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class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Early period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Founding" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Founding </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.2 Unification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Political_reformation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Political_reformation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.3 Political reformation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Political_reformation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Goryeo–Khitan_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goryeo–Khitan_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.4 Goryeo–Khitan War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goryeo–Khitan_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Golden_age" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Golden_age"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.5 Golden age </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Golden_age-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Middle_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Middle_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Middle period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Middle_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Goryeo-Jurchen_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goryeo-Jurchen_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Goryeo-Jurchen War </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goryeo-Jurchen_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Power_struggles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_struggles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Power struggles </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_struggles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military_regime" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military_regime"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Military regime </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military_regime-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mongol_invasions_and_Yuan_domination" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mongol_invasions_and_Yuan_domination"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 Mongol invasions and Yuan domination </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mongol_invasions_and_Yuan_domination-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_period" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_period"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Late period </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_period-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Last_reform" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Last_reform"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Last reform </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Last_reform-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fall" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fall"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Fall </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fall-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Government </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Government subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Military </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Regional_administration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Regional_administration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Regional administration </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Regional_administration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_relations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_relations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Foreign relations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_relations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Society </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Society subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nobility" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nobility"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Nobility </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nobility-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Religion </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Buddhism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buddhism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Buddhism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buddhism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Confucianism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Confucianism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.2 Confucianism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Confucianism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Islam" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Islam"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3 Islam </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Islam-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Soju" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soju"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.3.1 Soju </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soju-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Culture </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Culture subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Literature </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Tripitaka_Koreana" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Tripitaka_Koreana"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1.1 Tripitaka Koreana </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Tripitaka_Koreana-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Art </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Goryeo_celadon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Goryeo_celadon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.1 Goryeo celadon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Goryeo_celadon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lacquerware_with_mother_of_pearl_inlay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lacquerware_with_mother_of_pearl_inlay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.2 Lacquerware with mother of pearl inlay </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lacquerware_with_mother_of_pearl_inlay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.3 Construction techniques </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Construction_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modern_celadon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modern_celadon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2.4 Modern celadon </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modern_celadon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Technology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Technology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Technology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Technology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle References subsection </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.1 Citations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10.2 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Goryeo</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 58 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-58" aria-hidden="true" > 58 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%85%D9%84%D9%83%D8%A9_%D8%BA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%8A%D9%88" title="مملكة غوريو – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="مملكة غوريو" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryo" title="Koryo – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Koryo" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Qoryo" title="Qoryo – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Qoryo" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%82%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88" title="قوریو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="قوریو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ko-l%C3%AA" title="Ko-lê – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Ko-lê" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%91" title="Корё – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Корё" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%BE" title="Корьо – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Корьо" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%91_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Корё улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Корё улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target">Буряад</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korjo" title="Korjo – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Korjo" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryo" title="Koryo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Koryo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88" title="گوریو – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="گوریو" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4" title="고려 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="고려" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B5%D5%B8" title="Գորյո – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գորյո" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Goryeo" title="Dinasti Goryeo – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Dinasti Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Goryeo" title="Dinasti Goryeo – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Dinasti Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D" title="კორიო – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კორიო" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorijo" title="Gorijo – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Gorijo" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korjo" title="Korjo – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Korjo" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%98%D0%BE" title="Корјо – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Корјо" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%9D" title="კორიო – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="კორიო" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88" title="گوریو – Mazanderani" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="گوریو" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="Mazanderani" class="interlanguage-link-target">مازِرونی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinasti_Goryeo" title="Dinasti Goryeo – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Dinasti Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C5%8F%CC%A4-l%C3%A0%CC%A4" title="Gŏ̤-là̤ – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Gŏ̤-là̤" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%83%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%81" title="Гуулин улс – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гуулин улс" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%AD%E1%80%AF%E1%80%9C%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC" title="ဂိုလျော – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂိုလျော" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97" title="高麗 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="高麗" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%D9%88%D8%B1%DB%8C%D9%88" title="گوریو – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="گوریو" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dinastia_Goryeo" title="Dinastia Goryeo – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Dinastia Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%91" title="Корё – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Корё" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%9C%E0%B7%9C%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B6%BA%E0%B7%9D" title="ගොර්යෝ – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="ගොර්යෝ" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korjo" title="Korjo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Korjo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%AF%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C%DB%86" title="گۆریۆ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="گۆریۆ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Korjo" title="Korjo – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Korjo" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Goryeo" title="Goryeo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Goryeo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv badge-Q17559452 badge-recommendedarticle mw-list-item" title="recommended article"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryo" title="Koryo – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Koryo" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%AD" title="โครยอ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="โครยอ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koryo" title="Koryo – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Koryo" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%80%D1%8C%D0%BE" title="Корьо – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Корьо" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cao_Ly" title="Cao Ly – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cao Ly" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97%E5%9C%8B" title="高麗國 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="高麗國" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">文言</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E4%B8%BD%E7%8E%8B%E6%9C%9D" title="高丽王朝 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="高丽王朝" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97" title="高麗 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="高麗" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97" title="高麗 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="高麗" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q28208#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" 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class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-coordinates" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Geographic_coordinate_system" title="Geographic coordinate system">Coordinates</a>: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Goryeo&params=37_58_N_126_33_E_type:county">37°58′N 126°33′E / 37.967°N 126.550°E / 37.967; 126.550</a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Korean dynasty (918–1392)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Koryo_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Koryo (disambiguation)">Koryo (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Goryeo</div><div class="ib-country-names">高麗 (<a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a>) 고려 (<a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a>)</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">918–1392</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding-left:5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_(Bong-gi).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Goryeo"><img alt="Flag of Goryeo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg/125px-Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg/188px-Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg/250px-Royal_flag_of_Goryeo_%28Bong-gi%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="500" /></a></div> <div>Royal flag</div> </div> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px;"> <div style="padding-bottom:3px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Seal_of_Goryeo_King.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Royal seal (1370–1392) of Goryeo"><img alt="Royal seal (1370–1392) of Goryeo" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Seal_of_Goryeo_King.svg/85px-Seal_of_Goryeo_King.svg.png" decoding="async" width="85" height="85" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Seal_of_Goryeo_King.svg/128px-Seal_of_Goryeo_King.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Seal_of_Goryeo_King.svg/170px-Seal_of_Goryeo_King.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div> <div><a href="/wiki/Seal_(East_Asia)#Government_authorities" class="mw-redirect" title="Seal (East Asia)">Royal seal</a> (1370–1392)</div> </div> </div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:Koryo_map.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Goryeo in 1389"><img alt="Map of Goryeo in 1389" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Koryo_map.png/250px-Koryo_map.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="343" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cc/Koryo_map.png 1.5x" data-file-width="340" data-file-height="466" /></a><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Map of Goryeo in 1389</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Independent_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent state">Independent state</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[a]</a> (918–1270, 1356–1392) <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Vassal state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> (1270–1356)</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data">Main: <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Gaegyeong</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[b]</a><a href="#cite_note-5">[c]</a> Temporary: <a href="/wiki/Cheorwon_County" title="Cheorwon County">Cheorwon</a> (918–919) <a href="/wiki/Ganghwa_Island" title="Ganghwa Island">Ganghwa</a><a href="#cite_note-6">[d]</a> (1232–1270) <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Hanyang</a><a href="#cite_note-7">[e]</a> (1382–1383, 1390–1391)<a href="#cite_note-8">[3]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Late Old Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Middle_Korean" title="Middle Korean">Early Middle Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Classical_Chinese" title="Classical Chinese">Classical Chinese</a> (literary)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth201092-9">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984134-10">[5]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism" title="Korean Buddhism">Buddhism</a> (<a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>), <a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_Taoism" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Taoism">Taoism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Korean_Shamanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Korean Shamanism">Shamanism</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[6]</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Demonym" title="Demonym">Demonym(s)</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Korean</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a> <ul><li>under a <a href="/wiki/Military_dictatorship" title="Military dictatorship">military junta</a> (1170–1270)</li></ul> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Korea#Goryeo_dynasty" title="List of monarchs of Korea">King/Emperor</a><a href="#cite_note-15">[f]</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 918–943 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Taejo</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1389–1392 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Gongyang_of_Goryeo" title="Gongyang of Goryeo">Gongyang</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_military_regime" title="Goryeo military regime">Military dictator</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1170–1174 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Yi_Ui-bang" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Ui-bang">Yi Ui-bang</a> (first)</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1270 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Im_Yu-mu" class="mw-redirect" title="Im Yu-mu">Im Yu-mu</a> (last)</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">History</th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Coronation of <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Taejo</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">25 July 918</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Unification of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Three_Kingdoms" title="Later Three Kingdoms">Later Three Kingdoms</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">936</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Goryeo%E2%80%93Khitan_War" title="Goryeo–Khitan War">Goryeo–Khitan War</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">993–1019</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Goryeo–Jurchen War </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1104–1109</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_military_regime" title="Goryeo military regime">Military dictatorship</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1170–1270</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasions</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1231–1259</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• "<a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Son-in-law state</a>" of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1270–1356</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Abdication of <a href="/wiki/Gongyang_of_Goryeo" title="Gongyang of Goryeo">Gongyang</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">12 July 1392</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• N/A </div></th><td class="infobox-data">3,000,000–5,000,000<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeMillerParkYi201470-16">[10]</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_coinage" title="Goryeo coinage">Goryeo coinage</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> Preceded by</td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;">Succeeded by </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Balhae</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Later_Baekje" title="Later Baekje">Later Baekje</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Later_Goguryeo" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Goguryeo">Later Goguryeo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Unified_Silla" title="Unified Silla">Unified Silla</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg/30px-Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_King_of_Korea_%281882%E2%80%931907%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="574" data-file-height="378" /> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Today part of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/North_Korea" title="North Korea">North Korea</a> <a href="/wiki/South_Korea" title="South Korea">South Korea</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="infobox" style="width: 22em"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="font-size: 125%; color: #202122;background-color: #b0c4de;">Korean name</td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;">고려</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline; font-size: 1rem;">高麗</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Revised_Romanization_of_Korean" title="Revised Romanization of Korean">Revised Romanization</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Goryeo</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">McCune–Reischauer</a></th><td class="infobox-data">Koryŏ</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">IPA</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">[ko.ɾjʌ]</a></td></tr><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tbody></table> Goryeo (<a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>: 고려; <a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a>: 高麗; <a href="/wiki/McCune%E2%80%93Reischauer" title="McCune–Reischauer">MR</a>: Koryŏ; <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Korean" title="Help:IPA/Korean">[ko.ɾjʌ]</a>) was a <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korean</a> state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the <a href="/wiki/Later_Three_Kingdoms" title="Later Three Kingdoms">Later Three Kingdoms</a> period, that unified and ruled the <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korean Peninsula</a> until the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> in 1392.<a href="#cite_note-17">[11]</a> Goryeo achieved what has been called a "true national unification" by Korean historians as it not only unified the Later Three Kingdoms but also incorporated much of the ruling class of the northern kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Balhae</a>, who had origins in <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a> of the earlier <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms of Korea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012120-18">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984103-19">[13]</a> According to Korean historians, it was during the Goryeo period that the individual identities of <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a> were successfully merged into a single entity that became the basis of the modern-day <a href="/wiki/Koreans" title="Koreans">Korean</a> identity.<a href="#cite_note-Korea-20">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-:5-21">[15]</a> The name "<a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a>" is derived from the name of Goryeo, also romanized as Koryŏ, which was first used in the early 5th century by Goguryeo;<a href="#cite_note-Korea-20">[14]</a> Goryeo was a <a href="/wiki/Successor_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Successor state">successor state</a> to <a href="/wiki/Later_Goguryeo" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Goguryeo">Later Goguryeo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012120–122-22">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-23">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-On_the_Historical_Succession_of_Gog-24">[18]</a><a href="#cite_note-25">[19]</a> Throughout its existence, Goryeo, alongside Unified Silla, was known to be the "Golden Age of Buddhism" in Korea.<a href="#cite_note-26">[20]</a> As the <a href="/wiki/State_religion" title="State religion">state religion</a>, Buddhism achieved its highest level of influence in Korean history, with 70 temples in the capital alone in the 11th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012148-27">[21]</a> Commerce flourished in Goryeo, with merchants coming from as far as the Middle East.<a href="#cite_note-28">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2017a52-29">[23]</a> The capital in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Kaesong</a>, North Korea was a center of trade and industry.<a href="#cite_note-Ma-30">[24]</a> Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture.<a href="#cite_note-The_Met-31">[25]</a> During its heyday, Goryeo constantly wrestled with northern empires such as the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a> (<a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchens</a>). It was <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">invaded by the Mongol Empire</a> and became a vassal state of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a> in the 13th–14th centuries,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201326-32">[26]</a> but attacked the Yuan and reclaimed territories as the Yuan declined.<a href="#cite_note-33">[27]</a> This is considered by modern Korean scholars to be Goryeo's Northern Expansion Doctrine (북진 정책) to reclaim ancestral lands formerly owned by Goguryeo.<a href="#cite_note-34">[28]</a> As much as it valued education and culture, Goryeo was able to mobilize sizable military might during times of war.<a href="#cite_note-35">[29]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[30]</a> It fended off massive armies of the <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellion" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Turban Rebellion">Red Turban Rebels</a> from China<a href="#cite_note-37">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[32]</a> and professional <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Japanese pirates</a><a href="#cite_note-39">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-40">[34]</a> in its twilight years of the 14th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2017b-41">[35]</a> A final proposed attack against the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> resulted in <a href="/wiki/Wihwado_Retreat" title="Wihwado Retreat">a coup d'état</a> led by General <a href="/wiki/Yi_S%C5%8Fng-gye" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Sŏng-gye">Yi Sŏng-gye</a> that ended the Goryeo dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-42">[36]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-3"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Names_of_Korea" title="Names of Korea">Names of Korea</a></div> The name "Goryeo" (고려; 高麗; Koryŏ), which is the source of the name "Korea", was originally used by <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a> (고구려; 高句麗; Koguryŏ) of the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms of Korea</a> beginning in the early 5th century.<a href="#cite_note-Korea-20">[14]</a> Other attested variants of the name have also been recorded as Gori (高離/槀離/稾離) and Guryeo (句麗).[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] There have been various speculations for the breakdown of Goguryeo as a name, the most common being go meaning "high", "noble" and guri meaning "castle", related to the word gol used during medieval Goryeo meaning "place".[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] In 918, Goryeo was founded as the successor to Goguryeo and inherited its name.<a href="#cite_note-Korea-20">[14]</a> Historically, Goguryeo (37 BC–668 AD), Later Goguryeo (901–918), and Goryeo (918–1392) all used the name "Goryeo".<a href="#cite_note-Korea-20">[14]</a> Their historiographical names were implemented in the <a href="/wiki/Samguk_sagi" title="Samguk sagi">Samguk sagi</a> in the 12th century.<a href="#cite_note-43">[37]</a> Goryeo also used the names <a href="/wiki/Samhan" title="Samhan">Samhan</a> and Haedong, meaning "East of the Sea".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERawski2015198–200-44">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Korea" title="Category:History of Korea">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korea" title="History of Korea">History of Korea</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png" class="mw-file-description" title="thum"><img alt="thum" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png/200px-Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="138" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png/300px-Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png/400px-Gyeongbokgung_Palace.png 2x" data-file-width="871" data-file-height="602" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_Korea" title="Prehistoric Korea">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Palaeolithic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Palaeolithic period">Palaeolithic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 700,000 BC-8000 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Neolithic_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Neolithic period">Neolithic</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 8000 BC–1500 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Jeulmun_pottery_period" title="Jeulmun pottery period">Jeulmun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1500 BC–300 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Mumun_pottery_period" title="Mumun pottery period">Mumun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Liaoning_bronze_dagger_culture" title="Liaoning bronze dagger culture">Liaoning dagger</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Ancient period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gojoseon" title="Gojoseon">Gojoseon</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> <abbr title="mythological">2333 BC</abbr>–108 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Dangun_Joseon" class="mw-redirect" title="Dangun Joseon">Dangun</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Gija_Joseon" title="Gija Joseon">Gija</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/Wiman_Joseon" title="Wiman Joseon">Wiman</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jin_(Korean_state)" title="Jin (Korean state)">Jin</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 4th–2nd century BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Yemaek" title="Yemaek">Yemaek</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Proto%E2%80%93Three_Kingdoms_period" title="Proto–Three Kingdoms period">Proto–Three Kingdoms period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Takri_Kingdom" title="Takri Kingdom">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Ye" title="Eastern Ye">Dongye</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyeo" title="Buyeo">Buyeo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Buyeo" title="Eastern Buyeo">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galsa_Buyeo" title="Galsa Buyeo">Galsa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Okjeo" title="Okjeo">Okjeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samhan" title="Samhan">Samhan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mahan_confederacy" title="Mahan confederacy">Ma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byeonhan_confederacy" title="Byeonhan confederacy">Byeon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jinhan_confederacy" title="Jinhan confederacy">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nangnang_Kingdom" title="Nangnang Kingdom">Nakrang</a></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Four_Commanderies_of_Han" title="Four Commanderies of Han">Four Commanderies of Han</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 37 BC–668 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 18 BC–660 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 57 BC–935 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Gaya_confederacy" title="Gaya confederacy">Gaya confederacy</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 42–562</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> (Tributary of Baekje)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 498–660</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Usan" title="Usan">Usan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 512–930</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Northern_and_Southern_States_period" title="Northern and Southern States period">Northern and Southern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Silla" class="mw-redirect" title="United Silla">United Silla</a> (Unified Silla)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 668–892</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Balhae</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 698–926</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Little_Goguryeo" title="Little Goguryeo">Little Goguryeo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 699–820</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> (Tributary of Silla)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 662–925</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Later_Three_Kingdoms" title="Later Three Kingdoms">Later Three Kingdoms period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Later_Baekje" title="Later Baekje">Later Baekje</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 892–936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Taebong" title="Taebong">Taebong</a> (Later Goguryeo)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 901–918</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/United_Silla" class="mw-redirect" title="United Silla">Unified Silla</a> (Later Silla)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 892–935</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Later_Sabeol" title="Later Sabeol">Later Sabeol</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 919–927</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Dongdan_Kingdom" title="Dongdan Kingdom">Dongdan Kingdom</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 926–936</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Later_Balhae" title="Later Balhae">Later Balhae</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 927–935</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Jeongan" title="Jeongan">Jeongan</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 938–986</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Dynastic period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Goryeo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 918–1392</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> (Vassal of Goryeo)</td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 938–1105</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Xingliao" title="Xingliao">Heungyo</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1029–1030</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1392–1897</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean Empire</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1897–1910</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Colonial period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Korea_under_Japanese_rule" title="Korea under Japanese rule">Japanese occupation</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1910–1945</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Provisional_Government_of_the_Republic_of_Korea" title="Provisional Government of the Republic of Korea">Provisional Government</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1919–1948</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">Modern period</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea#Post-World_War_II" title="Division of Korea">Military governments</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–1948</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;"> <a href="/wiki/Division_of_Korea" title="Division of Korea">North-South division</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1945–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Korea" title="History of North Korea">North</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–present</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;">* <a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Korea" title="History of South Korea">South</a></td><td style="white-space:nowrap;text-align:right;"> 1948–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background: #eee;color: var(--color-base)">By topic</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_art#History" title="Korean art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_cuisine" title="History of Korean cuisine">Cuisine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_currency" title="Korean currency">Currency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_education_in_Korea" title="History of education in Korea">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Korea" title="Geography of Korea">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_Korea" title="Historiography of Korea">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean" title="History of Korean">Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Korea" title="Military history of Korea">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Korea" title="List of wars involving Korea">List</a> · <a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Goguryeo" title="Military history of Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Korea" title="List of monarchs of Korea">Monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Korean_monarchs" title="Family tree of Korean monarchs">Family tree</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Korea" title="Names of Korea">Names</a> (<a href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">Era names</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Korea" title="Naval history of Korea">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_newspapers_in_Korea" title="History of newspapers in Korea">Newspapers</a></li> <li>Politics (<a href="/wiki/Joseon_Dynasty_politics" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseon Dynasty politics">Joseon</a> · <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_North_Korea" title="Politics of North Korea">North</a> · <a href="/wiki/Politics_of_South_Korea" title="Politics of South Korea">South</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_religion_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of religion in Korea">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Korean_Buddhism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Korean Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christianity_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christianity in Korea">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Islam in Korea">Islam</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Korea" title="History of women in Korea">Women</a></li> <li>World Heritage Sites (<a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_North_Korea" title="List of World Heritage Sites in North Korea">North</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_South_Korea" title="List of World Heritage Sites in South Korea">South</a>)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="padding:0.2em; border-top:#aaa 1px solid;"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Korean_history" title="Timeline of Korean history">Timeline</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <a href="/wiki/File:Korea_Map.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="map" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Korea_Map.svg/16px-Korea_Map.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Korea_Map.svg/24px-Korea_Map.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Korea_Map.svg/32px-Korea_Map.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="64" data-file-height="64" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Korea" class="mw-disambig" title="Portal:Korea">Korea portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Korea" title="Template:History of Korea"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Korea" title="Template talk:History of Korea"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Korea" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Korea"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_period">Early period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Early period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Founding">Founding</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Founding">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Founding_legends_of_the_Goryeo_royal_family" title="Founding legends of the Goryeo royal family">Founding legends of the Goryeo royal family</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goguryeo_Silla_Baekje_War.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Goguryeo_Silla_Baekje_War.png/220px-Goguryeo_Silla_Baekje_War.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="338" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Goguryeo_Silla_Baekje_War.png/330px-Goguryeo_Silla_Baekje_War.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Goguryeo_Silla_Baekje_War.png/440px-Goguryeo_Silla_Baekje_War.png 2x" data-file-width="896" data-file-height="1376" /></a><figcaption>Goryeo's conquest of <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Later_Baekje" title="Later Baekje">Later Baekje</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:WangGeon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d8/WangGeon.jpg" decoding="async" width="155" height="191" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="155" data-file-height="191" /></a><figcaption>Bronze statue of <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Taejo</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 951<a href="#cite_note-45">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-46">[40]</a></figcaption></figure> In the late 7th century, the kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Silla" title="Silla">Silla</a> unified the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms of Korea</a> and entered a period known in historiography as "<a href="/wiki/Unified_Silla" title="Unified Silla">Unified Silla</a>" or "Later Silla". Later Silla implemented a national policy of integrating <a href="/wiki/Baekje" title="Baekje">Baekje</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a> refugees called the "Unification of the <a href="/wiki/Samhan" title="Samhan">Samhan</a>", referring to the Three Kingdoms of Korea.<a href="#cite_note-47">[41]</a> Silla organized a new central army called the Guseodang (구서당; 九誓幢) that was divided into 3 units of Silla people, 3 units of Goguryeo people, 2 units of Baekje people, and 1 unit of Mohe people.<a href="#cite_note-48">[42]</a> However, the Baekje and Goguryeo refugees retained their respective <a href="/wiki/Collective_consciousness" title="Collective consciousness">collective consciousnesses</a> and maintained a deep-seated resentment and hostility toward Silla.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERo200947–53-49">[43]</a> Later Silla was initially a period of peace, without a single foreign invasion for 200 years, and commerce, as it engaged in international trade from as distant as the Middle East and maintained maritime leadership in East Asia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim201299–101-50">[44]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth201066-51">[45]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[46]</a> Beginning in the late 8th century, Later Silla was undermined by instability because of political turbulence in the capital and class rigidity in the <a href="/wiki/Bone-rank_system" title="Bone-rank system">bone-rank system</a>, leading to the weakening of the central government and the rise of the "hojok" (호족; 豪族) regional lords.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012112–115-53">[47]</a> The military officer <a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%8Fn_Hw%C5%8Fn" title="Kyŏn Hwŏn">Kyŏn Hwŏn</a> revived Baekje in 892 with the descendants of the Baekje refugees, and the Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Kung_Ye" title="Kung Ye">Kung Ye</a> revived Goguryeo in 901 with the descendants of the Goguryeo refugees;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERo200947–53-49">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-54">[48]</a> these states are called <a href="/wiki/Later_Baekje" title="Later Baekje">Later Baekje</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taebong" title="Taebong">Later Goguryeo</a> in historiography, and together with Later Silla form the <a href="/wiki/Later_Three_Kingdoms" title="Later Three Kingdoms">Later Three Kingdoms</a>. Later Goguryeo originated in the northern regions of Later Silla, which, along with its capital located in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Kaesong</a>, North Korea, were the strongholds of the Goguryeo refugees.<a href="#cite_note-55">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[50]</a> Among the Goguryeo refugees was <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Wang Kŏn</a>,<a href="#cite_note-57">[51]</a> a member of a prominent maritime hojok based in Kaesong, who traced his ancestry to a great clan of Goguryeo.<a href="#cite_note-58">[52]</a><a href="#cite_note-고려도경-59">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERo200972–83-60">[54]</a> Wang Kŏn entered military service under Kung Ye at the age of 19 in 896, before Later Goguryeo had been established, and over the years accumulated a series of victories over Later Baekje and gained the public's confidence. In particular, using his maritime abilities, he persistently attacked the coast of Later Baekje and occupied key points, including modern-day <a href="/wiki/Naju" title="Naju">Naju</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012118-61">[55]</a> Kung Ye was unstable and cruel: he moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Cheorwon_County" title="Cheorwon County">Cheorwon</a> in 905, changed the name of his kingdom to Majin in 904 then Taebong in 911, changed his <a href="/wiki/Korean_era_name" title="Korean era name">era name</a> multiple times, proclaimed himself the Maitreya Buddha, claimed to read minds, and executed numerous subordinates and family members out of paranoia.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012117–118-62">[56]</a> In 918, Kung Ye was deposed by his own generals, and Wang Kŏn was raised to the throne. Wang Kŏn, who would posthumously be known by his <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple name</a> of Taejo or "Grand Progenitor", changed the name of his kingdom back to "Goryeo", adopted the era name of "Heaven's Mandate", and moved the capital back to his home of Kaesong.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012118-61">[55]</a> Goryeo regarded itself as the successor to Goguryeo and laid claim to <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a> as its rightful legacy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984103-19">[13]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERo200972–83-60">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1983323-63">[57]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayson201379-64">[58]</a> One of Taejo's first decrees was to repopulate and defend the ancient Goguryeo capital of <a href="/wiki/Pyongyang" title="Pyongyang">Pyongyang</a>, which had been in ruins for a long time; afterward, he renamed it the "Western Capital", and before he died, he placed great importance on it in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants.<a href="#cite_note-65">[59]</a><a href="#cite_note-66">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Unification">Unification</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Unification">edit</a>]</div> In contrast to Kung Ye, who had harbored vengeful animosity toward Silla, Taejo (Wang Kŏn) was magnanimous toward the weakened kingdom. In 927, Kyŏn Hwŏn, who had vowed to avenge the <a href="/wiki/Uija_of_Baekje" title="Uija of Baekje">last king of Baekje</a> when he founded Later Baekje, sacked the capital of Later Silla, forced the king to commit suicide, and installed a puppet on the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012116–117-67">[61]</a> Taejo came to Later Silla's aid but suffered a major defeat at the hand of Gyeon Hwon near modern-day <a href="/wiki/Daegu" title="Daegu">Daegu</a>; Taejo barely escaped with his life thanks to the self-sacrifices of Generals <a href="/wiki/Sin_Sung-gy%C5%8Fm" title="Sin Sung-gyŏm">Sin Sung-gyŏm</a> and Kim Nak, and, thereafter, Later Baekje became the dominant military power of the Later Three Kingdoms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012119-68">[62]</a> However, the balance of power shifted toward Goryeo with victories over Later Baekje in 930 and 934, and the peaceful annexation of Later Silla in 935. Taejo graciously accepted the capitulation of the last king of Silla and incorporated the ruling class of Later Silla.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012119-68">[62]</a> In 935, Kyŏn Hwŏn was removed from his throne by his <a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%8Fn_Sin-g%C5%8Fm" title="Kyŏn Sin-gŏm">eldest son</a> over a succession dispute and imprisoned at <a href="/wiki/Geumsansa" title="Geumsansa">Geumsansa Temple</a>, but he escaped to Goryeo three months later and was deferentially received by his former archrival.<a href="#cite_note-69">[63]</a> In 936, upon Kyŏn Hwŏn's request, Taejo and Kyŏn Hwŏn conquered Later Baekje with an army of 87,500 soldiers, bringing an end to the Later Three Kingdoms period.<a href="#cite_note-70">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-71">[65]</a> Goryeo proceeded to incorporate a major portion of the Balhae people whose links to Goguryeo were shared with Goryeo, accepting most of their royalty and nobility in their fold. Following the destruction of <a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Balhae</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a> <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> in 927, the last crown prince of Balhae and much of the ruling class sought refuge in Goryeo, where they were warmly welcomed and given land by Taejo. In addition, Taejo included the Balhae crown prince in the Goryeo royal family, unifying the two successor states of Goguryeo and, according to Korean historians, achieving a "true national unification" of Korea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012120-18">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984103-19">[13]</a> According to the Goryeosa jeolyo, the Balhae refugees who accompanied the crown prince numbered in the tens of thousands of households.<a href="#cite_note-:5-21">[15]</a> As descendants of Goguryeo, the Balhae people and the Goryeo dynasts were related.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1983154-72">[66]</a> Taejo felt a strong familial kinship with Balhae, calling it his "relative country" and "married country",<a href="#cite_note-박종기-73">[67]</a> and protected the Balhae refugees.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1983323-63">[57]</a> This was in stark contrast to Later Silla, which had endured a hostile relationship with Balhae.<a href="#cite_note-74">[68]</a> Taejo displayed strong animosity toward the Khitans who had destroyed Balhae. The Liao dynasty sent 30 envoys with 50 camels as a gift in 942, but Taejo exiled the envoys to an island and starved the camels under a bridge, in what is known as the "Manbu Bridge Incident".