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dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Raman spectroscopy technique</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Energy_levels_in_Raman_spectroscopy.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Energy level diagram showing scattering and fluorescence" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Energy_levels_in_Raman_spectroscopy.jpg/500px-Energy_levels_in_Raman_spectroscopy.jpg" decoding="async" width="500" height="280" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Energy_levels_in_Raman_spectroscopy.jpg/750px-Energy_levels_in_Raman_spectroscopy.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/30/Energy_levels_in_Raman_spectroscopy.jpg/1000px-Energy_levels_in_Raman_spectroscopy.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4242" data-file-height="2375" /></a><figcaption>Energy level diagram showing relationship between Rayleigh, Raman, and resonance Raman scattering and fluorescence.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Resonance Raman spectroscopy</b> (<b>RR spectroscopy</b> or <b>RRS</b>) is a variant of <a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman spectroscopy</a> in which the incident <a href="/wiki/Photon" title="Photon">photon</a> energy is close in energy to an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic transition">electronic transition</a> of a compound or material under examination.<sup id="cite_ref-StrommenNakamoto1977_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-StrommenNakamoto1977-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This similarity in energy (<a href="/wiki/Resonance" title="Resonance">resonance</a>) leads to greatly increased intensity of the <a href="/wiki/Raman_scattering" title="Raman scattering">Raman scattering</a> of certain vibrational modes, compared to ordinary Raman spectroscopy. </p><p>Resonance Raman spectroscopy has much greater sensitivity than non-resonance Raman spectroscopy, allowing for the analysis of compounds with inherently weak Raman scattering intensities, or at very low concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Drago_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Drago-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Morris_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It also selectively enhances only certain molecular vibrations (those of the chemical group undergoing the electronic transition), which simplifies spectra.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For large molecules such as <a href="/wiki/Proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Proteins">proteins</a>, this selectivity helps to identify <a href="/wiki/Vibrational_modes" class="mw-redirect" title="Vibrational modes">vibrational modes</a> of specific parts of the <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a> or <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme</a> unit within <a href="/wiki/Myoglobin" title="Myoglobin">myoglobin</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resonance Raman spectroscopy has been used in the characterization of inorganic compounds and complexes,<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proteins,<sup id="cite_ref-Austin_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Austin-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Spiro_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> nucleic acids,<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> pigments,<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in archaeology and art history.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory">Theory</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Theory"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy#Theory" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman spectroscopy § Theory</a></div> <p>In Raman scattering, photons collide with a sample and are scattered with a difference in energy: The scattered photons may be higher or lower in energy (have a shorter or longer <a href="/wiki/Wavelength" title="Wavelength">wavelength</a>) than the incident photons. This difference in energy is caused by excitation of the sample to a higher or lower vibrational energy level: if the sample was initially in an excited vibrational state, the scattered photon may be higher in energy than the incident photon (<a href="/wiki/Stokes_shift#Anti-Stokes_shift" title="Stokes shift">anti-Stokes Raman scattering</a>). Otherwise, the scattered photon has a lower module of energy than the incoming photon (<a href="/wiki/Stokes_shift#Stokes_shift" title="Stokes shift">Stokes Raman scattering</a>). Among the two phenomena, Stokes shift and anti-Stokes shift, the former is the most likely to occur. As a consequence, the relative intensity of Raman spectra acquired in Stokes mode is more intense than the other. For most materials, Raman scattering is extremely weak compared to <a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering" title="Rayleigh scattering">Rayleigh scattering</a>, in which light is scattered without loss of energy.<sup id="cite_ref-Orlando_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Orlando-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Raman-scattered light, which contains information about <a href="/wiki/Molecular_vibration" title="Molecular vibration">vibrational transitions</a>, is therefore difficult to observe for many substances. </p><p>Resonance Raman spectroscopy takes advantage of an increase in the intensity of Raman scattering when the incident photons match the energy of an <a href="/wiki/Electronic_transition" class="mw-redirect" title="Electronic transition">electronic transition</a>. If the energy of the photon striking the sample is equal or close to that of an electronic transition in the sample, certain Raman-active vibrational modes—those producing nuclear displacement in the same direction as the electronic transition<sup id="cite_ref-Hirakawa_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirakawa-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—will exhibit greatly enhanced scattering, up to 10<sup>6</sup>-fold compared to nonresonance Raman.