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<ul id="toc-Other_Vedic_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Post-Vedic_texts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Post-Vedic_texts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Post-Vedic texts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Post-Vedic_texts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Mahabharata" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mahabharata"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Mahabharata </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mahabharata-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Puranas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Puranas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Puranas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Puranas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Smritis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Smritis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.3 Smritis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Smritis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_religious_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_religious_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Contemporary religious significance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_religious_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identification_theories" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification_theories"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Identification theories </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Identification_theories-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Identification theories subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Identification_theories-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Rigvedic_course" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rigvedic_course"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Rigvedic course </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rigvedic_course-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ghaggar-Hakra_River" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ghaggar-Hakra_River"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Ghaggar-Hakra River </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ghaggar-Hakra_River-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Paleochannels_and_ancient_course" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Paleochannels_and_ancient_course"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1 Paleochannels and ancient course </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Paleochannels_and_ancient_course-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Holocene_diversion_of_the_Sutlej_and_Yamuna" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Holocene_diversion_of_the_Sutlej_and_Yamuna"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.1 Pre-Holocene diversion of the Sutlej and Yamuna </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Holocene_diversion_of_the_Sutlej_and_Yamuna-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-IVC_and_diminishing_of_the_monsoons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#IVC_and_diminishing_of_the_monsoons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.1.2 IVC and diminishing of the monsoons </div> </a> <ul id="toc-IVC_and_diminishing_of_the_monsoons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identification_with_the_Sarasvati" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification_with_the_Sarasvati"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.2 Identification with the Sarasvati </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification_with_the_Sarasvati-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Textual_and_historical_objections" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Textual_and_historical_objections"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2.3 Textual and historical objections </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Textual_and_historical_objections-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Helmand_river" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Helmand_river"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Helmand river </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Helmand_river-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contemporary_politico-religious_meaning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contemporary_politico-religious_meaning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Contemporary politico-religious meaning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contemporary_politico-religious_meaning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Drying-up_and_dating_of_the_Vedas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drying-up_and_dating_of_the_Vedas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.1 Drying-up and dating of the Vedas </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drying-up_and_dating_of_the_Vedas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Identification_with_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Identification_with_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.2 Identification with the Indus Valley Civilisation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Identification_with_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revival" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revival"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4.3 Revival </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revival-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Sarasvati River</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 41 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-41" aria-hidden="true" > 41 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%86%D9%87%D8%B1_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%8A" title="نهر ساراسواتي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="نهر ساراسواتي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="सरस्वती नदी – Awadhi" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="सरस्वती नदी" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="Awadhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">अवधी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%B8%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%A4%E0%A7%80_%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%80_(%E0%A6%AA%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%A8_%E0%A6%AD%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%A4)" title="সরস্বতী নদী (প্রাচীন ভারত) – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সরস্বতী নদী (প্রাচীন ভারত)" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="सरस्वती नदी – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="सरस्वती नदी" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target">भोजपुरी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Riu_Saraswati" title="Riu Saraswati – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Riu Saraswati" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_(Fluss)" title="Sarasvati (Fluss) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Sarasvati (Fluss)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%ADo_Sarasvati" title="Río Sarasvati – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Río Sarasvati" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_(rivero)" title="Sarasvati (rivero) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Sarasvati (rivero)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%88%D8%AF_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%A7%D8%AA%DB%8C" title="رود ساراسواتی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رود ساراسواتی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_(fleuve)" title="Sarasvati (fleuve) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Sarasvati (fleuve)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%EB%9D%BC%EC%8A%A4%EB%B0%94%ED%8B%B0%EA%B0%95" title="사라스바티강 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사라스바티강" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="सरस्वती नदी – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सरस्वती नदी" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sungai_Saraswati_Weda" title="Sungai Saraswati Weda – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Sungai Saraswati Weda" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_(fiume)" title="Sarasvati (fiume) – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Sarasvati (fiume)" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kali_Saraswati" title="Kali Saraswati – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Kali Saraswati" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B8%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%BF_%E0%B2%A8%E0%B2%A6%E0%B2%BF" title="ಸರಸ್ವತಿ ನದಿ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಸರಸ್ವತಿ ನದಿ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvat%C4%97_(Vedos)" title="Sarasvatė (Vedos) – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Sarasvatė (Vedos)" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Szaraszvati_(foly%C3%B3)" title="Szaraszvati (folyó) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Szaraszvati (folyó)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%A8%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%BF" title="സരസ്വതി നദി – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സരസ്വതി നദി" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="सरस्वती नदी – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="सरस्वती नदी" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%A1%E1%83%95%E1%83%90%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98_(%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%A3)" title="სარასვატი (წყარმალუ) – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სარასვატი (წყარმალუ)" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_(rivier)" title="Sarasvati (rivier) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Sarasvati (rivier)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="सरस्वती नदी – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="सरस्वती नदी" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B5%E3%83%A9%E3%82%B9%E3%83%B4%E3%82%A1%E3%83%86%E3%82%A3%E3%83%BC%E5%B7%9D" title="サラスヴァティー川 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="サラスヴァティー川" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%B8%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D%E0%AD%B1%E0%AC%A4%E0%AD%80_%E0%AC%A8%E0%AC%A6%E0%AD%80" title="ସରସ୍ୱତୀ ନଦୀ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ସରସ୍ୱତୀ ନଦୀ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%A4%E0%A9%80_%E0%A8%A8%E0%A8%A6%E0%A9%80" title="ਸਰਸਵਤੀ ਨਦੀ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਰਸਵਤੀ ਨਦੀ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AA%DB%8C_%D8%AF%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%A7" title="سرسوتی دریا – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="سرسوتی دریا" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D8%B1%D8%B3%D9%88%D8%AA%D9%8A_%D8%B3%D9%8A%D9%86%D8%AF" title="سرسوتي سيند – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="سرسوتي سيند" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saraswati_(rzeka)" title="Saraswati (rzeka) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Saraswati (rzeka)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio_Sarasvati" title="Rio Sarasvati – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Rio Sarasvati" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_(%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%B0)" title="Сарасвати (река) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сарасвати (река)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%80" title="सरस्वतीनदी – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="सरस्वतीनदी" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_River" title="Sarasvati River – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Sarasvati River" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvati_(joki)" title="Sarasvati (joki) – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Sarasvati (joki)" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sarasvatifloden" title="Sarasvatifloden – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Sarasvatifloden" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%A4%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%86%E0%AE%B1%E0%AF%81" title="சரசுவதி ஆறு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சரசுவதி ஆறு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%B8%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%80_%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%A6%E0%B0%BF" title="సరస్వతీ నది – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" 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.hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other rivers of the same name, see <a href="/wiki/Saraswati_River_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Saraswati River (disambiguation)">Saraswati River (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarasvati_river.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sarasvati_river.jpg/220px-Sarasvati_river.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sarasvati_river.jpg/330px-Sarasvati_river.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sarasvati_river.jpg/440px-Sarasvati_river.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="1204" /></a><figcaption>Vedic and present-day Ghaggar-Hakra river-course, with <a href="/wiki/Aryavarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryavarta">Aryavarta</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, and (pre-)Harappan Hakra/Sutlej-Yamuna paleochannels as proposed by <a href="#CITEREFClift_et_al.2012">Clift et al. (2012)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFKhonde_et_al.2017">Khonde et al. (2017)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-1">[a]</a> See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/Sir+Creek/@27.9238648,69.0488446,1290954m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x39527a0557ec4543:0x9e7e9966b79d473b!8m2!3d23.8379562!4d68.2376719">this</a> satellite image. 1 = ancient river 2 = today's river 3 = today's <a href="/wiki/Thar_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Thar desert">Thar desert</a> 4 = ancient shore 5 = today's shore 6 = today's town 7 = dried-up Harappan Hakra course, and pre-Harappan Sutlej paleochannels (<a href="#CITEREFClift_et_al.2012">Clift et al. (2012)</a>).</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg/220px-Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg/330px-Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bc/Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg/440px-Painted_Grey_Ware_sites_map_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="652" data-file-height="555" /></a><figcaption>Cemetery H, Late Harappan, OCP, Copper Hoard and Painted Grey ware sites</figcaption></figure> The Sarasvati River (<a href="/wiki/IAST" class="mw-redirect" title="IAST">IAST</a>: Sárasvatī-nadī́) is a <a href="/wiki/Myth" title="Myth">mythologized</a> and <a href="/wiki/Apotheosis" title="Apotheosis">deified</a> ancient <a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers" title="Rigvedic rivers">river first mentioned in the Rigveda</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinsley199811,_13-2">[1]</a> and later in <a href="/wiki/Vedic" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic">Vedic</a> and post-Vedic texts. It played an important role in the <a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic religion</a>, appearing in all but the fourth book of the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>. As a physical river in the oldest texts of the Rigveda, it is described as a "great and holy river in north-western <a href="/wiki/Indian_subcontinent" title="Indian subcontinent">India</a>,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310-3">[2]</a> but in the middle and late Rigvedic books, it is described as a small river ending in "a terminal lake (<a href="/wiki/Samudra" title="Samudra">samudra</a>)."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">goddess Sarasvati</a>, the other referent for the term "Sarasvati" which developed into an independent identity in post-Vedic times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinsley199810,_55-57-6">[4]</a> The river is also described as a powerful river and mighty flood.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík200711-13-7">[5]</a> The Sarasvati is also considered by <a href="/wiki/Hindus" title="Hindus">Hindus</a> to exist in a <a href="/wiki/Metaphysical" class="mw-redirect" title="Metaphysical">metaphysical</a> form, in which it formed a confluence with the sacred rivers <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a>, at the <a href="/wiki/Triveni_Sangam" title="Triveni Sangam">Triveni Sangam</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EB-Sarasvati-8">[6]</a> According to <a href="/wiki/Michael_Witzel" title="Michael Witzel">Michael Witzel</a>, superimposed on the Vedic Sarasvati river is the "heavenly river": the Milky Way, which is seen as "a road to immortality and heavenly after-life."<a href="#cite_note-Witzel_2012-9">[7]</a> Rigvedic and later Vedic texts have been used to propose identification with present-day rivers, or ancient riverbeds. The <a href="/wiki/Nadistuti" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadistuti">Nadistuti</a> hymn in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> (10.75) mentions the Sarasvati between the <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> in the east and the <a href="/wiki/Sutlej" title="Sutlej">Sutlej</a> in the west, while <a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">RV 7</a>.95.1-2, describes the Sarasvati as flowing to the <a href="/wiki/Samudra" title="Samudra">samudra</a>, a word now usually translated as 'ocean',<a href="#cite_note-95.1-2-10">[c]</a> but which could also mean "lake."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Klaus-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-DOW-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bhargava_1964_5-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-samudra-14">[d]</a> Later Vedic texts such as the <a href="/wiki/Tandya_Brahmana" class="mw-redirect" title="Tandya Brahmana">Tandya Brahmana</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jaiminiya_Brahmana" class="mw-redirect" title="Jaiminiya Brahmana">Jaiminiya Brahmana</a>, as well as the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>, mention that the Sarasvati dried up in a desert. Since the late 19th century, numerous scholars have proposed to identify the Sarasvati with the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra River</a> system, which flows through modern-day northwestern-<a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and eastern-<a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, between the Yamuna and the Sutlej, and ends in the <a href="/wiki/Thar_desert" class="mw-redirect" title="Thar desert">Thar desert</a>. Recent geophysical research shows that the supposed downstream Ghaggar-Hakra paleochannel is actually a paleochannel of the Sutlej, which flowed into the <a href="/wiki/Nara_Canal" title="Nara Canal">Nara river</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Distributary" title="Distributary">delta channel</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>. Around 10,000-8,000 years ago, this channel was abandoned when the Sutlej diverted its course, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a system of monsoon-fed rivers which did not reach the sea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">[14]</a> The Indus Valley Civilisation prospered when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished around 5,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-19">[e]</a> and <a href="/wiki/ISRO" title="ISRO">ISRO</a> has observed that major <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilization">Indus Valley civilization</a> sites at <a href="/wiki/Kalibangan" title="Kalibangan">Kalibangan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>), <a href="/wiki/Banawali" title="Banawali">Banawali</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rakhigarhi" title="Rakhigarhi">Rakhigarhi</a> (<a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>), <a href="/wiki/Dholavira" title="Dholavira">Dholavira</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lothal" title="Lothal">Lothal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gujarat" title="Gujarat">Gujarat</a>) lay along this course.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESankaran1999-20">[15]</a><a href="#cite_note-PIB-21">[web 1]</a> When the monsoons that fed the rivers further diminished, the Hakra dried-up some 4,000 years ago, becoming an intermittent river, and the urban Harappan civilisation declined, becoming localized in smaller agricultural communities.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giosan-22">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">[14]</a> Identification of a mighty physical Rigvedic Sarasvati with the Ghaggar-Hakra system is therefore problematic, since the Gagghar-Hakra had dried up well before the time of the composition of the Rigveda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011-23">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.20121688-1689-24">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giosan-22">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013-16">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">[14]</a> In the words of Wilke and Moebus, the Sarasvati had been reduced to a "small, sorry trickle in the desert" by the time that the Vedic people migrated into north-west India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311-25">[18]</a> Rigvedic references to a physical river also indicate that the Sarasvati "had already lost its main source of water supply and must have ended in a terminal lake (samudra) approximately 3000 years ago,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a> "depicting the present-day situation, with the Sarasvatī having lost most of its water."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200181-26">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_8-9-27">[20]</a> Also, Rigvedic descriptions of the Sarasvati do not fit the actual course of the Gagghar-Hakra.<a href="#cite_note-Thapar2004-28">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kocchar-29">[22]</a> "Sarasvati" has also been identified with the <a href="/wiki/Helmand_River" title="Helmand River">Helmand</a> in ancient <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>, or Harauvatiš (<a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a>: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%F0%90%8F%83%F0%90%8E%BC%F0%90%8E%A2%F0%90%8E%BA%F0%90%8E%AB%F0%90%8E%A1%F0%90%8F%81" class="extiw" title="wikt:𐏃𐎼𐎢𐎺𐎫𐎡𐏁">𐏃𐎼𐎢𐎺𐎫𐎡𐏁</a>), in present day southern <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar-30">[23]</a> the name of which may have been reused from the more ancient Sanskrit name of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, after the Vedic tribes moved to the <a href="/wiki/Punjab" title="Punjab">Punjab</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar-30">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thapar2004-28">[21]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[g]</a> The Sarasvati of the Rigveda may also refer to two distinct rivers, with the family books referring to the Helmand River, and the more recent 10th mandala referring to the Ghaggar-Hakra.