<a href="#cite_note-이기환-75">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a> Taejo proposed to <a href="/wiki/Shi_Jingtang" title="Shi Jingtang">Gaozu</a> of <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a> that they attack the Khitans in retribution for Balhae, according to the <a href="/wiki/Zizhi_Tongjian" title="Zizhi Tongjian">Zizhi Tongjian</a>.<a href="#cite_note-박종기-73">[67]</a> Furthermore, in his Ten Injunctions to his descendants, he stated that the Khitans are "savage beasts" and should be guarded against.<a href="#cite_note-이기환-75">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee2010264-77">[71]</a> Exodus en masse on part from the Balhae refugees would continue on at least until the early 12th century during the reign of King Yejong.<a href="#cite_note-78">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[g]</a> Due to this constant massive influx of Balhae refugees, the Goguryeoic population in Goryeo is speculated to have become dominant<a href="#cite_note-81">[74]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[75]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[77]</a> in proportion compared to their Silla and Baekje counterparts that have experienced devastating war and political strife<a href="#cite_note-85">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[79]</a><a href="#cite_note-87">[80]</a> since the advent of the Later Three Kingdoms. By the end of the Later Three Kingdoms, territories populated by the original Silla people and considered that of "Silla proper" (原新羅) were reduced to Gyeongju and bits of the vicinity.<a href="#cite_note-88">[81]</a> Later Baekje fared only little better than Later Silla before its fall in 936. Meanwhile, of the three capitals of Goryeo, two were Kaesong and Pyongyang which were initially populated by Goguryeoic settlers from the Paeseo Region (패서; 浿西) and Balhae.<a href="#cite_note-89">[82]</a> Nonetheless, Goryeo proceeded to peacefully absorbing the ruling class of both countries and incorporated them under its bureaucracy; conducting political marriages and distributing positions according to their previous status in their respective countries.<a href="#cite_note-90">[83]</a> In contrast to Silla's bone-rank system, these open policies implemented by Wang Geon enabled Goryeo to enjoy a larger pool of highly skilled bureaucrats and technicians with the addition of those coming from Silla and Baekje;<a href="#cite_note-91">[84]</a> later on instilling a single agenda in terms of identity amongst its people. During the time of its existence, Goryeo also accepted a large amount of skilled workers from Medieval China and Tamna as well.<a href="#cite_note-92">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-93">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-94">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Political_reformation">Political reformation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Political reformation">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EA%B8%88%EB%8F%99_%EC%9A%A9%EB%A8%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%AA%A8%EC%96%91_%EC%B2%98%EB%A7%88_%EB%81%9D_%EC%9E%A5%EC%8B%9D%EA%B3%BC_%EC%9E%91%EC%9D%80_%EC%A2%85_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E9%87%91%E9%8A%85%E9%BE%8D%E9%A0%AD%E5%90%90%E9%A6%96%E9%A2%A8%E9%90%B8_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Rafter_finial_in_the_shape_of_a_dragon%E2%80%99s_head_and_wind_chime_MET_h1_1999.263ab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/%EA%B8%88%EB%8F%99_%EC%9A%A9%EB%A8%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%AA%A8%EC%96%91_%EC%B2%98%EB%A7%88_%EB%81%9D_%EC%9E%A5%EC%8B%9D%EA%B3%BC_%EC%9E%91%EC%9D%80_%EC%A2%85_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E9%87%91%E9%8A%85%E9%BE%8D%E9%A0%AD%E5%90%90%E9%A6%96%E9%A2%A8%E9%90%B8_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Rafter_finial_in_the_shape_of_a_dragon%E2%80%99s_head_and_wind_chime_MET_h1_1999.263ab.jpg/170px-thumbnail.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="242" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/%EA%B8%88%EB%8F%99_%EC%9A%A9%EB%A8%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%AA%A8%EC%96%91_%EC%B2%98%EB%A7%88_%EB%81%9D_%EC%9E%A5%EC%8B%9D%EA%B3%BC_%EC%9E%91%EC%9D%80_%EC%A2%85_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E9%87%91%E9%8A%85%E9%BE%8D%E9%A0%AD%E5%90%90%E9%A6%96%E9%A2%A8%E9%90%B8_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Rafter_finial_in_the_shape_of_a_dragon%E2%80%99s_head_and_wind_chime_MET_h1_1999.263ab.jpg/255px-thumbnail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/%EA%B8%88%EB%8F%99_%EC%9A%A9%EB%A8%B8%EB%A6%AC_%EB%AA%A8%EC%96%91_%EC%B2%98%EB%A7%88_%EB%81%9D_%EC%9E%A5%EC%8B%9D%EA%B3%BC_%EC%9E%91%EC%9D%80_%EC%A2%85_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4-%E9%87%91%E9%8A%85%E9%BE%8D%E9%A0%AD%E5%90%90%E9%A6%96%E9%A2%A8%E9%90%B8_%E9%AB%98%E9%BA%97-Rafter_finial_in_the_shape_of_a_dragon%E2%80%99s_head_and_wind_chime_MET_h1_1999.263ab.jpg/340px-thumbnail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1776" data-file-height="2528" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dragon%27s_head_and_wind_chime" title="Dragon's head and wind chime">Rafter finial in the shape of a dragon's head and wind chime</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 10th century</figcaption></figure> Although Goryeo had unified the <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korean Peninsula</a>, the hojok regional lords remained quasi-independent within their walled domains and posed a threat to the monarchy. To secure political alliances, Taejo married 29 women from prominent hojok families, siring 25 sons and 9 daughters.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012122–123-95">[88]</a> His fourth son, <a href="/wiki/Gwangjong_of_Goryeo" title="Gwangjong of Goryeo">Gwangjong</a>, came to power in 949 to become the fourth ruler of Goryeo and instituted reforms to consolidate monarchical authority. In 956, Gwangjong freed the prisoners of war and refugees who had been enslaved by the hojok during the tumultuous Later Three Kingdoms period, in effect decreasing the power and influence of the regional nobility and increasing the population liable for taxation by the central government.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrayson201379-64">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012124-96">[89]</a> In 958, advised by Shuang Ji, a naturalized Chinese official from the <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a> dynasty, Gwangjong implemented the <a href="/wiki/Gwageo" title="Gwageo">gwageo</a> civil service examinations, based primarily on the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_examination" title="Imperial examination">imperial examination</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang dynasty</a>. This, too, was to consolidate monarchical authority. The gwageo remained an important institution in Korea until its abolition in 1894.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeth201082-97">[90]</a> In contrast to Goryeo's traditional "dual royal/imperial structure under which the ruler was at once king, emperor and Son of Heaven", according to Remco E. Breuker, Gwangjong used a "full-blown imperial system".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010147-12">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010136-98">[91]</a> All those who opposed or resisted his reforms were summarily purged.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012125-99">[92]</a> Gwangjong's successor, <a href="/wiki/Gyeongjong_of_Goryeo" title="Gyeongjong of Goryeo">Gyeongjong</a>, instituted the "Stipend Land Law" in 976 to support the new central government bureaucracy established on the foundation of Gwangjong's reforms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984105-100">[93]</a> The next ruler, <a href="/wiki/Seongjong_of_Goryeo" title="Seongjong of Goryeo">Seongjong</a>, secured centralization of government and laid the foundation for a centralized political order.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012125-99">[92]</a> Seongjong filled the bureaucracy with new bureaucrats, who as products of the gwageo civil service examinations were educated to be loyal to the state, and dispatched centrally-appointed officials to administrate the provinces. As a result, the monarch controlled much of the decision making, and his signature was required to implement important decisions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010151-101">[94]</a> Seongjong supported Confucianism and, upon a proposal by the Confucian scholar <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_S%C5%ADng-no" title="Ch'oe Sŭng-no">Ch'oe Sŭng-no</a>, the separation of government and religion.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012125-99">[92]</a> In addition, Seongjong laid the foundation for Goryeo's educational system: he founded the <a href="/wiki/Gukjagam" title="Gukjagam">Gukjagam</a> national university in 992, supplementing the schools already established in Kaesong and Pyongyang by Taejo, and national libraries and archives in Kaesong and Pyongyang that contained tens of thousands of books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012132-102">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Goryeo–Khitan_War">Goryeo–Khitan War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Goryeo–Khitan War">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Goryeo%E2%80%93Khitan_War" title="Goryeo–Khitan War">Goryeo–Khitan War</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cheolli_Jangseong.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Cheolli_Jangseong.png/220px-Cheolli_Jangseong.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Cheolli_Jangseong.png/330px-Cheolli_Jangseong.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/67/Cheolli_Jangseong.png/440px-Cheolli_Jangseong.png 2x" data-file-width="670" data-file-height="725" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Cheolli_Jangseong" title="Cheolli Jangseong">Cheolli Jangseong</a> (blue), a wall built by Goryeo in the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/Goryeo-Khitan_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Goryeo-Khitan War">Goryeo-Khitan War</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-03.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-03.jpg/170px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-03.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-03.jpg/255px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-03.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-03.jpg/340px-Korea-Haeinsa-Tripitaka_Koreana-03.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The engraving of the original <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</a> was begun in 1011 during the Khitan invasions to draw strength from the Buddha in defense of the kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-103">[96]</a></figcaption></figure> Following the "Manbu Bridge Incident" of 942, Goryeo prepared itself for a conflict with the Khitan Empire: <a href="/wiki/Jeongjong,_3rd_monarch_of_Goryeo" title="Jeongjong, 3rd monarch of Goryeo">Jeongjong</a> established a military reserve force of 300,000 soldiers called the "Resplendent Army" in 947, and Gwangjong built fortresses north of the <a href="/wiki/Chongchon_River" title="Chongchon River">Chongchon River</a>, expanding toward the <a href="/wiki/Yalu_River" title="Yalu River">Yalu River</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012141–142-104">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984125-105">[98]</a> However an attempt to control the Yalu River basin in 984 failed due to conflict with the Jurchens.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a> The Khitans considered Goryeo a potential threat and, with tensions rising, invaded in 993.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994103-106">[99]</a> The Jurchens warned Goryeo of the invasion twice. At first Goryeo did not believe the information but came around upon the second warning and took up a defensive strategy. The Koreans were defeated in their first encounter with the Khitans, but successfully halted their advance at Anyung-jin (in modern <a href="/wiki/Anju,_South_Pyongan" title="Anju, South Pyongan">Anju</a>, <a href="/wiki/South_Pyongan_Province" title="South Pyongan Province">South Pyongan Province</a>) at the Chongchon River.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-107">[100]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012142-108">[101]</a> Negotiations began between the Goryeo commander, <a href="/wiki/S%C5%8F_H%C5%ADi" title="Sŏ Hŭi">Sŏ Hŭi</a>, and the Liao commander, Xiao Sunning. In conclusion, Goryeo entered a nominal tributary relationship with Liao, severing relations with <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a>, and Liao recognized Goryeo sovereignty to the land east of the Yalu River. Goryeo was left free to deal with the Jurchens south of the Yalu and in 994-996, Sŏ Hŭi led an army into the area and built forts.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994103-106">[99]</a> Afterward, Goryeo established the "Six Garrison Settlements East of the River" in its new territory.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984125-105">[98]</a><a href="#cite_note-109">[102]</a> In 994, Goryeo proposed to Song a joint military attack on Liao, but was declined;<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005182-110">[103]</a> previously, in 985, when Song had proposed a joint military attack on Liao, Goryeo had declined.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994103-106">[99]</a> For a time, Goryeo and Liao enjoyed an amicable relationship.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a> In 996, Seongjong married a Liao princess.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005683-111">[104]</a> As the Khitan Empire expanded and became more powerful, it demanded that Goryeo cede the Six Garrison Settlements, but Goryeo refused.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012142–143-112">[105]</a> In 1009, <a href="/wiki/Kang_Cho" title="Kang Cho">Kang Cho</a> staged a coup d'état, assassinating <a href="/wiki/Mokjong_of_Goryeo" title="Mokjong of Goryeo">Mokjong</a> and installing <a href="/wiki/Hyeonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Hyeonjong of Goryeo">Hyeonjong</a> on the throne.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBowman2000203-113">[106]</a> Goryeo sent an envoy to the Khitans telling them that the previous king had died and a new king had ascended the throne. In the following year, some Jurchen tribesmen who had been in conflict with Goryeo fled to the Khitans and told them of the coup. Under the pretext of avenging Mokjong, <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Shengzong_of_Liao" title="Emperor Shengzong of Liao">Emperor Shengzong of Liao</a> led an invasion of Goryeo with an army of 400,000 soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012143-114">[107]</a> Meanwhile, Goryeo tried to establish relations with Song but was ignored, as Song had agreed to the <a href="/wiki/Chanyuan_Treaty" title="Chanyuan Treaty">Chanyuan Treaty</a> in 1005.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers1961418-115">[108]</a> Goryeo gathered a 300,000 strong army under Kang Cho. In the first battle, the Goryeo forces led by <a href="/wiki/Yang_Kyu" title="Yang Kyu">Yang Kyu</a> won a victory against the Liao. The Liao decided to split up their forces with one part heading south. The Goryeo army under the leadership of Kang Cho lost the second battle and suffered heavy casualties. The army was dispersed and many commanders were captured or killed, including Kang Cho himself.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994111-116">[109]</a> Later, Pyongyang was successfully defended, but the Liao army marched toward Kaesong.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a> Hyeonjong, upon the advice of <a href="/wiki/Kang_Kam-ch%27an" title="Kang Kam-ch'an">Kang Kam-ch'an</a>, evacuated south to Naju. Shortly afterward, the Liao won a pitched battle outside Kaesong and sacked the city.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994111-116">[109]</a> He then sent Ha Gong-jin and Go Yeong-gi to sue for peace,<a href="#cite_note-117">[110]</a> with a promise that he would pay homage in person to the Liao emperor. The Khitans, who were sustaining attacks from previously surrendered districts and the regrouped Korean army which disrupted their supply lines, accepted and began their withdrawal.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuk201135-118">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994111-116">[109]</a> The Liao army became bogged down in the mountains during the winter and had to abandon much of their armour.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994111-116">[109]</a> The Khitans were ceaselessly attacked during their withdrawal; Yang Kyu rescued from over 10,000 to over 30,000 prisoners of war, but died in battle.<a href="#cite_note-제2차_침입-119">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-120">[113]</a> According to the <a href="/wiki/Goryeosa" title="Goryeosa">Goryeosa</a>, due to continued attacks and heavy rain, the Khitan army was devastated and lost its weapons crossing the Yalu. They were attacked while crossing the Yalu River and many drowned.<a href="#cite_note-제2차_침입-119">[112]</a> Afterward, Hyeonjong did not fulfill his promise to pay homage in person to the Liao emperor, and when demanded to cede the Six Garrison Settlements, he refused.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994111-116">[109]</a> The Khitans built a bridge across the Yalu River in 1014 and attacked in 1015, 1016, and 1017:<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994111-116">[109]</a> victory went to the Koreans in 1015, the Khitans in 1016, and the Koreans in 1017.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuk201138–39-121">[114]</a> Goryeo lost the Poju (<a href="/wiki/Uiju_County" title="Uiju County">Uiju</a>) region. In 1018, Liao launched an invasion led by Xiao Paiya, the older brother of Xiao Sunning, with an army of 100,000 soldiers.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012143-114">[107]</a> The Liao army tried to head straight for Kaesong. Goryeo gathered an army of 208,000 under Kang Kam-ch'an and ambushed and Liao army, which suffered heavy casualties. The Goryeo commander Kang Kam-ch'an had dammed a large <a href="/wiki/Tributary" title="Tributary">tributary</a> of the Yalu River and released the water on the unsuspecting Khitan soldiers, who were then charged by 12,000 elite cavalry.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-122">[115]</a> The Liao army pushed on toward Kaesong under constant enemy harassment. After arriving within the vicinity of the well-defended capital, a contingent of 300 cavalry sent as scouts was annihilated, upon which the Liao army decided to withdraw.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994112-123">[116]</a> The Liao troops soldiered on and headed toward the capital, but were met with stiff resistance and constant attacks, and were forced to retreat back north. During the retreat, 10,000 Liao army troops were annihilated by the Goryeo army under Kang Min-cheom of Goryeo. The retreating Liao army was intercepted by Kang Kam-ch'an in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Kusong" title="Kusong">Kusong</a> and suffered a major defeat, with only a few thousand soldiers escaping.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012143-114">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994112-123">[116]</a> Shengzong intended to invade again and amassed another large expeditionary army in 1019 but faced internal opposition. In 1020, Goryeo sent tribute and Liao accepted, thus resuming nominal tributary relations.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994112-123">[116]</a> Shengzong did not demand that Hyeonjong pay homage in person or cede the Six Garrison Settlements.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012143-114">[107]</a> The only peace treaty stipulations formalized in 1022 were a "declaration of vassalage" and the release of a detained Liao envoy. A Liao envoy was sent in the same year to formally invest the Goryeo king and upon his death in 1031, his successor <a href="/wiki/Deokjong_of_Goryeo" title="Deokjong of Goryeo">Wang Hŭm</a> was also invested as king by the Liao. After 1022, Goryeo did not have diplomatic relations with the Song until 1070, with the exception of an isolated embassy in 1030. The sole embassy was probably related to the rebellion of Balhae people in the Liao dynasty. The rebellion was quickly defeated by the Khitans, who returned to enforce Goryeo's tributary obligations. Goryeo adopted the reign title of the Liao in the fourth month of 1022.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers1961418-115">[108]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994112-123">[116]</a> The History of Liao claims that Hyeonjong "surrendered" and Shengzong "pardoned" him, but according to <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bielenstein" title="Hans Bielenstein">Hans Bielenstein</a>, "[s]horn of its dynastic language, this means no more than that the two states concluded peace as equal partners (formalized in 1022)".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005182–183-124">[117]</a> Bielenstein claims that Hyeonjong kept his reign title and maintained diplomatic relations with the Song dynasty.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005182–183-124">[117]</a> Kaesong was rebuilt, grander than before,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010157-14">[9]</a> and, from 1033 to 1044, the <a href="/wiki/Cheolli_Jangseong" title="Cheolli Jangseong">Cheolli Jangseong</a>, a wall stretching from the mouth of the Yalu River to the east coast of the Korean Peninsula, was built for defense against future invasions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012145-125">[118]</a> Liao never invaded Goryeo again.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012143-114">[107]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYuk201114-126">[119]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Golden_age">Golden age</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Golden age">edit</a>]</div> Following the Goryeo–Khitan War, a balance of power was established in East Asia between Goryeo, Liao, and Song.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012143–144-127">[120]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1983158-128">[121]</a> With its victory over Liao, Goryeo was confident in its military ability and no longer worried about a Khitan military threat.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010245-129">[122]</a> Fu Bi, a grand councilor of the Song dynasty, had a high estimate of Goryeo's military ability and said that Liao was afraid of Goryeo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers195920–21-130">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010247-131">[124]</a> Furthermore, regarding the attitude of the Koreans, he said: "Among the many tribes and peoples which, depending on their power of resistance, have been either assimilated or made tributary to the Khitan, the Koreans alone do not bow their heads."<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERogers195919-132">[125]</a> Song regarded Goryeo as a potential military ally and maintained friendly relations as equal partners.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012144-133">[126]</a> Meanwhile, Liao sought to build closer ties with Goryeo and prevent a Song–Goryeo military alliance by appealing to Goryeo's infatuation with Buddhism, and offered Liao Buddhist knowledge and artifacts to Goryeo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker200378-134">[127]</a> During the 11th century, Goryeo was viewed as "the state that could give either the Song or Liao military ascendancy".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010247-131">[124]</a> When imperial envoys, who represented the emperors of Liao and Song, went to Goryeo, they were received as peers, not suzerains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker200360-135">[128]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker200379-136">[129]</a> Goryeo's international reputation was greatly enhanced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012144-133">[126]</a><a href="#cite_note-NIKH-137">[130]</a> Beginning in 1034, merchants from Song and envoys from various Jurchen tribes and the <a href="/wiki/Tamna" title="Tamna">Tamna</a> kingdom attended the annual Palgwanhoe in Kaesong, the largest national celebration in Goryeo;<a href="#cite_note-NIKH-137">[130]</a> the Song merchants attended as representatives of China while the Jurchen and Tamna envoys attended as members of Goryeo's <a href="/wiki/Tianxia" title="Tianxia">tianxia</a>.<a href="#cite_note-138">[131]</a> During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Munjong_of_Goryeo" title="Munjong of Goryeo">Munjong</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Heishui_Mohe" title="Heishui Mohe">Heishui Mohe</a> and Japan, among many others, attended as well.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJung2015192-139">[132]</a> The Tamna kingdom of <a href="/wiki/Jeju_Island" title="Jeju Island">Jeju Island</a> was incorporated into Goryeo in 1105.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeMillerParkYi201479-140">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EC%B2%AD%EC%9E%90_%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EA%B5%AD%ED%99%94_%EB%84%9D%EC%BF%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EB%8A%AC_%EC%99%84.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/%EC%B2%AD%EC%9E%90_%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EA%B5%AD%ED%99%94_%EB%84%9D%EC%BF%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EB%8A%AC_%EC%99%84.jpg/220px-%EC%B2%AD%EC%9E%90_%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EA%B5%AD%ED%99%94_%EB%84%9D%EC%BF%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EB%8A%AC_%EC%99%84.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/%EC%B2%AD%EC%9E%90_%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EA%B5%AD%ED%99%94_%EB%84%9D%EC%BF%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EB%8A%AC_%EC%99%84.jpg/330px-%EC%B2%AD%EC%9E%90_%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EA%B5%AD%ED%99%94_%EB%84%9D%EC%BF%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EB%8A%AC_%EC%99%84.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/%EC%B2%AD%EC%9E%90_%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EA%B5%AD%ED%99%94_%EB%84%9D%EC%BF%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EB%8A%AC_%EC%99%84.jpg/440px-%EC%B2%AD%EC%9E%90_%EC%83%81%EA%B0%90_%EA%B5%AD%ED%99%94_%EB%84%9D%EC%BF%A8_%EB%AC%B4%EB%8A%AC_%EC%99%84.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2000" /></a><figcaption>The early 12th century was the height of the Korean celadon tradition and saw the full development of the indigenous "sanggam" technique of inlaid celadon.