1.5 Relations</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §3. Reductionism about Internal Relations</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 319</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, pp. 36–37</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 319</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, pp. 23–25</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li><li><a href="#CITEREFRunggaldier2009">Runggaldier 2009</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=opLRzEaauTUC&pg=PA248">248</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLupisella2020">Lupisella 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JTyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70">70</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDainton2006">Dainton 2006</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ZnCPhpxBEaIC&pg=PA73">73</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2021">Heil 2021</a>, 10.2 Not Nothings but Not Somethings Either</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFLupisella2020">Lupisella 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JTyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70">70</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFGlickDarbyMarmodoro2020">Glick, Darby & Marmodoro 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6uveDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA6">6</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 311</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPaolini_Paoletti2023">Paolini Paoletti 2023</a>, pp. 245–246</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFPaolini_Paoletti2023">Paolini Paoletti 2023</a>, pp. 245–246</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLadyman2023">Ladyman 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/structural-realism/#OntiStruRealOSR">§4. Ontic Structural Realism (OSR)</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDipert1997">Dipert 1997</a>, pp. 329–330</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 310</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2021">Heil 2021</a>, 10 Relational Ontology</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-109">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 311</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2021">Heil 2021</a>, 10.2 Not Nothings but Not Somethings Either</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 208</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLupisella2020">Lupisella 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3JTyDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA70">70</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRickles2008">Rickles 2008</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gDwJYtfoCh8C&pg=PA24">24</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-112">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrownMacpherson2020">Brown & Macpherson 2020</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z_H3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA311">311</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFDépelteau2018">Dépelteau 2018</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=y29GDwAAQBAJ&pg=PA3">3–4</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFÖzekinSune2021">Özekin & Sune 2021</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0oRSEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA178">178</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 312</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMulligan1998">Mulligan 1998</a>, pp. 325–326</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 36</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 312</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHood2004">Hood 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aarT1bCQlyAC&pg=PA1">1–3, 6–7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2003">Mattingly 2003</a>, p. 41, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/relation">relation</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrower2018">Brower 2018</a>, §1. Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWedin2002">Wedin 2002</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sLESDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA86">86</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFSkolnikBerenbaum2007">Skolnik & Berenbaum 2007</a>, Substance And Accident</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHood2004">Hood 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aarT1bCQlyAC&pg=PA6">6–8</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 312</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHood2004">Hood 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aarT1bCQlyAC&pg=PA1">1–3, 6–7</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFKimSosaRosenkrantz2009">Kim, Sosa & Rosenkrantz 2009</a>, p. 545</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMaspero2023">Maspero 2023</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jtfbEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA110">110–112</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2003">Mattingly 2003</a>, p. 41, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/relation">relation</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrower2018">Brower 2018</a>, lead section, §1. Introduction</li><li><a href="#CITEREFHeil2009">Heil 2009</a>, p. 312</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2003">Mattingly 2003</a>, p. 41, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/relation">relation</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBrower2018">Brower 2018</a>, §1. Introduction</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto1-121"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_121-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto1_121-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrower2018">Brower 2018</a>, §1. Introduction</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBrower2018">Brower 2018</a>, §3.2 Anti-Realism about Relations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-123">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 40</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMattingly2003">Mattingly 2003</a>, p. 42, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.encyclopedia.com/science-and-technology/computers-and-electrical-engineering/computers-and-computing/relation">relation</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBorchert2006">Borchert 2006</a>, pp. 24–25, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO">Ontology</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWintgens2016">Wintgens 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PeIGDAAAQBAJ&pg=PA42">42</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBorchert2006">Borchert 2006</a>, pp. 