<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar-30">[23]</a> The identification with the Ghaggar-Hakra system took on new significance in the early 21st century,<a href="#cite_note-EB-32">[24]</a> with some <a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a> proponents suggesting an earlier dating of the Rigveda; renaming the Indus Valley Civilisation as the "Sarasvati culture", the "Sarasvati Civilization", the "Indus-Sarasvati Civilization" or the "Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization,"<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-33">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maisels2003-34">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-CushRobinson2008-35">[27]</a> suggesting that the Indus Valley and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic cultures</a> can be equated;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258-36">[28]</a> and rejecting the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis">Indo-Aryan migrations theory</a>, which postulates an extended period of migrations of Indo-European speaking people into the Indian subcontinent between ca. 1900 BCE and 1400 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-IE-37">[h]</a><a href="#cite_note-scale-38">[i]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> Sárasvatī is the feminine nominative singular form of the adjective sárasvat (which occurs in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[29]</a> as the name of the keeper of the <a href="/wiki/Celestial_waters" class="mw-redirect" title="Celestial waters">celestial waters</a>), derived from 'sáras' + 'vat', meaning 'having sáras-'. Sanskrit sáras- means 'lake, pond' (cf. the derivative sārasa- 'lake bird = <a href="/wiki/Sarus_crane" title="Sarus crane">Sarus crane</a>'). <a href="/wiki/Manfred_Mayrhofer" title="Manfred Mayrhofer">Mayrhofer</a> considers unlikely a connection with the root *sar- 'run, flow' but does agree that it could have been a river that connected many lakes due to its abundant volumes of water-flow.<a href="#cite_note-40">[30]</a> Sarasvatī is considered to be a cognate of <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> Haraxvatī.<a href="#cite_note-41">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2015p._97:_"It_is_widely_accepted_that_the_Sarasvatī_mentioned_here_is_the_river_that_gave_the_name_Harakhvaiti"-42">[32]</a> In the younger <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a>, Haraxvatī is <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a>, a region <a href="/wiki/Avestan_geography" title="Avestan geography">described</a> to be rich in rivers, and its <a href="/wiki/Old_Persian" title="Old Persian">Old Persian</a> cognate Harauvati. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Importance_in_Hinduism">Importance in Hinduism</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Importance in Hinduism">edit</a>]</div> The Saraswati river was revered and considered important for Hindus because it is said that it was on this river's banks, along with its tributary <a href="/wiki/Drishadwati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadwati">Drishadwati</a>, in the Vedic state of <a href="/wiki/Brahmavarta" title="Brahmavarta">Brahmavarta</a>, that Vedic Sanskrit had its genesis,<a href="#cite_note-43">[33]</a> and important Vedic scriptures like initial part of <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> and several <a href="/wiki/Upanishads" title="Upanishads">Upanishads</a> were supposed to have been composed by Vedic seers. In the <a href="/wiki/Manusmriti" title="Manusmriti">Manusmriti</a>, Brahmavarta is portrayed as the "pure" centre of Vedic culture. Bridget and Raymond Allchin in The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan took the view that "The earliest Aryan homeland in India-Pakistan (Aryavarta or Brahmavarta) was in the Punjab and in the valleys of the Sarasvati and <a href="/wiki/Drishadvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati">Drishadvati</a> rivers in the time of the Rigveda."<a href="#cite_note-44">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rigveda">Rigveda</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Rigveda">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Vedic_India.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Map_of_Vedic_India.png/220px-Map_of_Vedic_India.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="158" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Map_of_Vedic_India.png/330px-Map_of_Vedic_India.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/02/Map_of_Vedic_India.png/440px-Map_of_Vedic_India.png 2x" data-file-width="683" data-file-height="489" /></a><figcaption>Map of northern India in the late Vedic period</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_a_river">As a river</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: As a river">edit</a>]</div> The Sarasvati River is mentioned in all but the fourth book of the <a href="/wiki/Vedas" title="Vedas">Vedas</a>. Macdonell and Keith provided a comprehensive survey of Vedic references to the Sarasvati River in their Vedic Index.<a href="#cite_note-45">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[j]</a> In the late book 10, only two references are unambiguously to the river: 10.64.9, calling for the aid of three "great rivers", Sindhu, Sarasvati and <a href="/wiki/Sarju" title="Sarju">Sarayu</a>; and 10.75.5, the geographical list of the <a href="/wiki/Nadistuti_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadistuti sukta">Nadistuti Sukta</a>. In this hymn, the Sarasvati River is placed between the <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sutlej" title="Sutlej">Sutlej</a>. In the oldest texts of the Rigveda she is described as a "great and holy river in north-western India,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310-3">[2]</a> but Michael Witzel notes that the Rigveda indicates that the Sarswati "had already lost its main source of water supply and must have ended in a terminal lake (samudra) approximately 3000 years ago."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193-4">[3]</a> The middle books 3 and 7 and the late books 10 "depict the present-day situation, with the Sarasvatī having lost most of its water."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200181-26">[19]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a> The Sarasvati acquired an extalted status in the mythology of the <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík200784-85-48">[37]</a> where the Rigveda was compiled.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík20074-5-49">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="As_a_goddess">As a goddess</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: As a goddess">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saraswati.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saraswati.jpg/220px-Saraswati.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="356" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saraswati.jpg/330px-Saraswati.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Saraswati.jpg/440px-Saraswati.jpg 2x" data-file-width="925" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption>Painting of Goddess Saraswati by <a href="/wiki/Raja_Ravi_Varma" title="Raja Ravi Varma">Raja Ravi Varma</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a></div> Sarasvati is mentioned some fifty times in the hymns of the Rigveda.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2017Chapter-2-50">[39]</a> It is mentioned in thirteen hymns of the late books (1 and 10) of the Rigveda.<a href="#cite_note-51">[40]</a> The most important hymns related to Sarasvati goddess are <a href="/wiki/Mandala_6" title="Mandala 6">RV 6</a>.61, <a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">RV 7</a>.95 and RV 7.96.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík200711-52">[41]</a> As a river goddess, she is described as a mighty flood, and is clearly not an earthly river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík200711-13-7">[5]</a> According to Michael Witzel, superimposed on the Vedic Sarasvati river is the heavenly river Milky Way, which is seen as "a road to immortality and heavenly after-life."<a href="#cite_note-Witzel_2012-9">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-CL-53">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[k]</a> The description of the Sarasvati as the river of heavens, is interpreted to suggest its mythical nature.<a href="#cite_note-AgarwalSingh2007-55">[43]</a> In 10.30.12, her origin as a river goddess may explain her invocation as a protective deity in a hymn to the celestial waters. In 10.135.5, as Indra drinks <a href="/wiki/Soma_(drink)" title="Soma (drink)">Soma</a> he is described as refreshed by Sarasvati. The invocations in 10.17 address Sarasvati as a goddess of the forefathers as well as of the present generation. In 1.13, 1.89, 10.85, 10.66 and 10.141, she is listed with other gods and goddesses, not with rivers. In 10.65, she is invoked together with "holy thoughts" (dhī) and "munificence" (puraṃdhi), consistent with her role as a goddess of both knowledge and fertility.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Though Sarasvati initially emerged as a river goddess in the Vedic scriptures, in later Hinduism of the <a href="/wiki/Purana" class="mw-redirect" title="Purana">Puranas</a>, she was rarely associated with the river. Instead, she emerged as an independent goddess of knowledge, learning, wisdom, music and the arts. The evolution of the river goddess into the goddess of knowledge started with later <a href="/wiki/Brahmanas" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmanas">Brahmanas</a>, which identified her as Vāgdevī, the goddess of speech, perhaps due to the centrality of speech in the Vedic cult and the development of the cult on the banks of the river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2017Chapter-3-56">[44]</a> It is also possible to postulate two originally independent goddesses that were fused into one in later Vedic times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinsley199810,_55-57-6">[4]</a> <a href="/wiki/Aurobindo" class="mw-redirect" title="Aurobindo">Aurobindo</a> has proposed, on the other hand, that "the symbolism of the Veda betrays itself to the greatest clearness in the figure of the goddess Sarasvati ... She is, plainly and clearly, the goddess of the World, the goddess of a divine inspiration ...".<a href="#cite_note-57">[45]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_Vedic_texts">Other Vedic texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Other Vedic texts">edit</a>]</div> In post-Rigvedic literature, the disappearance of the Sarasvati is mentioned. Also the origin of the Sarasvati is identified as <a href="/wiki/Plaksa" class="mw-redirect" title="Plaksa">Plaksa</a> Prasravana (Peepal tree or Ashwattha tree as known in India and Nepal).<a href="#cite_note-58">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[47]</a> In a supplementary chapter of the <a href="/wiki/Vajasaneyi-Samhita" class="mw-redirect" title="Vajasaneyi-Samhita">Vajasaneyi-Samhita</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yajurveda" title="Yajurveda">Yajurveda</a> (34.11), Sarasvati is mentioned in a context apparently meaning the Sindhu: "Five rivers flowing on their way speed onward to Sarasvati, but then become Sarasvati a fivefold river in the land."<a href="#cite_note-60">[48]</a> According to the medieval commentator Uvata, the five tributaries of the Sarasvati were the Punjab rivers <a href="/wiki/Drishadvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati">Drishadvati</a>, Satudri (<a href="/wiki/Sutlej" title="Sutlej">Sutlej</a>), Chandrabhaga (<a href="/wiki/Chenab_River" title="Chenab River">Chenab</a>), <a href="/wiki/Vipasa" class="mw-redirect" title="Vipasa">Vipasa</a> (<a href="/wiki/Beas_River" title="Beas River">Beas</a>) and the <a href="/wiki/Iravati" title="Iravati">Iravati</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ravi_River" title="Ravi River">Ravi</a>). The first reference to the disappearance of the lower course of the Sarasvati is from the <a href="/wiki/Brahmana" title="Brahmana">Brahmanas</a>, texts that are composed in <a href="/wiki/Vedic_Sanskrit" title="Vedic Sanskrit">Vedic Sanskrit</a>, but dating to a later date than the Veda Samhitas. The Jaiminiya Brahmana (2.297) speaks of the 'diving under (upamajjana) of the Sarasvati', and the <a href="/wiki/Tandya_Brahmana" class="mw-redirect" title="Tandya Brahmana">Tandya Brahmana</a> (or Pancavimsa Br.) calls this the 'disappearance' (vinasana). The same text (25.10.11-16) records that the Sarasvati is 'so to say meandering' (kubjimati) as it could not sustain heaven which it had propped up.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1984-61">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel-62">[l]</a> The Plaksa Prasravana (place of appearance/source of the river) may refer to a spring in the <a href="/wiki/Sivalik_hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Sivalik hills">Sivalik hills</a>. The distance between the source and the Vinasana (place of disappearance of the river) is said to be 44 <a href="/wiki/Ashwin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashwin">Ashwin</a> (between several hundred and 1,600 miles) (Tandya Br. 25.10.16; cf. Av. 6.131.3; Pancavimsa Br.).<a href="#cite_note-63">[50]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Latyayana_Srautasutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Latyayana Srautasutra">Latyayana Srautasutra</a> (10.15-19) the Sarasvati seems to be a perennial river up to the Vinasana, which is west of its confluence with the Drshadvati (Chautang). The Drshadvati is described as a seasonal stream (10.17), meaning it was not from Himalayas. Bhargava<a href="#cite_note-64">[51]</a> has identified Drashadwati river as present-day Sahibi river originating from Jaipur hills in Rajasthan. The Asvalayana Srautasutra and Sankhayana Srautasutra contain verses that are similar to the Latyayana Srautasutra. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Post-Vedic_texts">Post-Vedic texts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Post-Vedic texts">edit</a>]</div> Wilke and Moebus note that the "historical river" Sarasvati was a "topographically tangible mythogeme", which was already reduced to a "small, sorry trickle in the desert", by the time of composition of the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_epic" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu epic">Hindu epics</a>. These post-Vedic texts regularly talk about drying up of the river, and start associating the goddess Sarasvati with language, rather than the river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311-25">[18]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Mahabharata">edit</a>]</div> According to the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a> (3rd c. BCE - 3rd c. CE) the Sarasvati River dried up to a desert (at a place named Vinasana or Adarsana)<a href="#cite_note-65">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[53]</a> and joins the sea "impetuously".<a href="#cite_note-67">[54]</a> MB.3.81.115 locates the state of Kurupradesh or <a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a> to the south of the Sarasvati and north of the <a href="/wiki/Drishadvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati">Drishadvati</a>. The dried-up, seasonal <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaggar River">Ghaggar River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a> reflects the same geographical view described in the <a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a>. According to Hindu scriptures, a journey was made during the Mahabharata by Balrama along the banks of the Saraswati from Dwarka to Mathura. There were ancient kingdoms too (the era of the Mahajanapads) that lay in parts of north Rajasthan and that were named on the Sarasvati River.<a href="#cite_note-68">[55]</a><a href="#cite_note-69">[56]</a><a href="#cite_note-70">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Puranas">Puranas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Puranas">edit</a>]</div> Several <a href="/wiki/Purana" class="mw-redirect" title="Purana">Puranas</a> describe the Sarasvati River, and also record that the river separated into a number of lakes (saras).<a href="#cite_note-Radhakrishna,_B.P_1999,_p.35-44-71">[58]</a> In the <a href="/wiki/Skanda_Purana" title="Skanda Purana">Skanda Purana</a>, the Sarasvati originates from the water pot of <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a> and flows from <a href="/wiki/Plaksa" class="mw-redirect" title="Plaksa">Plaksa</a> on the Himalayas. It then turns west at Kedara and also flows underground. Five distributaries of the Sarasvati are mentioned.<a href="#cite_note-72">[59]</a> The text regards Sarasvati as a form of Brahma's consort <a href="/wiki/Brahmani_(Matrika)" title="Brahmani (Matrika)">Brahmi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Eck149-73">[60]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Vamana_Purana" title="Vamana Purana">Vamana Purana</a> 32.1-4, the Sarasvati rose from the Plaksa tree (<a href="/wiki/Pipal_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Pipal tree">Pipal tree</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Radhakrishna,_B.P_1999,_p.35-44-71">[58]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Padma_Purana" title="Padma Purana">Padma Purana</a> proclaims: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">One who bathes and drinks there where the Gangā, Yamunā and Sarasvati join enjoys <a href="/wiki/Moksha" title="Moksha">liberation</a>. Of this there is no doubt."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck2012147-74">[61]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Smritis">Smritis</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Smritis">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>In the <a href="/wiki/Manu_Smriti" class="mw-redirect" title="Manu Smriti">Manu Smriti</a>, the sage <a href="/wiki/Sraddhadeva_Manu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sraddhadeva Manu">Manu</a>, escaping from a flood, founded the Vedic culture between the Sarasvati and <a href="/wiki/Drishadvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati">Drishadvati</a> rivers. The Sarasvati River was thus the western boundary of <a href="/wiki/Brahmavarta" title="Brahmavarta">Brahmavarta</a>: "the land between the Sarasvati and Drishadvati is created by God; this land is Brahmavarta."<a href="#cite_note-75">[62]</a></li> <li>Similarly, the <a href="/wiki/Vasistha_Dharma_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Vasistha Dharma Sutra">Vasistha Dharma Sutra</a> I.8-9 and 12-13 locates <a href="/wiki/Aryavarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryavarta">Aryavarta</a> to the east of the disappearance of the Sarasvati in the desert, to the west of Kalakavana, to the north of the mountains of <a href="/wiki/Pariyatra" class="mw-redirect" title="Pariyatra">Pariyatra</a> and <a href="/wiki/Vindhya" class="mw-redirect" title="Vindhya">Vindhya</a> and to the south of the <a href="/wiki/Himalaya" class="mw-redirect" title="Himalaya">Himalaya</a>. <a href="/wiki/Patanjali" title="Patanjali">Patanjali</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Mah%C4%81bh%C4%81%E1%B9%A3ya" class="mw-redirect" title="Mahābhāṣya">Mahābhāṣya</a> defines Aryavarta like the Vasistha Dharma Sutra.</li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Baudhayana" class="mw-redirect" title="Baudhayana">Baudhayana</a> Dharmasutra gives similar definitions, declaring that Aryavarta is the land that lies west of Kalakavana, east of <a href="/wiki/Adarsana" title="Adarsana">Adarsana</a> (where the Sarasvati disappears in the desert), south of the <a href="/wiki/Himalayas" title="Himalayas">Himalayas</a> and north of the <a href="/wiki/Vindhyas" class="mw-redirect" title="Vindhyas">Vindhyas</a>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_religious_significance">Contemporary religious significance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Contemporary religious significance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg/220px-NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg/330px-NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/09/NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg/440px-NorthIndiaCircuit_250.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2576" data-file-height="1932" /></a><figcaption>Triveni Sangam, Allahabad – the confluence of Ganga, Yamuna and the "unseen" Sarasvati.</figcaption></figure> Diana Eck notes that the power and significance of the Sarasvati for present-day India is in the persistent symbolic presence at the confluence of rivers all over India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck2012145-76">[63]</a> Although "materially missing",<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck2012148-77">[64]</a> she is the third river, which emerges to join in the meeting of rivers, thereby making the waters thrice holy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck2012148-77">[64]</a> After the Vedic Sarasvati dried, new myths about the rivers arose. Sarasvati is described to flow in the <a href="/wiki/Patala" title="Patala">underworld</a> and rise to the surface at some places.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311-25">[18]</a> For centuries, the Sarasvati river existed in a "subtle or mythic" form, since it corresponds with none of the major rivers of present-day South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-EB-Sarasvati-8">[6]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Confluence" title="Confluence">confluence</a> (sangam) or joining of the <a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> rivers at <a href="/wiki/Triveni_Sangam" title="Triveni Sangam">Triveni Sangam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Allahabad" class="mw-redirect" title="Allahabad">Allahabad</a>, is believed to also converge with the unseen Sarasvati river, which is believed to flow underground. This is despite Allahabad being at a considerable distance from the possible historic routes of an actual Sarasvati river. At the <a href="/wiki/Kumbh_Mela" title="Kumbh Mela">Kumbh Mela</a>, a mass bathing festival is held at Triveni Sangam, literally "confluence of the three rivers", every 12 years.<a href="#cite_note-EB-Sarasvati-8">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík20071-78">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-79">[66]</a> The belief of Sarasvati joining at the confluence of the Ganges and Yamuna originates from the <a href="/wiki/Puranas" title="Puranas">Puranic scriptures</a> and denotes the "powerful legacy" the Vedic river left after her disappearance. The belief is interpreted as "symbolic".