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For totally <a href="/wiki/Molecular_symmetry" title="Molecular symmetry">symmetric</a> modes, this increased scattering intensity results from so-called A-term or <a href="/wiki/Franck-Condon_principle" class="mw-redirect" title="Franck-Condon principle">Franck-Condon</a> scattering, due to the nonzero Franck-Condon overlaps between ground and excited states. Nontotally symmetric modes may also be enhanced by B-term or Herzberg-Teller scattering, if the symmetry of the mode is contained in the direct product of the two electronic state symmetries.<sup id="cite_ref-Spiro-Stein_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiro-Stein-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resonance enhancement is most apparent in the case of π-π* transitions and least for <a href="/wiki/Coordination_complex#Color_of_transition_metal_complexes" title="Coordination complex">metal centered (d–d) transitions</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Clark_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Clark-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like ordinary Raman spectroscopy, RRS observes vibrational transitions producing a nonzero change in the <a href="/wiki/Polarizability" title="Polarizability">polarizability</a> of the molecule or material being studied. </p><p>Resonance Raman scattering differs from <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Fluorescence spectroscopy">fluorescence</a> in that it occurs without vibrational relaxation during the lifetime of the excited electronic state. It thus exhibits much narrower line widths than fluorescence.<sup id="cite_ref-Spiro-Stein_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiro-Stein-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, fluorescence and resonance Raman scattering co-occur in many materials, and interference from fluorescence may complicate the collection of resonance Raman spectra.<sup id="cite_ref-Morris_3-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morris-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Variants">Variants</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Variants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Typically, resonance Raman spectroscopy is performed in the same manner as ordinary Raman spectroscopy, using a single <a href="/wiki/Laser" title="Laser">laser</a> light source to excite the sample. The difference is the choice of the laser wavelength, which must be selected to match the energy of an electronic transition in the sample. A <a href="/wiki/Tunable_laser" title="Tunable laser">tunable laser</a> is thus often used for resonance Raman spectroscopy, since a single laser can be used to generate many possible excitation wavelengths to match different samples.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By using multiple lasers, <a href="/wiki/Pulsed_lasers" class="mw-redirect" title="Pulsed lasers">pulsed lasers</a>, and/or certain sample preparation techniques, a range of more sophisticated variants of RRS can be performed, including: </p> <ul><li><b>Time-resolved resonance Raman spectroscopy</b>: By using pulsed lasers with a controllable delay between pulses, resonance Raman spectroscopy can be used to monitor changes in the sample over time, following a laser-induced photochemical change or temperature increase.<sup id="cite_ref-Buhrke_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buhrke-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method has been used to examine the dynamics of excited electronic states,<sup id="cite_ref-Sahoo_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sahoo-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> binding of oxygen or other gases to <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme</a>-containing proteins,<sup id="cite_ref-Spiro2_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiro2-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Protein_dynamics" title="Protein dynamics">protein dynamics</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Buhrke_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Buhrke-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mizutani_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mizutani-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Resonance hyper-Raman spectroscopy</b>: Excitation of the sample occurs by <a href="/wiki/Two-photon_absorption" title="Two-photon absorption">two-photon absorption</a>, rather than by absorption of a single photon. This arrangement allows for excitation of modes that are <a href="/wiki/Selection_rules" class="mw-redirect" title="Selection rules">forbidden</a> in ordinary resonance Raman spectroscopy, with intensity enhancement due to resonance, and also simplifies collection of scattered light. It is especially useful for molecules that are both polar and polarizable.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelley2010_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelley2010-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Surface-enhanced resonance Raman spectroscopy</b>: A hybrid of RRS and <a href="/wiki/Surface-enhanced_Raman_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface-enhanced Raman scattering">surface-enhanced Raman scattering</a>. The sample is applied to conducting <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a> and a laser matching the <a href="/wiki/Surface_plasmon_resonance" title="Surface plasmon resonance">surface plasmon resonance</a> of the nanoparticles is used for excitation. If the wavelength of the surface plasmon matches that of an electronic transition in the sample, the Raman scattering will be greatly enhanced compared to ordinary RRS.