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChung1998236–237-141">[134]</a></figcaption></figure> Goryeo's golden age lasted about 100 years into the early 12th century and was a period of commercial, intellectual, and artistic achievement.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012144-133">[126]</a> The capital was a center of trade and industry, and its merchants developed one of the earliest systems of <a href="/wiki/Double-entry_bookkeeping" title="Double-entry bookkeeping">double-entry bookkeeping</a> in the world, called the sagae chibubeop, that was used until 1920.<a href="#cite_note-Ma-30">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[135]</a> The Goryeosa records the arrival of merchants from Arabia in 1024, 1025, and 1040,<a href="#cite_note-143">[136]</a> and hundreds of merchants from Song each year, beginning in the 1030s.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010245-129">[122]</a> There were developments in printing and publishing, spreading the knowledge of philosophy, literature, religion, and science.<a href="#cite_note-144">[137]</a> Goryeo prolifically published and imported books, and by the late 11th century, exported books to China; the Song dynasty transcribed thousands of Korean books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012133-145">[138]</a> The first <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</a>, amounting to about 6,000 volumes, was completed in 1087.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPark201421-146">[139]</a> The Munheon gongdo private academy was established in 1055 by <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Ch%27ung" title="Ch'oe Ch'ung">Ch'oe Ch'ung</a>, who is known as the "Haedong Confucius", and soon afterward there were 12 private academies in Goryeo that rivaled the Gukjagam national university.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeMillerParkYi201478-147">[140]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012147-148">[141]</a> In response, several Goryeo rulers reformed and revitalized the national education system, producing prominent scholars such as <a href="/wiki/Gim_Busik" class="mw-redirect" title="Gim Busik">Kim Bu-sik</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012147–148-149">[142]</a> In 1101, the Seojeokpo printing bureau was established at the Gukjagam.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeeMillerParkYi201478-147">[140]</a> In the early 12th century, local schools called hyanghak were established.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012133-145">[138]</a> Goryeo's reverence for learning is attested to in the Gaoli tujing, or Goryeo dogyeong, a book by an envoy from the Song dynasty who visited Goryeo in 1123.<a href="#cite_note-고려도경-59">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012147–148-149">[142]</a> The reign of Munjong, from 1046 to 1083, was called a "Reign of Peace" (태평성대; 太平聖代) and is considered the most prosperous and peaceful period in Goryeo history. Munjong was highly praised and described as "benevolent" and "holy" (賢聖之君) in the Goryeosa.<a href="#cite_note-150">[143]</a><a href="#cite_note-151">[144]</a> In addition, he achieved the epitome of cultural blossoming in Goryeo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker200379-136">[129]</a> Munjong had 13 sons: the three eldest succeeded him on the throne, and the fourth was the prominent Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Uicheon" title="Uicheon">Uicheon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-152">[145]</a> Goryeo was a period of great achievements in Korean art and culture, such as <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_ware" title="Goryeo ware">Koryŏ celadon</a>, which was highly praised in the Song dynasty,<a href="#cite_note-The_Met-31">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEChung1998234-153">[146]</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</a>, which was described by <a href="/wiki/UNESCO" title="UNESCO">UNESCO</a> as "one of the most important and most complete corpus of Buddhist doctrinal texts in the world", with the original 81,258 engraved printing blocks still preserved at <a href="/wiki/Haeinsa" title="Haeinsa">Haeinsa Temple</a>.<a href="#cite_note-154">[147]</a> In the early 13th century, Goryeo developed <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> made of metal to print books, 200 years before <a href="/wiki/Johannes_Gutenberg" title="Johannes Gutenberg">Johannes Gutenberg</a> in Europe.<a href="#cite_note-The_Met-31">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-155">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-156">[149]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_period">Middle period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Middle period">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Goryeo-Jurchen_War">Goryeo-Jurchen War</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Goryeo-Jurchen War">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EB%B6%81%EA%B4%80%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%81%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%A9-%EC%B2%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%9E%85%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%84.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/%EB%B6%81%EA%B4%80%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%81%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%A9-%EC%B2%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%9E%85%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%84.jpg/200px-%EB%B6%81%EA%B4%80%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%81%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%A9-%EC%B2%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%9E%85%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%84.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/%EB%B6%81%EA%B4%80%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%81%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%A9-%EC%B2%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%9E%85%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%84.jpg/300px-%EB%B6%81%EA%B4%80%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%81%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%A9-%EC%B2%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%9E%85%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%84.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/%EB%B6%81%EA%B4%80%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%81%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%A9-%EC%B2%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%9E%85%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%84.jpg/400px-%EB%B6%81%EA%B4%80%EC%9C%A0%EC%A0%81%EB%8F%84%EC%B2%A9-%EC%B2%99%EA%B2%BD%EC%9E%85%EB%B9%84%EB%8F%84.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2619" data-file-height="3422" /></a><figcaption>General Yun Kwan (1040–1111) and his army.</figcaption></figure> The Jurchens in the <a href="/wiki/Yalu_River" title="Yalu River">Yalu River</a> region were tributaries of Goryeo since the reign of <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Taejo of Goryeo</a> (r. 918-943), who called upon them during the wars of the <a href="/wiki/Later_Three_Kingdoms" title="Later Three Kingdoms">Later Three Kingdoms</a> period. Taejo relied heavily on a large Jurchen cavalry force to defeat <a href="/wiki/Later_Baekje" title="Later Baekje">Later Baekje</a>. The Jurchens switched allegiances between Liao and Goryeo multiple times depending on which they deemed the most appropriate. The Liao and Goryeo competed to gain the allegiance of Jurchen settlers who effectively controlled much of the border area beyond Goryeo and Liao fortifications.<a href="#cite_note-Breuker_2010-157">[150]</a> These Jurchens offered tribute but expected to be rewarded richly by the Goryeo court in return. However the Jurchens who offered tribute were often the same ones who raided Goryeo's borders. In one instance, the Goryeo court discovered that a Jurchen leader who had brought tribute had been behind the recent raids on their territory. The frontier was largely outside of direct control and lavish gifts were doled out as a means of controlling the Jurchens. Sometimes Jurchens submitted to Goryeo and were given citizenship.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010221-222-158">[151]</a> Goryeo inhabitants were forbidden from trading with Jurchens.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010222-159">[152]</a> The tributary relations between Jurchens and Goryeo began to change under the reign of Jurchen leader <a href="/wiki/Wuyashu" title="Wuyashu">Wuyashu</a> (r. 1103–1113) of the <a href="/wiki/Wanyan" title="Wanyan">Wanyan</a> clan. The Wanyan clan was intimately aware of the Jurchens who had submitted to Goryeo and used their power to break the clans' allegiance to Goryeo, unifying the Jurchens. The resulting conflict between the two powers led to Goryeo's withdrawal from Jurchen territory and acknowledgment of Jurchen control over the contested region.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010223-160">[153]</a><a href="#cite_note-161">[154]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994221-162">[155]</a> As the geopolitical situation shifted, Goryeo unleashed a series of military campaigns in the early 12th century to regain control of its borderlands. Goryeo had already been in conflict with the Jurchens before. In 984, Goryeo failed to control the Yalu River basin due to conflict with the Jurchens.<a href="#cite_note-거란의_고려침입-76">[70]</a> In 1056, Goryeo repelled the Eastern Jurchens and afterward destroyed their stronghold of over 20 villages.<a href="#cite_note-163">[156]</a> In 1080, <a href="/wiki/Munjong_of_Goryeo" title="Munjong of Goryeo">Munjong of Goryeo</a> led a force of 30,000 to conquer ten villages. However by the rise of the Wanyan clan, the quality of Goryeo's army had degraded and it mostly consisted of infantry. There were several clashes with the Jurchens, usually resulting in Jurchen victory with their mounted cavalrymen. In 1104, the Wanyan Jurchens reached <a href="/wiki/Chongju" title="Chongju">Chongju</a> while pursuing tribes resisting them. Goryeo sent Im Gan to confront the Jurchens, but his untrained army was defeated, and the Jurchens took Chongju castle. Im Gan was dismissed from office and reinstated, dying as a civil servant in 1112. The war effort was taken up by <a href="/wiki/Yun_Kwan" title="Yun Kwan">Yun Kwan</a>, but the situation was unfavorable and he returned after making peace.<a href="#cite_note-164">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984127-165">[158]</a> Yun Kwan believed that the loss was due to their inferior cavalry and proposed to the king that an elite force known as the <a href="/wiki/Byeolmuban" title="Byeolmuban">Byeolmuban</a> (別武班; "Special Warfare Army") be created. It existed apart from the main army and was made up of cavalry, infantry, and a Hangmagun ("Subdue Demon Corps"). In December 1107, Yun Kwan and O Yŏnch'on set out with 170,000 soldiers to conquer the Jurchens. The army won against the Jurchens and built Nine Fortresses over a wide area on the frontier encompassing Jurchen tribal lands, and erected a monument to mark the boundary. However due to unceasing Jurchen attacks, diplomatic appeals, and court intrigue, the Nine Fortresses were handed back to the Jurchens. In 1108, Yun Kwan was removed from office and the Nine Fortresses were turned over to the <a href="/wiki/Wanyan" title="Wanyan">Wanyan clan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010224-166">[159]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2014793-167">[160]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984127-128-168">[161]</a> It is plausible that the Jurchens and Goryeo had some sort of implicit understanding where the Jurchens would cease their attacks while Goryeo took advantage of the conflict between the Jurchens and Khitans to gain territory. According to Breuker, Goryeo never really had control of the region occupied by the Nine Fortresses in the first place and maintaining hegemony would have meant a prolonged conflict with militarily superior Jurchen troops that would prove very costly. The Nine Fortresses were exchanged for Poju (<a href="/wiki/Uiju_County" title="Uiju County">Uiju</a>), a region the Jurchens later contested when Goryeo hesitated to recognize them as their suzerain.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010225-226-169">[162]</a> Later, Wuyashu's younger brother <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Taizu_of_Jin" title="Emperor Taizu of Jin">Aguda</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty (1115–1234)</a>. When the Jin was founded, the Jurchens called Goryeo their "parent country" or "father and mother" country. This was because it had traditionally been part of their system of tributary relations, its rhetoric, advanced culture, as well as the idea that it was "bastard offspring of Koryŏ".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010137-170">[163]</a><a href="#cite_note-171">[164]</a> The Jin also believed that they shared a common ancestry with the <a href="/wiki/Balhae" title="Balhae">Balhae</a> people in the <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2011b173-172">[165]</a> The Jin went on to conquer the Liao dynasty in 1125 and capture the Song capital of <a href="/wiki/Kaifeng" title="Kaifeng">Kaifeng</a> in 1127 (<a href="/wiki/Jingkang_incident" title="Jingkang incident">Jingkang incident</a>). The Jin also put pressure on Goryeo and demanded that Goryeo become their subject. While many in Goryeo were against this, <a href="/wiki/Yi_Cha-gy%C5%8Fm" title="Yi Cha-gyŏm">Yi Cha-gyŏm</a> was in power at the time and judged peaceful relations with the Jin to be beneficial to his own political power. He accepted the Jin demands and in 1126, the king of Goryeo declared himself a Jin vassal (tributary).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984128-173">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-Franke-174">[167]</a><a href="#cite_note-EWJ-175">[168]</a> However the Goryeo king retained his position as "Son of Heaven" within Goryeo. By incorporating Jurchen history into that of Goryeo and emphasizing the Jin emperors as bastard offspring of Goryeo, and placing the Jin within the template of a "northern dynasty", the imposition of Jin suzerainty became more acceptable.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010229-230-176">[169]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Power_struggles">Power struggles</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Power struggles">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><table class="sidebar nomobile nowraplinks" style="width: 16em;"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Korea" title="List of monarchs of Korea">Monarchs of Korea</a></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="background:#CCF;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Goryeo</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="text-align: left;"> <ol><li><a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Taejo</a> 918–943</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyejong_of_Goryeo" title="Hyejong of Goryeo">Hyejong</a> 943–945</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeongjong,_3rd_monarch_of_Goryeo" title="Jeongjong, 3rd monarch of Goryeo">Jeongjong (定宗)</a> 945–949</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gwangjong_of_Goryeo" title="Gwangjong of Goryeo">Gwangjong</a> 949–975</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gyeongjong_of_Goryeo" title="Gyeongjong of Goryeo">Gyeongjong</a> 975–981</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seongjong_of_Goryeo" title="Seongjong of Goryeo">Seongjong</a> 981–997</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mokjong_of_Goryeo" title="Mokjong of Goryeo">Mokjong</a> 997–1009</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyeonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Hyeonjong of Goryeo">Hyeonjong</a> 1009–1031</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deokjong_of_Goryeo" title="Deokjong of Goryeo">Deokjong</a> 1031–1034</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jeongjong,_10th_monarch_of_Goryeo" title="Jeongjong, 10th monarch of Goryeo">Jeongjong (靖宗)</a> 1034–1046</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munjong_of_Goryeo" title="Munjong of Goryeo">Munjong</a> 1046–1083</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunjong_of_Goryeo" title="Sunjong of Goryeo">Sunjong</a> 1083</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Seonjong of Goryeo">Seonjong</a> 1083–1094</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Heonjong of Goryeo">Heonjong</a> 1094–1095</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukjong_of_Goryeo" title="Sukjong of Goryeo">Sukjong</a> 1095–1105</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yejong_of_Goryeo" title="Yejong of Goryeo">Yejong</a> 1105–1122</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injong_of_Goryeo" title="Injong of Goryeo">Injong</a> 1122–1146</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uijong_of_Goryeo" title="Uijong of Goryeo">Uijong</a> 1146–1170</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myeongjong_of_Goryeo" title="Myeongjong of Goryeo">Myeongjong</a> 1170–1197</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinjong_of_Goryeo" title="Sinjong of Goryeo">Sinjong</a> 1197–1204</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Huijong_of_Goryeo" title="Huijong of Goryeo">Huijong</a> 1204–1211</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gangjong_of_Goryeo" title="Gangjong of Goryeo">Gangjong</a> 1211–1213</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Goryeo" title="Gojong of Goryeo">Gojong</a> 1213–1259</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Wonjong of Goryeo">Wonjong</a> 1259–1274</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chungnyeol_of_Goryeo" title="Chungnyeol of Goryeo">Chungnyeol</a> 1274–1308</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chungseon_of_Goryeo" title="Chungseon of Goryeo">Chungseon</a> 1308–1313</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chungsuk_of_Goryeo" title="Chungsuk of Goryeo">Chungsuk</a> 1313–1330; 1332–1339</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunghye_of_Goryeo" title="Chunghye of Goryeo">Chunghye</a> 1330–1332; 1339–1344</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chungmok_of_Goryeo" title="Chungmok of Goryeo">Chungmok</a> 1344–1348</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chungjeong_of_Goryeo" title="Chungjeong of Goryeo">Chungjeong</a> 1348–1351</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongmin_of_Goryeo" title="Gongmin of Goryeo">Gongmin</a> 1351–1374</li> <li><a href="/wiki/U_of_Goryeo" title="U of Goryeo">U</a> 1374–1388</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chang_of_Goryeo" title="Chang of Goryeo">Chang</a> 1388–1389</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gongyang_of_Goryeo" title="Gongyang of Goryeo">Gongyang</a> 1389–1392</li></ol></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Goryeo_monarchs" title="Template:Goryeo monarchs"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Goryeo_monarchs" title="Template talk:Goryeo monarchs"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Goryeo_monarchs" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Goryeo monarchs"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The <a href="/wiki/Inju_Yi_clan" class="mw-redirect" title="Inju Yi clan">Inju Yi clan</a> married women to the kings from the time of Munjong to the 17th King, <a href="/wiki/Injong_of_Goryeo" title="Injong of Goryeo">Injong</a>. Eventually the Inju Yi clan gained more power than the monarch himself. This led to the coup of Yi Cha-gyŏm in 1126. It failed, but the power of the monarch was weakened; Goryeo underwent a civil war among the nobility.<a href="#cite_note-Pak-177">[170]</a> In 1135, <a href="/wiki/Myocheong" class="mw-redirect" title="Myocheong">Myocheong</a> argued in favor of moving the capital to Seogyeong (now <a href="/wiki/Pyongyang" title="Pyongyang">Pyongyang</a>). This proposal divided the nobles. One faction, led by Myocheong, believed in moving the capital to Pyongyang and expanding into <a href="/wiki/Manchuria" title="Manchuria">Manchuria</a>. The other one, led by <a href="/wiki/Kim_Bu-sik" class="mw-redirect" title="Kim Bu-sik">Kim Bu-sik</a> (author of the <a href="/wiki/Samguk_sagi" title="Samguk sagi">Samguk sagi</a>), wanted to keep the status quo. Myocheong failed to persuade the king; he rebelled and established the state of Daebang, but it failed and he was killed.<a href="#cite_note-Pak-177">[170]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Military_regime">Military regime</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Military regime">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_military_regime" title="Goryeo military regime">Goryeo military regime</a></div> Although Goryeo was founded by the military, its authority was in decline. In 1014, a coup occurred but the effects of the rebellion did not last long, only making generals discontent with the current supremacy of the civilian officers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShultz20009–10-178">[171]</a> In addition, under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Uijong_of_Goryeo" title="Uijong of Goryeo">King Uijong</a>, military officers were prohibited from entering the Security Council, and even at times of state emergency, they were not allowed to assume commands.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShultz200011-179">[172]</a> After political chaos, Uijong started to enjoy traveling to local temples and studying <a href="/wiki/Sutra" title="Sutra">sutra</a>, while he was almost always accompanied by a large group of civilian officers. The military officers were largely ignored and were even mobilized to construct temples and ponds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShultz200018–20-180">[173]</a> Beginning in 1170, the government of Goryeo was de facto controlled by a succession of powerful families from the warrior class, most notably the Ch'oe family, in a military dictatorship akin to a shogunate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012160-181">[174]</a> In 1170, a group of army officers led by <a href="/wiki/Ch%C5%8Fng_Chung-bu" title="Chŏng Chung-bu">Chŏng Chung-bu</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yi_%C5%ACi-bang" title="Yi Ŭi-bang">Yi Ŭi-bang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yi_Ko" title="Yi Ko">Yi Ko</a> launched a <a href="/wiki/Coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="Coup d'état">coup d'état</a> and succeeded.<a href="#cite_note-S.Wise-182">[175]</a> <a href="/wiki/Uijong_of_Goryeo" title="Uijong of Goryeo">King Uijong</a> went into exile and <a href="/wiki/Myeongjong_of_Goryeo" title="Myeongjong of Goryeo">King Myeongjong</a> was placed on the throne. Effective power, however, lay with a succession of generals who used an elite guard unit known as the <a href="/wiki/Tobang" title="Tobang">Tobang</a> to control the throne: military rule of Goryeo had begun. In 1179, the young general <a href="/wiki/Ky%C5%8Fng_Tae-s%C5%ADng" title="Kyŏng Tae-sŭng">Kyŏng Tae-sŭng</a> rose to power and began an attempt to restore the full power of the monarch and purge the corruption of the state.<a href="#cite_note-Yun-183">[176]</a> However, he died in 1183 and was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Yi_%C5%ACi-min" title="Yi Ŭi-min">Yi Ŭi-min</a>, who came from a <a href="/wiki/Nobi" title="Nobi">nobi</a> (slave) background.<a href="#cite_note-Yun-183">[176]</a><a href="#cite_note-enc.daum.net-184">[177]</a> During this period, despite nearly three centuries of Goryeo rule, loyalty to the old Silla kingdom and Silla traditions remained latent in the Kyŏngju area. There were multiple rebellions by the <a href="/wiki/Silla_restoration_movement" title="Silla restoration movement">Silla restoration movement</a> to overthrow Goryeo's rule over the Sillan people.<a href="#cite_note-185">[178]</a> Yi's unrestrained corruption and cruelty<a href="#cite_note-enc.daum.net-184">[177]</a> led to a coup by general <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Ch%27ung-h%C5%8Fn" title="Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn">Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn</a>,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShultz20001-186">[179]</a> who assassinated Yi Ui-min and took supreme power in 1197.<a href="#cite_note-S.Wise-182">[175]</a> For the next 61 years, the Ch'oe house ruled as military dictators, maintaining the Kings as puppet monarchs;<a href="#cite_note-Djun-187">[180]</a> Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn was succeeded in turn by his son <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_U" title="Ch'oe U">Ch'oe U</a>, his grandson <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Hang_(military_official)" title="Ch'oe Hang (military official)">Ch'oe Hang</a><a href="#cite_note-188">[181]</a> and his great-grandson <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_%C5%ACi" title="Ch'oe Ŭi">Ch'oe Ŭi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-189">[182]</a> When he took control, Ch'oe Ch'ung-hŏn forced Myeongjong off the throne and replaced him with <a href="/wiki/Sinjong_of_Goryeo" title="Sinjong of Goryeo">King Sinjong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShultz20002-190">[183]</a> What was different from former military leaders was the active involvement of scholars in Ch'oe's control, notably Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Yi_Kyu-bo" title="Yi Kyu-bo">Yi Kyu-bo</a> who was a Confucian scholar-official.<a href="#cite_note-Djun-187">[180]</a> After Sinjong died, Ch'oe forced his son to the throne as <a href="/wiki/Huijong_of_Goryeo" title="Huijong of Goryeo">Huijong</a>. After 7 years, Huijong led a revolt but failed. Then, Ch'oe found the pliable <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Goryeo" title="Gojong of Goryeo">King Gojong</a> instead.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShultz20002-190">[183]</a> Although the House of Ch'oe established strong private individuals loyal to it, continuous invasion by the Mongols ravaged the whole land, resulting in a weakened defense ability, and also the power of the military regime waned.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEShultz20001-186">[179]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mongol_invasions_and_Yuan_domination">Mongol invasions and Yuan domination</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Mongol invasions and Yuan domination">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasions of Korea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_Rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Goryeo under Mongol Rule">Goryeo under Mongol Rule</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea-Seoul-National_Museum_Gyeongcheonsa_Pagoda_0187%268-06.