<a href="#cite_note-Eck2012-80">[67]</a> The three rivers Sarasvati, Yamuna, Ganga are considered consorts of the Hindu Trinity (<a href="/wiki/Trimurti" title="Trimurti">Trimurti</a>) <a href="/wiki/Brahma" title="Brahma">Brahma</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vishnu" title="Vishnu">Vishnu</a> (as <a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Shiva" title="Shiva">Shiva</a> respectively.<a href="#cite_note-Eck149-73">[60]</a> In lesser known configuration, Sarasvati is said to form the Triveni confluence with rivers Hiranya and Kapila at <a href="/wiki/Somnath" class="mw-redirect" title="Somnath">Somnath</a>. There are several other Trivenis in India where two physical rivers are joined by the "unseen" Sarasvati, which adds to the sanctity of the confluence.<a href="#cite_note-81">[68]</a> Romila Thapar notes that "once the river had been mythologized through invoking the memory of the earlier river, its name - Sarasvati - could be applied to many rivers, which is what happened in various parts of the [Indian] subcontinent."<a href="#cite_note-Thapar2004-28">[21]</a> Several present-day rivers are also named Sarasvati, after the Vedic Sarasvati: <ul><li>Sarsuti is the present-day name of a river originating in a submontane region (<a href="/wiki/Ambala" title="Ambala">Ambala</a> district) and joining the Ghaggar near Shatrana in <a href="/wiki/PEPSU" class="mw-redirect" title="PEPSU">PEPSU</a>. Near Sadulgarh (<a href="/wiki/Hanumangarh" title="Hanumangarh">Hanumangarh</a>) the Naiwala channel, a dried out channel of the <a href="/wiki/Sutlej" title="Sutlej">Sutlej</a>, joins the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaggar">Ghaggar</a>. Near <a href="/wiki/Suratgarh" title="Suratgarh">Suratgarh</a> the Ghaggar is then joined by the dried up <a href="/wiki/Drishadvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati">Drishadvati</a> river.</li> <li>Sarasvati is the name of a river originating in the <a href="/wiki/Aravalli_Range" title="Aravalli Range">Aravalli</a> mountain range in <a href="/wiki/Rajasthan" title="Rajasthan">Rajasthan</a>, passing through <a href="/wiki/Sidhpur" class="mw-redirect" title="Sidhpur">Sidhpur</a> and <a href="/wiki/Patan,_Rajasthan" title="Patan, Rajasthan">Patan</a> before submerging in the <a href="/wiki/Rann_of_Kutch" title="Rann of Kutch">Rann of Kutch</a>.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati_River_(Uttarakhand)" title="Saraswati River (Uttarakhand)">Saraswati River</a>, a tributary of <a href="/wiki/Alaknanda_River" title="Alaknanda River">Alaknanda River</a>, originates near <a href="/wiki/Badrinath" title="Badrinath">Badrinath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati_River_(Bengal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Saraswati River (Bengal)">Saraswati River</a> in <a href="/wiki/Bengal" title="Bengal">Bengal</a>, formerly a distributary of the <a href="/wiki/Hooghly_River" title="Hooghly River">Hooghly River</a>, has dried up since the 17th century.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Identification_theories">Identification theories</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Identification theories">edit</a>]</div> Already since the 19th century, attempts have been made to identify the mythical Sarasvati of the Vedas with physical rivers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a> Many think that the Vedic Sarasvati river once flowed east of the <a href="/wiki/Indus" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus">Indus</a> (Sindhu) river.<a href="#cite_note-Eck2012-80">[67]</a> Scientists, geologists as well as scholars have identified the Sarasvati with many present-day or now-defunct rivers. Two theories are popular in the attempts to identify the Sarasvati. Several scholars have identified the river with the present-day <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra River</a> or dried up part of it, which is located in Northwestern India and Pakistan.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarian200158-82">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-AgarwalSingh2007-55">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-33">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maisels2003-34">[26]</a> A second popular theory associates the river with the <a href="/wiki/Helmand_River" title="Helmand River">Helmand river</a> or an ancient river in the present Helmand Valley in Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar-30">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[70]</a> Others consider Sarasvati a mythical river, an <a href="/wiki/Allegory" title="Allegory">allegory</a> not a "thing".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_6-9-84">[71]</a> The identification with the Ghaggar-Hakra system took on new significance in the early 21st century,<a href="#cite_note-EB-32">[24]</a> suggesting an earlier dating of the Rigveda, and renaming the Indus Valley Civilisation as the "Sarasvati culture", the "Sarasvati Civilization", the "Indus-Sarasvati Civilization" or the "Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization,"<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-33">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maisels2003-34">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-CushRobinson2008-35">[27]</a> suggesting that the Indus Valley and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic cultures</a> can be equated.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258-36">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rigvedic_course">Rigvedic course</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Rigvedic course">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rigvedic_geography.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Rigvedic_geography.jpg/220px-Rigvedic_geography.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Rigvedic_geography.jpg/330px-Rigvedic_geography.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Rigvedic_geography.jpg/440px-Rigvedic_geography.jpg 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="539" /></a><figcaption>Vedic rivers</figcaption></figure> The Rigveda contains several hymns which give an indication of the flow of the geography of the river, and an identification of the Sarasvati as described in the later books of the Rigveda with the Ghaggra-Hakra: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_3" title="Mandala 3">RV 3</a>.23.4 mentions the Sarasvati River together with the <a href="/wiki/Drsadvati_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Drsadvati River">Drsadvati River</a> and the Āpayā River.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_6" title="Mandala 6">RV 6</a>.52.6 describes the Sarasvati as swollen (pinvamānā) by the rivers (sindhubhih).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">RV 7</a>.36.6, "sárasvatī saptáthī síndhumātā" can be translated as "Sarasvati the Seventh, Mother of Floods,"<a href="#cite_note-85">[72]</a> but also as "whose mother is the Sindhu", which would indicate that the Sarasvati is here a tributary of the Indus.<a href="#cite_note-86">[m]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">RV 7</a>.95.1-2, describes the Sarasvati as flowing to the <a href="/wiki/Samudra" title="Samudra">samudra</a>, a word now usually translated as "ocean,"<a href="#cite_note-95.1-2-10">[c]</a> but which could also mean "lake."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Klaus-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-DOW-12">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-Bhargava_1964_5-13">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-samudra-14">[d]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandala_10" title="Mandala 10">RV 10</a>.75.5, the late Rigvedic <a href="/wiki/Nadistuti_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadistuti sukta">Nadistuti sukta</a>, enumerates all important rivers from the Ganges in the east up to the Indus in the west in a clear geographical order. The sequence "Ganges, <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a>, Sarasvati, <a href="/wiki/Shutudri" class="mw-redirect" title="Shutudri">Shutudri</a>" places the Sarasvati between the Yamuna and the <a href="/wiki/Sutlej" title="Sutlej">Sutlej</a>, which is consistent with the Ghaggar identification.<a href="#cite_note-Witzel1-5">[b]</a></li></ul> Yet, the Rigveda also contains clues for an identification with the Helmand river in Afghanistan: <ul><li>The Sarasvati River is perceived to be a great river with perennial water, which does not apply to the Hakra and Ghaggar.<a href="#cite_note-Kalyanaraman-87">[73]</a></li> <li>The Rigveda seems to contain descriptions of several Sarasvatis. The earliest Sararvati is said to be similar to the Helmand in Afghanistan which is called the Harakhwati in the Āvestā.<a href="#cite_note-Kalyanaraman-87">[73]</a></li> <li>Verses in <a href="/wiki/Mandala_6" title="Mandala 6">RV 6</a>.61 indicate that the Sarasvati river originated in the hills or mountains (giri), where she "burst with her strong waves the ridges of the hills (giri)". It is a matter of interpretation whether this refers only to the Himalayan <a href="/wiki/Foothills" title="Foothills">foothills</a>, where the present-day Sarasvati (Sarsuti) river flows, or to higher mountains.</li></ul> The Rigveda was composed during the latter part of the late Harappan period, and according to Shaffer, the reason for the predominance of the Sarasvati in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Late_Harappan" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Harappan">late Harappan</a> (1900-1300 BCE) population shift eastwards to <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ghaggar-Hakra_River">Ghaggar-Hakra River</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ghaggar-Hakra River">edit</a>]</div> The present Ghaggar-Hakra River is a seasonal river in <a href="/wiki/India" title="India">India</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a> that flows only during the <a href="/wiki/Monsoon" title="Monsoon">monsoon</a> season, but satellite images in possession of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">ISRO</a> and <a href="/wiki/Oil_and_Natural_Gas_Corporation" title="Oil and Natural Gas Corporation">ONGC</a> have confirmed that the major course of a river ran through the present-day Ghaggar River.<a href="#cite_note-:0-88">[74]</a> The supposed paleochannel of the Hakra is actually a paleochannel of the Sutlej, flowing into the <a href="/wiki/Nara_Canal" title="Nara Canal">Nara river</a> bed,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a> presently a <a href="/wiki/Distributary" title="Distributary">delta channel</a> c.q. paleochannel of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh200819-21-89">[75]</a><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchuldenrein_et_al.2004[httpswwwresearchgatenetfigureThe-ancient-drainage-net-of-the-Lower-Indus-Valley-in-the-vicinity-of-Mohenjo-daro_fig10_223760030_fig._23]_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuldenrein_et_al.2004[httpswwwresearchgatenetfigureThe-ancient-drainage-net-of-the-Lower-Indus-Valley-in-the-vicinity-of-Mohenjo-daro_fig10_223760030_fig._23]-90">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012[httpswwwresearchgatenetfigureSatellite-image-of-the-Indus-River-system-showing-the-study-sites-Stars-indicate_fig1_229062223_fig._1]-91">[77]</a> At least 10,000 years ago, well before the rise of the Harappan civilization, the sutlej diverted its course, leaving the Ghaggar-Hakra as a monsoon-fed river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-MV-92">[78]</a> Early in the 2nd millennium BCE the monsoons diminished and the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system dried up, which affected the Harappan civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Paleochannels_and_ancient_course">Paleochannels and ancient course</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Paleochannels and ancient course">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sarasvati_river.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sarasvati_river.jpg/220px-Sarasvati_river.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="273" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sarasvati_river.jpg/330px-Sarasvati_river.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Sarasvati_river.jpg/440px-Sarasvati_river.jpg 2x" data-file-width="970" data-file-height="1204" /></a><figcaption>Vedic and present-day Gagghar-Hakra river-course, with <a href="/wiki/Aryavarta" class="mw-redirect" title="Aryavarta">Aryavarta</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kuru_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuru Kingdom">Kuru Kingdom</a>, and (pre-)Harappan Hakra/Sutlej-Yamuna paleochannels, as proposed by <a href="#CITEREFClift_et_al.2012">Clift et al. (2012)</a> and <a href="#CITEREFKhonde_et_al.2017">Khonde et al. (2017)</a>.<a href="#cite_note-93">[n]</a> See also <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.google.co.uk/maps/place/Sir+Creek/@27.9238648,69.0488446,1290954m/data=!3m1!1e3!4m5!3m4!1s0x39527a0557ec4543:0x9e7e9966b79d473b!8m2!3d23.8379562!4d68.2376719">this</a> satellite image. 1 = ancient river 2 = today's river 3 = today's Thar desert 4 = ancient shore 5 = today's shore 6 = today's town 7 = dried-up Harappan Hakra course, and pre-Harappan Sutlej paleochannels (<a href="#CITEREFClift_et_al.2012">Clift et al. (2012)</a>)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra River</a></div> While there is general agreement that the river courses in the Indus Basin have frequently changed course, the exact sequence of these changes and their dating have been problematic.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchuldenrein_et_al.2004-94">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Pre-Holocene_diversion_of_the_Sutlej_and_Yamuna">Pre-Holocene diversion of the Sutlej and Yamuna</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Pre-Holocene diversion of the Sutlej and Yamuna">edit</a>]</div> Older publications have suggested that the Sutlej and the Yamuna drained into the Hakra well into Mature Harappan times, providing ample volume to the supply provided by the monsoon-fed Ghaggar. The Sutlej and Yamuna then changed course between 2500 BCE and 1900 BCE, due to either tectonic events or "slightly altered gradients on the extremely flat plains," resulting in the drying-up of the Hakra in the <a href="/wiki/Thar_Desert" title="Thar Desert">Thar Desert</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh200820-21-95">[80]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJainAgarwalSingh2007312-96">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-tectonics-97">[o]</a><a href="#cite_note-Possehl_Keonoyer-102">[p]</a><a href="#cite_note-105">[q]</a> More recent publications have shown that the Sutlej and the Yamuna shifted course well before Harappan times,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhonde_et_al.2017-106">[88]</a> leaving the monsoon-fed Ghaggar-Hakra which dried-up during late Harappan times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a> Clift et al. (2012), using dating of zircon sand grains, have shown that subsurface river channels near the <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> sites in <a href="/wiki/Cholistan" class="mw-redirect" title="Cholistan">Cholistan</a> immediately below the presumed Ghaggar-Hakra channel show sediment affinity not with the Ghagger-Hakra, but instead with the <a href="/wiki/Beas_River" title="Beas River">Beas River</a> in the western sites and the Sutlej and the Yamuna in the eastern ones. This suggests that the Yamuna itself, or a channel of the Yamuna, along with a channel of the Sutlej may have flowed west some time between 47,000 BCE and 10,000 BCE. The drainage from the Yamuna may have been lost from the Ghaggar-Hakra well before the beginnings of Indus civilisation.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">[13]</a> Ajit Singh et al. (2017) show that the paleochannel of the Ghaggar-Hakra is a former course of the Sutlej, which diverted to its present course between 15,000 and 8,000 years ago, well before the development of the Harappan Civilisation. Ajit Singh et al. conclude that the urban populations settled not along a perennial river, but a monsoon-fed seasonal river that was not subject to devastating floods.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-MV-92">[78]</a> Khonde et al. (2017) confirm that the Great Rann of Kutch received sediments from a different source than the Indus, but this source stopped supplying sediments after ca. 10,000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhonde_et_al.2017-106">[88]</a> Likewise, Dave et al. (2019) state that "[o]ur results disprove the proposed link between ancient settlements and large rivers from the Himalayas and indicate that the major palaeo-fluvial system traversing through this region ceased long before the establishment of the Harappan civilisation."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDave_et_al.2019-107">[89]</a> According to Chaudhri et al. (2021) "the Saraswati River used to flow from the glaciated peaks of the Himalaya to the Arabian sea," and an "enormous amount of water was flowing through this channel network until BC 11,147."<a href="#cite_note-108">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="IVC_and_diminishing_of_the_monsoons">IVC and diminishing of the monsoons</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: IVC and diminishing of the monsoons">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IVC_rivers_map.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/IVC_rivers_map.jpg/220px-IVC_rivers_map.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="192" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/IVC_rivers_map.jpg/330px-IVC_rivers_map.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/IVC_rivers_map.jpg/440px-IVC_rivers_map.jpg 2x" data-file-width="459" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Outline of the Indus Civilization, with concentration of settlements along the Ghaggar-Hakra, which had dried-up by the time of the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migrations" title="Indo-Aryan migrations">Indo-Aryan migrations</a>. See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Map-of-Greater-Indus-Valley-Civilization-adapted-from-Tokai-University-2000_fig2_329600632">Sameer et al. (2018)</a> for a more detailed map.</figcaption></figure> Many <a href="/wiki/Indus_Valley_civilisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indus Valley civilisation">Indus Valley civilisation</a> (Harrapan Civilisation) sites are found on the banks of and in the proximity of the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, due to the "high monsoon rainfall" which fed the Ghaggar-Hakra in Mature Harappan Times.<a href="#cite_note-109">[91]</a><a href="#cite_note-110">[92]</a> Giosan et al., in their study Fluvial landscapes of the Harappan civilisation, make clear that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system was not a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, but a monsoonal-fed river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a> They concluded that the Indus Valley Civilisation prospered when the monsoons that fed the rivers diminished around 5,000 years ago. When the monsoons, which fed the rivers that supported the civilisation, further diminished and the rivers dried out as a result, the IVC declined some 4000 years ago.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a> This in particular effected the Ghaggar-Hakra system, which became an <a href="/wiki/Intermittent_river" title="Intermittent river">intermittent river</a> and was largely abandoned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.20121693-111">[93]</a> Localized Late IVC-settlements are found eastwards, toward the more humid regions of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, where the decentralised late Harappan phase took place.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.20121693-111">[93]</a><a href="#cite_note-Giosan-22">[f]</a><a href="#cite_note-114">[r]</a> The same widespread aridification in the third millennium BCE also led to water shortages and ecological changes in the Eurasian steppes,<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar2017-115">[web 2]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemkina2017-116">[96]</a> leading to a change of vegetation, triggering "higher mobility and transition to nomadic cattle breeding,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemkina2017-116">[96]</a><a href="#cite_note-117">[s]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007300,_336-118">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-119">[t]</a> These migrations eventually resulted in the Indo-Aryan migrations into South Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-120">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kochhar2017-115">[web 2]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Identification_with_the_Sarasvati">Identification with the Sarasvati</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Identification with the Sarasvati">edit</a>]</div> A number of archaeologists and geologists have identified the Sarasvati river with the present-day Ghaggar-Hakra River, or the dried up part of it,<a href="#cite_note-AgarwalSingh2007-55">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-33">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maisels2003-34">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-121">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[101]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[102]</a><a href="#cite_note-125">[103]</a> despite the fact that it had already dried-up and become a small seasonal river before Vedic times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">[11]</a> In the 19th and early 20th century a number of scholars, archaeologists and geologists have identified the Vedic Sarasvati River with the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar-Hakra_River" title="Ghaggar-Hakra River">Ghaggar-Hakra River</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Christian_Lassen" title="Christian Lassen">Christian Lassen</a> (1800-1876),<a href="#cite_note-126">[104]</a> <a href="/wiki/Max_M%C3%BCller" title="Max Müller">Max Müller</a> (1823-1900),<a href="#cite_note-127">[105]</a> <a href="/wiki/Marc_Aurel_Stein" class="mw-redirect" title="Marc Aurel Stein">Marc Aurel Stein</a> (1862-1943),<a href="#cite_note-:1-112">[94]</a> C.F. Oldham<a href="#cite_note-128">[106]</a> and Jane Macintosh.<a href="#cite_note-129">[107]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michel_Danino" title="Michel Danino">Danino</a> notes that "the 1500 km-long bed of the Sarasvati" was "rediscovered" in the 19th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010252-130">[108]</a> According to Danino, "most Indologists" were convinced in the 19th century that "the bed of the Ghaggar-Hakra was the relic of the Sarasvati."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010252-130">[108]</a> Recent archaeologists and geologists, such as Philip and Virdi (2006), K.S. Valdiya (2013) have identified the Sarasvati with Ghaggar.