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <ul><li><b>Resonance Raman microscopy</b>: A <a href="/wiki/Microscope" title="Microscope">microscope</a> is used to focus the excitation laser onto a particular point in the sample, and spectra are collected for many such points. The Raman intensity at different points can then be assembled into a microscopic image of the sample. By appropriate choice of excitation wavelength, a microscopic map of the distribution only of a component of interest can be made.<sup id="cite_ref-Vogt_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Vogt-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applications">Applications</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Applications"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:MSWFig6.webp" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Example of resonance and nonresonance Raman spectra" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSWFig6.webp/300px-MSWFig6.webp.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSWFig6.webp/450px-MSWFig6.webp.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/MSWFig6.webp/500px-MSWFig6.webp.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="268" /></a><figcaption>Resonance (top) and nonresonance (bottom) Raman spectra of <a href="/wiki/Molybdenum_sulfide" class="mw-redirect" title="Molybdenum sulfide">MoS<sub>2</sub></a> on silicon. Note that excitation at 633 nm, near an electronic transition, causes appearance of bands that are too faint to be visible with excitation at 532 nm. Figure courtesy of David Tuschel.<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/exploring-resonance-raman-spectroscopy">[1]</a> </figcaption></figure> <p>Because of its selectivity and sensitivity, resonance Raman spectroscopy is typically used to study molecular vibrations in compounds that would have very weak and/or complex Raman spectra in the absence of resonance enhancement. Like ordinary Raman spectroscopy, resonance Raman is compatible with samples in water, which has a very weak scattering intensity and little contribution to spectra. However, the need for an excitation laser with a wavelength matching that of an electronic transition in the <a href="/wiki/Analyte" title="Analyte">analyte</a> of interest somewhat limits the applicability of the method.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pigments_and_Dyes">Pigments and Dyes</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Pigments and Dyes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Dyes and pigments, all of which exhibit electronic transitions in the <a href="/wiki/Visible_spectrum" title="Visible spectrum">visible</a> part of the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_spectrum" title="Electromagnetic spectrum">electromagnetic spectrum</a>, were among the first substances to be studied by resonance Raman spectroscopy. Resonance Raman spectra of <a href="/wiki/Beta-carotene" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta-carotene">beta-carotene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lycopene" title="Lycopene">lycopene</a> in intact plant samples were reported in 1970.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since then, the method has been used to noninvasively measure levels of these nutrients in human skin.<sup id="cite_ref-Scarmo_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scarmo-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resonance Raman spectra of other polyene pigments, such as <a href="/wiki/Spheroidene" title="Spheroidene">spheroidene</a> and <a href="/wiki/Retinal" title="Retinal">retinal</a>, have been used to identify differences in <a href="/wiki/Chromophore" title="Chromophore">chromophore</a> conformation in photoactive proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-Senak_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Senak-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mathies_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mathies-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Resonance Raman spectroscopy has been used in <a href="/wiki/Archaeology" title="Archaeology">archaeology</a> to identify dyes and pigments in cultural artifacts, and the ability of RRS to distinguish different modern inks and dyes has found application in <a href="/wiki/Forensic_science" title="Forensic science">forensic science</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proteins">Proteins</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Proteins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Proteins have been widely examined by resonance Raman spectroscopy. Protein-bound <a href="/wiki/Enzyme_cofactor" class="mw-redirect" title="Enzyme cofactor">cofactors</a> that absorb in the visible wavelength range, such as <a href="/wiki/Heme" title="Heme">heme</a>, <a href="/wiki/Flavins" class="mw-redirect" title="Flavins">flavins</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Transition_metal" title="Transition metal">transition metal</a> complexes, can be examined by RRS with minimal spectral overlap from the rest of the molecule.<sup id="cite_ref-Spiro_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spiro-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Stanley_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Stanley-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This method has been used to examine gas binding in hemeproteins<sup id="cite_ref-Hirota_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hirota-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the catalytic cycle of various enzymes.<sup id="cite_ref-Mukherjee_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mukherjee-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Using <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> laser excitation, it is possible to selectively excite the sidechains of aromatic amino acids (<a href="/wiki/Phenylalanine" title="Phenylalanine">phenylalanine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tyrosine" title="Tyrosine">tyrosine</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tryptophan" title="Tryptophan">tryptophan</a>) to deduce the local environment and hydrogen-bonding interactions by these residues.