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Korea-Seoul-National_Museum_Gyeongcheonsa_Pagoda_0187%268-06.jpg/220px-Korea-Seoul-National_Museum_Gyeongcheonsa_Pagoda_0187%268-06.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="429" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Korea-Seoul-National_Museum_Gyeongcheonsa_Pagoda_0187%268-06.jpg/330px-Korea-Seoul-National_Museum_Gyeongcheonsa_Pagoda_0187%268-06.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c1/Korea-Seoul-National_Museum_Gyeongcheonsa_Pagoda_0187%268-06.jpg/440px-Korea-Seoul-National_Museum_Gyeongcheonsa_Pagoda_0187%268-06.jpg 2x" data-file-width="936" data-file-height="1825" /></a><figcaption>Gyeongcheonsa Pagoda is a 10-story high marble pagoda made in 1348 that now sits in the National Museum of Korea.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%EB%A7%88%ED%8F%AC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EA%B3%B5%EB%AF%BC%EC%99%95_%EB%82%B4%EC%99%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%EB%A7%88%ED%8F%AC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EA%B3%B5%EB%AF%BC%EC%99%95_%EB%82%B4%EC%99%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg/170px-%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%EB%A7%88%ED%8F%AC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EA%B3%B5%EB%AF%BC%EC%99%95_%EB%82%B4%EC%99%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%EB%A7%88%ED%8F%AC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EA%B3%B5%EB%AF%BC%EC%99%95_%EB%82%B4%EC%99%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg/255px-%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%EB%A7%88%ED%8F%AC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EA%B3%B5%EB%AF%BC%EC%99%95_%EB%82%B4%EC%99%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/70/%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%EB%A7%88%ED%8F%AC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EA%B3%B5%EB%AF%BC%EC%99%95_%EB%82%B4%EC%99%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg/340px-%EC%84%9C%EC%9A%B8_%EB%A7%88%ED%8F%AC_%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4_%EA%B3%B5%EB%AF%BC%EC%99%95_%EB%82%B4%EC%99%B8_%EC%98%81%EC%A0%95.jpg 2x" data-file-width="478" data-file-height="549" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gongmin_of_Goryeo" title="Gongmin of Goryeo">King Gongmin</a> (1330–1374) and <a href="/wiki/Princess_Noguk" title="Princess Noguk">Princess Noguk</a>.</figcaption></figure> Fleeing from the <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, in 1216 the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitans</a> invaded Goryeo and defeated the Korean armies multiple times, even reaching the gates of the capital and raiding deep into the south, but were defeated by Korean General <a href="/w/index.php?title=Kim_Ch%27wi-ry%C5%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kim Ch'wi-ryŏ (page does not exist)">Kim Ch'wi-ryŏ</a> (김취려; 金就礪) who pushed them back north to <a href="/wiki/Pyongan_Province" title="Pyongan Province">Pyongan</a>,<a href="#cite_note-191">[184]</a><a href="#cite_note-192">[185]</a> where the remaining Khitans were finished off by allied Mongol-Goryeo forces in 1219.<a href="#cite_note-EbreyWalthall2013-193">[186]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984148-194">[187]</a> Tension continued through the 12th century and into the 13th century, when the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasions</a> started. After nearly 30 years of warfare, Goryeo swore allegiance to the Mongols, with the direct dynastic rule of Goryeo monarchy.<a href="#cite_note-wontackhong.com-195">[188]</a> In 1231, <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a> under <a href="/wiki/%C3%96gedei_Khan" title="Ögedei Khan">Ögedei Khan</a> invaded Goryeo following the aftermath of joint Goryeo-Mongol forces against the Khitans in 1219.<a href="#cite_note-wontackhong.com-195">[188]</a> The royal court moved to Ganghwado in the Bay of Gyeonggi in 1232. The military ruler of the time, <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_U" title="Ch'oe U">Ch'oe U</a>, insisted on fighting back. Goryeo resisted for about 30 years but finally sued for peace in 1259. Meanwhile, the Mongols began a campaign from 1231 to 1259 that ravaged parts of <a href="/wiki/Gyeongsang_Province" title="Gyeongsang Province">Gyeongsang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jeolla_Province" title="Jeolla Province">Jeolla</a>. There were six major campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, 1253; between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under <a href="/wiki/M%C3%B6ngke_Khan" title="Möngke Khan">Möngke Khan</a>'s general <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jalairtai_Qorchi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jalairtai Qorchi (page does not exist)">Jalairtai Qorchi</a> launched four devastating invasions against Korea at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean peninsula. Civilian resistance was strong, and the Imperial Court at Ganghwa attempted to strengthen its fortress. Korea won several victories but the Korean military could not withstand the waves of invasions. The repeated Mongol invasions caused havoc, loss of human lives and famine in Korea. In 1236, Gojong ordered the recreation of the Tripitaka Koreana, which was destroyed during the 1232 invasion. This collection of Buddhist scriptures took 15 years to carve on some 81,000 wooden blocks, and is preserved to this day. In March 1258, the dictator <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_%C5%ACi" title="Ch'oe Ŭi">Ch'oe Ŭi</a> was assassinated by <a href="/wiki/Kim_Chun" title="Kim Chun">Kim Chun</a>. Thus, dictatorship by his military group was ended, and the scholars who had insisted on peace with Mongolia gained power. Goryeo was never conquered by the Mongols, but exhausted after decades of fighting, Goryeo sent Crown Prince <a href="/wiki/Wonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Wonjong of Goryeo">Wonjong</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a> capital to swear allegiance to the Mongols; <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a> accepted, and married one of his daughters to the Korean crown prince.<a href="#cite_note-Mongols-196">[189]</a> Khubilai, who became khan of the Mongols and emperor of China in 1260, did not impose direct rule over most of Goryeo. Goryeo Korea, in contrast to Song China, was treated more like an Inner Asian power. The dynasty was allowed to survive,<a href="#cite_note-197">[190]</a> and intermarriage with Mongols was encouraged, even with the Mongol imperial family, while the marriage between Chinese and Mongols was strictly forbidden when the Song dynasty was ended. Some military officials who refused to surrender formed the <a href="/wiki/Sambyeolcho_Rebellion" title="Sambyeolcho Rebellion">Sambyeolcho Rebellion</a> and resisted in the islands off the southern shore of the Korean Peninsula.<a href="#cite_note-198">[191]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">page needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_period">Late period</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Late period">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Yi_hae-hyun_of_1504.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Yi_hae-hyun_of_1504.jpg/160px-Yi_hae-hyun_of_1504.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="239" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Yi_hae-hyun_of_1504.jpg/240px-Yi_hae-hyun_of_1504.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f2/Yi_hae-hyun_of_1504.jpg/320px-Yi_hae-hyun_of_1504.jpg 2x" data-file-width="379" data-file-height="565" /></a><figcaption>Yi Je-hyun (1287–1367), a civil bureaucrat and early Neo-Confucian scholar in Goryeo Dynasty.</figcaption></figure> After 1270 Goryeo became a semi-autonomous <a href="/wiki/Client_state" title="Client state">client state</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. The Mongols and the Kingdom of Goryeo tied with marriages and Goryeo became khuda (marriage alliance) vassal of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years and monarchs of Goryeo were mainly imperial sons in-law (khuregen). The two nations became intertwined for 80 years as all subsequent Korean kings married Mongol princesses,<a href="#cite_note-Mongols-196">[189]</a> and the last empress of the Yuan dynasty, <a href="/wiki/Empress_Gi" title="Empress Gi">Empress Gi</a>, was a daughter of a Goryeo lower-ranked official;<a href="#cite_note-:0-199">[192]</a> Empress Gi was sent to Yuan as one of the many kongnyŏ (貢女; lit. 'tribute women', who were in effects slaves sent over as a sign of Goryeo submission to the Mongols)<a href="#cite_note-:0-199">[192]</a> and became empress in 1365.<a href="#cite_note-200">[193]</a> Empress Gi had great political influence both the Yuan and the Goryeo court, and even manage to significantly increase the status and influence of her family members, including her father who was formally made into a king in the Yuan and her brother Gi Cheol who at some point manage to get more authority than the Goryeo king.<a href="#cite_note-:0-199">[192]</a> In 1356, <a href="/wiki/Gongmin_of_Goryeo" title="Gongmin of Goryeo">King Gongmin</a> purged the family of Empress Gi.<a href="#cite_note-:0-199">[192]</a> The kings of Goryeo held an important status like other important families of Mardin, the <a href="/wiki/Uyghurs" title="Uyghurs">Uyghurs</a> and Mongols (<a href="/wiki/Oirats" title="Oirats">Oirats</a>, <a href="/wiki/Khongirad" title="Khongirad">Khongirad</a>, and Ikeres).<a href="#cite_note-201">[194]</a><a href="#cite_note-202">[195]</a> It is claimed that one of Goryeo monarchs was the most beloved grandson of <a href="/wiki/Kublai_Khan" title="Kublai Khan">Kublai Khan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-203">[196]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">full citation needed</a>] The Goryeo dynasty survived under the Yuan until King <a href="/wiki/Gongmin_of_Goryeo" title="Gongmin of Goryeo">Gongmin</a> began to push the Mongolian garrisons of the Yuan back in the 1350s. By 1356 Goryeo regained its lost northern territories.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Last_reform">Last reform</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Last reform">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a>. Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Goryeo" title="Special:EditPage/Goryeo">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>. (April 2022) (<a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a>)</div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeo-Portrait_of_Yeom_Jesin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Goryeo-Portrait_of_Yeom_Jesin.jpg/140px-Goryeo-Portrait_of_Yeom_Jesin.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Goryeo-Portrait_of_Yeom_Jesin.jpg/210px-Goryeo-Portrait_of_Yeom_Jesin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Goryeo-Portrait_of_Yeom_Jesin.jpg/280px-Goryeo-Portrait_of_Yeom_Jesin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="355" data-file-height="451" /></a><figcaption>Yŏm Che-sin (1304–1382) was the main political opponent of the monk, Sin Ton, who was in power.</figcaption></figure> When King Gongmin ascended to the throne, Goryeo was under the influence of the Mongol Yuan China. He was forced to spend many years at the Yuan court, being sent there in 1341 as a virtual prisoner before becoming king. He married the Mongol princess <a href="/wiki/Princess_Noguk" title="Princess Noguk">Princess Noguk</a> (also known as Queen Indeok). But in the mid-14th century the Yuan was beginning to crumble, soon to be replaced by the <a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming dynasty</a> in 1368. King Gongmin began efforts to reform the Goryeo government and remove Mongolian influences. His first act was to remove all pro-Mongol aristocrats and military officers from their positions. Mongols had annexed the northern provinces of Goryeo after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire as the <a href="/wiki/Ssangseong_Prefectures" class="mw-redirect" title="Ssangseong Prefectures">Ssangseong</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dongnyeong_Prefectures" title="Dongnyeong Prefectures">Dongnyeong Prefectures</a>. The Goryeo army retook these provinces partly thanks to defection from <a href="/wiki/Hwanjo_of_Joseon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwanjo of Joseon">Yi Jachun</a>, a minor Korean official in service of Mongols in Ssangseong, and his son <a href="/wiki/Yi_S%C5%8Fng-gye" class="mw-redirect" title="Yi Sŏng-gye">Yi Sŏng-gye</a>. In addition, Generals Yi Sŏng-gye and Chi Yong-su (지용수; 池龍壽) led a campaign into <a href="/wiki/Liaoyang" title="Liaoyang">Liaoyang</a>. After the death of Gongmin's wife Noguk in 1365, he fell into depression. In the end, he became indifferent to politics and entrusted that great task to the Buddhist monk <a href="/wiki/Sin_Ton" title="Sin Ton">Sin Ton</a>. But after six years, Sin Ton lost his position. In 1374, Gongmin was killed by Hong Ryun (홍륜), Ch'oe Man-saeng (최만생), and others. After his death, a high official <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yi_In-im&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yi In-im (page does not exist)">Yi In-im</a> assumed the helm of the government and enthroned eleven-year-old, King U, the son of King Gongmin. During this tumultuous period, Goryeo momentarily conquered <a href="/wiki/Liaoyang" title="Liaoyang">Liaoyang</a> in 1356, repulsed two large <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_invasions_of_Goryeo" title="Red Turban invasions of Goryeo">invasions by the Red Turbans</a> in 1359 and 1360, and defeated the final attempt by the Yuan to dominate Goryeo when General <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Y%C5%8Fng" title="Ch'oe Yŏng">Ch'oe Yŏng</a> defeated an invading Mongol <a href="/wiki/Tumen_(unit)" title="Tumen (unit)">tumen</a> in 1364. During the 1380s, Goryeo turned its attention to the <a href="/wiki/Wokou" title="Wokou">Wokou</a> menace and used <a href="/wiki/Naval_history_of_Korea" title="Naval history of Korea">naval artillery</a> created by <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Mu-s%C5%8Fn" class="mw-redirect" title="Ch'oe Mu-sŏn">Ch'oe Mu-sŏn</a> to annihilate hundreds of pirate ships. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fall">Fall</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Fall">edit</a>]</div> In 1388, <a href="/wiki/U_of_Goryeo" title="U of Goryeo">King U</a> (son of <a href="/wiki/Gongmin_of_Goryeo" title="Gongmin of Goryeo">King Gongmin</a> and a concubine) and general <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Y%C5%8Fng" title="Ch'oe Yŏng">Ch'oe Yŏng</a> planned a campaign to invade now <a href="/wiki/Liaoning" title="Liaoning">Liaoning</a> of China. King U put the general <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Yi Sŏng-gye</a> (later <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Taejo</a>) in charge, but he stopped at the border and rebelled. Goryeo fell to General <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Joseon" title="Taejo of Joseon">Yi Sŏng-gye</a>, a son of <a href="/wiki/Hwanjo_of_Joseon" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwanjo of Joseon">Yi Ja-chun</a>, who put to death the last three Goryeo kings, usurped the throne and established in 1392 the <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon dynasty</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Government">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">[U]ntil 1270, when Koryŏ capitulated to the Mongols after thirty years of resistance, early Koryŏ rulers and most of its officials had held a "pluralist" (tawŏnjŏk) outlook that recognized greater and equal empires in China and in Manchuria, while positing Koryŏ as the center of a separate and bounded world ruled by the Koryŏ emperor, who claimed a ritual status reserved for the Son of Heaven.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324-204">[197]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Henry Em</cite></div></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%AE%E6%9B%BC%E8%8D%BC%E7%BE%85%E5%9B%B3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%AE%E6%9B%BC%E8%8D%BC%E7%BE%85%E5%9B%B3.jpg/220px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%AE%E6%9B%BC%E8%8D%BC%E7%BE%85%E5%9B%B3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%AE%E6%9B%BC%E8%8D%BC%E7%BE%85%E5%9B%B3.jpg/330px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%AE%E6%9B%BC%E8%8D%BC%E7%BE%85%E5%9B%B3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%AE%E6%9B%BC%E8%8D%BC%E7%BE%85%E5%9B%B3.jpg/440px-%E7%8E%8B%E5%AE%AE%E6%9B%BC%E8%8D%BC%E7%BE%85%E5%9B%B3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1419" data-file-height="1855" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of the <a href="/wiki/Amitayurdhyana_Sutra" class="mw-redirect" title="Amitayurdhyana Sutra">Amitayurdhyana Sutra</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 13th century.<a href="#cite_note-205">[198]</a> A palace exemplifying the architecture of Goryeo is depicted.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESeoHong2004180-206">[199]</a></figcaption></figure> Goryeo positioned itself at the center of its own "<a href="/wiki/Tianxia" title="Tianxia">world</a>" (천하; 天下) called "Haedong".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201325-207">[200]</a> Haedong, meaning "East of the Sea", was a distinct and independent world that encompassed the historical domain of the "Samhan", another name for the <a href="/wiki/Three_Kingdoms_of_Korea" title="Three Kingdoms of Korea">Three Kingdoms of Korea</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201325-207">[200]</a> The rulers of Goryeo, or Haedong, used the titles of <a href="/wiki/Emperor" title="Emperor">emperor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Son of Heaven</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324-204">[197]</a> Imperial titles were used since the founding of Goryeo, and the <a href="/wiki/Gyeongsun_of_Silla" title="Gyeongsun of Silla">last king of Silla</a> addressed <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Wang Geon</a> as the Son of Heaven when he capitulated.<a href="#cite_note-Lee_2012-208">[201]</a> Posthumously, <a href="/wiki/Temple_name" title="Temple name">temple names</a> with the imperial characters of progenitor (조; 祖) and ancestor (종; 宗) were used.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324-204">[197]</a> Imperial designations and terminology were widely used, such as "empress", "imperial crown prince", "imperial edict", and "imperial palace".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324-204">[197]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lee_2012-208">[201]</a> The rulers of Goryeo donned imperial yellow clothing, made sacrifices to Heaven, and invested sons as kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324-204">[197]</a> Goryeo used the <a href="/wiki/Three_Departments_and_Six_Ministries" title="Three Departments and Six Ministries">Three Departments and Six Ministries</a> imperial system of the Tang dynasty and had its own "microtributary system" that included Jurchen tribes outside its borders.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorean_History_Society200230-209">[202]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324–25-210">[203]</a> The military of Goryeo was organized into 5 armies, like an empire, as opposed to 3, like a kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324-204">[197]</a> Goryeo maintained multiple capitals: the main capital "Gaegyeong" (also called "Hwangdo" or "Imperial Capital")<a href="#cite_note-211">[204]</a> in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Kaesong</a>, the "Western Capital" in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Pyongyang" title="Pyongyang">Pyongyang</a>, the "Eastern Capital" in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Gyeongju" title="Gyeongju">Gyeongju</a>, and the "Southern Capital" in modern-day <a href="/wiki/Seoul" title="Seoul">Seoul</a>.<a href="#cite_note-212">[205]</a> The main capital and <a href="/wiki/Manwoldae" title="Manwoldae">main palace</a> were designed and intended to be an imperial capital and imperial palace.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010157-14">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-213">[206]</a> The secondary capitals represented the capitals of the Three Kingdoms of Korea.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKim2012128-214">[207]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a>, <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin</a> dynasties were all well informed of, and tolerated, Goryeo's imperial claims and practices.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker200359-215">[208]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker200378-134">[127]</a> According to Henry Em, "[a]t times Song reception rituals for Koryŏ envoys and Koryŏ reception rituals for imperial envoys from Song, Liao, and Jin suggested equal rather than hierarchical relations".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201326-32">[26]</a> In 1270, Goryeo capitulated to the Mongols and became a semi-autonomous "son-in-law state" (부마국; 駙馬國) of the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, bringing an end to its imperial system. The Yuan dynasty demoted the imperial titles of Goryeo and added "chung" (충; 忠), meaning "loyalty", to the temple names of Goryeo kings, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Chungnyeol_of_Goryeo" title="Chungnyeol of Goryeo">Chungnyeol</a>. This continued until the mid-14th century, when <a href="/wiki/Gongmin_of_Goryeo" title="Gongmin of Goryeo">Gongmin</a> declared independence.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201326-32">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Military">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Goryeo_Dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Goryeo Dynasty">Military of the Goryeo Dynasty</a></div> The military comprises both the army and the navy. Military leaders were appointed by Kings/Emperors. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Regional_administration">Regional administration</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Regional administration">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Korea#Provinces_of_Goryeo" title="Provinces of Korea">Provinces of Korea § Provinces of Goryeo</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Foreign relations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_missions_to_Imperial_China" title="Goryeo missions to Imperial China">Goryeo missions to Imperial China</a> and <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_missions_to_Japan" title="Goryeo missions to Japan">Goryeo missions to Japan</a></div> Goryeo affiliated itself with the successive short-lived <a href="/wiki/Five_Dynasties_and_Ten_Kingdoms_period" title="Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period">Five Dynasties</a> beginning with the <a href="/wiki/Shatuo" title="Shatuo">Shatuo</a> <a href="/wiki/Later_Tang" title="Later Tang">Later Tang</a> dynasty in 933, and <a href="/wiki/Taejo_of_Goryeo" title="Taejo of Goryeo">Taejo</a> was acknowledged as the legitimate successor to <a href="/wiki/Dongmyeong_of_Goguryeo" title="Dongmyeong of Goguryeo">Dongmyeong of Goguryeo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201325-207">[200]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1983154-72">[66]</a> In 962, Goryeo entered relations with the nascent <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERossabi1983154-72">[66]</a> Song did not have real suzerainty over Goryeo, and Goryeo sent tribute mainly for the sake of trade.<a href="#cite_note-216">[209]</a> Later, Goryeo entered nominal tributary relations with the <a href="/wiki/Khitan_people" title="Khitan people">Khitan</a> <a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao dynasty</a> then the <a href="/wiki/Jurchen_people" title="Jurchen people">Jurchen</a> <a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jin dynasty</a> while maintaining trade and unofficial relations with the Song dynasty. The Korean missions to China were intended to seek knowledge on fields such as Confucianism, Buddhism, history, and other subjects, conduct diplomacy, and trade. Missions to the Song in 976, 986, and after 1105 stayed there for study. Goryeo requested texts from the Song in 991, 993, 1019, 1021, 1073, 1074, 1092, and after 1105. They also brought texts to China. Diplomatic missions were conducted to announce birthdays, deaths, and successions. Trade, in particular, was an important aspect of all the missions.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005185–186-217">[210]</a> Annual tribute was expected to be exchanged for proper payment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184-1">[1]</a> In 1093, <a href="/wiki/Su_Shi" title="Su Shi">Su Shi</a> suggested that Goryeo envoys should stick to trade in commercial products such as silk and hair instead of books.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005186-218">[211]</a> Sometimes missions were sent even though they would not be received to conduct trade.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005187-219">[212]</a> The Five Dynasties, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty pretended that Goryeo was a tributary vassal. However this was a fiction. The Five Dynasties and the Song did not share a border with Goryeo and had no way to assert supremacy over it. The Liao invasions of Goryeo from 993 to 1020 were successfully repelled. The Jin made no similar effort against Goryeo.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005182-110">[103]</a> Goryeo was not a vassal to these powers and successfully stood up to Liao and Jin through clever diplomacy and minimal appeasement. Goryeo was autonomous until <a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Mongol rule</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184-1">[1]</a> <a href="/wiki/Sinology" title="Sinology">Sinologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Hans_Bielenstein" title="Hans Bielenstein">Hans Bielenstein</a> described the nature of Goryeo's nominal tributary relations with the dynasties in China: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">The Five Dynasties, Sung, Liao, and Chin all liked to pretend that Koryŏ was a tributary vassal. Nothing could be more wrong. The Five Dynasties and Sung had no common border with Koryŏ and no way, even if they had possessed the military resources, to assert any supremacy over it. The Liao invasions of Koryŏ from 993 to 1020 were successfully repelled by the Koreans. The Chin made no serious attempts against Koryŏ. The dynastic historians accepted nevertheless the official fiction and referred to Koryŏ by an unrealistic terminology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005182-110">[103]</a> To repeat, Koryŏ was not a vassal with tributary duties to the Five Dynasties, Sung, Liao, and Chin. In spite of its smaller size, it was able to stand up to Liao and Chin, and did not have to buy peace. This required clever diplomacy and a minimum of appeasement. In spite of window-dressing, rhetorics, and even a pinch of nostalgia for the good old times of Korean-Chinese friendship, Koryŏ succeeded in keeping its autonomy until the advent of the Mongols.