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad201713-131">[109]</a> According to Gregory Possehl, "Linguistic, archaeological, and historical data show that the Sarasvati of the Vedas is the modern Ghaggar or Hakra."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl20028-101">[85]</a> According to R.U.S. Prasad, "we [...] find a considerable body of opinions [sic] among the scholars, archaeologists and geologists, who hold that the Sarasvati originated in the <a href="/wiki/Shivalik_hills" class="mw-redirect" title="Shivalik hills">Shivalik hills</a> [...] and descended through <a href="/wiki/Adi_Badri,_Haryana" title="Adi Badri, Haryana">Adi Badri</a>, situated in the foothills of the Shivaliks, to the plains [...] and finally <a href="/wiki/Debouch" title="Debouch">debouched</a> herself into the Arabian sea at the <a href="/wiki/Great_Rann_of_Kutch" title="Great Rann of Kutch">Rann of Kutch</a>."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad201714-132">[110]</a> According to Valdiya, "it is plausible to conclude that once upon a time the Ghagghar was known as "Sarsutī"," which is "a corruption of "Sarasvati"," because "at Sirsā on the bank of the Ghagghar stands a fortress called "Sarsutī". Now in derelict condition, this fortress of antiquity celebrates and honours the river Sarsutī."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEValdiya20176-133">[111]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Textual_and_historical_objections">Textual and historical objections</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Textual and historical objections">edit</a>]</div> Ashoke Mukherjee (2001), is critical of the attempts to identify the Rigvedic Sarasvati. Mukherjee notes that many historians and archaeologists, both Indian and foreign, concluded that the word "Sarasvati" (literally "being full of water") is not a <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">noun</a>, a specific "thing". However, Mukherjee believes that "Sarasvati" is initially used by the Rigvedic people as an adjective to the Indus as a large river and later evolved into a "noun". Mukherjee concludes that the Vedic poets had not seen the palaeo-Sarasvati, and that what they described in the Vedic verses refers to something else. He also suggests that in the post-Vedic and Puranic tradition the "disappearance" of Sarasvati, which to refers to "[going] under [the] ground in the sands", was created as a complementary myth to explain the visible non-existence of the river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_6-9-84">[71]</a> <a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Romila Thapar</a> terms the identification controversial and dismisses it, noticing that the descriptions of Sarasvati flowing through the high mountains does not tally with Ghaggar's course and suggests that Sarasvati is Haraxvati of Afghanistan.<a href="#cite_note-Thapar2004-28">[21]</a> Wilke and Moebus suggest that the identification is problematic since the Ghaggar-Hakra river was already dried up at the time of the composition of the Vedas,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311-25">[18]</a> let alone the migration of the Vedic people into northern India.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193-4">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_8-9-27">[20]</a> Rajesh Kocchar further notes that, even if the Sutlej and the Yamuna had drained into the Ghaggar during Rigvedic, it still would not fit the Rigvedic descriptions because "the snow-fed Satluj and Yamuna would strengthen lower Ghaggar. Upper Ghaggar would still be as puny as it is today."<a href="#cite_note-Kocchar-29">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Helmand_river">Helmand river</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Helmand river">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Helmand_River_-_panoramio.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Helmand_River_-_panoramio.jpg/220px-Helmand_River_-_panoramio.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Helmand_River_-_panoramio.jpg/330px-Helmand_River_-_panoramio.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Helmand_River_-_panoramio.jpg/440px-Helmand_River_-_panoramio.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Helmand_River" title="Helmand River">Helmand River</a>, Afghanistan, known in ancient Iranian Avestan as Harahvaiti, is identified by some as the ancient Sarasvati river.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010260-134">[112]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Afghanistan_physical_en.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Afghanistan_physical_en.png/220px-Afghanistan_physical_en.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Afghanistan_physical_en.png/330px-Afghanistan_physical_en.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Afghanistan_physical_en.png/440px-Afghanistan_physical_en.png 2x" data-file-width="2079" data-file-height="1624" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Helmund" class="mw-redirect" title="Helmund">Helmund</a> river basin with tributary <a href="/wiki/Arghandab_River" title="Arghandab River">Arghandab River</a> originates in <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a> mountain in north <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a> and falls in to <a href="/wiki/Hamun_Lake" title="Hamun Lake">Hamun Lake</a> in southern Afghanistan at the border of <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Helmand_River" title="Helmand River">Helmand River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Arghandab_River" title="Arghandab River">Arghandab River</a></div> An alternative suggestion for the identity of the early Rigvedic Sarasvati River is the <a href="/wiki/Helmand_River" title="Helmand River">Helmand River</a> and its tributary <a href="/wiki/Arghandab_River" title="Arghandab River">Arghandab</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010260-134">[112]</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Arachosia" title="Arachosia">Arachosia</a> region in <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, separated from the watershed of the Indus by the <a href="/wiki/Sanglakh_Range" title="Sanglakh Range">Sanglakh Range</a>. The Helmand historically besides Avestan Haetumant bore the name Haraxvaiti, which is the <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> form cognate to Sanskrit Sarasvati. The <a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a> extols the Helmand in similar terms to those used in the Rigveda with respect to the Sarasvati: "The bountiful, glorious Haetumant swelling its white waves rolling down its copious flood".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKochhar2012263-135">[113]</a> However unlike the Rigvedic Sarasvati, Helmand river never attained the status of a deity despite the praises in the Avesta.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad201742-136">[114]</a> The identification of the Sarasvati river with the Helmand river was first proposed by Thomas (1886), followed by Alfred Hillebrandt a couple of years thereafter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010260-134">[112]</a> According to Konrad Klaus (1989), the geographic situation of the Sarasvati and the Helmand rivers are similar. Both flow into terminal lakes: The Helmand flows into a swamp on the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a> (the extended <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">wetland</a> and lake system of <a href="/wiki/Hamun-i-Helmand" class="mw-redirect" title="Hamun-i-Helmand">Hamun-i-Helmand</a>). This matches the Rigvedic description of the Sarasvati flowing to the <a href="/wiki/Samudra" title="Samudra">samudra</a>, which according to him at that time meant 'confluence', 'lake', 'heavenly lake', 'ocean'; the current meaning of 'terrestrial ocean' was not even felt in the Pali Canon.<a href="#cite_note-Klaus-11">[8]</a><a href="#cite_note-DOW-12">[9]</a> Rajesh Kocchar, after a detailed analysis of the Vedic texts and geological environments of the rivers, concludes that there are two Sarasvati rivers mentioned in the Rigveda. The early Rigvedic Sarasvati, which he calls Naditama Sarasvati, is described in suktas 2.41, 7.36, etc. of the family books of the Rigveda, and drains into a <a href="/wiki/Samudra" title="Samudra">samudra</a>. The description of the Naditama Sarasvati in the Rigveda matches the physical features of the <a href="/wiki/Helmand_River" title="Helmand River">Helmand River</a> in Afghanistan, more precisely its tributary the <a href="/wiki/Harut_River" title="Harut River">Harut River</a> (Heu Rúd or Sabzawar River). Rajesh Kocchar, however, believes that the name 'Harut' is traced to 'Harauvaiti' (the name for the region of Arachosia, not a river) and Harut is not actually a part of Arachosia but of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dragiana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dragiana (page does not exist)">Dragiana</a>. The later Rigvedic Sarasvati, which he calls Vinasana Sarasvati, is described in the Rigvedic Nadistuti sukta (10.75), which was composed centuries later, after an eastward migration of the bearers of the Rigvedic culture to the western <a href="/wiki/Ganges_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ganges River">Gangetic</a> plain some 600 km to the east. The Sarasvati by this time had become a mythical "disappeared" river, and the name was transferred to the <a href="/wiki/Ghaggar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaggar">Ghaggar</a> which disappeared in the desert.<a href="#cite_note-Kochhar-30">[23]</a> The later Rigvedic Sarasvati is only in the post-Rigvedic Brahmanas said to disappear in the sands. According to Kocchar the Ganga and Yamuna were small streams in the vicinity of the Harut River. When the Vedic people moved east into Punjab, they named the new rivers they encountered after the old rivers they knew from Helmand, and the Vinasana Sarasvati may correspond with the Ghaggar-Hakra river.<a href="#cite_note-137">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Kocchar-29">[22]</a> Romila Thapar (2004) declares the identification of the Ghaggar with the Sarasvati controversial. Furthermore, the early references to the Sarasvati could be the Haraxvati plain in Afghanistan. The identification with the Ghaggar is problematic, as the Sarasvati is said to cut its way through high mountains, which is not the landscape of the Ghaggar.<a href="#cite_note-Thapar2004-28">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Contemporary_politico-religious_meaning">Contemporary politico-religious meaning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Contemporary politico-religious meaning">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Aryans">Indigenous Aryans</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drying-up_and_dating_of_the_Vedas">Drying-up and dating of the Vedas</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Drying-up and dating of the Vedas">edit</a>]</div> The Vedic description of the goddess Sarasvati as a mighty river, and the Vedic and Puranic statements about the drying-up and diving-under of the Sarasvati, have been used by some as a reference point for a <a href="/wiki/Historical_revisionism" title="Historical revisionism">revised</a> dating of the Vedic culture.<a href="#cite_note-EB-Sarasvati-8">[6]</a> Some see these descriptions as a mighty river as evidence for an earlier dating of the Rigveda, identifying the Vedic culture with the Harappan culture, which flourished at the time that the Ghaggar-Hakra had not dried up, and rejecting the <a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_migration_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Aryan migration hypothesis">Indo-Aryan migrations theory</a>, which postulates a migration at 1500 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-IE-37">[h]</a><a href="#cite_note-scale-38">[i]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michel_Danino" title="Michel Danino">Michel Danino</a> places the composition of the Vedas therefore in the third millennium BCE, a millennium earlier than the conventional dates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256-142">[120]</a> Danino notes that accepting the Rigveda accounts as a mighty river as factual descriptions, and dating the drying up late in the third millennium, are incompatible.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256-142">[120]</a> According to Danino, this suggests that the Vedic people were present in northern India in the third millennium BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256,_258-143">[121]</a> a conclusion which is controversial amongst professional archaeologists.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256-142">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-Witzel2-145">[u]</a> Danino states that there is an absence of "any intrusive material culture in the Northwest during the second millennium BCE,"<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256-142">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[v]</a> a biological continuity in the skeletal remains,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256-142">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-scale-38">[i]</a> and a cultural continuity. Danino then states that if the "testimony of the Sarasvati is added to this, the simplest and most natural conclusion is that the Vedic culture was present in the region in the third millennium."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258-36">[28]</a> Danino acknowledges that this asks for "studying its tentacular ramifications into linguistics, archaeoastronomy, anthropology and genetics, besides a few other fields".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258-36">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Identification_with_the_Indus_Valley_Civilisation">Identification with the Indus Valley Civilisation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Identification with the Indus Valley Civilisation">edit</a>]</div> The Indus Valley Civilisation is sometimes called the "Sarasvati culture", "Sarasvati Civilization", "Indus Ghaggar-Hakra civilisation," "Indus-Sarasvati Civilization," or "Sindhu-Sarasvati Civilization" by <a href="/wiki/Hindutva" title="Hindutva">Hindutva</a> revisionists subscribing to the theory of <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEtter2020-150">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESindhav2016103-151">[127]</a> The terms refer to the Sarasvati river mentioned in the Vedas, and equate the Vedic culture with the Indus Valley Civilisation. In this view, the Harappan civilisation flourished predominantly on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra, not the Indus.<a href="#cite_note-Singh2008-33">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-Maisels2003-34">[26]</a><a href="#cite_note-CushRobinson2008-35">[27]</a> For example, Danino notes that his proposed dating of the Vedas to the third millennium BCE coincides with the mature phase of the Indus Valley civilisation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256-142">[120]</a> and that it is "tempting" to equate the Indus Valley and <a href="/wiki/Vedic_period" title="Vedic period">Vedic cultures</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258-36">[28]</a> <a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Romila Thapar</a> points out that an alleged equation of the Indus Valley civilization and the carriers of Vedic culture stays in stark contrast to not only linguistic, but also archeological evidence. She notes that the essential characteristics of Indus valley urbanism, such as planned cities, complex fortifications, elaborate drainage systems, the use of mud and fire bricks, monumental buildings, extensive craft activity, are completely absent in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a>. Similarly the Rigveda lacks a conceptual familiarity with key aspects of organized urban life (e.g. non-kin labour, facets or items of an exchange system or complex weights and measures) and doesn't mention objects found in great numbers at Indus Valley civilization sites like terracotta figurines, sculptural representation of human bodies or seals.<a href="#cite_note-Early_India-152">[128]</a> Hetalben Sindhav notes that claims of a large number of Ghaggar-Hakra sites are politically motivated and exaggerated. While the Indus remained an active river, the Ghaggar-Hakra dried-up, leaving many sites undisturbed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESindhav2016103-151">[127]</a> Sidhav further notes that the Ghaggar-Hakra was a tributary of the Indus, so the proposed Sarasvati nomenclatura is redundant.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESindhav2016103-151">[127]</a> According to archaeologist Shereen Ratnagar, many Ghaggar-Hakra sites in India are actually those of local cultures; some sites display contact with Harappan civilization, but only a few are fully developed Harappan ones.<a href="#cite_note-Ratnagar-153">[129]</a> Moreover, around 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Indus_script" title="Indus script">Indus script seals and inscribed objects</a> discovered were found at sites in Pakistan along the Indus river, while other places accounting only for the remaining 10%.<a href="#cite_note-154">[w]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[130]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revival">Revival</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Revival">edit</a>]</div> In 2015, <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a> reported that "members of the <a href="/wiki/Rashtriya_Swayamsevak_Sangh" title="Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh">Rashtriya Swayamsevak Sangh</a> believe that proof of the physical existence of the Vedic river would bolster their concept of a golden age of Hindu India, before invasions by Muslims and Christians." The <a href="/wiki/Bharatiya_Janata_Party" title="Bharatiya Janata Party">Bharatiya Janata Party</a> Government had therefore ordered archaeologists to search for the river.<a href="#cite_note-157">[132]</a> According to the government of Indian state of <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>, research and satellite imagery of the region has confirmed to have found the lost river when water was detected during digging of the dry river bed at <a href="/wiki/Yamunanagar" title="Yamunanagar">Yamunanagar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Haryana-158">[133]</a> Surveys and satellite photographs confirm that there was once a great river that rose in the Himalayas, entered the plains of Haryana, flowed through the Thar-Cholistan desert of Rajasthan and eastern Sindh (running roughly parallel to the Indus) and then reached the sea in the Rann of Kutchh in Gujarat. The strange marshy landscape of the Rann of Kutchh is partly due to the fact that it was once the estuary of a great river.<a href="#cite_note-159">[134]</a> The government constituted <a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati</a> Heritage Development Board (SHDB) had conducted a trial run on 30 July 2016 filling the river bed with 100 <a href="/wiki/Cusec" class="mw-redirect" title="Cusec">cusecs</a> of water which was pumped into a dug-up channel from tubewells at Uncha Chandna village in <a href="/wiki/Yamunanagar" title="Yamunanagar">Yamunanagar</a>. The water is expected to fill the channel until <a href="/wiki/Kurukshetra" title="Kurukshetra">Kurukshetra</a>, a distance of 40 kilometres. Once confirmed that there is no obstructions in the flow of the water, the government proposes to flow in another 100 cusecs after a fortnight. At that time, there were also plans to build three dams on the river route to keep it flowing perennially.<a href="#cite_note-160">[135]</a> In 2021, the Chief Minister of the State of Haryana stated that over 70 organizations were involved with researching the Saraswati River's heritage, and that the river "is still flowing underground from Adi Badri and up to Kutch in Gujarat."<a href="#cite_note-161">[136]</a> The Saraswati revival project seeks to build channels and dams along the route of the lost river, and develop it as a tourist and pilgrimage circuit. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brahmavarta" title="Brahmavarta">Brahmavarta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drishadwati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadwati">Drishadwati River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers" title="Rigvedic rivers">Rigvedic rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraswati" title="Saraswati">Saraswati (goddess)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Indus River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saraswat_Brahmins" class="mw-redirect" title="Saraswat Brahmins">Saraswat Brahmins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triveni_Sangam" title="Triveni Sangam">Triveni Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarasvati_Pushkaram" title="Sarasvati Pushkaram">Sarasvati Pushkaram</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Satellite-image-of-the-Indus-River-system-showing-the-study-sites-Stars-indicate_fig1_229062223">Clift et al. (2012) map</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-05745-8/figures/1">Honde te al. (2017) map</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel1-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel1_5-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel (2001</a>, p. 81): "The autochthonous theory overlooks that RV 3.33206 already speaks of a necessarily smaller Sarasvatī: the Sudås hymn 3.33 refers to the confluence of the Beas and Sutlej (Vipåś, Śutudrī). This means that the Beas had already captured the Sutlej away from the Sarasvatī, dwarfing its water supply. While the Sutlej is fed by Himalayan glaciers, the Sarsuti is but a small local river depending on rain water. In sum, the middle and later RV (books 3, 7 and the late book, 10.75) already depict the present-day situation, with the Sarasvatī having lost most of its water to the Sutlej (and even earlier, much of it also to the Yamunå). It was no longer the large river it might have been before the early Rgvedic period." </li> <li id="cite_note-95.1-2-10">^ <a href="#cite_ref-95.1-2_10-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-95.1-2_10-1">b</a> <a href="/wiki/Mandala_7" title="Mandala 7">RV 7</a>.95.1-2: <dl><dd>"This stream Sarasvati with fostering current comes forth, our sure defence, our fort of iron.</dd> <dd>As on a <a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">chariot</a>, the flood flows on, surpassing in majesty and might all other waters.</dd> <dd>Pure in her course from mountains to the ocean, alone of streams Sarasvati hath listened.</dd> <dd>Thinking of wealth and the great world of creatures, she poured for <a href="/wiki/Nahusa" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahusa">Nahusa</a> her <a href="/wiki/Milk" title="Milk">milk</a> and fatness."</dd></dl> </li> <li id="cite_note-samudra-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-samudra_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-samudra_14-1">b</a> According to Bhargava (1964) "samudra" stands for a huge inland lake, of which there were four or seven in Rigvedic sources. He translates sagara as "ocean". In this view the "lowlands" of Kashmir and Kuruksetra were samudra, but the sea in which the Ganga fell is a sagara.