24–25, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO">Ontology</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-auto4-127"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_127-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-auto4_127-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMander2016">Mander 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFz1CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA243">243–244</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFHolzheyMudroch2005">Holzhey & Mudroch 2005</a>, pp. 233–234</li><li><a href="#CITEREFThomasson">Thomasson</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/categories/#KanCon">§1.2 Kantian Conceptualism</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFWardy1998">Wardy 1998</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMander2016">Mander 2016</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFz1CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244">244</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMander2016">Mander 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LFz1CgAAQBAJ&pg=PA244">244–245</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWesterstahl1989">Westerstahl 1989</a>, p. 579</li><li><a href="#CITEREFVerene2011">Verene 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7uQzwHVc4V8C&pg=PA8">8</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHood2004">Hood 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aarT1bCQlyAC&pg=PA2">2–3</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMulligan1998">Mulligan 1998</a>, pp. 325–326</li><li><a href="#CITEREFMarmodoroYates2016">Marmodoro & Yates 2016</a>, p. 37</li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFWesterstahl1989">Westerstahl 1989</a>, p. 579</li><li><a href="#CITEREFVerene2011">Verene 2011</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7uQzwHVc4V8C&pg=PA8">8</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFHood2004">Hood 2004</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=aarT1bCQlyAC&pg=PA2">2–3</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 799</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMerrill1990">Merrill 1990</a>, pp. vii–viii</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFShin2022">Shin 2022</a>, lead section, §1. From Monadic to Polyadic Logic, §2.1 Pragmatic maxim applied to the logic of relations</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCandlishBasile2023">Candlish & Basile 2023</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bradley/">lead section, §6. Metaphysics</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFLærkeSmithSchliesser2013">Lærke, Smith & Schliesser 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QCtwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA199">199–200</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §2. Eliminativism, External Relations and Bradley’s Regress</li><li><a href="#CITEREFPerovic2017">Perovic 2017</a>, lead section</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLærkeSmithSchliesser2013">Lærke, Smith & Schliesser 2013</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QCtwAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA199">199–200</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFCandlish2016">Candlish 2016</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7tFlCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16">16–17</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMacBride2020">MacBride 2020</a>, §1. Preliminary Distinctions</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFSanford1980">Sanford 1980</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/687253">69–70</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFArmstrong2010">Armstrong 2010</a>, p. 23</li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFLarson2014">Larson 2014</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h57IAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA33">33</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist" style="display:inline-flex;--size:100%; max-width:max(15em, calc(var(--size) - 3.2em));"><ul style="display:inline-block"><li><a href="#CITEREFBogen2005">Bogen 2005</a>, p. 798</li><li><a href="#CITEREFShanker1997">Shanker 1997</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-GqYUzCDXRkC&pg=PA90">90</a></li><li><a href="#CITEREFMácha2015">Mácha 2015</a>, p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=glUmCAAAQBAJ&pg=PT58">58</a></li></ul></div></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Relation_(philosophy)&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFAndrienkoAndrienko2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Natalia_Andrienko" title="Natalia Andrienko">Andrienko, Natalia</a>; Andrienko, Gennady (28 March 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oqq7oP31EycC&pg=PA348"><i>Exploratory Analysis of Spatial and Temporal Data: A Systematic Approach</i></a>. Springer Science & Business Media. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-540-31190-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-540-31190-4"><bdi>978-3-540-31190-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Exploratory+Analysis+of+Spatial+and+Temporal+Data%3A+A+Systematic+Approach&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2006-03-28&rft.isbn=978-3-540-31190-4&rft.aulast=Andrienko&rft.aufirst=Natalia&rft.au=Andrienko%2C+Gennady&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOqq7oP31EycC%26pg%3DPA348&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArmstrong2010" class="citation book cs1">Armstrong, David M. (2010). "3. Relations". <i>Sketch for a systematic metaphysics</i>. Clarendon press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959061-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-959061-2"><bdi>978-0-19-959061-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=3.+Relations&rft.btitle=Sketch+for+a+systematic+metaphysics&rft.pub=Clarendon+press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-19-959061-2&rft.aulast=Armstrong&rft.aufirst=David+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBaconDetlefsenMcCarty2013" class="citation book cs1">Bacon, John B.; Detlefsen, Michael; McCarty, David Charles (5 September 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1ci3AAAAQBAJ&pg=PA7"><i>Logic from A to Z: The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy Glossary of Logical and Mathematical Terms</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97097-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-97097-1"><bdi>978-1-134-97097-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Logic+from+A+to+Z%3A+The+Routledge+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+Glossary+of+Logical+and+Mathematical+Terms&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013-09-05&rft.isbn=978-1-134-97097-1&rft.aulast=Bacon&rft.aufirst=John+B.