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class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Founding_of_the_dynasty_by_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I_(r._1501–1524)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Founding_of_the_dynasty_by_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I_(r._1501–1524)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Founding of the dynasty by Shāh Ismāʻil I (<i>r.</i> 1501–1524)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Founding_of_the_dynasty_by_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I_(r._1501–1524)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Iran_prior_to_Ismāʻil's_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Iran_prior_to_Ismāʻil's_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Iran prior to Ismāʻil's rule</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Iran_prior_to_Ismāʻil's_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rise_of_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rise_of_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Rise of Shāh Ismāʻil I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rise_of_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Start_of_clashes_with_the_Ottomans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Start_of_clashes_with_the_Ottomans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Start of clashes with the Ottomans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Start_of_clashes_with_the_Ottomans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shāh_Tahmāsp_(r._1524–1576)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shāh_Tahmāsp_(r._1524–1576)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Shāh Tahmāsp (<i>r.</i> 1524–1576)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shāh_Tahmāsp_(r._1524–1576)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Civil_strife_during_Tahmāsp's_early_reign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Civil_strife_during_Tahmāsp's_early_reign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Civil strife during Tahmāsp's early reign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Civil_strife_during_Tahmāsp's_early_reign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_threats_to_the_Empire" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_threats_to_the_Empire"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.2</span> <span>Foreign threats to the Empire</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_threats_to_the_Empire-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Royal_refugees:_Bayezid_and_Humayun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Royal_refugees:_Bayezid_and_Humayun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.3</span> <span>Royal refugees: Bayezid and Humayun</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Royal_refugees:_Bayezid_and_Humayun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy_of_Shah_Tahmasp" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy_of_Shah_Tahmasp"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.4</span> <span>Legacy of Shah Tahmasp</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy_of_Shah_Tahmasp-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chaos_under_Tahmasp's_sons" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chaos_under_Tahmasp's_sons"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Chaos under Tahmasp's sons</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chaos_under_Tahmasp's_sons-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ismail_II_(r._1576–1577)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ismail_II_(r._1576–1577)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Ismail II (<i>r.</i> 1576–1577)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ismail_II_(r._1576–1577)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mohammad_Khodabanda_(r._1578–1587)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mohammad_Khodabanda_(r._1578–1587)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Mohammad Khodabanda (<i>r.</i> 1578–1587)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mohammad_Khodabanda_(r._1578–1587)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shah_Abbas_(r._1588–1629)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shah_Abbas_(r._1588–1629)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4</span> <span>Shah Abbas (<i>r.</i> 1588–1629)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shah_Abbas_(r._1588–1629)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Restoration_of_central_authority" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Restoration_of_central_authority"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.1</span> <span>Restoration of central authority</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Restoration_of_central_authority-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Recovery_of_territory_from_the_Uzbeks_and_the_Ottomans" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Recovery_of_territory_from_the_Uzbeks_and_the_Ottomans"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.2</span> <span>Recovery of territory from the Uzbeks and the Ottomans</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Recovery_of_territory_from_the_Uzbeks_and_the_Ottomans-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quelling_the_Georgian_uprising" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quelling_the_Georgian_uprising"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.3</span> <span>Quelling the Georgian uprising</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quelling_the_Georgian_uprising-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suppressing_the_Kurdish_rebellion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suppressing_the_Kurdish_rebellion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.4</span> <span>Suppressing the Kurdish rebellion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suppressing_the_Kurdish_rebellion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Contacts_with_Europe_during_Abbas's_reign" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Contacts_with_Europe_during_Abbas's_reign"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.5</span> <span>Contacts with Europe during Abbas's reign</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Contacts_with_Europe_during_Abbas's_reign-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Succession_and_legacy_of_Abbas_I" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Succession_and_legacy_of_Abbas_I"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.4.6</span> <span>Succession and legacy of Abbas I</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Succession_and_legacy_of_Abbas_I-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decline" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decline"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.5</span> <span>Decline</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decline-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Society</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Society-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Society subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Turks_and_Tajiks" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Turks_and_Tajiks"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Turks and Tajiks</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Turks_and_Tajiks-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_third_force:_Caucasians" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_third_force:_Caucasians"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>The third force: Caucasians</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_third_force:_Caucasians-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Religion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Religion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Religion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Religion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emergence_of_a_clerical_aristocracy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emergence_of_a_clerical_aristocracy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Emergence of a clerical aristocracy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emergence_of_a_clerical_aristocracy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Akhbaris_versus_Usulis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Akhbaris_versus_Usulis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1.1</span> <span>Akhbaris versus Usulis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Akhbaris_versus_Usulis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Allamah_Majlisi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allamah_Majlisi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1.2</span> <span>Allamah Majlisi</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allamah_Majlisi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Government</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Government-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Government subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Structure" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structure"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Structure</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structure-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_royal_court" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_royal_court"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>The royal court</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_royal_court-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Local_governments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Local_governments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Local governments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Local_governments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Democratic_institutions_in_an_authoritarian_society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Democratic_institutions_in_an_authoritarian_society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Democratic institutions in an authoritarian society</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Democratic_institutions_in_an_authoritarian_society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Law" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Law"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Law</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Law-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Reforms_in_the_military" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reforms_in_the_military"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6.1</span> <span>Reforms in the military</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reforms_in_the_military-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Economy</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Economy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Economy subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Economy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Agriculture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Agriculture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Agriculture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Agriculture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Travel_and_caravanserais" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Travel_and_caravanserais"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Travel and caravanserais</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Travel_and_caravanserais-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Foreign_trade_and_the_Silk_Road" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Foreign_trade_and_the_Silk_Road"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Foreign trade and the Silk Road</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Foreign_trade_and_the_Silk_Road-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Culture</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Culture-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Culture subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Art" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Art"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Art</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Art-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Architecture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Architecture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.1</span> <span>Architecture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Architecture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Literature" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Literature"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1.2</span> <span>Literature</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Literature-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Isfahan_School_–_Islamic_philosophy_revived" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Isfahan_School_–_Islamic_philosophy_revived"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.2</span> <span>The