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184-1">[1]</a><div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Hans Bielenstein, Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World, 589–1276 (2005)</cite></div></blockquote> In 1270, Goryeo capitulated to the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>, which exercised a powerful influence over Goryeo affairs and the succession of Goryeo kings.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201326-32">[26]</a> Goryeo remained under the Yuan dynasty until the mid-14th century.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201326-32">[26]</a> Goryeo used multiple calendars. In 938, it used the <a href="/wiki/Later_Jin_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Jin (Five Dynasties)">Later Jin</a> calendar, in 948 <a href="/wiki/Later_Han_(Five_Dynasties)" title="Later Han (Five Dynasties)">Later Han</a>, in 952 <a href="/wiki/Later_Zhou" title="Later Zhou">Later Zhou</a>, in 963 Song, in 994 Liao, in 1016 Song, and in 1022 Liao. In 1136, Goryeo was presented with a Jin calendar. It is possible that Goryeo used different calendars simultaneously depending on which country they dealt with.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005183-220">[213]</a> <table class="sortable wikitable"> <caption>Missions from Goryeo (907–1226)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005188-221">[214]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year</th> <th>Five Dynasties/Song</th> <th>Khitans</th> <th>Jurchens </th></tr> <tr> <td>907–926</td> <td>3</td> <td>6</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>927–946</td> <td>11</td> <td>2</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>947–966</td> <td>11</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>967–986</td> <td>7</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>987–1006</td> <td>11</td> <td>14</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1007–1026</td> <td>7</td> <td>9</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1027–1046</td> <td>1</td> <td>10</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1047–1066</td> <td></td> <td>15</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1067–1086</td> <td>8</td> <td>8</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1087–1106</td> <td>7</td> <td>11</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1107–1126</td> <td>9</td> <td>5</td> <td>2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1127–1146</td> <td>5</td> <td></td> <td>45 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1147–1166</td> <td>2</td> <td></td> <td>43 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1167–1186</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>47 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1187–1206</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>45 </td></tr> <tr> <td>1207–1226</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>8 </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Society">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeonobles.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Goryeonobles.jpg/200px-Goryeonobles.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="265" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Goryeonobles.jpg/300px-Goryeonobles.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Goryeonobles.jpg/400px-Goryeonobles.jpg 2x" data-file-width="646" data-file-height="855" /></a><figcaption>A Goryeo painting which depicts the Goryeo nobility.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nobility">Nobility</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Nobility">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korean_nobility" title="Korean nobility">Korean nobility</a></div> At the time of Goryeo, Korean nobility was divided into 6 classes. <ul><li>Gukgong (국공; 國公), <a href="/wiki/Duke" title="Duke">duke</a> of a nation</li> <li>Gungong (군공; 郡公), <a href="/wiki/Duke" title="Duke">duke</a> of a county</li> <li>Hyeonhu (현후; 縣侯), <a href="/wiki/Marquess" title="Marquess">marquis</a> of a town</li> <li>Hyeonbaek (현백; 縣伯), <a href="/wiki/Count" title="Count">count</a> of a town</li> <li>Gaegukja (개국자; 開國子) or hyeonja (현자; 縣子), <a href="/wiki/Viscount" title="Viscount">viscount</a> of a town</li> <li>Hyeonnam (현남; 縣男), <a href="/wiki/Baron" title="Baron">baron</a> of a town</li></ul> Also the title taeja (태자; 太子) was given to sons of monarch. In most other east Asian countries this title meant <a href="/wiki/Crown_prince" title="Crown prince">crown prince</a>. Taeja was similar to daegun (대군; 大君) or gun (군; 君) of the <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon Dynasty</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Religion">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buddhism">Buddhism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Buddhism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korean_Buddhism#Buddhism_as_state_religion_in_the_Goryeo_period_(918-1392)" title="Korean Buddhism">Korean Buddhism § Buddhism as state religion in the Goryeo period (918-1392)</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeo_Jijangbosal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Goryeo_Jijangbosal.jpg/160px-Goryeo_Jijangbosal.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="404" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Goryeo_Jijangbosal.jpg/240px-Goryeo_Jijangbosal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Goryeo_Jijangbosal.jpg/320px-Goryeo_Jijangbosal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="897" data-file-height="2263" /></a><figcaption>Ksitigarbha painting, Goryeo Korea</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeo_Painting.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Goryeo_Painting.jpg/200px-Goryeo_Painting.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="383" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Goryeo_Painting.jpg/300px-Goryeo_Painting.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Goryeo_Painting.jpg/400px-Goryeo_Painting.jpg 2x" data-file-width="578" data-file-height="1108" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of Maitreyavyakarana sutra (彌勒下生經變相圖)</figcaption></figure> Buddhism in medieval Korea evolved in ways which rallied support for the state.<a href="#cite_note-222">[215]</a> Initially, the new Seon schools were regarded by the established doctrinal schools as radical and dangerous upstarts. Thus, the early founders of the various "nine mountain"<a href="#cite_note-seungyeon-223">[216]</a> monasteries met with considerable resistance, repressed by the long influence in court of the Gyo schools. The struggles which ensued continued for most of the Goryeo period, but gradually the Seon argument for the possession of the true transmission of enlightenment would gain the upper hand.<a href="#cite_note-seungyeon-223">[216]</a> The position that was generally adopted in the later Seon schools, due in large part to the efforts of <a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a>, did not claim clear superiority of Seon meditational methods, but rather declared the intrinsic unity and similarities of the Seon and Gyo viewpoints.<a href="#cite_note-Keel-224">[217]</a> Although all these schools are mentioned in historical records, toward the end of the dynasty, Seon became dominant in its effect on the government and society, and the production of noteworthy scholars and adepts. During the Goryeo period, Seon thoroughly became a "religion of the state," receiving extensive support and privileges through connections with the ruling family and powerful members of the court.<a href="#cite_note-225">[218]</a> Although Buddhist predominated, <a href="/wiki/Taoism_in_Korea" title="Taoism in Korea">taoism</a> was practiced in some temples, as was <a href="/wiki/Korean_shamanism" title="Korean shamanism">shamanism</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ABC-226">[219]</a> Although most of the scholastic schools waned in activity and influence during this period of the growth of Seon, the <a href="/wiki/Hwaeom" class="mw-redirect" title="Hwaeom">Hwaeom</a> school continued to be a lively source of scholarship well into the Goryeo, much of it continuing the legacy of <a href="/wiki/Uisang" title="Uisang">Uisang</a> and <a href="/wiki/Wonhyo" title="Wonhyo">Wonhyo</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ABC-226">[219]</a> In particular the work of <a href="/wiki/Gyunyeo" class="mw-redirect" title="Gyunyeo">Gyunyeo</a> (均如; 923–973) prepared for the reconciliation of Hwaeom and Seon,<a href="#cite_note-227">[220]</a> with Hwaeom's accommodating attitude toward the latter.<a href="#cite_note-Sakya-228">[221]</a> Gyunyeo's works are an important source for modern scholarship in identifying the distinctive nature of Korean Hwaeom.<a href="#cite_note-Sakya-228">[221]</a> Another important advocate of Seon/Gyo unity was <a href="/wiki/Uicheon" title="Uicheon">Uicheon</a>. Like most other early Goryeo monks, he began his studies in Buddhism with the Hwaeom school. He later traveled to China, and upon his return, actively promulgated the <a href="/wiki/Cheontae" title="Cheontae">Cheontae</a> (天台宗, or <a href="/wiki/Tiantai" title="Tiantai">Tiantai</a> in Chinese) teachings, which became recognized as another Seon school. This period thus came to be described as "five doctrinal and two meditational schools" (Ogyo Yangjong). Uicheon himself, however, alienated too many Seon adherents, and he died at a relatively young age without seeing a Seon-Gyo unity accomplished. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeo_Seobun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Goryeo_Seobun.jpg/160px-Goryeo_Seobun.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Goryeo_Seobun.jpg/240px-Goryeo_Seobun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9a/Goryeo_Seobun.jpg/320px-Goryeo_Seobun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="843" data-file-height="1723" /></a><figcaption>Gwangyeongseopum Byeonsangdo, Goryeo buddhist painting.</figcaption></figure> The most important figure of Seon in the Goryeo was <a href="/wiki/Jinul" title="Jinul">Jinul</a> (知訥; 1158–1210). In his time, the sangha was in a crisis of external appearance and internal issues of doctrine. Buddhism had gradually become infected by secular tendencies and involvements, such as fortune-telling and the offering of prayers and rituals for success in secular endeavors. This kind of corruption resulted in the profusion of increasingly larger numbers of monks and nuns with questionable motivations. Therefore, the correction, revival, and improvement of the quality of Buddhism were prominent issues for Buddhist leaders of the period. Jinul sought to establish a new movement within Korean Seon, which he called the "<a href="/wiki/Samadhi" title="Samadhi">samādhi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Praj%C3%B1%C4%81_(Buddhism)" title="Prajñā (Buddhism)">prajñā</a> society",<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-229">[222]</a> whose goal was to establish a new community of disciplined, pure-minded practitioners deep in the mountains.<a href="#cite_note-Keel-224">[217]</a> He eventually accomplished this mission with the founding of the Seonggwangsa monastery at Mt. Jogye (曹溪山).<a href="#cite_note-Keel-224">[217]</a> Jinul's works are characterized by a thorough analysis and reformulation of the methodologies of Seon study and practice. One major issue that had long fermented in Chinese <a href="/wiki/Zen" title="Zen">Seon</a>, and which received special focus from Jinul, was the relationship between "gradual" and "sudden" methods in practice and enlightenment. Drawing upon various Chinese treatments of this topic, most importantly those by <a href="/wiki/Guifeng_Zongmi" title="Guifeng Zongmi">Zongmi</a> (780–841) and Dahui (大慧; 1089–1163),<a href="#cite_note-230">[223]</a> Jinul created a "sudden enlightenment followed by gradual practice" dictum, which he outlined in a few relatively concise and accessible texts.<a href="#cite_note-231">[224]</a> From Dahui, Jinul also incorporated the gwanhwa (觀話) method into his practice.<a href="#cite_note-Alexander-229">[222]</a> This form of meditation is the main method taught in Korean Seon today. Jinul's philosophical resolution of the Seon-Gyo conflict brought a deep and lasting effect on Korean Buddhism. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg/440px-Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="440" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg/660px-Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg/880px-Goryeo-Illustrated_manuscript_of_the_Lotus_Sutra_c.1340_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1393" data-file-height="658" /></a><figcaption>Illustrated manuscript of the <a href="/wiki/Lotus_Sutra" title="Lotus Sutra">Lotus Sutra</a>, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1340</figcaption></figure> The general trend of Buddhism in the latter half of the Goryeo was a decline due to corruption, and the rise of strong anti-Buddhist political and philosophical sentiment.<a href="#cite_note-232">[225]</a> However, this period of relative decadence would nevertheless produce some of Korea's most renowned Seon masters. Three important monks of this period who figured prominently in charting the future course of Korean Seon were contemporaries and friends: Gyeonghan Baeg'un (景閑白雲; 1298–1374), Taego Bou (太古普愚; 1301–1382) and Naong Hyegeun (懶翁慧勤; 1320–1376). All three went to <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan China</a> to learn the <a href="/wiki/Linji_school" title="Linji school">Linji</a> (臨濟 or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Imje&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Imje (page does not exist)">Imje</a> in <a href="/wiki/Korean_language" title="Korean language">Korean</a>) gwanhwa teaching that had been popularized by Jinul. All three returned, and established the sharp, confrontational methods of the Imje school in their own teaching. Each of the three was also said to have had hundreds of disciples, such that this new infusion into Korean Seon brought about considerable effect. Despite the Imje influence, which was generally considered to be anti-scholarly in nature, Gyeonghan and Naong, under the influence of Jinul and the traditional <a href="/wiki/Tongbulgyo" title="Tongbulgyo">Tongbulgyo</a> tendency, showed an unusual interest in scriptural study, as well as a strong understanding of <a href="/wiki/Confucianism" title="Confucianism">confucianism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Taoism" title="Taoism">taoism</a>, due to the increasing influence of Chinese philosophy as the foundation of official education. From this time, a marked tendency for Korean Buddhist monks to be "three teachings" exponents appeared. A significant historical event of the Goryeo period is the production of the first woodblock edition of the <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripitaka</a>, called the <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</a>. Two editions were made, the first one completed from 1210 to 1231, and the second one from 1214 to 1259. The first edition was destroyed in a fire, during an attack by <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongol</a> invaders in 1232, but the second edition is still in existence at <a href="/wiki/Haeinsa" title="Haeinsa">Haeinsa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Gyeongsang_Province" title="Gyeongsang Province">Gyeongsang</a> province. This edition of the Tripitaka was of high quality, and served as the standard version of the Tripitaka in East Asia for almost 700 years.<a href="#cite_note-Sakya2-233">[226]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Confucianism">Confucianism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Confucianism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korean_Confucianism" title="Korean Confucianism">Korean Confucianism</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Gwangjong_of_Goryeo" title="Gwangjong of Goryeo">Gwangjong</a> created the <a href="/wiki/Gwageo" title="Gwageo">national civil service examinations</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Djun2-234">[227]</a> <a href="/wiki/Seongjong_of_Goryeo" title="Seongjong of Goryeo">Seongjong</a> was a key figure in establishing confucianism. He founded <a href="/wiki/Gukjagam" title="Gukjagam">Gukjagam</a>,<a href="#cite_note-235">[228]</a> the highest educational institution of the Goryeo dynasty. This was facilitated by the establishment in 1398 of the <a href="/wiki/Sungkyunkwan" title="Sungkyunkwan">Sungkyunkwan</a> – an academy with a Confucian curriculum – and the building of an altar at the palace, where the king would worship his ancestors. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Islam">Islam</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Islam">edit</a>]</div> According to <a href="/wiki/Goryeosa" title="Goryeosa">Goryeosa</a>, Muslims arrived in the peninsula in the year 1024 in the Goryeo kingdom,<a href="#cite_note-236">[229]</a> a group of some 100 Muslims, including Hasan Raza, came in September of the 15th year of <a href="/wiki/Hyeonjong_of_Goryeo" title="Hyeonjong of Goryeo">Hyeonjong of Goryeo</a> and another group of 100 Muslim merchants came the following year. Trading relations between <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">the Islamic world</a> and the Korean peninsula continued with the succeeding Goryeo kingdom through to the 15th century. As a result, a number of Muslim traders from the <a href="/wiki/Near_East" title="Near East">Near East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> settled down in Korea and established families there. Some Muslim <a href="/wiki/Hui_people" title="Hui people">Hui people</a> from China also appear to have lived in the Goryeo kingdom.<a href="#cite_note-237">[230]</a> With the Mongol armies came the so-called Saengmokin (<a href="/wiki/Semu" title="Semu">Semu</a>), or "colored-eye people", this group consisted of Muslims from Central Asia.<a href="#cite_note-238">[231]</a> In the Mongol social order, the Saengmokin occupied a position just below the Mongols themselves, and exerted a great deal of influence within the <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>. It was during this period satirical poems were composed and one of them was the Sanghwajeom, the "Colored-eye people bakery", the song tells the tale of a Korean woman who goes to a Muslim bakery to buy some dumplings.<a href="#cite_note-239">[232]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:KangnidoMap.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/KangnidoMap.jpg/220px-KangnidoMap.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="204" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/KangnidoMap.jpg/330px-KangnidoMap.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/75/KangnidoMap.jpg/440px-KangnidoMap.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="556" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Gangnido" title="Gangnido">Kangnido</a> reflects the <a href="/wiki/Chinese_geography" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinese geography">geographic knowledge of China</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a> when geographical information about Western countries became available via <a href="/wiki/Geography_and_cartography_in_medieval_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Geography and cartography in medieval Islam">Islamic geographers</a>.<a href="#cite_note-miya-240">[233]</a></figcaption></figure> Small-scale contact with predominantly Muslim peoples continued on and off. During the late Goryeo period, there were mosques in the capital <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Kaesong</a>, called Ye-Kung, whose literary meaning is a "ceremonial hall".<a href="#cite_note-241">[234]</a> One of those <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asian</a> immigrants to Korea originally came to Korea as an aide to a Mongol princess who had been sent to marry King <a href="/wiki/Chungnyeol_of_Goryeo" title="Chungnyeol of Goryeo">Chungnyeol of Goryeo</a>. Goryeo documents say that his original name was Samga but, after he decided to make Korea his permanent home, the king bestowed on him the Korean name of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jang_Sun-nyong&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jang Sun-nyong (page does not exist)">Jang Sun-nyong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-242">[235]</a> Jang married a Korean and became the founding ancestor of the <a href="/wiki/Deoksu_Jang_clan" title="Deoksu Jang clan">Deoksu Jang clan</a>. His clan produced many high officials and respected Confucian scholars over the centuries. Twenty-five generations later, around 30,000 Koreans look back to Jang Sunnyong as the grandfather of their clan: the <a href="/wiki/Jang_(Korean_surname)" title="Jang (Korean surname)">Jang</a> clan, with its seat at Toksu village.<a href="#cite_note-Grayson-243">[236]</a> The same is true of the descendants of another Central Asian who settled down in Korea. A Central Asian named <a href="/w/index.php?title=Seol_Son&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Seol Son (page does not exist)">Seol Son</a> fled to Korea when the <a href="/wiki/Red_Turban_Rebellions" title="Red Turban Rebellions">Red Turban Rebellion</a> erupted near the end of the Mongol's <a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan dynasty</a>.<a href="#cite_note-244">[237]</a> He, too, married a Korean, originating a lineage called the Gyeongju Seol that claims at least 2,000 members in Korea. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Soju">Soju</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Soju">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Soju" title="Soju">Soju</a> was first distilled around the 13th century, during the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasions of Korea</a>. The Mongols had acquired the technique of distilling <a href="/wiki/Arak_(drink)" title="Arak (drink)">Arak</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_world" title="Muslim world">Muslim world</a><a href="#cite_note-joongangdaily-245">[238]</a> during their invasion of <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> around 1256, it was subsequently introduced to Koreans and distilleries were set up around the city of <a href="/wiki/Kaesong" title="Kaesong">Kaesong</a>. Indeed, in the area surrounding Kaesong, Soju is known as Arak-ju (아락주).<a href="#cite_note-246">[239]</a> Under the reign of <a href="/wiki/Chungnyeol_of_Goryeo" title="Chungnyeol of Goryeo">King Chungnyeol</a>, soju quickly became a popular drink, while the stationed region of Mongolian troops came to produce high-quality soju, for instance in <a href="/wiki/Andong" title="Andong">Andong</a>.<a href="#cite_note-247">[240]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Culture">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Literature">Literature</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Literature">edit</a>]</div> The official histories of early Korea such as the <a href="/wiki/Samguk_sagi" title="Samguk sagi">Samguk sagi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Samguk_yusa" title="Samguk yusa">Samguk yusa</a>, written in Classical Chinese, remain some of the most important historical works in Korean historiography.<a href="#cite_note-248">[241]</a><a href="#cite_note-Seth-249">[242]</a><a href="#cite_note-Crossley-250">[243]</a>: 264  Various writing systems that utilized the phonetic value of Hanja characters were used to transcribe <a href="/wiki/Old_Korean" title="Old Korean">Old Korean</a>, <a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a> being the most notable of them as it was used for administrative purposes and recordkeeping. This script originates in Goguryeo and was designed for a very specific sort of syntax that made use of postpositional particles, such as the Old Korean accusative marker *-ul/*-ur ending represented by 尸 'corpse' and 乙 '2nd Heavenly stem'. It was eventually phased out once it became too impractical upon the invention of Hangeul.<a href="#cite_note-251">[244]</a> Gugyeol was used to gloss Middle Chinese poems so Koreans could read them, with two versions having been used limited by their timeframes. Interpretative Gugyeol was predominant up to the 12th century and was supposed to tell the reader the meaning of the text and was meant to be read in Old Korean. The later form of Gugyeol appearing in the 13th century was meant to make it possible to spell out the Middle Chinese poem for the average reader, who would not know how Chinese sounded, by inferring the Koreanized pronunciation on it instead.<a href="#cite_note-252">[245]</a> <a href="/wiki/Hyangga" title="Hyangga">Hyangga</a> poetry, which made use of <a href="/wiki/Hyangchal" title="Hyangchal">Hyangchal</a>, another writing system used to write Old Korean, was contrary to common belief still widespread during Goryeo and a number of the surviving poems that were attributed to the <a href="/wiki/Unified_Silla" title="Unified Silla">Unified Silla</a> period have been revealed to have been created during Goryeo. The Cheoyongga is one of these examples, a story about a man and his unfaithful wife. The Goryeo aristocracy emphasized engaging with high literature and court poetry in Classical Chinese.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984134-10">[5]</a> Learning Chinese poetry as well as composing poetry in Classical Chinese was a popular leisure activity for the aristocracy.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984134-10">[5]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Tripitaka_Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Tripitaka Koreana">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</a></div> Tripitaka Koreana (팔만대장경) is a Korean collection of the <a href="/wiki/Tripi%E1%B9%ADaka" title="Tripiṭaka">Tripitaka</a> of approximately 80,000 pages. The wooden blocks that were used to print it are stored in <a href="/wiki/Haeinsa" title="Haeinsa">Haeinsa</a> temple in <a href="/wiki/South_Gyeongsang_Province" title="South Gyeongsang Province">South Gyeongsang Province</a>. The second version was made in 1251 by <a href="/wiki/Gojong_of_Goryeo" title="Gojong of Goryeo">Gojong</a> in an attempt invoke the power of Buddhism to fend off the Mongol invasion. The wooden blocks are kept clean by leaving them to dry outside every year. The Tripiṭaka Koreana was designated a <a href="/wiki/National_Treasure_(South_Korea)" title="National Treasure (South Korea)">National Treasure of South Korea</a> in 1962, and inscribed in the <a href="/wiki/Memory_of_the_World_Register_%E2%80%93_Asia_and_the_Pacific" title="Memory of the World Register – Asia and the Pacific">UNESCO Memory of the World Register</a> in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-253">[246]</a><a href="#cite_note-Memory-254">[247]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Art">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Goryeo_Buddhist_paintings" title="List of Goryeo Buddhist paintings">List of Goryeo Buddhist paintings</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Goryeo_celadon">Goryeo celadon</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Goryeo celadon">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Korean_pottery_and_porcelain" title="Korean pottery and porcelain">Korean pottery and porcelain</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korea_-_Seoul_-_National_Museum_-_Incense_Burner_0252-06a.