&rft.au=Detlefsen%2C+Michael&rft.au=McCarty%2C+David+Charles&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1ci3AAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerztiss2014" class="citation book cs1">Berztiss, A. T. (10 May 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=YA7jBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA73"><i>Data Structures: Theory and Practice</i></a>. Academic Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-6472-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4832-6472-1"><bdi>978-1-4832-6472-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Data+Structures%3A+Theory+and+Practice&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=2014-05-10&rft.isbn=978-1-4832-6472-1&rft.aulast=Berztiss&rft.aufirst=A.+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DYA7jBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA73&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBorchert2006" class="citation book cs1">Borchert, Donald, ed. (2006). "Ontology". <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://philpapers.org/rec/BORMEO"><i>Macmillan Encyclopedia of Philosophy Volume 7</i></a> (2 ed.). Macmillan. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780028657905" title="Special:BookSources/9780028657905"><bdi>9780028657905</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ontology&rft.btitle=Macmillan+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy+Volume+7&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780028657905&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphilpapers.org%2Frec%2FBORMEO&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrower2018" class="citation web cs1">Brower, Jeffrey (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/relations-medieval/">"Medieval Theories of Relations"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">10 October</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Medieval+Theories+of+Relations&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Brower&rft.aufirst=Jeffrey&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Frelations-medieval%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrownMacpherson2020" class="citation book cs1">Brown, Derek H.; Macpherson, Fiona (27 September 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=z_H3DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA311"><i>The Routledge Handbook of Philosophy of Colour</i></a>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-351-04851-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-351-04851-4"><bdi>978-1-351-04851-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Routledge+Handbook+of+Philosophy+of+Colour&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2020-09-27&rft.isbn=978-1-351-04851-4&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Derek+H.&rft.au=Macpherson%2C+Fiona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dz_H3DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA311&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCandlish2016" class="citation book cs1">Candlish, Stewart (13 January 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7tFlCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA16"><i>The Russell/Bradley Dispute and its Significance for Twentieth Century Philosophy</i></a>. Springer. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-230-80061-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-230-80061-8"><bdi>978-0-230-80061-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Russell%2FBradley+Dispute+and+its+Significance+for+Twentieth+Century+Philosophy&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2016-01-13&rft.isbn=978-0-230-80061-8&rft.aulast=Candlish&rft.aufirst=Stewart&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7tFlCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA16&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCandlishBasile2023" class="citation web cs1">Candlish, Stewart; Basile, Pierfrancesco (2023). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bradley/#Met">"Francis Herbert Bradley"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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University of Notre Dame Pess. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-268-07704-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-268-07704-4"><bdi>978-0-268-07704-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+One+and+the+Many%3A+A+Contemporary+Thomistic+Metaphysics&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame+Pess&rft.date=2015-11-30&rft.isbn=978-0-268-07704-4&rft.aulast=Clarke&rft.aufirst=William+Norris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiUYFDgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClementz2014" class="citation book cs1">Clementz, François (2014). "15. Internal, Formal and Thin Relations". In Reboul, Anne (ed.). <i>Mind, values, and metaphysics. 1</i>. 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BRILL. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-47050-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-47050-7"><bdi>978-90-04-47050-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critical+Approaches+to+International+Relations%3A+Philosophical+Foundations+and+Current+Debates&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2021-11-29&rft.isbn=978-90-04-47050-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0oRSEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA178&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPaolini_Paoletti2023" class="citation journal cs1">Paolini Paoletti, Michele (June 2023). 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State University of New York Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-1557-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4384-1557-4"><bdi>978-1-4384-1557-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotelian+Logic&rft.pub=State+University+of+New+York+Press&rft.date=1991-09-03&rft.isbn=978-1-4384-1557-4&rft.aulast=Parry&rft.aufirst=William+T.&rft.au=Hacker%2C+Edward+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7OBHkRKaleQC%26pg%3DPA251&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPatardBrisard2011" class="citation book cs1">Patard, Adeline; Brisard, Frank (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5xO5nmHGGvoC&pg=PT126"><i>Cognitive Approaches to Tense, Aspect, and Epistemic Modality</i></a>. John Benjamins Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2383-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-272-2383-8"><bdi>978-90-272-2383-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Cognitive+Approaches+to+Tense%2C+Aspect%2C+and+Epistemic+Modality&rft.pub=John+Benjamins+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-90-272-2383-8&rft.aulast=Patard&rft.aufirst=Adeline&rft.au=Brisard%2C+Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D5xO5nmHGGvoC%26pg%3DPT126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPerovic2017" class="citation web cs1">Perovic, Katarina (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/bradley-regress/">"Bradley's Regress"</a>. <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>. 