Isfahan School – Islamic philosophy revived</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Isfahan_School_–_Islamic_philosophy_revived-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.3</span> <span>Medicine</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entertainment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entertainment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.4</span> <span>Entertainment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entertainment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Clothes_and_appearances" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothes_and_appearances"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.5</span> <span>Clothes and appearances</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothes_and_appearances-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Language" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Language"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Language</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Language-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Legacy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Safavid Iran</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 52 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-52" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">52 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safawidiese_Ryk" title="Safawidiese Ryk – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Safawidiese Ryk" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%88%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="الدولة الصفوية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="الدولة الصفوية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_Safavida" title="Imperio Safavida – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Imperio Safavida" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D6%86%D5%A5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Սեֆեան Պարսկաստան – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Սեֆեան Պարսկաստան" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C9%99f%C9%99vil%C9%99r" title="Səfəvilər – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Səfəvilər" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%A7%DB%8C%D9%85%D9%BE%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%AA%D9%88%D8%B1%D9%84%D9%88%D8%BA%D9%88" title="صفوی ایمپیراتورلوغو – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="صفوی ایمپیراتورلوغو" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AB%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AD%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF" title="সাফাভীয় সাম্রাজ্য – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="সাফাভীয় সাম্রাজ্য" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%B8%D2%99%D3%99%D1%80_%D0%B4%D3%99%D2%AF%D0%BB%D3%99%D1%82%D0%B5" title="Сәфәүиҙәр дәүләте – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Сәфәүиҙәр дәүләте" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%B2%D1%96%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%8F%D1%80%D0%B6%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Сефевідская дзяржава – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Сефевідская дзяржава" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Сефевиин улас – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Сефевиин улас" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperi_Saf%C3%A0vida" title="Imperi Safàvida – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Imperi Safàvida" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaviidide_Iraan" title="Safaviidide Iraan – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Safaviidide Iraan" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperio_saf%C3%A1vida" title="Imperio safávida – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Imperio safávida" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaviden_Inperioa" title="Safaviden Inperioa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Safaviden Inperioa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%DB%8C%D8%B1%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%88%DB%8C" title="ایران صفوی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ایران صفوی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empire_s%C3%A9f%C3%A9vide" title="Empire séfévide – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Empire séfévide" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%82%AC%ED%8C%8C%EB%B9%84_%EC%A0%9C%EA%B5%AD" title="사파비 제국 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="사파비 제국" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daular_Safawiyya" title="Daular Safawiyya – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Daular Safawiyya" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8D%D5%A5%D6%86%D5%B5%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%8A%D5%A1%D6%80%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%BD%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%B6" title="Սեֆյան Պարսկաստան – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Սեֆյան Պարսկաստան" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A6" title="साफाविद – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="साफाविद" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavidsko_Carstvo" title="Safavidsko Carstvo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Safavidsko Carstvo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iran_Safawi" title="Iran Safawi – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Iran Safawi" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%90%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%94%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%95%D7%99%D7%AA" title="האימפריה הספווית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="האימפריה הספווית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%97%E1%83%90_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სეფიანთა იმპერია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="სეფიანთა იმპერია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewleta_Sefewiyan" title="Dewleta Sefewiyan – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Dewleta Sefewiyan" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Сефевилер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Сефевилер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE_%D0%A6%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сафавидско Царство – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Сафавидско Царство" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empira_Safavida" title="Empira Safavida – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Empira Safavida" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%AB%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%BF_%E0%B4%B8%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%AE%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%82" title="സഫവി സാമ്രാജ്യം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="സഫവി സാമ്രാജ്യം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A1%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%94%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%A8_%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%9E%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="სეფიანეფიშ იმპერია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="სეფიანეფიშ იმპერია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AF%D9%88%D9%84%D9%87_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%87" title="الدوله الصفويه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="الدوله الصفويه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Emp%C3%A8ri_Safavida" title="Empèri Safavida – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Empèri Safavida" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safaviylar_davlati" title="Safaviylar davlati – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Safaviylar davlati" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%AB%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%B5%E0%A8%BF%E0%A8%A6_%E0%A8%87%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%BE%E0%A8%A8" title="ਸਫਾਵਿਦ ਇਰਾਨ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਸਫਾਵਿਦ ਇਰਾਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="صفوی سلطنت – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="صفوی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imp%C3%A9rio_Saf%C3%A1vida" title="Império Safávida – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Império Safávida" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-crh mw-list-item"><a href="https://crh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sefeviyler_Devleti" title="Sefeviyler Devleti – Crimean Tatar" lang="crh" hreflang="crh" data-title="Sefeviyler Devleti" data-language-autonym="Qırımtatarca" data-language-local-name="Crimean Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qırımtatarca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D1%84%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%B3%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B4%D0%B0%D1%80%D1%81%D1%82%D0%B2%D0%BE" title="Сефевидское государство – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Сефевидское государство" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavid_Empire" title="Safavid Empire – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Safavid Empire" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saf%C3%ADjovsk%C3%A1_r%C3%AD%C5%A1a" title="Safíjovská ríša – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Safíjovská ríša" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dawladii_safawiyiinta" title="Dawladii safawiyiinta – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Dawladii safawiyiinta" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95%D9%88%DB%8C%DB%8C%DB%95%DA%A9%D8%A7%D9%86" title="سەفەوییەکان – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="سەفەوییەکان" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B4%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%98%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Сафавидски Иран – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Сафавидски Иран" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safavidska_Monarhija" title="Safavidska Monarhija – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Safavidska Monarhija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%9F%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%94" title="อิหร่านซาฟาวิด – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อิหร่านซาฟาวิด" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%82%D0%B8_%D0%A1%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0%D0%B2%D0%B8%D1%91%D0%BD" title="Давлати Сафавиён – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Давлати Сафавиён" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Safev%C3%AEler" title="Safevîler – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Safevîler" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" 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href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B5%D9%81%D9%88%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%86%D8%AA" title="صفوی سلطنت – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="صفوی سلطنت" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dewleta_Sefewiyan" title="Dewleta Sefewiyan – Dimli" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Dewleta Sefewiyan" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Dimli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q70893996 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%90%A8%E6%B3%95%E7%BB%B4%E5%B8%9D%E5%9B%BD" title="萨法维帝国 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="萨法维帝国" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"><span class="mw-redirectedfrom">(Redirected from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Safavid_Empire&redirect=no" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a>)</span></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Iranian empire (1501–1736)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Safavi_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Safavi (disambiguation)">Safavi (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Very_long plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style ambox-very_long" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/40px-Edit-clear.