<sup id="cite_ref-Oladepo_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oladepo-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With shorter-wavelength ("deep") ultraviolet excitation, it is also possible to excite the <a href="/wiki/Peptide_bonds" class="mw-redirect" title="Peptide bonds">peptide bonds</a> of a protein in order to examine <a href="/wiki/Secondary_structure" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary structure">secondary structure</a>. <a href="/wiki/Protein_folding" title="Protein folding">Protein folding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Protein_denaturation" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein denaturation">denaturation</a> have been examined using deep-UV resonance Raman spectroscopy of the polypeptide backbone, with excitation wavelengths shorter than 200 nm.<sup id="cite_ref-Oladepo_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oladepo-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nucleic_acids_and_viruses">Nucleic acids and viruses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Nucleic acids and viruses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Resonance Raman spectroscopy with ultraviolet excitation can be used to examine the chemistry, structure, and intermolecular interactions of <a href="/wiki/Nucleic_acids" class="mw-redirect" title="Nucleic acids">nucleic acids</a>, specifically the bases. Interactions between nucleic acids and DNA-binding compounds such as drugs can be examined by selectively exciting either the nucleobases or the drug itself.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The resonance Raman spectra of DNA can be used to identify bacterial DNA in living cells, and to quantitate DNA under different culture conditions, and even to distinguish different bacterial species.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Viruses" class="mw-redirect" title="Viruses">Viruses</a> have also been studied using UV resonance Raman spectroscopy; the method has the capability to separately interrogate the structure of the nucleic acid or capsid protein components of the virus, through the choice of the appropriate excitation wavelength.<sup id="cite_ref-Thomas_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Thomas-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nanomaterials">Nanomaterials</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Nanomaterials"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Resonance Raman spectroscopy has also been used to characterize the structure and photophysical properties of <a href="/wiki/Nanoparticles" class="mw-redirect" title="Nanoparticles">nanoparticles</a>. Using lasers tuned to the visible and near-infrared electronic transitions of <a href="/wiki/Carbon_nanotubes" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbon nanotubes">carbon nanotubes</a>, it is possible to enhance structure-sensitive vibrational bands of the nanotubes.<sup id="cite_ref-Efremov_8-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Efremov-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nanowires of inorganic <a href="/wiki/Semiconductor" title="Semiconductor">semiconductor</a> materials including <a href="/wiki/Gallium_phosphide" title="Gallium phosphide">gallium phosphide</a> and carbon-encapsulated <a href="/wiki/Mercury_telluride" title="Mercury telluride">mercury telluride</a> have also been shown to exhibit resonance Raman spectra with visible excitation light.<sup id="cite_ref-Spencer_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Spencer-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Panda_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Panda-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scattering" title="Scattering">Scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering" title="Rayleigh scattering">Rayleigh scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_Raman_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="X-ray Raman spectroscopy">X-ray Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coherent_anti-Stokes_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy">Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip-enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy">Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibronic_spectroscopy" title="Vibronic spectroscopy">Vibronic spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depolarization_ratio" title="Depolarization ratio">Depolarization ratio</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-StrommenNakamoto1977-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-StrommenNakamoto1977_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFStrommenNakamoto1977" class="citation journal cs1">Strommen, Dennis P.; Nakamoto, Kazuo (1977). "Resonance raman spectroscopy". <i>Journal of Chemical Education</i>. <b>54</b> (8): 474. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1977JChEd..54..474S">1977JChEd..54..474S</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fed054p474">10.1021/ed054p474</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-9584">0021-9584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Chemical+Education&rft.atitle=Resonance+raman+spectroscopy&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=474&rft.date=1977&rft.issn=0021-9584&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fed054p474&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1977JChEd..54..474S&rft.aulast=Strommen&rft.aufirst=Dennis+P.&rft.au=Nakamoto%2C+Kazuo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Drago-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Drago_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDrago1977" class="citation book cs1">Drago, R.S. 