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Korea_-_Seoul_-_National_Museum_-_Incense_Burner_0252-06a.jpg/170px-Korea_-_Seoul_-_National_Museum_-_Incense_Burner_0252-06a.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Korea_-_Seoul_-_National_Museum_-_Incense_Burner_0252-06a.jpg/255px-Korea_-_Seoul_-_National_Museum_-_Incense_Burner_0252-06a.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Korea_-_Seoul_-_National_Museum_-_Incense_Burner_0252-06a.jpg/340px-Korea_-_Seoul_-_National_Museum_-_Incense_Burner_0252-06a.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1944" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Celadon incense burner. <a href="/wiki/National_Treasure_(South_Korea)" title="National Treasure (South Korea)">National Treasures of South Korea</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ewer_with_Cover,_first_half_of_the_12th_century,_56.138.1a-b.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ewer_with_Cover%2C_first_half_of_the_12th_century%2C_56.138.1a-b.jpg/220px-Ewer_with_Cover%2C_first_half_of_the_12th_century%2C_56.138.1a-b.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ewer_with_Cover%2C_first_half_of_the_12th_century%2C_56.138.1a-b.jpg/330px-Ewer_with_Cover%2C_first_half_of_the_12th_century%2C_56.138.1a-b.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fc/Ewer_with_Cover%2C_first_half_of_the_12th_century%2C_56.138.1a-b.jpg/440px-Ewer_with_Cover%2C_first_half_of_the_12th_century%2C_56.138.1a-b.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1536" data-file-height="1268" /></a><figcaption>Ewer with Cover, first half of the 12th century. Stoneware with underglaze slip decoration and celadon glaze. <a href="/wiki/Celadon" title="Celadon">Celadon</a> ceramics of the Goryeo dynasty (918–1392) are among the most celebrated works of Korean art. Their luminous green color is the result of iron in both the clay and the glaze oxidizing in a reduction kiln. <a href="/wiki/Brooklyn_Museum" title="Brooklyn Museum">Brooklyn Museum</a></figcaption></figure> The ceramics of Goryeo are considered by some to be the finest small-scale works of ceramics in Korean history.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Key-fret, foliate designs, geometric or scrolling flowerhead bands, elliptical panels, stylized fish and insects, and the use of incised designs began at this time. Glazes were usually various shades of celadon, with browned glazes to almost black glazes being used for stoneware and storage. Celadon glazes could be rendered almost transparent to show black and white inlays.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] While the forms generally seen are broad-shouldered bottles, larger low bowls or shallow smaller bowls, highly decorated celadon cosmetic boxes, and small slip-inlaid cups, the Buddhist potteries also produced melon-shaped vases, chrysanthemum cups often of spectacularly architectural design on stands with lotus motifs and lotus flower heads. In-curving rimmed alms bowls have also been discovered similar to Korean metalware. Wine cups often had a tall foot which rested on dish-shaped stands.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Lacquerware_with_mother_of_pearl_inlay">Lacquerware with mother of pearl inlay</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Lacquerware with mother of pearl inlay">edit</a>]</div> During the Goryeo period, lacquerware with mother-of-pearl inlay reached a high point of technical and aesthetic achievement and was widely used by members of the aristocracy for Buddhist ritual implements and vessels, as well as horse saddles and royal carriages. Inlaid lacquers combine texture, color, and shape to produce a dazzling effect in both large and small objects. Although Korean lacquerware of the Goryeo period was highly prized throughout East Asia, fewer than fifteen examples are known to have survived, one of which is this exquisite box in the Museum's collection. This paucity of material is largely attributable to the fragility of lacquer objects and, to a certain extent, to wars and raids by foreign powers, notably those launched from Japan by Toyotomi Hideyoshi (1536–1598) in the late sixteenth century.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cosmetic_box,_stoneware_with_celadon_glaze,_Goryeo_Dynasty.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cosmetic_box%2C_stoneware_with_celadon_glaze%2C_Goryeo_Dynasty.jpg/170px-Cosmetic_box%2C_stoneware_with_celadon_glaze%2C_Goryeo_Dynasty.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cosmetic_box%2C_stoneware_with_celadon_glaze%2C_Goryeo_Dynasty.jpg/255px-Cosmetic_box%2C_stoneware_with_celadon_glaze%2C_Goryeo_Dynasty.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Cosmetic_box%2C_stoneware_with_celadon_glaze%2C_Goryeo_Dynasty.jpg/340px-Cosmetic_box%2C_stoneware_with_celadon_glaze%2C_Goryeo_Dynasty.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1621" data-file-height="1904" /></a><figcaption>A Korean stoneware cosmetic box with white and black inlay and a <a href="/wiki/Celadon" title="Celadon">celadon</a> glaze, from the Goryeo Dynasty, dated c. 1150–1250</figcaption></figure> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/39957">More info on Goryeo lacquerware</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Construction_techniques">Construction techniques</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Construction techniques">edit</a>]</div> These ceramics are of a hard porcellaneous body with porcelain stone as one of the key ingredients; however, it is not to be confused with porcelain. The body is low clay, quartz rich, high potassia and virtually identical in composition to the Chinese Yueh ceramics which scholars hypothesize occasioned the first production of celadon in Korea. The glaze is an ash glaze with iron colourant, fired in a reduction atmosphere in a modified Chinese-style 'dragon' kiln. The distinctive blue-grey-green of Korean celadon is caused by the iron content of the glaze with a minimum of titanium contaminant, which modifies the color to a greener cast, as can be seen in Chinese Yueh wares. However, the Goryeo potters took the glaze in a different direction than their Chinese forebears; instead of relying solely on underglaze incised designs, they eventually developed the sanggam technique of inlaying black (magnetite) and white (quartz) which created bold contrast with the glaze. Scholars also theorize that this developed in part to an inlay tradition in Korean metalworks and lacquer, and also to the dissatisfaction with the nearly invisible effect of incising when done under a thick celadon glaze.<a href="#cite_note-255">[248]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Modern_celadon">Modern celadon</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Modern celadon">edit</a>]</div> A revival of Goryeo celadon pottery began in the early 20th century. Playing a leading role in its revival was <a href="/wiki/Yu_Geun-Hyeong" title="Yu Geun-Hyeong">Yu Geun-hyeong</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Living_National_Treasure_(South_Korea)" title="Living National Treasure (South Korea)">Living National Treasure</a> whose work was documented in the 1979 short film, <a href="/wiki/Koryo_Celadon" title="Koryo Celadon">Koryo Celadon</a>.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Technology">Technology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Technology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Korea" class="mw-redirect" title="Science and technology in Korea">Science and technology in Korea</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg/220px-Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg/330px-Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg/440px-Korean_book-Jikji-Selected_Teachings_of_Buddhist_Sages_and_Seon_Masters-1377.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Jikji" title="Jikji">Jikji</a>, Selected Teachings of Buddhist Sages and Seon Masters, the earliest known book printed with movable metal type, 1377. Bibliothèque Nationale de Paris.</figcaption></figure> It is generally accepted that the world's first metal <a href="/wiki/Movable_type" title="Movable type">movable type</a> was invented in Goryeo during the 13th century by <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Yun-%C5%ADi" title="Ch'oe Yun-ŭi">Ch'oe Yun-ŭi</a>.<a href="#cite_note-256">[249]</a><a href="#cite_note-257">[250]</a><a href="#cite_note-258">[251]</a><a href="#cite_note-259">[252]</a><a href="#cite_note-260">[253]</a>[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#Bundling_citations" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">excessive citations</a>] The first metal movable type book was the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sangjeong_Gogeum_Yemun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun (page does not exist)">Sangjeong Gogeum Yemun</a> that was printed in 1234. Technology in Korea took a big step in Goryeo and strong relation with the <a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song dynasty</a> contributed to this. In the dynasty, Korean ceramics and paper, which come down to now, started to be manufactured.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] Cotton was introduced in the 1370s.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] During the late Goryeo Dynasty, Goryeo was at the cutting edge of shipboard artillery. In 1356 early experiments were carried out with gunpowder weapons that shot wood or metal projectiles. In 1373 experiments with incendiary arrows and "fire tubes" possibly an early form of the <a href="/wiki/Hwacha" title="Hwacha">Hwacha</a> were developed and placed on Korean warships. The policy of placing cannons and other gunpowder weapons continued well into the <a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon">Joseon</a> dynasty and by 1410, over 160 Joseon warships had cannons on board. <a href="/wiki/Ch%27oe_Mu-s%C5%8Fn" class="mw-redirect" title="Ch'oe Mu-sŏn">Ch'oe Mu-sŏn</a>, a medieval Korean inventor, military commander and scientist who introduced widespread use of gunpowder to <a href="/wiki/Korea" title="Korea">Korea</a> for the first time and creating various gunpowder based weapons.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Goryeo_Dynasty" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Goryeo Dynasty">Goryeo</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Goryeo_celadon" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Goryeo celadon">Goryeo_celadon</a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Korea#Goryeo_dynasty" title="List of monarchs of Korea">List of monarchs of Korea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_Goryeo_monarchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of Goryeo monarchs">Family tree of Goryeo monarchs</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Names_of_Korea" title="Names of Korea">Names of Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_ware" title="Goryeo ware">Goryeo ware</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> Goryeo maintained nominal <a href="/wiki/Tributary_system_of_China" title="Tributary system of China">tributary relations</a> with <a href="/wiki/Dynasties_in_Chinese_history" class="mw-redirect" title="Dynasties in Chinese history">Chinese dynasties</a>. See the "<a href="#Foreign_relations">Foreign relations</a>" section for more information. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> Other name(s): Gaegyeong (개경; 開京), Hwangdo (황도; 皇都), Junggyeong (중경; 中京), Songak (송악; 松獄), Songdo (송도; 松都), Songgyeong (송경; 松京), Wanggyeong (왕경; 王京)<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorean_History_Society200215-3">[2]</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> With the multiple capitals system; a Supreme capital with two secondary capitals (922–1392) </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> Other name(s): Gangdo (강도; 江都) </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> Other name(s): Namgyeong (남경; 南京), Yangju (양주; 楊州) </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a> The rulers of Goryeo were simultaneously kings, emperors, and <a href="/wiki/Son_of_Heaven" title="Son of Heaven">Sons of Heaven</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010147-12">[7]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEEm201324–26-13">[8]</a> The fourth ruler, <a href="/wiki/Gwangjong_of_Goryeo" title="Gwangjong of Goryeo">Gwangjong</a>, was exclusively an emperor and not a king.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010157-14">[9]</a> The rulers of Goryeo were demoted to kings beginning in 1270 with capitulation to the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol Empire</a>. (See <a href="/wiki/Korean_imperial_titles#Goryeo" title="Korean imperial titles">Korean imperial titles#Goryeo</a> for more information.) </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> For example, 3,000 Balhae households came to Goryeo in 938.<a href="#cite_note-79">[73]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Citations">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184-1">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184_1-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184_1-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184_1-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBielenstein2005184_1-3">d</a> <a href="#CITEREFBielenstein2005">Bielenstein 2005</a>, p. 184. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKorean_History_Society200215-3"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKorean_History_Society200215_3-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFKorean_History_Society2002">Korean History Society 2002</a>, p. 15. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREF김재명" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">김재명. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Item/E0011767"><bdi lang="ko">남경(南京)</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a> (in Korean). <a href="/wiki/Academy_of_Korean_Studies" title="Academy of Korean Studies">Academy of Korean Studies</a>. 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English Translation: "With his lieges assembled in the Cheondeok Palace, the King spoke out: For long have I vowed my devotion towards our alliance and friendship with Silla by painting my lips with blood as an oath to preserve our royal lines together. But since now the King of Silla requests to come under my fold as many deem right, it is hard to for me to cross the will of many despite my humbled and embarrassed heart."</blockquote> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/SearchNavi?keyword=%EC%9C%A1%EB%91%90%ED%92%88&ridx=0&tot=14"><bdi lang="ko">육두품(六頭品)</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a>. 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Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 61. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95823-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-275-95823-7"><bdi>978-0-275-95823-7</bdi></a>. 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Retrieved 22 April 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=%ED%95%9C%EA%B5%AD%EC%82%AC+%EC%97%B0%EB%8C%80%EA%B8%B0&rft.atitle=%EB%AC%B8%EC%A2%85%5B%E6%96%87%E5%AE%97%5D&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcontents.history.go.kr%2Ffront%2Fkc%2Fmain.do%3FlevelId%3Dkc_n202100&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF배상열2009" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">배상열 (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vfJTBQAAQBAJ&pg=PA140"><bdi lang="ko">대역죄인, 역사의 법정에 서다</bdi></a> (in Korean). 책우리. p. 140. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-93975-01-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-93975-01-7"><bdi>978-89-93975-01-7</bdi></a>. Retrieved 29 March 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=%EB%8C%80%EC%97%AD%EC%A3%84%EC%9D%B8%2C+%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC%EC%9D%98+%EB%B2%95%EC%A0%95%EC%97%90+%EC%84%9C%EB%8B%A4&rft.pages=140&rft.pub=%EC%B1%85%EC%9A%B0%EB%A6%AC&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-89-93975-01-7&rft.au=%EB%B0%B0%EC%83%81%EC%97%B4&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvfJTBQAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA140&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEChung1998234-153"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEChung1998234_153-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFChung1998">Chung 1998</a>, p. 234. </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://whc.unesco.org/en/decisions/3097">"Inscription: Haeinsa Temple Changgyong P'ango, the Depositories for the Koreana Woodblocks (Republic of Korea)"</a>. UNESCO World Heritage Centre. United Nations. Retrieved 8 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNESCO+World+Heritage+Centre&rft.atitle=Inscription%3A+Haeinsa+Temple+Changgyong+P%27ango%2C+the+Depositories+for+the+Koreana+Woodblocks+%28Republic+of+Korea%29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwhc.unesco.org%2Fen%2Fdecisions%2F3097&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/rr/asian/guide2007/guide-korean.html">"Korean Classics"</a>. Asian Collections: An Illustrated Guide. Library of Congress. Retrieved 8 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Asian+Collections%3A+An+Illustrated+Guide&rft.atitle=Korean+Classics&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Frr%2Fasian%2Fguide2007%2Fguide-korean.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161025033159/http://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item100565.html">"Gutenberg Bible"</a>. Timelines: Sources from History. British Library. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bl.uk/learning/timeline/item100565.html">the original</a> on 25 October 2016. Retrieved 8 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Timelines%3A+Sources+from+History&rft.atitle=Gutenberg+Bible&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.bl.uk%2Flearning%2Ftimeline%2Fitem100565.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Breuker_2010-157"><a href="#cite_ref-Breuker_2010_157-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreuker2010">Breuker 2010</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wZx0VvujPqcC&dq=jurchen+sedentary&pg=PA221">220–221</a>. "The Jurchen settlements in the Amnok River region had been tributaries of Koryŏ since the establishment of the dynasty, when T'aejo Wang Kŏn heavily relied on a large segment of Jurchen cavalry to defeat the armies of Later Paekche. The position and status of these Jurchen is hard to determine using the framework of the Koryŏ and Liao states as reference, since the Jurchen leaders generally took care to steer a middle course between Koryŏ and Liao, changing sides or absconding whenever that was deemed the best course. As mentioned above, Koryŏ and Liao competed quite fiercely to obtain the allegiance of the Jurchen settlers who in the absence of large armies effectively controlled much of the frontier area outside the Koryŏ and Liao fortifications. These Jurchen communities were expert in handling the tension between Liao and Koryŏ, playing out divide-and-rule policies backed up by threats of border violence. It seems that the relationship between the semi-nomadic Jurchen and their peninsular neighbours bore much resemblance to the relationship between Chinese states and their nomad neighbours, as described by Thomas Barfield." </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010221-222-158"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010221-222_158-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreuker2010">Breuker 2010</a>, p. 221-222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010222-159"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010222_159-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreuker2010">Breuker 2010</a>, p. 222. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010223-160"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010223_160-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreuker2010">Breuker 2010</a>, p. 223. </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTillmanWest1995" class="citation book cs1">Tillman, Hoyt Cleveland; West, Stephen H (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=IdYGiGan4o8C&pg=PA27">China Under Jurchen Rule</a>. SUNY Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2273-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7914-2273-1"><bdi>978-0-7914-2273-1</bdi></a>. Retrieved 18 March 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Under+Jurchen+Rule&rft.pub=SUNY+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-0-7914-2273-1&rft.aulast=Tillman&rft.aufirst=Hoyt+Cleveland&rft.au=West%2C+Stephen+H&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DIdYGiGan4o8C%26pg%3DPA27&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994221-162"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTETwitchettFairbankFranke1994221_162-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTwitchettFairbankFranke1994">Twitchett, Fairbank & Franke 1994</a>, p. 221. </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREF신천식" class="citation web cs1 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">신천식. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Article/E0008888"><bdi lang="ko">김단(金旦)</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a> (in Korean).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Encyclopedia+of+Korean+Culture&rft.atitle=%EA%B9%80%EB%8B%A8%28%E9%87%91%E6%97%A6%29&rft.au=%EC%8B%A0%EC%B2%9C%EC%8B%9D&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fencykorea.aks.ac.kr%2FArticle%2FE0008888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1 cs1-prop-script"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://encykorea.aks.ac.kr/Contents/Index?contents_id=E0066626"><bdi lang="ko">여진정벌</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Korean_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Korean Culture">Encyclopedia of Korean Culture</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%EC%97%AC%EC%A7%84%EC%A0%95%EB%B2%8C&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Korean+Culture&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fencykorea.aks.ac.kr%2FContents%2FIndex%3Fcontents_id%3DE0066626&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984127-165"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee1984127_165-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLee1984">Lee 1984</a>, p. 127. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010224-166"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010224_166-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreuker2010">Breuker 2010</a>, p. 224. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBrown2014793-167"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBrown2014793_167-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBrown2014">Brown 2014</a>, p. 793. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELee1984127-128-168"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELee1984127-128_168-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFLee1984">Lee 1984</a>, p. 127-128. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010225-226-169"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010225-226_169-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreuker2010">Breuker 2010</a>, p. 225-226. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010137-170"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBreuker2010137_170-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBreuker2010">Breuker 2010</a>, p. 137. </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYi1984" class="citation book cs1">Yi, Ki-baek (1984). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=g2mdVwXpMzwC&q=%22they+looked+upon+Koryo+in+particular+as+their+parent+country%22">A New History of Korea</a>. Harvard University Press. p. 126. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-61576-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-61576-2"><bdi>978-0-674-61576-2</bdi></a>. 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Korea: A Historical and Cultural Dictionary. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 189. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0464-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0464-4"><bdi>978-0-7007-0464-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea%3A+A+Historical+and+Cultural+Dictionary&rft.pages=189&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0464-4&rft.aulast=Keith+Pratt&rft.aufirst=Richard+Rutt%2C+James+Hoare&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>) </li> <li id="cite_note-238"><a href="#cite_ref-238">^</a> Jae-eun Kang, 《The Land of Scholars:Two Thousand Years of Korean Confucianism》, Home&Sekey Books, 2006. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-931907-30-7" title="Special:BookSources/1-931907-30-7">1-931907-30-7</a>, p.149 </li> <li id="cite_note-239"><a href="#cite_ref-239">^</a> Kim dae-hang, 《Classic Poetic Songs of Korea》, Ewha Womans University Press, 2009. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/89-7300-843-9" title="Special:BookSources/89-7300-843-9">89-7300-843-9</a> p.51 </li> <li id="cite_note-miya-240"><a href="#cite_ref-miya_240-0">^</a> (Miya 2006; Miya 2007) </li> <li id="cite_note-241"><a href="#cite_ref-241">^</a> Andrei Nikolaevich Lan Kov, 《The dawn of modern Korea: the transformation in life and cityscape》, Eunhang namu, 2007. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/89-5660-214-X" title="Special:BookSources/89-5660-214-X">89-5660-214-X</a>. p.266 </li> <li id="cite_note-242"><a href="#cite_ref-242">^</a> Sok-pong So, 《Brother Nations, Korea and Turkey:a history of Turkish soldiers' participation in the Korean War》, Ministry of Patriots & Veterans Affairs, 2007. p.31 </li> <li id="cite_note-Grayson-243"><a href="#cite_ref-Grayson_243-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayson2002" class="citation book cs1">Grayson, James Huntley (2002). Korea: A Religious History. <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. p. 195. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1605-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-1605-0"><bdi>978-0-7007-1605-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea%3A+A+Religious+History&rft.pages=195&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-1605-0&rft.aulast=Grayson&rft.aufirst=James+Huntley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-244"><a href="#cite_ref-244">^</a> 〈Harvard Asia Quarterly〉, Vol.10 1–2, Harvard Asia Law Society, Harvard Asia Business Club and Asia at the Graduate school of Design, 2006. p.27 </li> <li id="cite_note-joongangdaily-245"><a href="#cite_ref-joongangdaily_245-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://joongangdaily.joins.com/article/view.asp?aid=2632291">"Moving beyond the green blur: a history of soju"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Korea_JoongAng_Daily" title="Korea JoongAng Daily">Korea JoongAng Daily</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Moving+beyond+the+green+blur%3A+a+history+of+soju&rft.pub=Korea+JoongAng+Daily&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjoongangdaily.joins.com%2Farticle%2Fview.asp%3Faid%3D2632291&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-246"><a href="#cite_ref-246">^</a> National Research Institute of Cultural Heritage, 〈Sul, Korean Alcoholic Beverages〉, 2013. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/89-299-0176-X" title="Special:BookSources/89-299-0176-X">89-299-0176-X</a>, p.25 </li> <li id="cite_note-247"><a href="#cite_ref-247">^</a> Michael J. Pettid, 《Korean Cuisine:An Illustrated History》, Reaktion Books, 2008. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-86189-348-5" title="Special:BookSources/1-86189-348-5">1-86189-348-5</a> p.118 </li> <li id="cite_note-248"><a href="#cite_ref-248">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDaniel_R._WoolfSarah_FootChase_F._Robinson2012" class="citation book cs1">Daniel R. Woolf; Sarah Foot; Chase F. Robinson (25 October 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=bzmBxU39PGMC&pg=PA136">The Oxford History of Historical Writing: Volume 2: 400–1400</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 136. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923642-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-923642-8"><bdi>978-0-19-923642-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+History+of+Historical+Writing%3A+Volume+2%3A+400%E2%80%931400&rft.pages=136&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2012-10-25&rft.isbn=978-0-19-923642-8&rft.au=Daniel+R.+Woolf&rft.au=Sarah+Foot&rft.au=Chase+F.+Robinson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DbzmBxU39PGMC%26pg%3DPA136&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Seth-249"><a href="#cite_ref-Seth_249-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeth2019" class="citation book cs1">Seth, Michael J. (2019). A Brief History of Korea: Isolation, War, Despotism and Revival: The Fascinating Story of a Resilient But Divided People. <a href="/wiki/Tuttle_Publishing" title="Tuttle Publishing">Tuttle Publishing</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Brief+History+of+Korea%3A+Isolation%2C+War%2C+Despotism+and+Revival%3A+The+Fascinating+Story+of+a+Resilient+But+Divided+People&rft.pub=Tuttle+Publishing&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Seth&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Crossley-250"><a href="#cite_ref-Crossley_250-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrossley2019" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pamela_Kyle_Crossley" title="Pamela Kyle Crossley">Crossley, Pamela Kyle</a> (2019). Hammer and Anvil: Nomad Rulers at the Forge of the Modern World. <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Hammer+and+Anvil%3A+Nomad+Rulers+at+the+Forge+of+the+Modern+World&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Crossley&rft.aufirst=Pamela+Kyle&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-251"><a href="#cite_ref-251">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVovin2020" class="citation journal cs1">Vovin, Alexander (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.academia.edu/33690493">"Old Korean and Proto-Korean *r and *l Revisited"</a>. International Journal of Eurasian Linguistics. 2 (1): 94–107. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F25898833-12340025">10.1163/25898833-12340025</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2589-8825">2589-8825</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:225514531">225514531</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Eurasian+Linguistics&rft.atitle=Old+Korean+and+Proto-Korean+%2Ar+and+%2Al+Revisited&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=94-107&rft.date=2020&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A225514531%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=2589-8825&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F25898833-12340025&rft.aulast=Vovin&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.academia.edu%2F33690493&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a> Lee, Ki-moon & Ramsey, S. 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Cengage Learning. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-285-52867-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-285-52867-0"><bdi>978-1-285-52867-0</bdi></a>. Retrieved 19 August 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=East+Asia%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History&rft.pub=Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2013-01-01&rft.isbn=978-1-285-52867-0&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQfkWAAAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522Korea%2Bled%2Bthe%2Bworld%2Bin%2Binventing%2Bmetal%2Bmovable-type%2Bprinting%2Bin%2B1234%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBielenstein2005" class="citation cs2">Bielenstein, Hans (2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vdJ7DwAAQBAJ">Diplomacy and Trade in the Chinese World, 589–1276</a>, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0761-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-474-0761-4"><bdi>978-90-474-0761-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Diplomacy+and+Trade+in+the+Chinese+World%2C+589%E2%80%931276&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-90-474-0761-4&rft.aulast=Bielenstein&rft.aufirst=Hans&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvdJ7DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBowman2000" class="citation cs2">Bowman, John S. (2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cYoHOqC7Yx4C">Columbia Chronologies of Asian History and Culture</a>, Columbia University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50004-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-231-50004-3"><bdi>978-0-231-50004-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Columbia+Chronologies+of+Asian+History+and+Culture&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-0-231-50004-3&rft.aulast=Bowman&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcYoHOqC7Yx4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreuker2003" class="citation cs2">Breuker, Remco E. (2003), "Koryŏ as an Independent Realm: The Emperor's Clothes?", Korean Studies, 27: 48–84, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1353%2Fks.2005.0001">10.1353/ks.2005.0001</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0145-840X">0145-840X</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23719570">23719570</a>, <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144851344">144851344</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Korean+Studies&rft.atitle=Kory%C5%8F+as+an+Independent+Realm%3A+The+Emperor%27s+Clothes%3F&rft.volume=27&rft.pages=48-84&rft.date=2003&rft.issn=0145-840X&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144851344%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23719570%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1353%2Fks.2005.0001&rft.aulast=Breuker&rft.aufirst=Remco+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBreuker2010" class="citation cs2">Breuker, Remco E. (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=wZx0VvujPqcC">Establishing a Pluralist Society in Medieval Korea, 918-1170: History, Ideology and Identity in the Koryŏ Dynasty</a>, BRILL, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18325-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-18325-4"><bdi>978-90-04-18325-4</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Establishing+a+Pluralist+Society+in+Medieval+Korea%2C+918-1170%3A+History%2C+Ideology+and+Identity+in+the+Kory%C5%8F+Dynasty&rft.pub=BRILL&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-90-04-18325-4&rft.aulast=Breuker&rft.aufirst=Remco+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DwZx0VvujPqcC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrown2014" class="citation cs2">Brown, Kerry (2014), Berkshire Dictionary of Chinese Biography, Berkshire Publishing Group LLC</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Berkshire+Dictionary+of+Chinese+Biography&rft.pub=Berkshire+Publishing+Group+LLC&rft.date=2014&rft.aulast=Brown&rft.aufirst=Kerry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChung1998" class="citation cs2">Chung, Yang-mo (1998), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DnaiYKYmQegC">"The Art of the Korean Potter: From the Neolithic Period to the Chosŏn Dynasty"</a>, Arts of Korea, Metropolitan Museum of Art, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-850-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87099-850-8"><bdi>978-0-87099-850-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Art+of+the+Korean+Potter%3A+From+the+Neolithic+Period+to+the+Chos%C5%8Fn+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Arts+of+Korea&rft.pub=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-87099-850-8&rft.aulast=Chung&rft.aufirst=Yang-mo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDnaiYKYmQegC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEm2013" class="citation cs2">Em, Henry (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DxAd2Aw_jP0C">The Great Enterprise: Sovereignty and Historiography in Modern Korea</a>, Duke University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-5372-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8223-5372-0"><bdi>978-0-8223-5372-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Great+Enterprise%3A+Sovereignty+and+Historiography+in+Modern+Korea&rft.pub=Duke+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0-8223-5372-0&rft.aulast=Em&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDxAd2Aw_jP0C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrayson2013" class="citation cs2">Grayson, James H. (2013), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LU78AQAAQBAJ">Korea - A Religious History</a>, Routledge, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-86925-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-86925-9"><bdi>978-1-136-86925-9</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Korea+-+A+Religious+History&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-136-86925-9&rft.aulast=Grayson&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLU78AQAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJung2015" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Jung, Byung-Sam (2015), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Journal/ArticleDetail/NODE06501992">"The Palgwanhoe Ceremony and the Practice of the Eight Prohibitions in Goryeo"</a>, Bul Gyo Hak Bo (in Korean), 71: 195–219, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1226-1386">1226-1386</a>, retrieved 29 March 2019</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Bul+Gyo+Hak+Bo&rft.atitle=The+Palgwanhoe+Ceremony+and+the+Practice+of+the+Eight+Prohibitions+in+Goryeo&rft.volume=71&rft.pages=195-219&rft.date=2015&rft.issn=1226-1386&rft.aulast=Jung&rft.aufirst=Byung-Sam&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2FJournal%2FArticleDetail%2FNODE06501992&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2011b" class="citation cs2">Kim, Alexander (2011b), On the Origin of the Jurchen People (A Study Based on Russian Sources)</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+the+Origin+of+the+Jurchen+People+%28A+Study+Based+on+Russian+Sources%29&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2012" class="citation cs2">Kim, Jinwung (2012), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=s2EVi-MpnUsC">A History of Korea: From "Land of the Morning Calm" to States in Conflict</a>, Indiana University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00024-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-253-00024-8"><bdi>978-0-253-00024-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Korea%3A+From+%22Land+of+the+Morning+Calm%22+to+States+in+Conflict&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-253-00024-8&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Jinwung&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Ds2EVi-MpnUsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKim2014" class="citation cs2">Kim, Djul Kil (30 May 2014), The History of Korea, 2nd Edition, Bloomsbury Academic, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-581-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-61069-581-7"><bdi>978-1-61069-581-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+History+of+Korea%2C+2nd+Edition&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2014-05-30&rft.isbn=978-1-61069-581-7&rft.aulast=Kim&rft.aufirst=Djul+Kil&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKorean_History_Society2002" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Korean History Society (2002), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=EecRFyocmJYC"><bdi lang="ko">고려의 황도 개경</bdi></a> (in Korean), 창비, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-89-364-8221-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-89-364-8221-3"><bdi>978-89-364-8221-3</bdi></a></cite><span 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(1961), "Some Kings of Koryo as Registered in Chinese Works", Journal of the American Oriental Society, 81 (4): 415–422, <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F595688">10.2307/595688</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-0279">0003-0279</a>, <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/595688">595688</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Some+Kings+of+Koryo+as+Registered+in+Chinese+Works&rft.volume=81&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=415-422&rft.date=1961&rft.issn=0003-0279&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F595688%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F595688&rft.aulast=Rogers&rft.aufirst=Michael+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRossabi1983" class="citation cs2">Rossabi, Morris (1983), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=sNpD5UKmkswC">China Among Equals: The Middle Kingdom and Its Neighbors, 10th-14th Centuries</a>, University of California Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04562-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-04562-0"><bdi>978-0-520-04562-0</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=China+Among+Equals%3A+The+Middle+Kingdom+and+Its+Neighbors%2C+10th-14th+Centuries&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-520-04562-0&rft.aulast=Rossabi&rft.aufirst=Morris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DsNpD5UKmkswC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeoHong2004" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-script cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Seo, Ji-Eun; Hong, Seung-Jae (2004), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.kci.go.kr/kciportal/ci/sereArticleSearch/ciSereArtiView.kci?sereArticleSearchBean.artiId=ART000963856"><bdi lang="ko">고려시대 사찰 주불전의 건축 특성 연구</bdi></a> [A Study on the Archtectural [sic] Characteristics of main Buddhist sanctum in Koryeo Period], Journal of the Architectural Institute of Korea Planning & Design (in Korean), 20 (12): 177–186, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1226-9093">1226-9093</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Architectural+Institute+of+Korea+Planning+%26+Design&rft.atitle=%EA%B3%A0%EB%A0%A4%EC%8B%9C%EB%8C%80+%EC%82%AC%EC%B0%B0+%EC%A3%BC%EB%B6%88%EC%A0%84%EC%9D%98+%EA%B1%B4%EC%B6%95+%ED%8A%B9%EC%84%B1+%EC%97%B0%EA%B5%AC&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=177-186&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=1226-9093&rft.aulast=Seo&rft.aufirst=Ji-Eun&rft.au=Hong%2C+Seung-Jae&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.kci.go.kr%2Fkciportal%2Fci%2FsereArticleSearch%2FciSereArtiView.kci%3FsereArticleSearchBean.artiId%3DART000963856&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeth2010" class="citation cs2">Seth, Michael J. (2010), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WJtMGXyGlUEC">A History of Korea: From Antiquity to the Present</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rowman_%26_Littlefield" title="Rowman & Littlefield">Rowman & Littlefield</a>, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6717-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7425-6717-7"><bdi>978-0-7425-6717-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+History+of+Korea%3A+From+Antiquity+to+the+Present&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0-7425-6717-7&rft.aulast=Seth&rft.aufirst=Michael+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWJtMGXyGlUEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShultz2000" class="citation cs2">Shultz, Edward (1 June 2000), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4Z0BEAAAQBAJ">Generals and Scholars: Military Rule in Medieval Korea</a>, University of Hawaii Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-6263-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8248-6263-3"><bdi>978-0-8248-6263-3</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Generals+and+Scholars%3A+Military+Rule+in+Medieval+Korea&rft.pub=University+of+Hawaii+Press&rft.date=2000-06-01&rft.isbn=978-0-8248-6263-3&rft.aulast=Shultz&rft.aufirst=Edward&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4Z0BEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTwitchettFairbankFranke1994" class="citation cs2">Twitchett, Denis C.; Fairbank, John King; Franke, Herbert (1994), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=iN9Tdfdap5MC">The Cambridge History of China: Volume 6, Alien Regimes and Border States, 907–1368</a>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-24331-5"><bdi>978-0-521-24331-5</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+China%3A+Volume+6%2C+Alien+Regimes+and+Border+States%2C+907%E2%80%931368&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=978-0-521-24331-5&rft.aulast=Twitchett&rft.aufirst=Denis+C.&rft.au=Fairbank%2C+John+King&rft.au=Franke%2C+Herbert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DiN9Tdfdap5MC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYuk2011" class="citation cs2 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yuk, Jungim (2011), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dbpia.co.kr/Article/NODE02114890">"The Thirty Year War between Goryeo and the Khitans and the International Order in East Asia"</a>, Dongbuga Yeoksa Nonchong (in Korean) (34): 11–52, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1975-7840">1975-7840</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Dongbuga+Yeoksa+Nonchong&rft.atitle=The+Thirty+Year+War+between+Goryeo+and+the+Khitans+and+the+International+Order+in+East+Asia&rft.issue=34&rft.pages=11-52&rft.date=2011&rft.issn=1975-7840&rft.aulast=Yuk&rft.aufirst=Jungim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dbpia.co.kr%2FArticle%2FNODE02114890&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEbreyWalthall2014" class="citation cs2">Ebrey, Patricia Buckley; Walthall, Anne (2014), Pre-Modern East Asia: To 1800: A Cultural, Social, and Political History, Third Edition, Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-133-60651-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-133-60651-2"><bdi>978-1-133-60651-2</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pre-Modern+East+Asia%3A+To+1800%3A+A+Cultural%2C+Social%2C+and+Political+History%2C+Third+Edition&rft.place=Boston%2C+MA&rft.pub=Wadsworth%2C+Cengage+Learning&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-133-60651-2&rft.aulast=Ebrey&rft.aufirst=Patricia+Buckley&rft.au=Walthall%2C+Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHyun2013" class="citation cs2">Hyun, Jeongwon (2013), Gift Exchange among States in East Asia during the Eleventh Century (Thesis (PhD)), University of Washington, <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/1773%2F24231">1773/24231</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Gift+Exchange+among+States+in+East+Asia+during+the+Eleventh+Century&rft.pub=University+of+Washington&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F1773%2F24231&rft.aulast=Hyun&rft.aufirst=Jeongwon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AGoryeo" class="Z3988">.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sem_Vermeersch" title="Sem Vermeersch">Vermeersch, Sem</a>. (2008). The Power of the Buddhas: the Politics of Buddhism during the Koryǒ Dynasty (918–1392). Cambridge: Harvard University Press. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03188-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-674-03188-3">978-0-674-03188-3</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/213407432">OCLC 213407432</a></li></ul> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=Goryeo&params=37_58_N_126_33_E_type:county">37°58′N 126°33′E / 37.967°N 126.550°E / 37.967; 126.550</a> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output 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data-file-height="500" /></a> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Goryeo</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">History</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo%E2%80%93Khitan_War" title="Goryeo–Khitan War">Goryeo–Khitan War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_conflict_in_the_Goryeo%E2%80%93Khitan_War" title="First conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War">First conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_conflict_in_the_Goryeo%E2%80%93Khitan_War" title="Second conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War">Second conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_conflict_in_the_Goryeo%E2%80%93Khitan_War" title="Third conflict in the Goryeo–Khitan War">Third conflict</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean%E2%80%93Jurchen_border_conflicts" title="Korean–Jurchen border conflicts">Korean–Jurchen border conflicts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_military_regime" title="Goryeo military regime">Military regime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_invasions_of_Korea" title="Mongol invasions of Korea">Mongol invasions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_under_Mongol_rule" title="Goryeo under Mongol rule">Mongol rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambyeolcho_Rebellion" title="Sambyeolcho Rebellion">Sambyeolcho Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wihwado_Retreat" title="Wihwado Retreat">Wihwado Retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryeosa" title="Goryeosa">Goryeosa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Government</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Korea#Goryeo_dynasty" title="List of monarchs of Korea">Monarchs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Family_tree_of_the_Goryeo_royal_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Family tree of the Goryeo royal family">Family tree</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Founding_legends_of_the_Goryeo_royal_family" title="Founding legends of the Goryeo royal family">Founding legends</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Goryeo" title="Military of Goryeo">Military of Goryeo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byeolmuban" title="Byeolmuban">Byeolmuban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sambyeolcho" title="Sambyeolcho">Sambyeolcho</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Economy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_coinage" title="Goryeo coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society and culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tripitaka_Koreana" title="Tripitaka Koreana">Tripitaka Koreana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Goryeo_Buddhist_paintings" title="List of Goryeo Buddhist paintings">Buddhist paintings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goryeo_ware" title="Goryeo ware">Ware</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/305771209">VIAF</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/7649900-5">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh2002012471">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11956677k">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11956677k">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://katalog.nsk.hr/F/?func=direct&doc_number=000584196&local_base=nsk10">Croatia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KSH1998012650">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007532493205171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&oldid=1258400067">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Goryeo&oldid=1258400067</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Goryeo" title="Category:Goryeo">Goryeo</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:918_establishments" title="Category:918 establishments">918 establishments</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1392_disestablishments_in_Asia" title="Category:1392 disestablishments in Asia">1392 disestablishments in Asia</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_countries_in_Korean_history" title="Category:Former countries in Korean history">Former countries in Korean history</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_kingdoms" title="Category:Former kingdoms">Former kingdoms</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_established_in_the_910s" title="Category:States and territories established in the 910s">States and territories established in the 910s</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:States_and_territories_disestablished_in_1392" title="Category:States and territories disestablished in 1392">States and territories disestablished in 1392</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Vassal_and_tributary_states_of_the_Mongol_Empire" title="Category:Vassal and tributary states of the Mongol Empire">Vassal and tributary states of the Mongol Empire</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_dictatorships" title="Category:Military dictatorships">Military dictatorships</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tributaries_of_Imperial_China" title="Category:Tributaries of 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