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/60px-Edit-clear.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f2/Edit-clear.svg/80px-Edit-clear.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article <b>may be <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Article_size" title="Wikipedia:Article size">too long</a> to read and navigate comfortably</b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Consider <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Splitting" title="Wikipedia:Splitting">splitting</a> content into sub-articles, <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Summary_style" title="Wikipedia:Summary style">condensing</a> it, or adding <a href="/wiki/Help:Section#Subsections" title="Help:Section">subheadings</a>. Please discuss this issue on the article's <a href="/wiki/Talk:Safavid_Iran" title="Talk:Safavid Iran">talk page</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2025</span>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1043282317">.mw-parser-output .ib-country{border-collapse:collapse;line-height:1.2em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country td,.mw-parser-output .ib-country th{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-header,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-full-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedtoprow .infobox-below{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0.4em 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedrow .infobox-full-data{border:0;padding:0 0.6em 0.2em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-label,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-data,.mw-parser-output .ib-country .mergedbottomrow .infobox-full-data{border-top:0;border-bottom:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding:0 0.6em 0.4em 0.6em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-header{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-above{font-size:125%;line-height:1.2}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-names{padding-top:0.25em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-name-style{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country .infobox-image{padding:0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-anthem{border-top:1px solid #a2a9b1;padding-top:0.5em;margin-top:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-largest,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-lang{font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-ethnic,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-religion,.mw-parser-output .ib-country-sovereignty{font-weight:normal;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li{text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fake-li2{text-indent:0.5em;margin-left:1em;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-website{line-height:11pt}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-map-caption3{position:relative;top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn{text-align:left;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .ib-country-fn-num{margin-left:1em}</style><table class="infobox ib-country vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above adr"><div class="fn org country-name">Guarded Domains of Iran</div><div class="ib-country-names"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">ممالک محروسه ایران</span></span> <span class="languageicon" style="font-size:100%; font-weight:normal">(<a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a>)</span><br /><span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Mamâlek-e Mahruse-ye Irân</i></span></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader">1501–1736</td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="noresize" style="display:table; width:100%;"> <div style="display:table-cell; vertical-align:middle; padding: 0px 5px 3px;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Safavid_Flag.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of Safavid Empire"><img alt="Flag of Safavid Empire" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Safavid_Flag.svg/125px-Safavid_Flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="125" height="83" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Safavid_Flag.svg/188px-Safavid_Flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/40/Safavid_Flag.svg/250px-Safavid_Flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a></span></div> </div> <div><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Iran#Safavid_dynasty" title="Flag of Iran">Flag (1576–1732)<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"></sup></a><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><span class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_of_Safavid_Iran_(1501%E2%80%931736).svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of Safavid Iran and its surroundings"><img alt="Map of Safavid Iran and its surroundings" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Map_of_Safavid_Iran_%281501%E2%80%931736%29.svg/250px-Map_of_Safavid_Iran_%281501%E2%80%931736%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Map_of_Safavid_Iran_%281501%E2%80%931736%29.svg/375px-Map_of_Safavid_Iran_%281501%E2%80%931736%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Map_of_Safavid_Iran_%281501%E2%80%931736%29.svg/500px-Map_of_Safavid_Iran_%281501%E2%80%931736%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1088" data-file-height="713" /></a></span><div class="ib-country-map-caption">Map of Safavid Iran and its surroundings</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Status</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empire</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Capital</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> <small>(1501–1555)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> <small>(1555–1598)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> <small>(1598–1736)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Common languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><div class="plainlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a><sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>b<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassian_languages" title="Circassian languages">Circassian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>c<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Religion <div class="ib-country-religion"></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> (state religion)<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>d<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><br /><a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni Islam</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a><br /><a href="/wiki/Judaism" title="Judaism">Judaism</a><br /></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Government</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Monarchy" title="Monarchy">Monarchy</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_kings_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of kings of Persia">Shahanshah</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1501–1524 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a> <small>(first)</small></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1732–1736 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Abbas_III" title="Abbas III">Abbas III</a> <small>(last)</small></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Safavid_Grand_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Safavid Grand Viziers">Grand Vizier</a></th><td class="infobox-data"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1501–1507 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Amir_Zakariya" title="Amir Zakariya">Amir Zakariya</a> <small>(first)</small></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1729–1736 </div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Qoli Beg</a> <small>(last)</small></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Legislature</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Council_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State">Council of State</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Historical era</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">Early modern period</a></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_order" title="Safavid order">Safavid order</a> by <a href="/wiki/Safi-ad-din_Ardabili" class="mw-redirect" title="Safi-ad-din Ardabili">Safi-ad-din Ardabili</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1301</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Established </div></th><td class="infobox-data">22 December<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> 1501</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak</a> invasion </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1722</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Reconquest under <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">1726–1729</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• Disestablished </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 March 1736</td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a> crowned </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 March 1736<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Area</th></tr><tr class="mergedbottomrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">1630<sup id="cite_ref-OxfordArea_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OxfordArea-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></th><td class="infobox-data">2,900,000 km<sup>2</sup> (1,100,000 sq mi)</td></tr><tr class="mergedtoprow"><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Population</th></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /></td></tr><tr class="mergedrow"><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="text-indent:-0.9em;margin-left:1.2em;font-weight:normal;">• 1650<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </div></th><td class="infobox-data">8 million to 10 million</td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Currency</th><td class="infobox-data">Tuman, <a href="/wiki/Abbasi_(currency)" title="Abbasi (currency)">Abbasi</a> (incl. <i><a href="/wiki/Georgian_abazi" title="Georgian abazi">Abazi</a></i>), Shahi<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <ul><li>1 Tuman = 50 Abbasi</li> <li>1 Tuman = 50 French livres</li> <li>1 Tuman = £3 6s 8d</li></ul> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"> <table style="width:95%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; display:inline-table;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="text-align:center; border:0; padding-bottom:0"><div id="before-after"></div> <b>Preceded by</b></td> <td style="text-align:center;border:0; padding-bottom:0;"><b>Succeeded by</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center; border:0;"> <table style="width:100%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_dynasty" title="Afrasiyab dynasty">Afrasiyab dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mihrabanids" title="Mihrabanids">Mihrabanids</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Shirvanshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shirvanshah">Shirvanshah</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Kar-Kiya_dynasty" title="Kar-Kiya dynasty">Kar-Kiya dynasty</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Mar%27ashis" title="Mar'ashis">Mar'ashis</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/d/d2/Blank.png" decoding="async" width="22" height="15" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="3" data-file-height="2" /></span></span> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td> <td style="vertical-align:top; text-align:center;border:0;"> <table style="width:92%; text-align:center; margin:0 auto; border:0;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Afsharid_Imperial_Standard_%283_Stripes%29.svg/20px-Afsharid_Imperial_Standard_%283_Stripes%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Afsharid_Imperial_Standard_%283_Stripes%29.svg/40px-Afsharid_Imperial_Standard_%283_Stripes%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="480" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Black_flag.svg/20px-Black_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Black_flag.svg/30px-Black_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Black_flag.svg/40px-Black_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="750" data-file-height="450" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/20px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/30px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/f/f3/Flag_of_Russia.svg/40px-Flag_of_Russia.