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Nesbitt, John; Trewhitt, Harrison; Kashtiban, Reza; Bell, Gavin; Ivanov, Victor; Faulques, Eric; Smith, David (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://eprints.soton.ac.uk/401309/1/HgTe%2540SWNT_ACSNano_Final.pdf">"Raman Spectroscopy of Optical Transitions and Vibrational Energies of ~1 nm HgTe Extreme Nanowires within Single Walled Carbon Nanotubes"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>ACS Nano</i>. <b>8</b> (9): 9044–52. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1021%2Fnn5023632">10.1021/nn5023632</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25163005">25163005</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACS+Nano&rft.atitle=Raman+Spectroscopy+of+Optical+Transitions+and+Vibrational+Energies+of+~1+nm+HgTe+Extreme+Nanowires+within+Single+Walled+Carbon+Nanotubes&rft.volume=8&rft.issue=9&rft.pages=9044-52&rft.date=2014&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1021%2Fnn5023632&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F25163005&rft.aulast=Spencer&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft.au=Nesbitt%2C+John&rft.au=Trewhitt%2C+Harrison&rft.au=Kashtiban%2C+Reza&rft.au=Bell%2C+Gavin&rft.au=Ivanov%2C+Victor&rft.au=Faulques%2C+Eric&rft.au=Smith%2C+David&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Feprints.soton.ac.uk%2F401309%2F1%2FHgTe%252540SWNT_ACSNano_Final.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Panda-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Panda_28-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPandaRoyGemmiHusnau2013" class="citation journal cs1">Panda, Jaya Kumar; Roy, Anushree; Gemmi, Mauro; Husnau, Elena; Li, Ang; Ercolani, Daniele; Sorba, Lucia (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubs.aip.org/aip/apl/article/103/2/023108/129981/Electronic-band-structure-of-wurtzite-GaP">"Electronic band structure of wurtzite GaP nanowires via temperature dependent resonance Raman spectroscopy"</a>. <i>Applied Physics Letters</i>. <b>103</b> (2): 023108. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1303.7058">1303.7058</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1063%2F1.4813625">10.1063/1.4813625</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-6951">0003-6951</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:93629086">93629086</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Physics+Letters&rft.atitle=Electronic+band+structure+of+wurtzite+GaP+nanowires+via+temperature+dependent+resonance+Raman+spectroscopy&rft.volume=103&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=023108&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1303.7058&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A93629086%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0003-6951&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1063%2F1.4813625&rft.aulast=Panda&rft.aufirst=Jaya+Kumar&rft.au=Roy%2C+Anushree&rft.au=Gemmi%2C+Mauro&rft.au=Husnau%2C+Elena&rft.au=Li%2C+Ang&rft.au=Ercolani%2C+Daniele&rft.au=Sorba%2C+Lucia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fpubs.aip.org%2Faip%2Fapl%2Farticle%2F103%2F2%2F023108%2F129981%2FElectronic-band-structure-of-wurtzite-GaP&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLong2002" class="citation book cs1">Long, Derek A (2002). <i>The Raman Effect: A Unified Treatment of the Theory of Raman Scattering by Molecules</i>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0471490289" title="Special:BookSources/978-0471490289"><bdi>978-0471490289</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Raman+Effect%3A+A+Unified+Treatment+of+the+Theory+of+Raman+Scattering+by+Molecules&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0471490289&rft.aulast=Long&rft.aufirst=Derek+A&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQue2000" class="citation book cs1">Que, Lawrence Jr., ed. (2000). <i>Physical Methods in Bioinorganic Chemistry: Spectroscopy and Magnetism</i>. Sausalito, CA: University Science Books. pp. 59–120. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-891389-02-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-891389-02-3"><bdi>978-1-891389-02-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Physical+Methods+in+Bioinorganic+Chemistry%3A+Spectroscopy+and+Magnetism&rft.place=Sausalito%2C+CA&rft.pages=59-120&rft.pub=University+Science+Books&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1-891389-02-3&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamanKrishnan1928" class="citation journal cs1">Raman, C.V.; Krishnan, K.S. (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F121619b0">"A Change of Wave-Length in Light Scattering"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>121</b> (3051): 619. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928Natur.121..619R">1928Natur.121..619R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F121619b0">10.1038/121619b0</a></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+Change+of+Wave-Length+in+Light+Scattering&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=3051&rft.pages=619&rft.date=1928&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F121619b0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1928Natur.121..619R&rft.aulast=Raman&rft.aufirst=C.V.&rft.au=Krishnan%2C+K.S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252F121619b0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRamanKrishnan1928" class="citation journal cs1">Raman, C.V.; Krishnan, K.S. (1928). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/physics/looking-back/raman/index.html">"A New Type of Secondary Radiation"</a>. <i>Nature</i>. <b>121</b> (3048): 501–502. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1928Natur.121..501R">1928Natur.121..501R</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F121501c0">10.1038/121501c0</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4128161">4128161</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=A+New+Type+of+Secondary+Radiation&rft.volume=121&rft.issue=3048&rft.pages=501-502&rft.date=1928&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4128161%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F121501c0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1928Natur.121..501R&rft.aulast=Raman&rft.aufirst=C.V.&rft.au=Krishnan%2C+K.S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fphysics%2Flooking-back%2Framan%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSkoogHollerNieman1998" class="citation book cs1">Skoog, Douglas A.; Holler, James F.; Nieman, Timothy A. (1998). <i>Principles of Instrumental Analysis</i> (5th ed.). Saunders. pp. 429–443. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-03-002078-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-03-002078-0"><bdi>978-0-03-002078-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+Instrumental+Analysis&rft.pages=429-443&rft.edition=5th&rft.pub=Saunders&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-03-002078-0&rft.aulast=Skoog&rft.aufirst=Douglas+A.&rft.au=Holler%2C+James+F.&rft.au=Nieman%2C+Timothy+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLandsbergMandelshtam1928" class="citation journal cs1">Landsberg, G.S; Mandelshtam, L.I. (1928). "Novoye yavlenie pri rasseyanii sveta. (New phenomenon in light scattering)". <i>Zhurnal Russkogo Fiziko-khimicheskogo Obschestva, Chast Fizicheskaya (Journal of Russian Physico-Chemical Society, Physics Division</i>: 60–4.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Zhurnal+Russkogo+Fiziko-khimicheskogo+Obschestva%2C+Chast+Fizicheskaya+%28Journal+of+Russian+Physico-Chemical+Society%2C+Physics+Division&rft.atitle=Novoye+yavlenie+pri+rasseyanii+sveta.+%28New+phenomenon+in+light+scattering%29&rft.pages=60-4&rft.date=1928&rft.aulast=Landsberg&rft.aufirst=G.S&rft.au=Mandelshtam%2C+L.I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaoKhannaLippincott1975" class="citation journal cs1">Chao, R.S.; Khanna, R.K.; Lippincott, E.R. (1975). "Theoretical and experimental resonance Raman intensities for the manganate ion". <i>Journal of Raman Spectroscopy</i>. <b>3</b> (2–3): 121–131. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1975JRSp....3..121C">1975JRSp....3..121C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1002%2Fjrs.1250030203">10.1002/jrs.1250030203</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Raman+Spectroscopy&rft.atitle=Theoretical+and+experimental+resonance+Raman+intensities+for+the+manganate+ion&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=2%E2%80%933&rft.pages=121-131&rft.date=1975&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1002%2Fjrs.1250030203&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1975JRSp....3..121C&rft.aulast=Chao&rft.aufirst=R.S.&rft.au=Khanna%2C+R.K.&rft.au=Lippincott%2C+E.R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Resonance_Raman_spectroscopy&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/exploring-resonance-raman-spectroscopy">https://www.spectroscopyonline.com/view/exploring-resonance-raman-spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Raman_Spectroscopy/Raman%3A_Interpretation">http://chemwiki.ucdavis.edu/Physical_Chemistry/Spectroscopy/Vibrational_Spectroscopy/Raman_Spectroscopy/Raman%3A_Interpretation</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.horiba.com/us/en/scientific/products/Raman-spectroscopy/Raman-academy/Raman-faqs/what-is-polarised-Raman-spectroscopy/">http://www.horiba.com/us/en/scientific/products/Raman-spectroscopy/Raman-academy/Raman-faqs/what-is-polarised-Raman-spectroscopy/</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelley" class="citation web cs1">Kelley, A.M. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://faculty.ucmerced.edu/amkelley/RHR.htm">"Resonance hyper-Raman spectroscopy"</a>. University of California, Merced.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Resonance+hyper-Raman+spectroscopy&rft.pub=University+of+California%2C+Merced&rft.aulast=Kelley&rft.aufirst=A.M.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffaculty.ucmerced.edu%2Famkelley%2FRHR.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AResonance+Raman+spectroscopy" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output 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coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy">Rotating-polarization coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spatially_offset_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Spatially offset Raman spectroscopy">Spatially offset Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulated_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Stimulated Raman spectroscopy">Stimulated Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface-enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy">Surface-enhanced Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tip-enhanced_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy">Tip-enhanced Raman spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Transmission Raman spectroscopy">Transmission Raman spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Raman_amplification" title="Raman amplification">Raman amplification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_cooling" title="Raman cooling">Raman cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_laser" title="Raman laser">Raman laser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_microscope" title="Raman microscope">Raman microscope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SHERLOC" class="mw-redirect" title="SHERLOC">SHERLOC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stimulated_Raman_adiabatic_passage" title="Stimulated Raman adiabatic passage">Stimulated Raman adiabatic passage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Theory</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Depolarization_ratio" title="Depolarization ratio">Depolarization ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four-wave_mixing" title="Four-wave mixing">Four-wave mixing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonlinear_optics" title="Nonlinear optics">Nonlinear optics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_scattering" title="Raman scattering">Raman scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rayleigh_scattering" title="Rayleigh scattering">Rayleigh scattering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rule_of_mutual_exclusion" title="Rule of mutual exclusion">Rule of mutual exclusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokes_shift" title="Stokes shift">Stokes shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align:center">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Raman_Spectroscopy" title="Journal of Raman Spectroscopy">Journal of Raman Spectroscopy</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Vibrational_Spectroscopy" title="Vibrational Spectroscopy">Vibrational Spectroscopy</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:Raman_spectroscopy" title="Category:Raman spectroscopy">Category</a></b></li> <li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Raman_spectroscopy" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Raman spectroscopy">Commons</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></b></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spectroscopy" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Branches_of_spectroscopy" title="Template:Branches of spectroscopy"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Branches_of_spectroscopy" title="Template talk:Branches of spectroscopy"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Branches_of_spectroscopy" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Branches of spectroscopy"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spectroscopy" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">Spectroscopy</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Infrared_spectroscopy" title="Infrared spectroscopy">Vibrational (IR)</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourier-transform_infrared_spectroscopy" title="Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy">FT-IR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Resonance Raman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational_spectroscopy" title="Rotational spectroscopy">Rotational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotational%E2%80%93vibrational_spectroscopy" title="Rotational–vibrational spectroscopy">Rotational–vibrational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molecular_vibration" title="Molecular vibration">Vibrational</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrational_circular_dichroism" title="Vibrational circular dichroism">Vibrational circular dichroism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_resonance_vibrational_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy">Nuclear resonance vibrational spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibrational_spectroscopy_of_linear_molecules" title="Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules">Vibrational spectroscopy of linear molecules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_infrared_spectroscopy" title="Thermal infrared spectroscopy">Thermal infrared spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">UV–Vis–NIR "Optical"</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet%E2%80%93visible_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet–visible spectroscopy">Ultraviolet–visible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Fluorescence spectroscopy">Fluorescence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_vapour_atomic_fluorescence_spectroscopy" title="Cold vapour atomic fluorescence spectroscopy">Cold vapour atomic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vibronic_spectroscopy" title="Vibronic spectroscopy">Vibronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Near-infrared_spectroscopy" title="Near-infrared spectroscopy">Near-infrared</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resonance-enhanced_multiphoton_ionization" title="Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization">Resonance-enhanced multiphoton ionization</a> (REMPI)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_spectroscopy" title="Raman spectroscopy">Raman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherent_anti-Stokes_Raman_spectroscopy" title="Coherent anti-Stokes Raman spectroscopy">Coherent anti-Stokes</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raman_optical_activity" title="Raman optical activity">Raman optical activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laser-induced_breakdown_spectroscopy" title="Laser-induced breakdown spectroscopy">Laser-induced breakdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_spectroscopy" title="Atomic spectroscopy">Atomic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_emission_spectroscopy" title="Atomic emission spectroscopy">emission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Glow-discharge_optical_emission_spectroscopy" title="Glow-discharge optical emission spectroscopy">Glow-discharge optical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atomic_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Atomic absorption spectroscopy">absorption</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavity_ring-down_spectroscopy" title="Cavity ring-down spectroscopy">Cavity ring-down spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturated_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Saturated absorption spectroscopy">Saturated absorption spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">X-ray and Gamma ray</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_spectroscopy" title="X-ray