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-61785-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-61785-2"><bdi>978-1-134-61785-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Judgement+and+Reasoning+in+the+Child&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002-01-22&rft.isbn=978-1-134-61785-2&rft.aulast=Piaget&rft.aufirst=Jean&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbGR9AwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT10&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPorcuMonteroSchlather2012" class="citation book cs1">Porcu, Emilio; Montero, José-María; Schlather, Martin (5 January 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uCFwP2nDAR4C&pg=PA8"><i>Advances and Challenges in Space-time Modelling of Natural Events</i></a>. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860345-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-860345-0"><bdi>978-0-19-860345-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Relation&rft.btitle=The+Pocket+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Current+English.&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-19-860345-0&rft.aulast=Thompson&rft.aufirst=Della&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.encyclopedia.com%2Fscience-and-technology%2Fcomputers-and-electrical-engineering%2Fcomputers-and-computing%2Frelation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTrautwein2011" class="citation book cs1">Trautwein, Martin (22 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=BqXxgRMZm6gC&pg=PA126"><i>The Time Window of Language: The Interaction between Linguistic and Non-Linguistic Knowledge in the Temporal Interpretation of German and English Texts</i></a>. Walter de Gruyter. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-091952-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-091952-3"><bdi>978-3-11-091952-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Time+Window+of+Language%3A+The+Interaction+between+Linguistic+and+Non-Linguistic+Knowledge+in+the+Temporal+Interpretation+of+German+and+English+Texts&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011-12-22&rft.isbn=978-3-11-091952-3&rft.aulast=Trautwein&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBqXxgRMZm6gC%26pg%3DPA126&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTuretzky2019" class="citation book cs1">Turetzky, Philip (11 April 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Xka6DwAAQBAJ&pg=PA64"><i>The Elements of Arguments: An Introduction to Critical Thinking and Logic</i></a>. Broadview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4604-0646-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4604-0646-5"><bdi>978-1-4604-0646-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Elements+of+Arguments%3A+An+Introduction+to+Critical+Thinking+and+Logic&rft.pub=Broadview+Press&rft.date=2019-04-11&rft.isbn=978-1-4604-0646-5&rft.aulast=Turetzky&rft.aufirst=Philip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXka6DwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVerene2011" class="citation book cs1">Verene, Donald Phillip (30 December 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7uQzwHVc4V8C&pg=PA8"><i>The Origins of the Philosophy of Symbolic Forms: Kant, Hegel, and Cassirer</i></a>. Northwestern University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-2778-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8101-2778-4"><bdi>978-0-8101-2778-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Philosophy+of+Symbolic+Forms%3A+Kant%2C+Hegel%2C+and+Cassirer&rft.pub=Northwestern+University+Press&rft.date=2011-12-30&rft.isbn=978-0-8101-2778-4&rft.aulast=Verene&rft.aufirst=Donald+Phillip&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7uQzwHVc4V8C%26pg%3DPA8&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWallis2003" class="citation book cs1">Wallis, W. D. 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Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925308-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-925308-1"><bdi>978-0-19-925308-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aristotle%27s+Theory+of+Substance%3A+The+Categories+and+Metaphysics+Zeta&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-925308-1&rft.aulast=Wedin&rft.aufirst=Michael+Vernon&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsLESDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWesterstahl1989" class="citation journal cs1">Westerstahl, Dag (December 1989). 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Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-317-10591-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-317-10591-6"><bdi>978-1-317-10591-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Legisprudence%3A+Practical+Reason+in+Legislation&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2016-04-22&rft.isbn=978-1-317-10591-6&rft.aulast=Wintgens&rft.aufirst=Luc+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPeIGDAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ARelation+%28philosophy%29" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind%E2%80%93body_dualism" title="Mind–body dualism">Dualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enactivism" title="Enactivism">Enactivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essentialism" title="Essentialism">Essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existentialism" title="Existentialism">Existentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_will" title="Free will">Free will</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism" title="Idealism">Idealism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libertarianism_(metaphysics)" title="Libertarianism (metaphysics)">Libertarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberty" title="Liberty">Liberty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Materialism" title="Materialism">Materialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_of_life" title="Meaning of life">Meaning of life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monism" title="Monism">Monism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nihilism" title="Nihilism">Nihilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phenomenalism" title="Phenomenalism">Phenomenalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_realism" title="Philosophical realism">Realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiritualism_(philosophy)" title="Spiritualism (philosophy)">Spiritualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjectivism" title="Subjectivism">Subjectivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substance_theory" title="Substance theory">Substance theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_forms" title="Theory of forms">Theory of forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truthmaker_theory" title="Truthmaker theory">Truthmaker theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type_theory" title="Type theory">Type theory</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abstract_and_concrete" title="Abstract and concrete">Abstract object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anima_mundi" title="Anima