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></span></span> </td></tr> <tr> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle; text-align:right;"><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> </td> <td style="border:0; padding:0; vertical-align:middle;"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/20px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="13" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg/40px-Flag_of_the_Ottoman_Empire_%281844%E2%80%931922%29.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></span></span> </td></tr> </tbody></table> </td></tr></tbody></table></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Iran" title="Category:History of Iran">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of <span class="fn org label">Iran</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/250px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/330px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/500px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2477" data-file-height="1857" /></a></span><br /> The <a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a> in Fars</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE / BC</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baradostian_culture" title="Baradostian culture">Baradostian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 36,000–18,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 20,000–10,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shulaveri%E2%80%93Shomu_culture" title="Shulaveri–Shomu culture">Shulaveri–Shomu culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6000–5000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zayandeh_River_Culture" title="Zayandeh River Culture">Zayandeh River Culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th millennium</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dalma_culture" title="Dalma culture">Dalma culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5th millennium</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Prehistory" title="History of Iran">Ancient period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3400–2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Helmand_culture" title="Helmand culture">Helmand culture</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2200</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3200–2700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi Kingdom</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zamua" title="Zamua">Zamua</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100-675</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2700–539</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Marhasi" title="Marhasi">Marhaši</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2550-2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus Civilization</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2400–2150</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1155</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Avestan period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 911–609</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 860–590</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mannaea" title="Mannaea">Mannaea</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 850–616</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zikirti" title="Zikirti">Zikirti</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750-521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saparda" title="Saparda">Saparda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 720-670</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Classical_antiquity" title="History of Iran">Imperial period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Median_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Median state">Median Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 678–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 652–625 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Teispids" title="Teispids">Anshanite Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 635 BC–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 626 BC–539 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th century BC</span>–11th century AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550 BC–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 331 BC–428 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 323 BC</span>–226 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 320s BC–17 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 312 BC–63 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 281 BC–62 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Fratarakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Fratarakas">Fratarakas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3rd-century BC–132 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elymais" title="Elymais">Elymais</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 147 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Characene" title="Characene">Characene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 141 BC–222 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 132 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 19 AD–224/5</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Paratarajas" title="Paratarajas">Paratarajas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 125–300</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 224–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarmihrids" title="Zarmihrids">Zarmihrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 6th century–785</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550s–11th century</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Medieval_period" title="History of Iran">Medieval period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE / AD</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 632-661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750–1258</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 642–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–1349</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Masmughans_of_Damavand" title="Masmughans of Damavand">Masmughans of Damavand</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 665–1598</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Justanids" title="Justanids">Justanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 791 – 11th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alid dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 864 – 14th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 819–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 861–1003</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> pre-879 – 1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sajid_dynasty" title="Sajid dynasty">Sajid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 889–929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sallarid_dynasty" title="Sallarid dynasty">Sallarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 919–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 930–1090</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ilyas" title="Banu Ilyas">Ilyasids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 932–968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 934–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rawadid_dynasty" title="Rawadid dynasty">Rawadid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 955–1070</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hasanwayhids" title="Hasanwayhids">Hasanwayhids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 959–1095</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 977–1186</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Annazids" title="Annazids">Annazids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 990/1–1117</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1008–1141</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty_(Sistan)" title="Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)">Nasrid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1029–1236</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shabankara" title="Shabankara">Shabankara</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1030–1355</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1077–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1135–1225</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atabegs_of_Yazd" title="Atabegs of Yazd">Atabegs of Yazd</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1141–1319</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Salghurids" title="Salghurids">Salghurids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1148–1282</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hazaraspids" title="Hazaraspids">Hazaraspids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1424</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pishkinid_dynasty" title="Pishkinid dynasty">Pishkinid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khorshidi_dynasty" title="Khorshidi dynasty">Khorshidi dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1184-1597</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qutlugh-Khanids" title="Qutlugh-Khanids">Qutlugh-Khanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1223-1306</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mihrabanids" title="Mihrabanids">Mihrabanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1236–1537</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt dynasty">Kurt dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1244–1396</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1393</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sarbadars" title="Sarbadars">Sarbadars</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Injuids" title="Injuids">Injuids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_dynasty" title="Afrasiyab dynasty">Afrasiyab dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1349–1504</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mar%27ashis" title="Mar'ashis">Mar'ashis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1359–1596</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kar-Kiya_dynasty" title="Kar-Kiya dynasty">Kar-Kiya dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370s–1592</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1406–1468</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1468–1508</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Early_modern_period" title="History of Iran">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Safavid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1501–1736</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> (<a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1722–1729</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1736–1796</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1751–1794</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Modern_period" title="History of Iran">Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1789–1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1925–1979</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Contemporary_period" title="History of Iran">Contemporary period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Iran" title="Name of Iran">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Iran">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of women in Iran">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iran" title="List of wars involving Iran">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Iranian_history" title="Timeline of Iranian history">Timeline</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/20px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Iran" title="Template talk:History of Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>Guarded Domains of Iran</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>e<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> commonly called <b>Safavid Iran</b>, <b>Safavid Persia</b><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>f<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or the <b>Safavid Empire</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>g<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> was one of the largest and longest-lasting <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a> empires. It was ruled from 1501 to 1736 by the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It is often considered the beginning of <a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">modern Iranian history</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Iranica_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranica-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as