<a href="#cite_note-Bhargava_1964_5-13">[10]</a> See also Talageri, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://talageri.blogspot.com/2020/05/the-proto-indo-european-word-for.html">The Proto-Indo-European Word for "Sea/Ocean"</a>. Talageri notes that "Pāṇini gives the meaning of mīra as samudra (Uṇādi-Sutra ii, 28)," and notes that, according to Mallory, IE meer, mīra, originally referred to "lake," and not to "sea." </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> In contrast with the mainstream view, <a href="#CITEREFChatterjeeRayShuklaPande2019">Chatterjee et al. (2019)</a> suggest that the river remained perennial till 4,500 years ago. </li> <li id="cite_note-Giosan-22">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Giosan_22-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giosan_22-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Giosan_22-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiosan_et_al.2012">Giosan et al. (2012)</a>: <ul><li>"Contrary to earlier assumptions that a large glacier-fed Himalayan river, identified by some with the mythical Sarasvati, watered the Harappan heartland on the interfluve between the Indus and Ganges basins, we show that only monsoonal-fed rivers were active there during the Holocene."</li> <li>"Numerous speculations have advanced the idea that the Ghaggar-Hakra fluvial system, at times identified with the lost mythical river of Sarasvati (e.g., 4, 5, 7, 19), was a large glacier fed Himalayan river. Potential sources for this river include the Yamuna River, the Sutlej River, or both rivers. However, the lack of large-scale incision on the interfluve demonstrates that large, glacier-fed rivers did not flow across the Ghaggar-Hakra region during the Holocene</li> <li>"The present Ghaggar-Hakra valley and its tributary rivers are currently dry or have seasonal flows. Yet rivers were undoubtedly active in this region during the Urban Harappan Phase. We recovered sandy fluvial deposits approximately 5;400 y old at Fort Abbas in Pakistan (SI Text), and recent work (33) on the upper Ghaggar-Hakra interfluve in India also documented Holocene channel sands that are approximately 4;300 y old. On the upper interfluve, fine-grained floodplain deposition continued until the end of the Late Harappan Phase, as recent as 2,900 y ago (33) (Fig. 2B). This widespread fluvial redistribution of sediment suggests that reliable monsoon rains were able to sustain perennial rivers earlier during the Holocene and explains why Harappan settlements flourished along the entire Ghaggar-Hakra system without access to a glacier-fed river."</li></ul> <a href="#CITEREFValdiya2013">Valdiya (2013)</a> dispute this, arguing that it was a large perennial river draining the high mountains as late as 3700–2500 years ago. <a href="#CITEREFGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2013">Giosan et al. (2013)</a> have responded to, and rejected, Valdiya's arguments. </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> The Helmand river historically, besides Avestan Haetumant, bore the name Haraxvaiti, which is the <a href="/wiki/Avestan" title="Avestan">Avestan</a> form having cognate with Sanskrit Sarasvati. </li> <li id="cite_note-IE-37">^ <a href="#cite_ref-IE_37-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-IE_37-1">b</a> According to David Anthony, the <a href="/wiki/Yamna_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Yamna culture">Yamna culture</a> was the <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_Urheimat_hypotheses" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European Urheimat hypotheses">"Urheimat"</a> of the Indo-Europeans at the Pontic steppes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-120">[98]</a> From this area, which already included various subcultures, Indo-European languages spread west, south and east starting around 4,000 BCE.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200929-138">[116]</a> These languages may have been carried by small groups of males, with patron-client systems which allowed for the inclusion of other groups into their cultural system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-120">[98]</a> Eastward emerged the <a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta culture</a> (2100–1800 BCE), from which developed the <a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo culture</a> (1800–1400 BCE). This culture interacted with the <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a> (2300–1700 BCE); out of this interaction developed the Indo-Iranians, which split around 1800 BCE into the Indo-Aryans and the Iranians.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408-139">[117]</a> The Indo-Aryans migrated to the Levant, northern India, and possibly south Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-140">[118]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-scale-38">^ <a href="#cite_ref-scale_38-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scale_38-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-scale_38-2">c</a> The migration into northern India was not a large-scale immigration, but may have consisted of small groups,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005342-343-141">[119]</a> which were genetically diverse. Their culture and language spread by the same mechanisms of acculturalisation, and the absorption of other groups into their patron-client system.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007-120">[98]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> According to Shaffer, the reason for the predominance of the Sarasvati in the <a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Late_Harappan" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Harappan">late Harappan</a> (1900-1300 BCE) population shift eastwards to <a href="/wiki/Haryana" title="Haryana">Haryana</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-46">[36]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus (2011</a>, p. 310, note 574): "Witzel suggests that Sarasvatī is not an earthly river, but the Milky Way that is seen as a road to immortality and heavenly after-life. In `mythical logic,' as outlined above, the two interpretations are not however mutually exclusive. There are passages which clearly suggest a river." </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel-62"><a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_62-0">^</a> See Witzel (1984)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1984-61">[49]</a> for discussion; for maps (1984) of the area, p. 42 sqq. </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> While the first translation takes a <a href="/wiki/Tatpurusha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatpurusha">tatpurusha</a> interpretation of síndhumātā, the word is actually a <a href="/wiki/Bahuvrihi" title="Bahuvrihi">bahuvrihi</a>. Hans Hock (1999) translates síndhumātā as a <a href="/wiki/Bahuvrihi" title="Bahuvrihi">bahuvrihi</a>, giving the second translation. A translation as a <a href="/wiki/Tatpurusha" class="mw-redirect" title="Tatpurusha">tatpurusha</a> ("mother of rivers", with sindhu still with its generic meaning) would be less common in RV speech. </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> See <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/figure/Satellite-image-of-the-Indus-River-system-showing-the-study-sites-Stars-indicate_fig1_229062223">Clift et al. (2012) map</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/s41598-017-05745-8/figures/1">Honde te al. (2017) map</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-tectonics-97"><a href="#cite_ref-tectonics_97-0">^</a> The suggestion of a change of river courses during Mature Harappan times due to tectonic activity has been used by <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenists</a> to argue for the identification of the Ghaggar-Hakra with the Vedic Sarasvati. <a href="#CITEREFGupta1995">Gupta (1995)</a>, The lost Saraswati and the Indus Civilization, makes ample reference to such suggestions: <ul><li>According to Misra, as cited in <a href="#CITEREFGupta1995">Gupta (1995</a>, pp. 149–50), there are several dried out river beds (paleochannels) between the Sutlej and the Yamuna, some of them two to ten kilometres wide. They are not always visible on the ground because of excessive silting and encroachment by sand of the dried out river channels.</li> <li>Raikes (1968) and <a href="/wiki/Suraj_Bhan_(archaeologist)" title="Suraj Bhan (archaeologist)">Suraj Bhan</a> (1972, 1973, 1975, 1977), as cited in <a href="#CITEREFGupta1995">Gupta (1995</a>, p. 149), have argued, based on archaeological, geomorphic and sedimentological research, that the Yamuna may have flowed into the Sarasvati during Harappan times.</li> <li>According to Misra, as cited in <a href="#CITEREFGupta1995">Gupta (1995</a>, p. 153), the <a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a> may have flowed into the Sarasvati river through the <a href="/wiki/Chautang" title="Chautang">Chautang</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Drishadvati" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati">Drishadvati</a> channel, since many Harappan sites have been discovered on these dried-out river beds. There are no Harappan sites on the present Yamuna river, but there are, however, <a href="/wiki/Painted_Gray_Ware" class="mw-redirect" title="Painted Gray Ware">Painted Gray Ware</a> (1000 - 600 BC) sites along the Yamuna channel, showing that the river must then have flowed in the present channel.</li></ul> Other Indigenist Aryanism-cloroued publications include: <ul><li>According to <a href="#CITEREFGupta1999">Gupta (1999)</a>, there are no Harappan sites on the Sutlej in its present lower course, only in its upper course near the <a href="/wiki/Siwaliks" class="mw-redirect" title="Siwaliks">Siwaliks</a>, and along the dried up channel of the ancient Sutlej.</li> <li>According to <a href="#CITEREFPal1984">Pal (1984</a>, p. 494), also cited in <a href="#CITEREFBryant2001">Bryant (2001)</a>, the course of the Sutlej suggests that "the Satluj periodically was the main tributary of the Ghaggar and that subsequently the tectonic movements may have forced the Satluj westward and the Ghaggar dried." At <a href="/wiki/Ropar" class="mw-redirect" title="Ropar">Ropar</a> the Sutlej river suddenly turns sharply away from the Ghaggar. The narrow Ghaggar river bed itself is becoming suddenly wider at the conjunction where the Sutlej should have met the Ghaggar river. There also is a major <a href="/wiki/Paleochannel" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleochannel">paleochannel</a> between the turning point of the Sutlej and where the Ghaggar river bed widens.</li> <li>According to <a href="#CITEREFLal2002">Lal (2002</a>, p. 24), who supports the <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryans" class="mw-redirect" title="Indigenous Aryans">Indigenous Aryans</a> theory, the disappearance of the river may additionally have been caused by <a href="/wiki/Earthquake" title="Earthquake">earthquakes</a> which may have led to the redirection of its tributaries.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFMitraBhadu2012">Mitra & Bhadu (2012)</a>, referring to three other publications, state that active <a href="/wiki/Fault_(geology)" title="Fault (geology)">faults</a> are present in the region, and lateral and vertical <a href="/wiki/Tectonic" class="mw-redirect" title="Tectonic">tectonic</a> movements have frequently diverted streams in the past. The Ghaggar-Hakra may have migrated westward due to such uplift of the Aravallis.</li> <li><a href="#CITEREFPuriVerma1998">Puri & Verma (1998)</a> argue that the present-day <a href="/wiki/Tons_River" title="Tons River">Tons River</a> was the ancient upper-part of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, identified with the Sarasvati river by them. The Ghaggar-Haggar would then had been fed with Himalayan glaciers, which would make it the mighty river described in the Vedas. The terrain of this river contains pebbles of quartzite and metamorphic rocks, while the lower terraces in these valleys do not contain such rocks. A major seismic activity in the Himalayan region caused the rising of the Bata-Markanda Divide. This resulted in the blockage of the westward flow of Ghaggar-Hakra forcing the water back. Since the Yamunā Tear opening was not far off, the blocked water exited from the opening into the Yamunā system.</li></ul> </li> <li id="cite_note-Possehl_Keonoyer-102"><a href="#cite_ref-Possehl_Keonoyer_102-0">^</a> Anthropologists <a href="/wiki/Gregory_Possehl" title="Gregory Possehl">Gregory Possehl</a> (1942–2011) and <a href="/wiki/J._M._Kenoyer" class="mw-redirect" title="J. M. Kenoyer">J. M. Kenoyer</a>, writing in the 1990s, have suggested that many religious and literary invocations to Sarasvati in the Rig Veda were to a real Himalayan river, whose waters, on account of seismic events, were diverted, leaving only a seasonal river, the Ghaggar-Hakra, in the original river bed.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl1997-98">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKenoyer1997-99">[83]</a> Archaeologists Gregory Possehl and Jane McIntosh refer to the Ghaggar-Hakra river as "Sarasvati" throughout their respective 2002 and 2008 books on the Indus Civilisation,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh2008-100">[84]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPossehl20028-101">[85]</a> supposing that the Sutlej and Yamuna diverged their courses during late Harappan times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcIntosh200819-21-89">[75]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> Chatterjee et al. (2019) identify the Sarasvati with the Ghaggar, arguing that during "9-4.5 ka the river was perennial and was receiving sediments from the Higher and Lesser Himalayas" by distributaries of the Sutlej, which "likely facilitated development of the early Harappan settlements along its banks."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChatterjeeRayShuklaPande2019-103">[86]</a> In response, Sinha et al. (2020) state that "most workers have documented the cessation of large scale fluvial activity in NW India in early Holocene, thereby refuting the sustenance of the Harappan civilization by a large river."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESinhaSinghTandon2020240-104">[87]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> Painted Grey Ware sites (ca. 1000 BCE) have been found in the bed and not on the banks of the Ghaggar-Hakra river, suggesting that the river had dried up before this period.<a href="#cite_note-:1-112">[94]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[95]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> Demkina et al. (2017): "In the second millennium BC, humidification of the climate led to the divergence of the soil cover with secondary formation of the complexes of chestnut soils and solonetzes. This paleoecological crisis had a significant effect on the economy of the tribes in the Late Catacomb and Post-Catacomb time stipulating their higher mobility and transition to the nomadic cattle breeding."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEDemkina2017-116">[96]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> See also Eurogenes Blogspot, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://eurogenes.blogspot.nl/2017/07/the-crisis.html">The crisis</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel2-145"><a href="#cite_ref-Witzel2_145-0">^</a> Witzel: "If the RV is to be located in the Panjab, and supposedly to be dated well before the supposed 1900 BCE drying up of the Sarasvatī, at 4000-5000 BCE (Kak 1994, Misra 1992), the text should not contain evidence of the domesticated horse (not found in the subcontinent before c. 1700 BCE, see Meadow 1997,1998, Anreiter 1998: 675 sqq.), of the horse-drawn chariot (developed only about 2000 BCE in S. Russia, Anthony and Vinogradov 1995, or Mesopotamia), of well developed copper/bronze technology, etc."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200131-144">[122]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> Michael Witzel points out that this is to expected from a mobile society, but that the <a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave culture</a> is a clear indication of new cultural elements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005-146">[123]</a> Michaels points out that there are linguistic and archaeological data that shows a cultural change after 1750 BCE,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200433-147">[124]</a> and Flood notices that the linguistic and religious data clearly show links with Indo-European languages and religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199633-148">[125]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> Number of Indus script inscribed objects and seals obtained from various Harappan sites: Mohanjodaro (1540), Harappa (985), Chanhudaro (66), Lothal (165), Kalibangan (99), Banawali (7), Ur, Iraq (6), Surkotada (5), Chandigarh (4) </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinsley199811,_13-2"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinsley199811,_13_2-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinsley1998">Kinsley 1998</a>, p. 11, 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310_3-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, p. 310. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193_4-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193_4-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193_4-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193_4-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200193_4-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel 2001</a>, p. 93. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKinsley199810,_55-57-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinsley199810,_55-57_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKinsley199810,_55-57_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFKinsley1998">Kinsley 1998</a>, p. 10, 55-57. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík200711-13-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudvík200711-13_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudvík200711-13_7-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFLudvík2007">Ludvík 2007</a>, p. 11-13. </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-Sarasvati-8">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Sarasvati_8-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Sarasvati_8-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Sarasvati_8-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB-Sarasvati_8-3">d</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sarasvati">"Sarasvati | Hindu deity"</a>. Encyclopedia Britannica. 2 May 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+Britannica&rft.atitle=Sarasvati+%26%23124%3B+Hindu+deity&rft.date=2023-05-02&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.britannica.com%2Ftopic%2FSarasvati&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Witzel_2012-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_2012_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Witzel_2012_9-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2012">Witzel (2012</a>, pp. 74, 125, 133): "It can easily be understood, as the Sarasvatī, the river on earth and in the nighttime sky, emerges, just as in Germanic myth, from the roots of the world tree. In the Middle Vedic texts, this is acted out in the Yātsattra... along the Rivers Sarasvatī and Dṛṣadvatī (northwest of Delhi)..." </li> <li id="cite_note-Klaus-11">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Klaus_11-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klaus_11-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Klaus_11-2">c</a> Klaus, K. Die altindische Kosmologie, nach den Brāhmaṇas dargestellt. Bonn 1986 </li> <li id="cite_note-DOW-12">^ <a href="#cite_ref-DOW_12-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DOW_12-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-DOW_12-2">c</a> Samudra, XXIII Deutscher Orientalistentag Würzburg, ZDMG Suppl. Volume VII, Stuttgart 1989, 367–371 </li> <li id="cite_note-Bhargava_1964_5-13">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Bhargava_1964_5_13-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bhargava_1964_5_13-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Bhargava_1964_5_13-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhargava1964" class="citation book cs1">Bhargava, M.L. (1964). The Geography of Rigvedic India. Lucknow. p. 5.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Geography+of+Rigvedic+India&rft.pages=5&rft.pub=Lucknow&rft.date=1964&rft.aulast=Bhargava&rft.aufirst=M.L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.2012_15-8">i</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiosan_et_al.2012">Giosan et al. 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013-16">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013_16-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013_16-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013_16-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013">Maemoku et al. 2013</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012-17">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEClift_et_al.2012_17-7">h</a> <a href="#CITEREFClift_et_al.2012">Clift et al. 2012</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017-18">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017_18-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017_18-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017_18-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017_18-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017_18-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017_18-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESingh_et_al.2017_18-6">g</a> <a href="#CITEREFSingh_et_al.2017">Singh et al. 2017</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESankaran1999-20"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESankaran1999_20-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSankaran1999">Sankaran 1999</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011-23"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011_23-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.20121688-1689-24"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGiosan_et_al.20121688-1689_24-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGiosan_et_al.2012">Giosan et al. 2012</a>, p. 1688-1689. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWilkeMoebus2011310–311_25-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011">Wilke & Moebus 2011</a>, pp. 310–311. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200181-26">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200181_26-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200181_26-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel 2001</a>, p. 81. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_8-9-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_8-9_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_8-9_27-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMukherjee2001">Mukherjee 2001</a>, p. 2, 8-9. </li> <li id="cite_note-Thapar2004-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar2004_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar2004_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar2004_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar2004_28-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Thapar2004_28-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomila_Thapar2004" class="citation book cs1">Romila Thapar (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/42">Early India: From the Origins to AD 1300</a>. University of California Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/earlyindiafromor00thap/page/42">42</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-24225-8"><bdi>978-0-520-24225-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India%3A+From+the+Origins+to+AD+1300&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-520-24225-8&rft.au=Romila+Thapar&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fearlyindiafromor00thap%2Fpage%2F42&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kocchar-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kocchar_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kocchar_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kocchar_29-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKocchar" class="citation web cs1">Kocchar, Rajesh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rajeshkochhar.com/tag/rigveda/">"The rivers Sarasvati: Reconciling the sacred texts"</a>. RajeshKochhar.com (blog post);</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=RajeshKochhar.com&rft.atitle=The+rivers+Sarasvati%3A+Reconciling+the+sacred+texts&rft.aulast=Kocchar&rft.aufirst=Rajesh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Frajeshkochhar.com%2Ftag%2Frigveda%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> based on <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1">The Vedic People: Their history and geography.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Vedic+People%3A+Their+history+and+geography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochhar-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochhar_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochhar_30-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochhar_30-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochhar_30-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochhar_30-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochhar1999" class="citation cs2">Kochhar, Rajesh (1999), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h8jfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA257">"On the identity and chronology of the Ṛgvedic river Sarasvatī"</a>, in Roger Blench; Matthew Spriggs (eds.), Archaeology and Language III; Artefacts, languages and texts, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10054-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10054-0"><bdi>978-0-415-10054-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+identity+and+chronology+of+the+%E1%B9%9Agvedic+river+Sarasvat%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Archaeology+and+Language+III%3B+Artefacts%2C+languages+and+texts&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10054-0&rft.aulast=Kochhar&rft.aufirst=Rajesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh8jfBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-EB-32">^ <a href="#cite_ref-EB_32-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-EB_32-1">b</a> Encyclopædia Britannica, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/topic/Sarasvati#ref946781">Sarasvati</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Singh2008-33">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_33-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_33-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_33-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_33-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Singh2008_33-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008" class="citation book cs1">Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson Education India. pp. 137–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1677-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-317-1677-9"><bdi>978-81-317-1677-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Ancient+and+Early+Medieval+India%3A+From+the+Stone+Age+to+the+12th+Century&rft.pages=137-8&rft.pub=Pearson+Education+India&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-81-317-1677-9&rft.au=Upinder+Singh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maisels2003-34">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Maisels2003_34-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maisels2003_34-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maisels2003_34-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maisels2003_34-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Maisels2003_34-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCharles_Keith_Maisels2003" class="citation book cs1">Charles Keith Maisels (16 December 2003). "The Indus/'Harappan'/Sarasvati Civilization". Early Civilizations of the Old World: The Formative Histories of Egypt, The Levant, Mesopotamia, India and China. Routledge. p. 184. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-134-83731-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-134-83731-1"><bdi>978-1-134-83731-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Indus%2F%27Harappan%27%2FSarasvati+Civilization&rft.btitle=Early+Civilizations+of+the+Old+World%3A+The+Formative+Histories+of+Egypt%2C+The+Levant%2C+Mesopotamia%2C+India+and+China&rft.pages=184&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2003-12-16&rft.isbn=978-1-134-83731-1&rft.au=Charles+Keith+Maisels&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-CushRobinson2008-35">^ <a href="#cite_ref-CushRobinson2008_35-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CushRobinson2008_35-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-CushRobinson2008_35-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDenise_CushCatherine_A._RobinsonMichael_York2008" class="citation book cs1">Denise Cush; Catherine A. Robinson; Michael York (2008). Encyclopedia of Hinduism. Psychology Press. p. 766. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1267-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1267-0"><bdi>978-0-7007-1267-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Hinduism&rft.pages=766&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1267-0&rft.au=Denise+Cush&rft.au=Catherine+A.+Robinson&rft.au=Michael+York&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258_36-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258_36-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010258_36-4">e</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanino2010">Danino 2010</a>, p. 258. </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> e.g. 7.96.4, 10.66.5 </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Mayrhofer, <a href="/wiki/EWAia" class="mw-redirect" title="EWAia">EWAia</a>, s.v. Saraswatī as a common noun in Classical Sanskrit means a region abounding in pools and lakes, the river of that name, or any river, especially a holy one. Like its cognates <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> hêl, heledd 'river meadow' and Greek ἕλος (hélos) 'swamp'; the root is otherwise often connected with rivers (also in river names, such as <a href="/wiki/Sarju" title="Sarju">Sarayu</a> or <a href="/wiki/Susartu" class="mw-redirect" title="Susartu">Susartu</a>); the suggestion has been revived in the connection of an "<a href="/wiki/Out_of_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Out of India">out of India</a>" argument, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFN._Kazanas2006" class="citation web cs1">N. Kazanas (June 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080229134241/http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/RVpH.pdf">"RV is pre-Harappan"</a> (PDF). Omilos Meleton. p. 9. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omilosmeleton.gr/english/documents/RVpH.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 29 February 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Omilos+Meleton&rft.atitle=RV+is+pre-Harappan&rft.pages=9&rft.date=2006-06&rft.au=N.+Kazanas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.omilosmeleton.gr%2Fenglish%2Fdocuments%2FRVpH.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> by Lommel (1927); Lommel, Herman (1927), Die Yašts des Awesta, Göttingen-Leipzig: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht/JC Hinrichs </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEParpola2015p._97:_"It_is_widely_accepted_that_the_Sarasvatī_mentioned_here_is_the_river_that_gave_the_name_Harakhvaiti"-42"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEParpola2015p._97:_"It_is_widely_accepted_that_the_Sarasvatī_mentioned_here_is_the_river_that_gave_the_name_Harakhvaiti"_42-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFParpola2015">Parpola 2015</a>, p. 97: "It is widely accepted that the Sarasvatī mentioned here is the river that gave the name Harakhvaiti". </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> Manu (2004). Olivelle, Patrick, ed. The Law Code of Manu. Oxford University Press. p. 24. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19280-271-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19280-271-2">978-0-19280-271-2</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> Bridget Allchin, Raymond Allchin, The Rise of Civilization in India and Pakistan, Cambridge University Press, 1982, P.358. </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacdonellKeith1912" class="citation book cs1">Macdonell, Arthur Anthony; Keith, Arthur Berriedale (1912). Vedic Index of names and subjects. Vol. 2. London: Murray. p. 434. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/1014995385">1014995385</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vedic+Index+of+names+and+subjects&rft.place=London&rft.pages=434&rft.pub=Murray&rft.date=1912&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F1014995385&rft.aulast=Macdonell&rft.aufirst=Arthur+Anthony&rft.au=Keith%2C+Arthur+Berriedale&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ReferenceA-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ReferenceA_46-1">b</a> J. Shaffer, in: J. Bronkhorst & M. Deshpande (eds.), Aryans and Non-Non-Aryans, Evidence, Interpretation and Ideology. Cambridge (<a href="/wiki/Harvard_Oriental_Series" title="Harvard Oriental Series">Harvard Oriental Series</a>, Opera Minora 3) 1999 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík200784-85-48"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudvík200784-85_48-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLudvík2007">Ludvík 2007</a>, p. 84-85. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík20074-5-49"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudvík20074-5_49-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLudvík2007">Ludvík 2007</a>, p. 4-5. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2017Chapter-2-50"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2017Chapter-2_50-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrasad2017">Prasad 2017</a>, Chapter-2. </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> 1.3, 13, 89, 164; 10.17, 30, 64, 65, 66, 75, 110, 131, 141 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík200711-52"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudvík200711_52-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLudvík2007">Ludvík 2007</a>, p. 11. </li> <li id="cite_note-CL-53"><a href="#cite_ref-CL_53-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLudvík2007">Ludvík (2007</a>, p. 85): "The Sarasvatī river, which, according to Witzel,... personifies the Milky Way, falls down to this world at Plakṣa Prāsarvaṇa, "the world tree at the center of heaven and earth," and flows through the land of the Kurus, the center of this world." </li> <li id="cite_note-AgarwalSingh2007-55">^ <a href="#cite_ref-AgarwalSingh2007_55-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AgarwalSingh2007_55-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-AgarwalSingh2007_55-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPushpendra_K._AgarwalVijay_P._Singh2007" class="citation book cs1">Pushpendra K. Agarwal; Vijay P. Singh (16 May 2007). Hydrology and Water Resources of India. Springer Science & Business Media. pp. 311–2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5180-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4020-5180-7"><bdi>978-1-4020-5180-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hydrology+and+Water+Resources+of+India&rft.pages=311-2&rft.pub=Springer+Science+%26+Business+Media&rft.date=2007-05-16&rft.isbn=978-1-4020-5180-7&rft.au=Pushpendra+K.+Agarwal&rft.au=Vijay+P.+Singh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad2017Chapter-3-56"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad2017Chapter-3_56-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrasad2017">Prasad 2017</a>, Chapter-3. </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><a href="#cite_ref-57">^</a> K.R. Jayaswal, Hindu Polity, pp. 12-13 </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Pancavimsa Brahmana, Jaiminiya Upanisad Brahmana, Katyayana Srauta Sutra, Latyayana Srauta; Macdonell and Keith 1912 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> Asvalayana Srauta Sutra, Sankhayana Srauta Sutra; Macdonell and Keith 1912, II: 55 </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Griffith, p.492 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel1984-61">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1984_61-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel1984_61-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel1984">Witzel 1984</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati 1999. According to this reference, 44 asvins may be over 2,600 km </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhargava2009" class="citation conference cs1">Bhargava, Sudhir (20–22 November 2009). Location of Brahmavarta and Drishadwati river is important to find earliest alignment of Saraswati river. Saraswati river – a perspective. organised by: Saraswati Nadi Shodh Sansthan, Haryana. Kurukshetra: Kurukshetra University. pp. 114–117.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Location+of+Brahmavarta+and+Drishadwati+river+is+important+to+find+earliest+alignment+of+Saraswati+river&rft.place=Kurukshetra&rft.pages=114-117&rft.pub=Kurukshetra+University&rft.date=2009-11-20%2F2009-11-22&rft.aulast=Bhargava&rft.aufirst=Sudhir&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> Mhb. 3.82.111; 3.130.3; 6.7.47; 6.37.1-4., 9.34.81; 9.37.1-2 </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a> Mbh. 3.80.118 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> Mbh. 3.88.2 </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHaigh2011" class="citation journal cs1">Haigh, Martin (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/1615237">"Interpreting the Sarasvati Tirthayatra of Shri Balarāma"</a>. Research Journal of Akhil Bhartiya Itihas Sankalan Yojana, ABISY (New Delhi). 16 (2): 179–193. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0974-3065">0974-3065</a> – via www.academia.edu.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Research+Journal+of+Akhil+Bhartiya+Itihas+Sankalan+Yojana%2C+ABISY+%28New+Delhi%29&rft.atitle=Interpreting+the+Sarasvati+Tirthayatra+of+Shri+Balar%C4%81ma&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=179-193&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=0974-3065&rft.aulast=Haigh&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F1615237&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREForg" class="citation web cs1">org, Richard MAHONEY - r dot mahoney at indica-et-buddhica dot. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indology.info/email/members/kalyanaraman/">"INDOLOGY - Sarasvati-Sindhu civilization (c. 3000 B.C.)"</a>. indology.info.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=indology.info&rft.atitle=INDOLOGY+-+Sarasvati-Sindhu+civilization+%28c.+3000+B.C.%29&rft.aulast=org&rft.aufirst=Richard+MAHONEY+-+r+dot+mahoney+at+indica-et-buddhica+dot&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Findology.info%2Femail%2Fmembers%2Fkalyanaraman%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> Studies in Proto-Indo-Mediterranean culture, Volume 2, page 398 </li> <li id="cite_note-Radhakrishna,_B.P_1999,_p.35-44-71">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Radhakrishna,_B.P_1999,_p.35-44_71-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Radhakrishna,_B.P_1999,_p.35-44_71-1">b</a> D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati, 1999, p.35-44 </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a> compare also with Yajurveda 34.11, D.S. Chauhan in Radhakrishna, B.P. and Merh, S.S. (editors): Vedic Saraswati, 1999, p.35-44 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eck149-73">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eck149_73-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eck149_73-1">b</a> Eck p. 149 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck2012147-74"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEck2012147_74-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEck2012">Eck 2012</a>, p. 147. </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> Manusmriti 2.17-18 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck2012145-76"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEck2012145_76-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEck2012">Eck 2012</a>, p. 145. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEck2012148-77">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEck2012148_77-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEck2012148_77-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFEck2012">Eck 2012</a>, p. 148. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELudvík20071-78"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELudvík20071_78-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLudvík2007">Ludvík 2007</a>, p. 1. </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071230102815/http://www.time.com/time/magazine/article/0,9171,798222,00.html">At the Three Rivers</a> <a href="/wiki/TIME" class="mw-redirect" title="TIME">TIME</a>, 23 February 1948 </li> <li id="cite_note-Eck2012-80">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eck2012_80-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eck2012_80-1">b</a> Eck p. 145 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> Eck p. 220 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDarian200158-82"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDarian200158_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDarian2001">Darian 2001</a>, p. 58. </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> Darian p. 59 </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_6-9-84">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_6-9_84-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMukherjee20012,_6-9_84-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMukherjee2001">Mukherjee 2001</a>, p. 2, 6-9. </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a> Griffith </li> <li id="cite_note-Kalyanaraman-87">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kalyanaraman_87-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kalyanaraman_87-1">b</a> S. Kalyanaraman (ed.), Vedic River Sarasvati and Hindu Civilization, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-7305-365-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-7305-365-8">978-81-7305-365-8</a> PP.96 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-88"><a href="#cite_ref-:0_88-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValdiya2002" class="citation book cs1">Valdiya, K. S. (1 January 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=F_P4KnbgYyoC">Saraswati: The River that Disappeared</a>. 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Motilal Banarsidass. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788120816268" title="Special:BookSources/9788120816268"><bdi>9788120816268</bdi></a> – via Google Books.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=In+Search+of+the+Cradle+of+Civilization%3A+New+Light+on+Ancient+India&rft.pub=Motilal+Banarsidass&rft.date=1999-01-11&rft.isbn=9788120816268&rft.aulast=Feuerstein&rft.aufirst=Georg&rft.au=Kak%2C+Subhash&rft.au=Frawley%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DevOZEWralVMC%26q%3Dsaraswati%2Briver%2Bdried%2Bup%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010252-130">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010252_130-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010252_130-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanino2010">Danino 2010</a>, p. 252. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad201713-131"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad201713_131-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrasad2017">Prasad 2017</a>, p. 13. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad201714-132"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad201714_132-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrasad2017">Prasad 2017</a>, p. 14. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEValdiya20176-133"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEValdiya20176_133-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFValdiya2017">Valdiya 2017</a>, p. 6. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010260-134">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010260_134-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010260_134-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010260_134-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanino2010">Danino 2010</a>, p. 260. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKochhar2012263-135"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKochhar2012263_135-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKochhar2012">Kochhar 2012</a>, p. 263. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPrasad201742-136"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPrasad201742_136-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPrasad2017">Prasad 2017</a>, p. 42. </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKochhar1999" class="citation book cs1">Kochhar, Rajesh (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=h8jfBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA257">"On the identity and chronology of the Ṛgvedic river Sarasvatī"</a>. In Blench, Roger; Spriggs, Matthew (eds.). Artefacts, Languages, and Texts. Archaeology and Language. Vol. III. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10054-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-415-10054-0"><bdi>978-0-415-10054-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+identity+and+chronology+of+the+%E1%B9%9Agvedic+river+Sarasvat%C4%AB&rft.btitle=Artefacts%2C+Languages%2C+and+Texts&rft.series=Archaeology+and+Language&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-415-10054-0&rft.aulast=Kochhar&rft.aufirst=Rajesh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dh8jfBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA257&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200929-138"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith200929_138-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>, p. 29. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408-139"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAnthony2007408_139-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFAnthony2007">Anthony 2007</a>, p. 408. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009-140"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBeckwith2009_140-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBeckwith2009">Beckwith 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005342-343-141"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005342-343_141-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2005">Witzel 2005</a>, p. 342-343. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256-142">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256_142-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256_142-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256_142-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256_142-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256_142-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256_142-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanino2010">Danino 2010</a>, p. 256. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256,_258-143"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEDanino2010256,_258_143-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFDanino2010">Danino 2010</a>, p. 256, 258. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel200131-144"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel200131_144-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2001">Witzel 2001</a>, p. 31. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005-146"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWitzel2005_146-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWitzel2005">Witzel 2005</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMichaels200433-147"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMichaels200433_147-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMichaels2004">Michaels 2004</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEFlood199633-148"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEFlood199633_148-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFFlood1996">Flood 1996</a>, p. 33. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEEtter2020-150"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEEtter2020_150-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEtter2020">Etter 2020</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESindhav2016103-151">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESindhav2016103_151-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESindhav2016103_151-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESindhav2016103_151-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSindhav2016">Sindhav 2016</a>, p. 103. </li> <li id="cite_note-Early_India-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Early_India_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRomila_Thapar2002" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Romila_Thapar" title="Romila Thapar">Romila Thapar</a> (2002). Early India. Penguin Books. p. 110. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-1430-2989-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-1430-2989-2"><bdi>978-0-1430-2989-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+India&rft.pages=110&rft.pub=Penguin+Books&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-1430-2989-2&rft.au=Romila+Thapar&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ratnagar-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Ratnagar_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Shereen-2006b" class="citation book cs1">Ratnagar, Shereen (2006). Understanding Harappa: Civilization in the Greater Indus Valley. New Delhi: Tulika Books. pp. 7–8. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-89487-02-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-89487-02-7"><bdi>978-81-89487-02-7</bdi></a>. <q>If in an ancient mound we find only one pot and two bead necklaces similar to those of Harappa and Mohenjo-daro, with the bulk of pottery, tools and ornaments of a different type altogether, we cannot call that site Harappan. It is instead a site with Harappan contacts. ... Where the Sarasvati valley sites are concerned, we find that many of them are sites of local culture (with distinctive pottery, clay bangles, terracotta beads, and grinding stones), some of them showing Harappan contact, and comparatively few are full-fledged Mature Harappan sites.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Understanding+Harappa%3A+Civilization+in+the+Greater+Indus+Valley&rft.place=New+Delhi&rft.pages=7-8&rft.pub=Tulika+Books&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-81-89487-02-7&rft.aulast=Ratnagar&rft.aufirst=Shereen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Iravatham_Mahadevan" title="Iravatham Mahadevan">Iravatham Mahadevan</a>, 1977, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/masi77indusscripttextsconcordancestablesiravathammahadevanalt_443_h">The Indus Script: Text, Concordance and Tables</a>, pp. 6-7 </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <a href="/wiki/Upinder_Singh" title="Upinder Singh">Upinder Singh</a>, 2008, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=H3lUIIYxWkEC&pg=PA169">A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India From the Stone Age to the 12th Century</a>, p. 169 </li> <li id="cite_note-157"><a href="#cite_ref-157">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRupam_Jain_Nair,_Frank_Jack_Daniel2015" class="citation web cs1">Rupam Jain Nair, Frank Jack Daniel (12 October 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-india-rss-specialreport/special-report-battling-for-indias-soul-state-by-state-idUSKCN0S700A20151013">"Special Report: Battling for India's soul, state by state"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Reuters" title="Reuters">Reuters</a>. Retrieved 29 May 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Special+Report%3A+Battling+for+India%27s+soul%2C+state+by+state&rft.date=2015-10-12&rft.au=Rupam+Jain+Nair%2C+Frank+Jack+Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-india-rss-specialreport%2Fspecial-report-battling-for-indias-soul-state-by-state-idUSKCN0S700A20151013&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Haryana-158"><a href="#cite_ref-Haryana_158-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hindustantimes.com/india-news/team-at-work-to-revive-the-mythical-saraswati-river/story-pckyZSUzgULEDUIMaMQeVL.html">"Hunt for mythical Saraswati river a test of history and science - india news - Hindustan Times"</a>. 26 January 2018. Retrieved 11 July 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Hunt+for+mythical+Saraswati+river+a+test+of+history+and+science+-+india+news+-+Hindustan+Times&rft.date=2018-01-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hindustantimes.com%2Findia-news%2Fteam-at-work-to-revive-the-mythical-saraswati-river%2Fstory-pckyZSUzgULEDUIMaMQeVL.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBhadraGuptaSharma2009" class="citation journal cs1">Bhadra, B. K.; Gupta, A. K.; Sharma, J. R. (February 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12594-009-0084-y">"Saraswati Nadi in Haryana and its linkage with the Vedic Saraswati River — Integrated study based on satellite images and ground based information"</a>. Journal of the Geological Society of India. 73 (2): 273–288. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2009JGSI...73..273B">2009JGSI...73..273B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12594-009-0084-y">10.1007/s12594-009-0084-y</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0016-7622">0016-7622</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:140635500">140635500</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Geological+Society+of+India&rft.atitle=Saraswati+Nadi+in+Haryana+and+its+linkage+with+the+Vedic+Saraswati+River+%E2%80%94+Integrated+study+based+on+satellite+images+and+ground+based+information&rft.volume=73&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=273-288&rft.date=2009-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12594-009-0084-y&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A140635500%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0016-7622&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2009JGSI...73..273B&rft.aulast=Bhadra&rft.aufirst=B.+K.&rft.au=Gupta%2C+A.+K.&rft.au=Sharma%2C+J.+R.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs12594-009-0084-y&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZee_Media_Bureau2016" class="citation news cs1">Zee Media Bureau (6 August 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://zeenews.india.com/news/india/lost-saraswati-river-brought-back-to-life_1915729.html">"'Lost' Saraswati river brought 'back to life'"</a>. 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[IE]. 15 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%5BIE%5D&rft.atitle=Haryana+to+launch+revival+of+Saraswati+river%2C+to+construct+dam%2C+barrage+%26+reservoir+at+Adi+Badri&rft.date=2021-02-15&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Findianexpress.com%2Farticle%2Findia%2Fsaraswati-river-revival-haryana-7190173%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Printed sources</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAnthony2007" class="citation cs2">Anthony, David W. 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(2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.currentscience.ac.in/Volumes/104/01/0042.pdf">"The River Saraswati was a Himalayan-born river"</a> (PDF), Current Science, 104 (1): 42</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Current+Science&rft.atitle=The+River+Saraswati+was+a+Himalayan-born+river&rft.volume=104&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=42&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Valdiya&rft.aufirst=K.S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.currentscience.ac.in%2FVolumes%2F104%2F01%2F0042.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFValdiya2017" class="citation book cs1">Valdiya, K.S. (2017). "Prehistoric River Saraswati, Western India". Society of Earth Scientists Series. Cham: Springer International Publishing. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-44224-2">10.1007/978-3-319-44224-2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-44223-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-44223-5"><bdi>978-3-319-44223-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2194-9204">2194-9204</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:132865905">132865905</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Prehistoric+River+Saraswati%2C+Western+India&rft.btitle=Society+of+Earth+Scientists+Series&rft.place=Cham&rft.pub=Springer+International+Publishing&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-44224-2&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A132865905%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2194-9204&rft.isbn=978-3-319-44223-5&rft.aulast=Valdiya&rft.aufirst=K.S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011" class="citation cs2">Wilke, Annette; Moebus, Oliver (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KZCMe67IGPkC&pg=PA310">Sound and Communication: An Aesthetic Cultural History of Sanskrit Hinduism</a>, Walter de Gruyter, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018159-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-11-018159-3"><bdi>978-3-11-018159-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sound+and+Communication%3A+An+Aesthetic+Cultural+History+of+Sanskrit+Hinduism&rft.pub=Walter+de+Gruyter&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-3-11-018159-3&rft.aulast=Wilke&rft.aufirst=Annette&rft.au=Moebus%2C+Oliver&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DKZCMe67IGPkC%26pg%3DPA310&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel1984" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (1984), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/CheminDuCiel.pdf">Sur le chemin du ciel</a> (PDF)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Sur+le+chemin+du+ciel&rft.date=1984&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2FCheminDuCiel.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2001" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (2001), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.people.fas.harvard.edu/~witzel/EJVS-7-3.pdf">"Autochthonous Aryans? The Evidence from Old Indian and Iranian Texts"</a> (PDF), Electronic Journal of Vedic Studies, 7 (3): 1–93</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Electronic+Journal+of+Vedic+Studies&rft.atitle=Autochthonous+Aryans%3F+The+Evidence+from+Old+Indian+and+Iranian+Texts&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=1-93&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.people.fas.harvard.edu%2F~witzel%2FEJVS-7-3.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2005" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/EdwinBryantLauriePattonIndoAryanControversyEvidenceAndInferenceInIndianHistoryRoutledge2005">"Indocentrism"</a>, in Bryant, Edwin; Patton, Laurie L. (eds.), TheE Indo-Aryan Controversy. Evidence and inference in Indian history, Routledge</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Indocentrism&rft.btitle=TheE+Indo-Aryan+Controversy.+Evidence+and+inference+in+Indian+history&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2005&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2FEdwinBryantLauriePattonIndoAryanControversyEvidenceAndInferenceInIndianHistoryRoutledge2005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWitzel2012" class="citation cs2">Witzel, Michael (2012), The Origins of the World's Mythologies, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+World%27s+Mythologies&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Witzel&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <dl><dt>Web-sources</dt></dl> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-PIB-21"><a href="#cite_ref-PIB_21-0">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=94098">Mythical Saraswati River</a>, Press Information Bureau, Government of India, 20 March 2013.<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161009182551/http://pib.nic.in/newsite/erelcontent.aspx?relid=94098">Archived</a> 9 October 2016 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kochhar2017-115">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Kochhar2017_115-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Kochhar2017_115-1">b</a> Rajesh Kochhar (2017), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://indianexpress.com/article/opinion/columns/aryans-dna-genetics-archaeology-4765740/">"The Aryan chromosome"</a>, The Indian Express </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Chakrabarti, D. K., & Saini, S. (2009). The problem of the Sarasvati River and notes on the archaeological geography of Haryana and Indian Panjab. New Delhi: Aryan Books International.</li> <li>An archaeological tour along the Ghaggar-Hakra River by Aurel Stein</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Sarasvati_River" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Sarasvati River">Sarasvati River</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/Sarasvati_River" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/Sarasvati River">Sarasvati River</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct252004/1141.pdf">Is River Ghaggar, Saraswati? by Tripathi, Bock, Rajamani, Eir</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ias.ac.in/currsci/oct25/articles20.htm">Saraswati – the ancient river lost in the desert by A. V. Sankaran</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://sites.google.com/site/kalyan97/">Sarasvati research and Education Trust</a></li> <li>C.P. Rajendran (2019), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://thewire.in/the-sciences/the-saraswati-is-a-river-that-never-was-and-flowed-always-in-the-peoples-hearts">Saraswati: The River That Never Was, Flowing Always in the People's Hearts</a>, The Wire</li> <li>Map <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://guj-nwrws.gujarat.gov.in/showpage.aspx?contentid=1738&lang=English">"પ્રદેશ નદીનો તટપ્રદેશ (બેઝીન) સરસ્વતી (Regional River Basin: Saraswati Basin)"</a>. Narmada, Water Resources, Water Supply and Kalpsar Department.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B6+%E0%AA%A8%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%A8%E0%AB%8B+%E0%AA%A4%E0%AA%9F%E0%AA%AA%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%A6%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%B6+%28%E0%AA%AC%E0%AB%87%E0%AA%9D%E0%AB%80%E0%AA%A8%29+%E0%AA%B8%E0%AA%B0%E0%AA%B8%E0%AB%8D%E0%AA%B5%E0%AA%A4%E0%AB%80+%28Regional+River+Basin%3A+Saraswati+Basin%29&rft.pub=Narmada%2C+Water+Resources%2C+Water+Supply+and+Kalpsar+Department&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fguj-nwrws.gujarat.gov.in%2Fshowpage.aspx%3Fcontentid%3D1738%26lang%3DEnglish&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASarasvati+River" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output 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title="Ushas">Ushas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visvedevas" title="Visvedevas">Visvedevas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maruts" title="Maruts">Maruts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvins" title="Ashvins">Ashvins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tvashtr" title="Tvashtr">Tvashtr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ribhus" title="Ribhus">Ribhus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pushan" title="Pushan">Pushan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudra" title="Rudra">Rudra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitra_(Hindu_god)" title="Mitra (Hindu god)">Mitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna" title="Varuna">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryaman" title="Aryaman">Aryaman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Asura" title="Asura">Asuras</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vritra" title="Vritra">Vritra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susna" title="Susna">Susna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dasa" title="Dasa">Dasas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danu_(Asura)" class="mw-redirect" title="Danu (Asura)">Danu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danava_(Hinduism)" title="Danava (Hinduism)">Danavas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rigvedic_rivers" title="Rigvedic rivers">Rivers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sapta_Sindhu" class="mw-redirect" title="Sapta Sindhu">Sapta Sindhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadistuti_sukta" class="mw-redirect" title="Nadistuti sukta">Nadistuti</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sarasvati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indus_River" title="Indus River">Sindhu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarayu_(Rigvedic_river)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarayu (Rigvedic river)">Sarayu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ras%C4%81" title="Rasā">Rasā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavyavati" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavyavati">Yavyavati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drishadvati_river" class="mw-redirect" title="Drishadvati river">Drishadvati</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Rishi" title="Rishi">Rishis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saptarishi" class="mw-redirect" title="Saptarishi">Saptarishi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gritsamada" title="Gritsamada">Gritsamada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vishvamitra" title="Vishvamitra">Vishvamitra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vamadeva" title="Vamadeva">Vamadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atri" title="Atri">Atri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angiras" title="Angiras">Angiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharadwaja" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharadwaja">Bharadvaja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vasishtha" title="Vasishtha">Vasishtha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dirghatamas" title="Dirghatamas">Dirghatamas</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Mahabharata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="background-color:#FFC569;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Mahabharata" title="Template:Mahabharata"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Mahabharata" title="Template talk:Mahabharata"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Mahabharata" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Mahabharata"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Mahabharata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Mahabharata" title="Mahabharata">Mahabharata</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%">Traditional author and narrators</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vaisampayana" title="Vaisampayana">Vaisampayana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugrashravas" title="Ugrashravas">Ugrashrava Sauti</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="7" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Kurukshetra.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kurukshetra.jpg/165px-Kurukshetra.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="115" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kurukshetra.jpg/248px-Kurukshetra.