mundi">Anima mundi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category_of_being" class="mw-redirect" title="Category of being">Category of being</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causal_closure" title="Causal closure">Causal closure</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cogito,_ergo_sum" title="Cogito, ergo sum">Cogito, ergo sum</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concept" title="Concept">Concept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Embodied_cognition" title="Embodied cognition">Embodied cognition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Entity" title="Entity">Entity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essence" title="Essence">Essence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Existence" title="Existence">Existence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experience" title="Experience">Experience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypostatic_abstraction" title="Hypostatic abstraction">Hypostatic abstraction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idea" title="Idea">Idea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Identity_(philosophy)" title="Identity (philosophy)">Identity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information" title="Information">Information</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Data" title="Data">Data</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insight" title="Insight">Insight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligence" title="Intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intention" title="Intention">Intention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_modality" class="mw-redirect" title="Linguistic modality">Linguistic modality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_matter" title="Philosophy of matter">Matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meaning_(existential)" title="Meaning (existential)">Meaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mental_representation" title="Mental representation">Mental representation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mind" title="Mind">Mind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Motion" title="Motion">Motion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metaphysical_necessity" title="Metaphysical necessity">Necessity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Object_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Object (philosophy)">Object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontology" title="Ontology">Ontology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pattern" title="Pattern">Pattern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Perception" title="Perception">Perception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_object" title="Physical object">Physical object</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principle" title="Principle">Principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Property_(philosophy)" title="Property (philosophy)">Property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qualia" title="Qualia">Qualia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quality_(philosophy)" title="Quality (philosophy)">Quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">Reality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relations_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Relations (philosophy)">Relation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self" title="Self">Self</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soul" title="Soul">Soul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subject_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Subject (philosophy)">Subject</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Substantial_form" title="Substantial form">Substantial form</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thought" title="Thought">Thought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time" title="Time">Time</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Truth" title="Truth">Truth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Type%E2%80%93token_distinction" title="Type–token distinction">Type–token distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Universal_(metaphysics)" title="Universal (metaphysics)">Universal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unobservable" title="Unobservable">Unobservable</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Value_(ethics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Value (ethics)">Value</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Index_of_metaphysics_articles" title="Index of metaphysics articles">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">Metaphysicians</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Parmenides" title="Parmenides">Parmenides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lucretius" title="Lucretius">Lucretius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proclus" title="Proclus">Proclus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plotinus" title="Plotinus">Plotinus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duns_Scotus" title="Duns Scotus">Scotus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Aquinas" title="Thomas Aquinas">Aquinas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francisco_Su%C3%A1rez" title="Francisco Suárez">Suárez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baruch_Spinoza" title="Baruch Spinoza">Spinoza</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Locke" title="John Locke">Locke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nicolas_Malebranche" title="Nicolas Malebranche">Malebranche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gottfried_Wilhelm_Leibniz" title="Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz">Leibniz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher)">Wolff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Reid" title="Thomas Reid">Reid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Berkeley" title="George Berkeley">Berkeley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">Hume</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Immanuel_Kant" title="Immanuel Kant">Kant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel">Hegel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arthur_Schopenhauer" title="Arthur Schopenhauer">Schopenhauer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bernard_Bolzano" title="Bernard Bolzano">Bolzano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard" title="Søren Kierkegaard">Kierkegaard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hermann_Lotze" title="Hermann Lotze">Lotze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Friedrich_Nietzsche" title="Friedrich Nietzsche">Nietzsche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alexius_Meinong" title="Alexius