one of the <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empires</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011135_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011135-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Safavid <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Shāh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismā'īl I</a> established the <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> denomination of <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shīʿa Islam</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">official religion of the empire</a>, marking one of the most important turning points in the <a href="/wiki/History_of_Islam" title="History of Islam">history of Islam</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a> dynasty rooted in the <a href="/wiki/Sufi" class="mw-redirect" title="Sufi">Sufi</a> <a href="/wiki/Safavid_order" title="Safavid order">Safavid order</a><sup id="cite_ref-Matthee_2021_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthee_2021-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> founded by <a href="/wiki/Sheikh" title="Sheikh">sheikhs</a> claimed by some sources to be of <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish</a><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> origin, it heavily intermarried with <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turkoman</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001493_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001493-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhanbaghi2006130_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhanbaghi2006130-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greek</a><sup id="cite_ref-Anthony_Bryer_1975_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthony_Bryer_1975-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> dignitaries and was Turkish-speaking and <a href="/wiki/Turkification" title="Turkification">Turkified</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-iranica_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranica-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, some historians argue that its founders were of Turkic, Arab, or Iranian origin. The ethnicity of the founder of the Safavid order remains a subject of scholarly debate. From their base in <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a>, the Safavids established control over parts of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a> and reasserted the <a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Iranian identity</a> of the region,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory20073"Why_is_there_such_confusion_about_the_origins_of_this_important_dynasty,_which_reasserted_Iranian_identity_and_established_an_independent_Iranian_state_after_eight_and_a_half_centuries_of_rule_by_foreign_dynasties?"_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory20073"Why_is_there_such_confusion_about_the_origins_of_this_important_dynasty,_which_reasserted_Iranian_identity_and_established_an_independent_Iranian_state_after_eight_and_a_half_centuries_of_rule_by_foreign_dynasties?"-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> thus becoming the first native dynasty since the <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyids</a> to establish a national state officially known as Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main group that contributed to the establishment of the Safavid state was the <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory20072–3...Turcoman,_tribal_forces_(qizilbash)_which_had_been_largely_responsible_for_bringing_the_Safavids_to_power..._49-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory20072–3...Turcoman,_tribal_forces_(qizilbash)_which_had_been_largely_responsible_for_bringing_the_Safavids_to_power...-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986213,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986213,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a Turkish word meaning 'red-head', <a href="/wiki/Turkoman_(ethnonym)" title="Turkoman (ethnonym)">Turkoman</a> tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow20095_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow20095-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On the other hand, ethnic Iranians played roles in bureaucracy and cultural affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986229,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986229,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Safavids ruled from 1501 to 1722 (experiencing a brief restoration from 1729 to 1736 and 1750 to 1773) and, at their height, they controlled all of what is now <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, parts of the <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasus</a> including <a href="/wiki/Russia" title="Russia">Russia</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, as well as parts of <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>. </p><p>Despite their demise in 1736, the legacy that they left behind was the revival of Iran as an economic stronghold between <a href="/wiki/Eastern_world" title="Eastern world">East</a> and <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">West</a>, the establishment of an efficient state and <a href="/wiki/Bureaucracy" title="Bureaucracy">bureaucracy</a> based upon "<a href="/wiki/Separation_of_powers#Checks_and_balances" title="Separation of powers">checks and balances</a>", their <a href="/wiki/Safavid_art" title="Safavid art">architectural innovations</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mecenate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mecenate">patronage for fine arts</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iranica_36-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranica-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Safavids have also left their mark down to the present era by <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">establishing Twelver Shīʿīsm as the state religion of Iran</a>, as well as spreading Shīʿa Islam in major parts of the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a>, <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Iranica_36-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Iranica-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the history of Iran after the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Muslim conquest of Persia</a>, the Safavid dynasty is considered a turning point. After centuries of rule by non-Iranians kings, the country became an independent power in the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_world" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic world">Islamic world</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-archive_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-archive-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Names">Names</h2></div> <p><span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn">Mamalik-i Mahrusa-yi Iran</i></span> (<a href="/wiki/Guarded_Domains_of_Iran" title="Guarded Domains of Iran">Guarded Domains of Iran</a>) was the common and official name of the Safavid realm.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat199713_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat199713-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat2017443_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat2017443-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The idea of the Guarded Domains illustrated a feeling of territorial and political uniformity in a society where the Persian language, culture, monarchy, and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shia Islam</a> became integral elements of the developing national identity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat199715_56-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat199715-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The concept presumably had started to form under the <a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a> in the late 13th-century, a period in which regional actions, trade, written culture, and partly Shia Islam, contributed to the establishment of the early modern <a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate</a> world.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat201933_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat201933-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Its shortened form was <span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn">mamalik-i Iran</i></span> ("Kingdom of Iran"), and it also had other variants, such as <span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn">mamalik-i mahrusa-yi khusravani</i></span> ("the Royal Guarded Domains") and <span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn">mamalik-i mahrusa-yi humayun</i></span> ("the Imperial Guarded Domains").<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshraf202482–83_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshraf202482–83-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Simply <span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn">Iran</i></span> was also used.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory1974180_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory1974180-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The phrase <span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn">mulk-i vasi' al-faza-yi Iran</i></span> ("the expansive realm of Iran") is used in both the 17th-century chronicle <span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Khold-e_barin" title="Khold-e barin">Khold-e barin</a></i></span> and the 1680s travelogue <span title="Persian-language text"><i lang="fa-Latn"><a href="/wiki/Safine-ye_Solaymani" title="Safine-ye Solaymani">Safine-ye Solaymani</a></i></span> by the Safavid ambassador to <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Siam</a>. This recurring expression highlights the authors' pride and recognition of their homeland. This expression is likely the fitting Persian way to describe an "empire" found in the writings of that time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthee2009241_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthee2009241-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Background">Background</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Safaviyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Safaviyya">Safaviyya</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safi-ad-din_Ardabili" class="mw-redirect" title="Safi-ad-din Ardabili">Safi-ad-din Ardabili</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideology of Safavids">Ideology of Safavids</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qezelbash.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Qezelbash.JPG/170px-Qezelbash.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="296" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Qezelbash.JPG/255px-Qezelbash.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/de/Qezelbash.JPG/340px-Qezelbash.JPG 2x" data-file-width="923" data-file-height="1609" /></a><figcaption>Mannequin of a Safavid <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> soldier, showing characteristic red cap (<a href="/wiki/Sa%27dabad_Palace" class="mw-redirect" title="Sa'dabad Palace">Sa'dabad Palace</a>, Teheran)</figcaption></figure> <p>Safavid history begins with the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Safaviyya" class="mw-redirect" title="Safaviyya">Safaviyya</a> by its eponymous founder <a href="/wiki/Safi-ad-din_Ardabili" class="mw-redirect" title="Safi-ad-din Ardabili">Safi-ad-din Ardabili</a> (1252–1334). In 700/1301, Safi al-Din assumed the leadership of the <a href="/wiki/Zahediyeh" title="Zahediyeh">Zahediyeh</a>, a significant <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Sufi</a> order in Gilan, from his spiritual master and father-in-law <a href="/wiki/Zahed_Gilani" title="Zahed Gilani">Zahed Gilani</a>. Due to the great spiritual charisma of Safi al-Din, the order was later known as the Safaviyya. The Safavid order soon gained great influence in the city of Ardabil, and Hamdullah Mustaufi noted that most of the people of Ardabil were followers of Safi al-Din. </p><p>Religious poetry from Safi al-Din, written in the <a href="/wiki/Old_Azari_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Azari language">Old Azari language</a><sup id="cite_ref-Yar_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yar-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—a now-extinct <a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Northwestern Iranian language</a>—and accompanied by a paraphrase in Persian that helps its understanding, has survived to this day and has linguistic importance.