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/81/Kurukshetra.jpg/330px-Kurukshetra.jpg 2x" data-file-width="614" data-file-height="428" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/The_18_parvas" class="mw-redirect" title="The 18 parvas">Books (parvas)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adi_Parva" title="Adi Parva">Adi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sabha_Parva" title="Sabha Parva">Sabha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vana_Parva" title="Vana Parva">Vana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virata_Parva" title="Virata Parva">Virata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Udyoga_Parva" title="Udyoga Parva">Udyoga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhishma_Parva" title="Bhishma Parva">Bhishma</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhagavad_Gita" title="Bhagavad Gita">Bhagavad Gita</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drona_Parva" title="Drona Parva">Drona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karna_Parva" title="Karna Parva">Karna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalya_Parva" title="Shalya Parva">Shalya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sauptika_Parva" title="Sauptika Parva">Sauptika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stri_Parva" title="Stri Parva">Stri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shanti_Parva" title="Shanti Parva">Shanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anushasana_Parva" title="Anushasana Parva">Anushasana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashvamedhika_Parva" title="Ashvamedhika Parva">Ashvamedhika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashramavasika_Parva" title="Ashramavasika Parva">Ashramavasika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mausala_Parva" title="Mausala Parva">Mausala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahaprasthanika_Parva" title="Mahaprasthanika Parva">Mahaprasthanika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Svargarohana_Parva" title="Svargarohana Parva">Svargarohana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harivamsha" class="mw-redirect" title="Harivamsha">Harivamsha</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%">Tribes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Main tribes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharatas_(tribe)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bharatas (tribe)">Bharata</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kauravas" class="mw-redirect" title="Kauravas">Kauravas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandavas" class="mw-redirect" title="Pandavas">Pandavas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yadu" class="mw-redirect" title="Yadu">Yadu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunti" title="Kunti">Kunti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara" title="Gandhara">Gandhara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matsya_kingdom" title="Matsya kingdom">Matsya</a></li></ul></li> <li>List of tribes <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Janapadas" class="mw-redirect" title="Janapadas">Janapadas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajanapadas" title="Mahajanapadas">Mahajanapadas</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Capitals <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hastinapur" title="Hastinapur">Hastinapur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indraprastha" title="Indraprastha">Indraprastha</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/48_kos_parikrama_of_Kurukshetra" class="mw-redirect" title="48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra">48 kos parikrama of Kurukshetra</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurukshetra" title="Kurukshetra">Kurukshetra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jyotisar" title="Jyotisar">Jyotisar</a></li></ul></li> <li>Panchagrama <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indraprastha" title="Indraprastha">Indraprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Panipat" title="Panipat">Pranaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonipat" title="Sonipat">Swarnaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tilpat" title="Tilpat">Tilaprastha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baghpat" title="Baghpat">Vyagaprastha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%">Events</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Svayamvara" title="Svayamvara">Svayamvara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukshetra_War" title="Kurukshetra War">Kurukshetra War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vishvarupa" title="Vishvarupa">Vishvarupa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Padmavyuha" class="mw-redirect" title="Padmavyuha">Chakravyūha</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_characters_in_the_Mahabharata" title="List of characters in the Mahabharata">Characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abhimanyu" title="Abhimanyu">Abhimanyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amba_(Mahabharata)" title="Amba (Mahabharata)">Amba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambika_(Mahabharata)" title="Ambika (Mahabharata)">Ambika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ambalika" title="Ambalika">Ambalika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arjuna" title="Arjuna">Arjuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashwatthama" title="Ashwatthama">Ashwatthama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babruvahana" title="Babruvahana">Babruvahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bahlika_(Mahabharata)" title="Bahlika (Mahabharata)">Bahlika</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balarama" title="Balarama">Balarama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhagadatta" title="Bhagadatta">Bhagadatta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bharata_(Mahabharata)" title="Bharata (Mahabharata)">Bharata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhima" title="Bhima">Bhima</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhishma" title="Bhishma">Bhishma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhurishravas" title="Bhurishravas">Bhurishravas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitr%C4%81ngada" title="Chitrāngada">Chitrāngada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chitr%C4%81ngad%C4%81" title="Chitrāngadā">Chitrāngadā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damayanti" title="Damayanti">Damayanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhrishtadyumna" title="Dhrishtadyumna">Dhrishtadyumna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhritarashtra" title="Dhritarashtra">Dhritarashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Draupadi" title="Draupadi">Draupadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drona" title="Drona">Drona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drupada" title="Drupada">Drupada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duhsala" class="mw-redirect" title="Duhsala">Duhsala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Durvasa" title="Durvasa">Durvasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duryodhana" title="Duryodhana">Duryodhana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dushasana" title="Dushasana">Dushasana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dushyanta" title="Dushyanta">Dushyanta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ekalavya" title="Ekalavya">Ekalavya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhari_(Mahabharata)" title="Gandhari (Mahabharata)">Gandhari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganga_(goddess)" title="Ganga (goddess)">Ganga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghatotkacha" title="Ghatotkacha">Ghatotkacha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidimba" title="Hidimba">Hidimba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hidimbi" title="Hidimbi">Hidimbi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iravan" title="Iravan">Iravan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Janamejaya_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Janamejaya II">Janamejaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarasandha" title="Jarasandha">Jarasandha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jayadratha" title="Jayadratha">Jayadratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karna" title="Karna">Karna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kichaka" title="Kichaka">Kichaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kindama" title="Kindama">Kindama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kripa" title="Kripa">Kripa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Krishna" title="Krishna">Krishna</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Krishna_in_the_Mahabharata" title="Krishna in the Mahabharata">Role in the Mahabharata</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kritavarma" title="Kritavarma">Kritavarma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kunti" title="Kunti">Kunti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lomasha" title="Lomasha">Lomasha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Madri" title="Madri">Madri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nahusha" title="Nahusha">Nahusha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nakula" title="Nakula">Nakula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nala" title="Nala">Nala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pandu" title="Pandu">Pandu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parashurama" title="Parashurama">Parashurama</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parikshit" title="Parikshit">Parikshit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Purochana" title="Purochana">Purochana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pururavas" title="Pururavas">Pururavas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmi" title="Rukmi">Rukmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rukmini" title="Rukmini">Rukmini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sahadeva" title="Sahadeva">Sahadeva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanjaya" title="Sanjaya">Sanjaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyaki" title="Satyaki">Satyaki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satyavati" title="Satyavati">Satyavati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Savitri_and_Satyavan" title="Savitri and Satyavan">Savitri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shantanu" title="Shantanu">Shantanu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakuni" title="Shakuni">Shakuni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shakuntala" title="Shakuntala">Shakuntala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shalya" title="Shalya">Shalya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shikhandi" title="Shikhandi">Shikhandi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shishupala" title="Shishupala">Shishupala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subhadra" title="Subhadra">Subhadra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sudeshna" title="Sudeshna">Sudeshna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulupi" title="Ulupi">Ulupi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upapandavas" title="Upapandavas">Upapandavas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttara_(Mahabharata)" title="Uttara (Mahabharata)">Uttara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uttar%C4%81_(Mahabharata)" title="Uttarā (Mahabharata)">Uttarā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vichitravirya" title="Vichitravirya">Vichitravirya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vidura" title="Vidura">Vidura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vikarna" title="Vikarna">Vikarna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virata" title="Virata">Virata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrishaketu" title="Vrishaketu">Vrishaketu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vrishasena" title="Vrishasena">Vrishasena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vyasa" title="Vyasa">Vyasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yayati" title="Yayati">Yayati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yudhishthira" title="Yudhishthira">Yudhishthira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuyutsu" title="Yuyutsu">Yuyutsu</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color:#FFC569;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avatars_in_the_Mahabharata" title="Avatars in the Mahabharata">Avatars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic_India" class="mw-redirect" title="Epic India">Kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vedic_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Vedic era">Vedic era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epic-Puranic_chronology" title="Epic-Puranic chronology">Epic-Puranic chronology</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sarasvati River</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="background-color:#FFC569;;background:#FFC569;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /><a href="/wiki/Category:Mahabharata" title="Category:Mahabharata">Category</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Hydrography_of_Uttar_Pradesh" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Hydrography_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Template:Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Hydrography_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Template talk:Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Hydrography_of_Uttar_Pradesh" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Hydrography_of_Uttar_Pradesh" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Hydrography" title="Hydrography">Hydrography</a> of <a href="/wiki/Uttar_Pradesh" title="Uttar Pradesh">Uttar Pradesh</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Rivers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Main rivers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganges" title="Ganges">Ganges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghaghara_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghaghara River">Ghaghara or Karnali</a> (Sarayu)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamuna" title="Yamuna">Yamuna</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">North flowing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Betwa_River" title="Betwa River">Betwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chambal_River" title="Chambal River">Chambal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhasan_River" title="Dhasan River">Dhasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jamni_River" title="Jamni River">Jamni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanhar_River" title="Kanhar River">Kanhar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karmanasa_River" title="Karmanasa River">Karmanasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ken_River" title="Ken River">Ken</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rihand_River" title="Rihand River">Rihand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sindh_River" title="Sindh River">Sindh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Son_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Son River">Son</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamsa_River" title="Tamsa River">Tamsa or Tons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">South flowing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assi_River" title="Assi River">Assi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babai_River" title="Babai River">Babai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaula_River_(India)" title="Gaula River (India)">Gaula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gomti_River" title="Gomti River">Gomti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hindon_River" title="Hindon River">Hindon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kali_River_(Uttar_Pradesh)" title="Kali River (Uttar Pradesh)">Kali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kukarail_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Kukarail River">Kukrail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ramganga" title="Ramganga">Ramganga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rohni_River" title="Rohni River">Rohni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharda_River" title="Sharda River">Sharda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varuna_River" title="Varuna River">Varuna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Rapti_River" title="West Rapti River">West Rapti</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Lakes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Barua_Sagar_Tal" title="Barua Sagar Tal">Barua Sagar Tal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belasagar_Lake" title="Belasagar Lake">Belasagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chittaura_Jheel" title="Chittaura Jheel">Chittaura Jheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keetham_Lake" title="Keetham Lake">Keetham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moti_Jheel" title="Moti Jheel">Moti Jheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raja_Ka_Tal" title="Raja Ka Tal">Raja Ka Tal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phulhar_Lake" title="Phulhar Lake">Phulhar Lake</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Dams and barrages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganges_Barrage" title="Ganges Barrage">Ganges Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matatila_Dam" title="Matatila Dam">Matatila Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parichha_Dam" title="Parichha Dam">Parichha Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rajghat_Dam" title="Rajghat Dam">Rajghat Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rihand_Dam" title="Rihand Dam">Rihand Dam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Sharda_Barrage" title="Lower Sharda Barrage">Lower Sharda Barrage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Canals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ganges_Canal" title="Ganges Canal">Ganges Canal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agra_Canal" title="Agra Canal">Agra Canal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Bridges</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Malviya_Bridge" title="Malviya Bridge">Malviya Bridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shahi_Bridge" title="Shahi Bridge">Shahi Bridge, Jaunpur</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;line-height:1.3em;">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aciravati" class="mw-redirect" title="Aciravati">Aciravati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmanwati" class="mw-redirect" title="Charmanwati">Charmanwati</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Sarasvati River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triveni_Sangam" title="Triveni Sangam">Triveni Sangam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doab" title="Doab">Doab</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&oldid=1254210484">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sarasvati_River&oldid=1254210484</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Sarasvati_River" title="Category:Sarasvati 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= 1,\n [\"CITEREFFlood1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiosanCliftMacklinFuller2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGiosan_et_al.2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGupta1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHaigh2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJainAgarwalSingh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJayant_K._TripathiBarbara_BockV._RajamaniA._Eisenhauer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKenoyer1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKhonde_et_al.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKinsley1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKocchar\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKochhar1999\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFKochhar2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLal2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLudvík2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacdonellKeith1912\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaemokuShitaokaNagatomoYagi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcIntosh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichaels2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMitraBhadu2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMukherjee2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFN._Kazanas2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPTI\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPal1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParpola2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossehl1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPossehl2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPrasad2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPuriVerma1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPushpendra_K._AgarwalVijay_P._Singh2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomila_Thapar2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRomila_Thapar2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRupam_Jain_Nair,_Frank_Jack_Daniel2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSankaran1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSchuldenrein_et_al.2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFShaffer1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSindhav2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSingh_et_al.2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSinhaSinghTandon2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStein1942\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFTripathiBockRajamaniEisenhauer2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFUpinder_Singh2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValdiya2002\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFValdiya2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFValdiya2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilkeMoebus2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel1984\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWitzel2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZee_Media_Bureau2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREForg\"] = 1,\n [\"Shereen-2006b\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 38,\n [\"Citation needed\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 20,\n [\"Cite conference\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 11,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 9,\n [\"Col div\"] = 1,\n [\"Colend\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"For\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvtxt\"] = 24,\n [\"Hydrography of Uttar Pradesh\"] = 1,\n [\"IAST\"] = 12,\n [\"IAST3\"] = 1,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 3,\n [\"Lang\"] = 1,\n [\"Langx\"] = 1,\n [\"Mahabharata\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 4,\n [\"Refbegin\"] = 1,\n [\"Refend\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 3,\n [\"Refn\"] = 38,\n [\"Rigveda\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 128,\n [\"Sfnref\"] = 6,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Transliteration\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 2,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n"},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.main-7fc47fc68d-pmb55","timestamp":"20241128193443","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"Sarasvati River","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/Sarasvati_River","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q177321","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q177321","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-11-24T18:41:21Z","dateModified":"2024-10-29T22:42:28Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/0\/0c\/Sarasvati_river.jpg","headline":"mythic river mentioned in the Vedas and ancient Indian epics and that probably existed in archeologic periods"}</script> </body> </html>