Meinong">Meinong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Bergson" title="Henri Bergson">Bergson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._Moore" title="G. E. Moore">Moore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._G._Collingwood" title="R. G. Collingwood">Collingwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Wittgenstein" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein">Wittgenstein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martin_Heidegger" title="Martin Heidegger">Heidegger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilbert_Ryle" title="Gilbert Ryle">Ryle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean-Paul_Sartre" title="Jean-Paul Sartre">Sartre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher)">Davidson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/P._F._Strawson" title="P. F. Strawson">Strawson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G._E._M._Anscombe" title="G. E. M. Anscombe">Anscombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gilles_Deleuze" title="Gilles Deleuze">Deleuze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Dummett" title="Michael Dummett">Dummett</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Malet_Armstrong" title="David Malet Armstrong">Armstrong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hilary_Putnam" title="Hilary Putnam">Putnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alvin_Plantinga" title="Alvin Plantinga">Plantinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saul_Kripke" title="Saul Kripke">Kripke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Lewis_(philosopher)" title="David Lewis (philosopher)">Lewis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_Baudrillard" title="Jean Baudrillard">Baudrillard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derek_Parfit" title="Derek Parfit">Parfit</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/List_of_metaphysicians" title="List of metaphysicians">more ...</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Notable works</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Sophist_(dialogue)" title="Sophist (dialogue)">Sophist</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Timaeus_(dialogue)" title="Timaeus (dialogue)">Timaeus</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 350 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ny%C4%81ya_S%C5%ABtras" title="Nyāya Sūtras">Nyāya Sūtras</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 200 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/De_rerum_natura" title="De rerum natura">De rerum natura</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 80 BC)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Metaphysics_(Aristotle)" title="Metaphysics (Aristotle)">Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 50)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Enneads" title="Enneads">Enneads</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 270)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Daneshnameh-ye_Alai" class="mw-redirect" title="Daneshnameh-ye Alai">Daneshnameh-ye Alai</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(c. 1000)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Meditations_on_First_Philosophy" title="Meditations on First Philosophy">Meditations on First Philosophy</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1641)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ethics_(Spinoza_book)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethics (Spinoza book)">Ethics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1677)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_Concerning_the_Principles_of_Human_Knowledge" title="A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge">A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1710)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Monadology" title="Monadology">Monadology</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1714)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Critique_of_Pure_Reason" title="Critique of Pure Reason">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1781)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Prolegomena_to_Any_Future_Metaphysics" title="Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics">Prolegomena to Any Future Metaphysics</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1783)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Phenomenology_of_Spirit" title="The Phenomenology of Spirit">The Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1807)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_World_as_Will_and_Representation" title="The World as Will and Representation">The World as Will and Representation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1818)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Concluding_Unscientific_Postscript_to_Philosophical_Fragments" title="Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments">Concluding Unscientific Postscript to Philosophical Fragments</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1846)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Time" title="Being and Time">Being and Time</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1927)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Being_and_Nothingness" title="Being and Nothingness">Being and Nothingness</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1943)</span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Simulacra_and_Simulation" title="Simulacra and Simulation">Simulacra and Simulation</a></i> <span style="font-size:85%;">(1981)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Axiology" class="mw-redirect" title="Axiology">Axiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmology" title="Cosmology">Cosmology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_metaphysics" title="Feminist metaphysics">Feminist metaphysics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interpretations_of_quantum_mechanics" title="Interpretations of quantum mechanics">Interpretations of quantum mechanics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mereology" title="Mereology">Mereology</a></li> <li><a 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alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-hm9cz","wgBackendResponseTime":185,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"1.410","walltime":"1.599","ppvisitednodes":{"value":10707,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":316236,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":1148,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":10,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":4,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":347430,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 1316.308 1 -total"," 33.00% 434.372 1 Template:Reflist"," 29.19% 384.204 68 Template:Cite_book"," 25.59% 336.797 97 Template:Multiref"," 20.26% 266.716 312 Template:Harvnb"," 7.45% 98.026 1 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