<sup id="cite_ref-Yar_61-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Yar-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After Safī al-Dīn, the leadership of the Safaviyya passed to <a href="/wiki/Sadr_al-D%C4%ABn_M%C5%ABs%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Sadr al-Dīn Mūsā">Sadr al-Dīn Mūsā</a> († 794/1391–92). The order at this time was transformed into a religious movement that conducted religious propaganda throughout Iran, Syria and Asia Minor, and most likely had maintained its Sunni Shafi'ite origin at that time. The leadership of the order passed from Sadr ud-Dīn Mūsā to his son <a href="/wiki/Khvajeh_Ali_Safavi" title="Khvajeh Ali Safavi">Khvajeh Ali Safavi</a> († 1429) and in turn to his son <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibrahim_Sh%C4%81h_Safav%C3%AD&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibrahim Shāh Safaví (page does not exist)">Ibrāhīm</a> († 1429–47). </p><p>When <a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Junayd" title="Shaykh Junayd">Shaykh Junayd</a>, the son of Ibrāhim, assumed the leadership of the Safaviyya in 1447, the history of the Safavid movement was radically changed. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Roger Savory</a>, "Sheikh Junayd was not content with spiritual authority and he sought material power."<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (August 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At that time, the most powerful dynasty in Iran was that of the <a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a>, the "Black Sheep", whose ruler <a href="/wiki/Jahan_Shah" title="Jahan Shah">Jahan Shah</a> ordered Junāyd to leave <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a> or else he would bring destruction and ruin upon the city.<sup id="cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Junayd sought refuge with the rival of Kara Koyunlu Jahan Shah, the <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu (White Sheep Turkomans)</a> <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a> <a href="/wiki/Uzun_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzun Hassan">Uzun Hassan</a>, and cemented his relationship by marrying Uzun Hassan's sister, Khadija Begum. Junayd was killed during an incursion into the territories of the <a href="/wiki/Shirvanshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shirvanshah">Shirvanshah</a> and was succeeded by his son <a href="/wiki/Haydar_Safavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Haydar Safavi">Haydar Safavi</a>. </p><p>Haydar married <a href="/wiki/Alamshah_Halime_Begum" title="Alamshah Halime Begum">Alamshah Halime Begum</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Anthony_Bryer_1975_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Anthony_Bryer_1975-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Uzun Hassan's daughter, who gave birth to <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a>, founder of the Safavid dynasty. Martha's mother Theodora—better known as <a href="/wiki/Despina_Khatun" title="Despina Khatun">Despina Khatun</a><sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>—was a <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greek" title="Pontic Greek">Pontic Greek</a> princess, the daughter of the Grand <a href="/wiki/Komnenos" title="Komnenos">Komnenos</a> <a href="/wiki/John_IV_of_Trebizond" title="John IV of Trebizond">John IV of Trebizond</a>. She had been married to Uzun Hassan<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in exchange for protection of the Grand Komnenos from the Ottomans. </p><p>After Uzun Hassan's death, his son <a href="/wiki/Yaqub_Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Yaqub Aq Qoyunlu">Ya'qub</a> felt threatened by the growing Safavid religious influence. Ya'qub allied himself with the Shirvanshah and killed Haydar in 1488. By this time, the bulk of the Safaviyya were <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">nomadic Oghuz Turkic-speaking</a> clans from <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> and <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a> and were known as <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> "Red Heads" because of their distinct red headgear. The Qizilbash were warriors, spiritual followers of Haydar, and a source of the Safavid military and political power. </p><p>After the death of Haydar, the Safaviyya gathered around his son <a href="/wiki/Ali_Mirza_Safavi" title="Ali Mirza Safavi">Ali Mirza Safavi</a>, who was also pursued and subsequently killed by Ya'qub. According to official Safavid history, before passing away, Ali had designated his young brother Ismail as the spiritual leader of the Safaviyya.<sup id="cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Founding_of_the_dynasty_by_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I_(r._1501–1524)"><span id="Founding_of_the_dynasty_by_Sh.C4.81h_Ism.C4.81.CA.BBil_I_.28r._1501.E2.80.931524.29"></span>Founding of the dynasty by Shāh Ismāʻil I (<i>r.</i> 1501–1524)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Iran_prior_to_Ismāʻil's_rule"><span id="Iran_prior_to_Ism.C4.81.CA.BBil.27s_rule"></span>Iran prior to Ismāʻil's rule</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ismail_declares_himself_shah_by_entering_Tabriz,_Chingiz_Mehbaliyev.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ismail_declares_himself_shah_by_entering_Tabriz%2C_Chingiz_Mehbaliyev.jpg/250px-Ismail_declares_himself_shah_by_entering_Tabriz%2C_Chingiz_Mehbaliyev.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="126" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ismail_declares_himself_shah_by_entering_Tabriz%2C_Chingiz_Mehbaliyev.jpg/330px-Ismail_declares_himself_shah_by_entering_Tabriz%2C_Chingiz_Mehbaliyev.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Ismail_declares_himself_shah_by_entering_Tabriz%2C_Chingiz_Mehbaliyev.jpg/500px-Ismail_declares_himself_shah_by_entering_Tabriz%2C_Chingiz_Mehbaliyev.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3292" data-file-height="1882" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail</a> declares himself "Shah" by entering <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>; his troops in front of <a href="/wiki/Arg_of_Tabriz" title="Arg of Tabriz">Arg of Tabriz</a>, painter <i>Chingiz Mehbaliyev</i>, in private collection.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the decline of the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a> (1370–1506), Iran was politically splintered, giving rise to a number of religious movements. The demise of Tamerlane's political authority created a space in which several religious communities, particularly Shiʻi ones, could come to the fore and gain prominence. Among these were a number of Sufi brotherhoods, the <a href="/wiki/Hurufism" title="Hurufism">Hurufis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuqtavi" title="Nuqtavi">Nuqtavis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Musha%27sha%27iyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Musha'sha'iyyah">Musha'sha'iyyah</a>. Of these various movements, the Safavid Qizilbash was the most politically resilient, and due to its success Shah Isma'il I gained political prominence in 1501.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were many local states prior to the Iranian state established by Ismāʻil.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most important local rulers about 1500 were: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Husayn_Bayqarah" class="mw-redirect" title="Husayn Bayqarah">Huṣayn Bāyqarā</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid</a> ruler of <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herāt</a></li> <li>Alwand Mīrzā, the <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> <a href="/wiki/Khan_(title)" title="Khan (title)">Khan</a> of <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabrīz</a></li> <li>Murad Beg, <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a> ruler of Irāq al-Ajam</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Yasar" title="Farrukh Yasar">Farro<u>kh</u> Yaṣar</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Shirvanshah" class="mw-redirect" title="Shirvanshah">Shah of Širvan</a></li> <li>Badi Alzamān Mīrzā, local ruler of <a href="/wiki/Balkh" title="Balkh">Bal<u>kh</u></a></li> <li>Huṣayn Kīā Chalavī, the local ruler of <a href="/wiki/Semnan,_Iran" title="Semnan, Iran">Semnān</a></li> <li>Murād Beg Bayandar, local ruler of <a href="/wiki/Yazd" title="Yazd">Yazd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sultan_Mahmud_ibn_Nizam_al-Din_Yahya" title="Sultan Mahmud ibn Nizam al-Din Yahya">Sultan Mahmud ibn Nizam al-Din Yahya</a>, ruler of <a href="/wiki/Sistan" title="Sistan">Sistan</a></li> <li>Several local rulers of <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Mazandaran">Mazandaran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gilan_province" title="Gilan province">Gilan</a> such as: Bisotun II, Ashraf ibn Taj al-Dawla, Mirza Ali, and <a href="/wiki/Kiya_Husayn_II" title="Kiya Husayn II">Kiya Husayn II</a>.</li></ul> <p>Ismāʻil was able to unite all these lands under the Iranian Empire he created. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rise_of_Shāh_Ismāʻil_I"><span id="Rise_of_Sh.C4.81h_Ism.C4.81.CA.BBil_I"></span>Rise of Shāh Ismāʻil I</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Portrait_of_Shah_Ismail_I._Inscribed_%22Ismael_Sophy_Rex_Pers%22._Painted_by_Cristofano_dell%27Altissimo,_dated_1552-1568.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Portrait_of_Shah_Ismail_I._Inscribed_%22Ismael_Sophy_Rex_Pers%22._Painted_by_Cristofano_dell%27Altissimo%2C_dated_1552-1568.jpg/250px-Portrait_of_Shah_Ismail_I._Inscribed_%22Ismael_Sophy_Rex_Pers%22._Painted_by_Cristofano_dell%27Altissimo%2C_dated_1552-1568.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="282" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Portrait_of_Shah_Ismail_I._Inscribed_%22Ismael_Sophy_Rex_Pers%22._Painted_by_Cristofano_dell%27Altissimo%2C_dated_1552-1568.jpg/330px-Portrait_of_Shah_Ismail_I._Inscribed_%22Ismael_Sophy_Rex_Pers%22._Painted_by_Cristofano_dell%27Altissimo%2C_dated_1552-1568.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f8/Portrait_of_Shah_Ismail_I._Inscribed_%22Ismael_Sophy_Rex_Pers%22._Painted_by_Cristofano_dell%27Altissimo%2C_dated_1552-1568.jpg/500px-Portrait_of_Shah_Ismail_I._Inscribed_%22Ismael_Sophy_Rex_Pers%22._Painted_by_Cristofano_dell%27Altissimo%2C_dated_1552-1568.jpg 2x" data-file-width="776" data-file-height="993" /></a><figcaption>One of the first actions performed by <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Shāh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismā'īl I</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a> was the proclamation of the <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver</a> denomination of <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shīʿa Islam</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">official religion</a> of his newly founded Persian Empire, causing sectarian tensions in the <a href="/wiki/Middle_East" title="Middle East">Middle East</a> when he destroyed the tombs of the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Abbasid_caliphs" title="List of Abbasid caliphs">Abbasid caliphs</a>, the Sunnī Imam <a href="/wiki/Abu_Hanifa_an-Nu%27man" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hanifa an-Nu'man">Abū Ḥanīfa al-Nuʿmān</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Ṣūfī Muslim</a> ascetic <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Qadir_Gilani" title="Abdul Qadir Gilani">ʿAbdul Qādir Gīlānī</a> in 1508.<sup id="cite_ref-Masters_2009_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Masters_2009-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The Safavid dynasty was founded about 1501 by <a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Shāh</a> <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismā'īl I</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ismailsafaviiranica-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His background is disputed: the language he used is not identical with that of his "race" or "nationality" and he was bilingual from birth.