spectroscopy">X-ray</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Energy-dispersive_X-ray_spectroscopy" title="Energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy">Energy-dispersive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_emission_spectroscopy" title="X-ray emission spectroscopy">Emission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_X-ray_absorption_fine_structure" title="Extended X-ray absorption fine structure">Extended X-ray absorption fine structure</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gamma_spectroscopy" title="Gamma spectroscopy">Gamma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Mössbauer spectroscopy">Mössbauer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Conversion_electron_M%C3%B6ssbauer_spectroscopy" title="Conversion electron Mössbauer spectroscopy">Conversion electron</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Electron</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Photoemission spectroscopy">Photoelectron/photoemission</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/X-ray_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy">X-ray</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="Ultraviolet photoelectron spectroscopy">UV</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Angle-resolved_photoemission_spectroscopy" title="Angle-resolved photoemission spectroscopy">Angle-resolved</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Two-photon_photoelectron_spectroscopy" title="Two-photon photoelectron spectroscopy">Two-photon</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auger_electron_spectroscopy" title="Auger electron spectroscopy">Auger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_phenomenological_spectroscopy" title="Electron phenomenological spectroscopy">phenomenological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">paramagnetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beta_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Beta spectroscopy">Beta spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nucleon</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alpha-particle_spectroscopy" title="Alpha-particle spectroscopy">Alpha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inelastic_neutron_scattering" class="mw-redirect" title="Inelastic neutron scattering">Inelastic neutron scattering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Neutron_spin_echo" title="Neutron spin echo">Neutron spin echo</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radiowave</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">NMR</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Two-dimensional_nuclear_magnetic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Two-dimensional nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy">2D</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terahertz_spectroscopy_and_technology" title="Terahertz spectroscopy and technology">Terahertz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electron_paramagnetic_resonance" title="Electron paramagnetic resonance">ESR/EPR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ferromagnetic_resonance" title="Ferromagnetic resonance">Ferromagnetic resonance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Data collection, processing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fourier-transform_spectroscopy" title="Fourier-transform spectroscopy">Fourier-transform spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperspectral_imaging" title="Hyperspectral imaging">Hyperspectral imaging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spectrophotometry" title="Spectrophotometry">Spectrophotometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time_stretch_analog-to-digital_converter" class="mw-redirect" title="Time stretch analog-to-digital converter">Time-stretch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Time-resolved_spectroscopy" title="Time-resolved spectroscopy">Time-resolved spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Video_spectroscopy" title="Video spectroscopy">Video spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measured phenomena</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acoustic_resonance_spectroscopy" title="Acoustic resonance spectroscopy">Acoustic resonance spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circular_dichroism" title="Circular dichroism">Circular dichroism spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep-level_transient_spectroscopy" title="Deep-level transient spectroscopy">Deep-level transient spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dual-polarization_interferometry" title="Dual-polarization interferometry">Dual-polarization interferometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hadron_spectroscopy" title="Hadron spectroscopy">Hadron spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inelastic_electron_tunneling_spectroscopy" title="Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy">Inelastic electron tunneling spectroscopy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scanning_tunneling_spectroscopy" title="Scanning tunneling spectroscopy">Scanning tunneling spectroscopy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoacoustic_spectroscopy" title="Photoacoustic spectroscopy">Photoacoustic spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photothermal_spectroscopy" title="Photothermal spectroscopy">Photothermal spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pump%E2%80%93probe_spectroscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Pump–probe spectroscopy">Pump–probe spectroscopy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Applications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomical_spectroscopy" title="Astronomical spectroscopy">Astronomical spectroscopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Force_spectroscopy" title="Force spectroscopy">Force spectroscopy</a> (a misnomer)</li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" 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