<sup id="cite_ref-Mino_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mino-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ismāʻil was of mixed <a href="/wiki/Turkmens" title="Turkmens">Turkoman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurdish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pontic_Greeks" title="Pontic Greeks">Pontic Greek</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> descent, and was a direct descendant of the <a href="/wiki/Sufism" title="Sufism">Ṣūfī Muslim</a> mystic <a href="/wiki/Safi-ad-din_Ardabili" class="mw-redirect" title="Safi-ad-din Ardabili">Sheikh Safi al-Din</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Different historians have contending claims regarding the ethnic origin of Sheikh Safi al-Din. Hinz [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walther_Hinz" class="extiw" title="de:Walther Hinz">de</a>] states that he was Arab, <a href="/wiki/David_Ayalon" title="David Ayalon">Ayalon</a> claims he was Turkic, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Kasravi" title="Ahmad Kasravi">Kasravi</a> asserts he was Iranian,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory20072_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory20072-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/Zeki_Velidi_Togan" title="Zeki Velidi Togan">Togan</a> argues he was Kurdish but had completely Turkified by the time of <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Shah Ismail</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Savory</a> and Gündüz [<a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tufan_G%C3%BCnd%C3%BCz" class="extiw" title="tr:Tufan Gündüz">tr</a>] have pointed out that the source text regarding Sheikh Safi al-Din's ethnic origin contains factual inaccuracies.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200722–23_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200722–23-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:0_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Roemer [<a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hans_Robert_Roemer" class="extiw" title="de:Hans Robert Roemer">de</a>], the Safavid Shah represented a lineage that combined both Turkmen and Iranian ancestry. Therefore, the question of whether the dynasty's founder, Sheikh Safi, was of Iranian, Kurdish, or <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">Sayyid</a> descent is irrelevant.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986229,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"_52-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986229,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As such, he was the last in the line of hereditary Grand Masters of the Safaviyeh order, prior to its ascent to a ruling dynasty. Ismāʻil was known as a brave and charismatic youth, zealous with regards to his faith in <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam" title="Shia Islam">Shīʿa Islam</a>, and believed himself to be of divine descent – practically worshipped by his <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> followers. </p><p>In 1500, Ismāʻil I <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conquest_of_Shirvan" title="Safavid conquest of Shirvan">invaded</a> neighboring <a href="/wiki/Shirvan" title="Shirvan">Shirvan</a> to avenge the death of his father, Sheik Haydar, who had been murdered in 1488 by the ruling Shirvanshah, <a href="/wiki/Farrukh_Yasar" title="Farrukh Yasar">Farrukh Yasar</a>. Afterwards, Ismail went on a conquest campaign, capturing <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> in July 1501, where he enthroned himself the Shāh of <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> proclaimed himself <a href="/wiki/King_of_Kings" title="King of Kings">King of Kings</a> (<i><a href="/wiki/Shah" title="Shah">shahanshah</a></i>) of Iran<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and minted coins in his name, proclaiming <a href="/wiki/Twelver" class="mw-redirect" title="Twelver">Twelver Shīʿīsm</a> as the <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">official religion of his domain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The establishment of Twelver Shīʿīsm as the state religion of Safavid Iran led to various <a href="/wiki/Tariqa" title="Tariqa">Ṣūfī orders</a> (<i>tariqa</i>) openly declaring their Shīʿīte position, and others to promptly assume Shīʿa Islam. Among these, the founder of one of the most successful Ṣūfī orders, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Nimatullah_Wali" title="Shah Nimatullah Wali">Shāh Ni'matullāh Walī</a> (d. 1431), traced his descent from the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Isma%27ili_imams" title="List of Isma'ili imams">first Ismāʿīlī Imam</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Isma%27il" title="Muhammad ibn Isma'il">Muhammad ibn Ismāʿīl</a>, as evidenced in a poem as well as another unpublished literary composition. Although Shāh Ni'matullāh was apparently a Sunnī Muslim, the <a href="/wiki/Ni%27matull%C4%81h%C4%AB" title="Ni'matullāhī">Ni'matullāhī</a> order soon declared its adherence to Shīʿa Islam after the rise of the Safavid dynasty.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Safavid_persia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Map_Safavid_persia.png/250px-Map_Safavid_persia.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="174" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Map_Safavid_persia.png/500px-Map_Safavid_persia.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1033" data-file-height="717" /></a><figcaption>Extent of Shāh Ismāʻil's empire in <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Although Ismāʻil I initially gained mastery over Azerbaijan alone, the Safavids ultimately won the struggle for power over all of Iran, which had been going on for nearly a century between various dynasties and political forces. A year after his victory in Tabriz, Ismāʻil I claimed <a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">most of Iran as part of his territory</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and within 10 years established a complete control over all of it. Ismāʻil followed the line of Iranian and Turkmen rulers prior to his assumption of the title "Padishah-i-Iran", previously held by Uzun Hasan and many other Iranian kings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986339"Further_evidence_of_a_desire_to_follow_in_the_line_of_Turkmen_rulers_is_Ismail's_assumption_of_the_title_"Padishah-i-Iran"_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986339"Further_evidence_of_a_desire_to_follow_in_the_line_of_Turkmen_rulers_is_Ismail's_assumption_of_the_title_"Padishah-i-Iran"-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ottoman sultans addressed him as <i>the king of Iranian lands and the heir to <a href="/wiki/Jamshid" title="Jamshid">Jamshid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kai_Khosrow" class="mw-redirect" title="Kai Khosrow">Kai Khosrow</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Having started with just the possession of Azerbaijan, <a href="/wiki/Shirvan" title="Shirvan">Shirvan</a>, southern <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Daghestan" title="Safavid Daghestan">Dagestan</a> (with its important city of <a href="/wiki/Derbent" title="Derbent">Derbent</a>), and <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a> in 1501,<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Erzincan" title="Erzincan">Erzincan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Erzurum</a> fell into his power in 1502,<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Hamadan" title="Hamadan">Hamadan</a> in 1503, <a href="/wiki/Shiraz" title="Shiraz">Shiraz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kerman" title="Kerman">Kerman</a> in 1504, <a href="/wiki/Diyarbak%C4%B1r" title="Diyarbakır">Diyarbakır</a>, <a href="/wiki/Najaf" title="Najaf">Najaf</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Karbala" title="Karbala">Karbala</a> in 1507, <a href="/wiki/Van_Province" title="Van Province">Van</a> in 1508, <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a> in 1509, and <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a>, as well as other parts of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>, in 1510. In 1503, the kingdoms of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kartli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kakheti">Kakheti</a> were made his vassals as well.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> By 1511, the <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a> in the north-east, led by their Khan <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Shaybani" title="Muhammad Shaybani">Muhammad Shaybāni</a>, were driven far to the north, across the <a href="/wiki/Oxus_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus River">Oxus River</a>, where they continued to attack the Safavids. Ismāʻil's decisive victory over the Uzbeks, who had occupied most of Khorasan, ensured Iran's eastern borders, and the Uzbeks never since expanded beyond the <a href="/wiki/Hindu_Kush" title="Hindu Kush">Hindu Kush</a>. Although the Uzbeks continued to make occasional raids into Khorasan, the Safavid empire was able to keep them at bay throughout its reign. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Start_of_clashes_with_the_Ottomans">Start of clashes with the Ottomans</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran" title="Battle of Chaldiran">Battle of Chaldiran</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Battle_between_Shah_Ismail_and_Abul-Khayr_Khan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Battle_between_Shah_Ismail_and_Abul-Khayr_Khan.jpg/250px-The_Battle_between_Shah_Ismail_and_Abul-Khayr_Khan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="248" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Battle_between_Shah_Ismail_and_Abul-Khayr_Khan.jpg/330px-The_Battle_between_Shah_Ismail_and_Abul-Khayr_Khan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/The_Battle_between_Shah_Ismail_and_Abul-Khayr_Khan.jpg/500px-The_Battle_between_Shah_Ismail_and_Abul-Khayr_Khan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1858" data-file-height="2706" /></a><figcaption>Ismail's battle with Uzbek warlord Muhammad Shaybani Khan in 1510, on a folio from the <i>Kebir Musaver Silsilname.</i> After the battle Ismail purportedly gilded the skull of Shaybani Khan for use as a wine goblet.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Battle_of_Chaldiran_(1514).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Battle_of_Chaldiran_%281514%29.jpg/250px-Battle_of_Chaldiran_%281514%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="191" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Battle_of_Chaldiran_%281514%29.jpg/330px-Battle_of_Chaldiran_%281514%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Battle_of_Chaldiran_%281514%29.jpg/500px-Battle_of_Chaldiran_%281514%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="901" /></a><figcaption>Artwork of the Battle of Chaldiran.</figcaption></figure> <p>More problematic for the Safavids was the powerful neighboring <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a>. The Ottomans, a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam" title="Sunni Islam">Sunni</a> dynasty, considered the active recruitment of Turkmen tribes of <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> for the Safavid cause as a major threat. To counter the rising Safavid power, in 1502, <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_II" title="Bayezid II">Sultan Bayezid II</a> forcefully deported many Shiʻite Muslims from Anatolia to other parts of the Ottoman realm. In 1511, the <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eahkulu_rebellion" title="Şahkulu rebellion">Şahkulu rebellion</a> was a widespread pro-Shia and pro-Safavid uprising directed against the Ottoman Empire from within the empire.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, by the early 1510s Ismail's expansionistic policies had pushed the Safavid borders in <a href="/wiki/Asia_Minor" class="mw-redirect" title="Asia Minor">Asia Minor</a> even more westwards. The Ottomans soon reacted with a large-scale incursion into Eastern Anatolia by Safavid <a href="/wiki/Ghazis" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghazis">ghazis</a> under <a href="/wiki/Nur-Ali_Khalifa" title="Nur-Ali Khalifa">Nur-Ali Khalifa</a>. This action coincided with the accession to the Ottoman throne in 1512 of Sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bayezid_II" title="Bayezid II">Bayezid II</a>'s son, and it was the <a href="/wiki/Casus_belli" title="Casus belli">casus belli</a> leading to Selim's decision to invade neighbouring Safavid Iran two years later.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1514, Sultan Selim I marched through Anatolia and reached the plain of Chaldiran near the city of <a href="/wiki/Khoy" title="Khoy">Khoy</a>, where a <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Chaldiran" title="Battle of Chaldiran">decisive battle</a> was fought. Most sources agree that the Ottoman army was at least double the size of that of <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismāʻil</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ismailsafaviiranica-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> furthermore, the Ottomans had the advantage of artillery, which the Safavid army lacked. According to historian <a href="/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Roger Savory</a>, "Salim's plan was to winter at Tabriz and complete the conquest of Persia the following spring. However, a mutiny among his officers who refused to spend the winter at Tabriz forced him to withdraw across territory laid waste by the Safavid forces, eight days later".<sup id="cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ismailsafaviiranica-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Ismāʻil was defeated and his capital was captured, the Safavid empire survived. The war between the two powers continued under Ismāʻil's son, Emperor <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a>, and the Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>, until Shah Abbās retook the area lost to the Ottomans by 1602. </p><p>The consequences of the defeat at Chaldiran were also psychological for Ismāʻil: the defeat destroyed Ismāʻil's belief in his invincibility, based on his claimed divine status.<sup id="cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His relationships with his Qizilbash followers were also fundamentally altered. The tribal rivalries among the Qizilbash, which temporarily ceased before the defeat at <a href="/wiki/%C3%87ald%C4%B1ran,_Van" title="Çaldıran, Van">Chaldiran</a>, resurfaced in intense form immediately after the death of Ismāʻil, and led to ten years of civil war (930–040/1524–1533) until Shāh Tahmāsp regained control of the affairs of the state. For most of the last decade of Ismail's reign, the domestic affairs of the empire were overseen by the <a href="/wiki/Tajiks" title="Tajiks">Tajik</a> vizier <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Shah_Hossein" title="Mirza Shah Hossein">Mirza Shah Hossein</a> until his assassination in 1523.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chaldiran battle also holds historical significance as the start of over 300 years of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Persian Wars">frequent and harsh warfare</a> fueled by geo-politics and ideological differences between the Ottomans and the Iranian Safavids (as well as successive Iranian states) mainly regarding territories in Eastern Anatolia, the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a>. </p><p>Early Safavid power in Iran was based on the military power of the Qizilbash. Ismāʻil exploited the first element to seize power in Iran. But eschewing politics after his defeat in Chaldiran, he left the affairs of the government to the office of the <i>wakīl</i> (chief administrator, <i>vakil</i> in Turkish). Ismāʻil's successors, most manifestly Shāh Abbās I, successfully diminished the influence of the Qizilbash on the affairs of the state. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shāh_Tahmāsp_(r._1524–1576)"><span id="Sh.C4.81h_Tahm.C4.81sp_.28r._1524.E2.80.931576.29"></span>Shāh Tahmāsp (<i>r.</i> 1524–1576)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_I" title="Tahmasp I">Tahmasp I</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Civil_strife_during_Tahmāsp's_early_reign"><span id="Civil_strife_during_Tahm.C4.81sp.27s_early_reign"></span>Civil strife during Tahmāsp's early reign</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tahmasb-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tahmasb-1.jpg/170px-Tahmasb-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="136" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tahmasb-1.jpg/255px-Tahmasb-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Tahmasb-1.jpg/340px-Tahmasb-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="576" /></a><figcaption>Shah Tahmasp, fresco on the walls of the <a href="/wiki/Chehel_Sotoun" title="Chehel Sotoun">Chehel Sotoun</a> Palace</figcaption></figure> <p>Shāh Tahmāsp, the young titular governor of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> succeeded his father Ismāʻil in 1524, when he was ten years and three months old. The succession was evidently undisputed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tahmāsp was the <a href="/wiki/Ward_(law)" title="Ward (law)">ward</a> of the powerful Qizilbash <i>amir</i> Ali Beg Rūmlū (titled <i>"<a href="/wiki/Div_Sultan_Rumlu" title="Div Sultan Rumlu">Div Soltān Rumlu</a>"</i>) who saw himself as the <i>de facto</i> ruler of the state. Rūmlū and Kopek Sultān Ustajlu (who had been Ismail's last <i>wakīl</i>) established themselves as co-regents of the young shah.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Qizilbash, which still suffered under the legacy of the battle of Chaldiran, was engulfed in internal rivalries. The first two years of Tahmāsp's reign was consumed with Div Sultān's efforts to eliminate Ustajlu from power.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This court intrigue lead directly to tribal conflict. Beginning in 1526 periodic battles broke out, beginning in northwest Iran but soon involving all of Khorasan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986233–234_90-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986233–234-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>> In the absence of a charismatic, messianic rallying figure like the young Ismail, the tribal leaders reclaimed their traditional prerogative and threatened to return to the time of local warlords. For nearly 10 years rival Qizilbash factions fought each other. Af first, Kopek Sultān's Ustajlu tribe suffered the heaviest, and he himself was killed in a battle. </p><p>Thus Div Soltān emerged victorious in the first palace struggle, but he fell victim to Chuha Sultān of the Takkalu, who turned Tahmāsp against his first mentor. In 1527 Tahmāsp demonstrated his desire by shooting an arrow at Div Soltān before the assembled court. The Takkalu replaced the Rumlu as the dominant tribe. They in turn would be replaced by the Shamlu, whose amir, Husain Khan, became the chief adviser. This latest leader would only last until 1534, when he was deposed and executed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234_91-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>At the downfall of Husain Khan, Tahmāsp asserted his rule. Rather than rely on another Turkmen tribe, he appointed a Persian <i>wakīl</i>. From 1553 for forty years the shah was able to avoid being ensnared in tribal treacheries. But the decade of civil war had exposed the empire to foreign danger and Tahmāsp had to turn his attention to the repeated raids by the Uzbeks.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234–237_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234–237-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Foreign_threats_to_the_Empire">Foreign threats to the Empire</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1532%E2%80%931555)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Amasya" title="Peace of Amasya">Peace of Amasya</a></div> <p>The Uzbeks, during the reign of Tahmāsp, attacked the <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">eastern provinces of the kingdom</a> five times, and the Ottomans under <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Soleymān I</a> invaded Iran four times.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200760–64_93-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200760–64-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decentralized control over Uzbek forces was largely responsible for the inability of the Uzbeks to make territorial inroads into Khorasan.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146–147_94-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146–147-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Putting aside internal dissension, the Safavid nobles responded to a threat to Herat in 1528 by riding eastward with Tahmāsp (then 17) and soundly defeating the numerically superior forces of the Uzbeks at Jām.<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The victory resulted at least in part from Safavid use of firearms, which they had been acquiring and drilling with since Chaldiran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011147_96-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011147-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Notwithstanding the success with firearms at Jām, Tahmāsp still lacked the confidence to engage their archrivals the Ottomans, choosing instead to cede territory, often using <a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">scorched earth</a> tactics in the process.<sup id="cite_ref-97" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The goal of the Ottomans in the 1534 and 1548–1549 campaigns, during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1532%E2%80%931555)" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1532–1555)">1532–1555 Ottoman–Safavid War</a>, was to install Tahmāsp's brothers (Sam Mirza and <a href="/wiki/Alqas_Mirza" title="Alqas Mirza">Alqas Mirza</a>, respectively) as shah in order to make Iran a vassal state. Although in those campaigns (and in 1554) the Ottomans captured <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>, they lacked a communications line sufficient to occupy it for long.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011147_96-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011147-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nevertheless, given the insecurity in Iraq and its northwest territory, Tahmāsp moved his court from Tabriz to <a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>. </p><p>In the gravest crisis of Tahmāsp's reign, Ottoman forces in 1553–54 captured <a href="/wiki/Yerevan" title="Yerevan">Yerevan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Karabakh" title="Karabakh">Karabakh</a> and <a href="/wiki/Nakhchivan_Autonomous_Republic#Iranian_rule" title="Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic">Nakhjuwan</a>, destroyed palaces, villas and gardens, and threatened <a href="/wiki/Ardabil" title="Ardabil">Ardabil</a>. During these operations an agent of the Samlu (now supporting Sam Mizra's pretensions) attempted to poison the shah. Tahmāsp resolved to end hostilities and sent his ambassador to Soleymān's winter quarters in <a href="/wiki/Erzurum" title="Erzurum">Erzurum</a> in September 1554 to sue for peace.<sup id="cite_ref-98" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Temporary terms were followed by the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Amasya" title="Peace of Amasya">Peace of Amasya</a> in June 1555, ending the war with the Ottomans for the next two decades. The treaty was the first formal diplomatic recognition of the Safavid Empire by the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand201150_99-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand201150-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under the Peace, the Ottomans agreed to restore Yerevan, Karabakh and Nakhjuwan to the Safavids and in turn would retain Mesopotamia (Iraq) and eastern Anatolia. Soleymān agreed to permit Safavid Shi’a pilgrims to make pilgrimages to Mecca and Medina as well as tombs of imams in Iraq and Arabia on condition that the shah would abolish the <i>taburru</i>, the cursing of the first three Rashidun caliphs.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was a heavy price in terms of territory and prestige lost, but it allowed the empire to last, something that seemed improbable during the first years of Tahmāsp's reign. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Royal_refugees:_Bayezid_and_Humayun">Royal refugees: Bayezid and Humayun</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg/250px-Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="144" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg/330px-Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg/500px-Shah_soleiman_safavi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="419" /></a><figcaption>Shah Suleiman I and his courtiers, Isfahan, 1670. Painter is <a href="/wiki/Aliquli_Jabbadar" title="Aliquli Jabbadar">Aliquli Jabbadar</a>, and is kept at The <a href="/wiki/St._Petersburg" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Petersburg">St. Petersburg</a> Institute of Oriental Studies in Russia, ever since it was acquired by <a href="/wiki/Tsar_Nicholas_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Tsar Nicholas II">Tsar Nicholas II</a>. Note the two <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgian</a> figures with their names at the top left.</figcaption></figure> <p>Almost simultaneously with the emergence of the Safavid Empire, the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal Empire</a>, founded by the <a href="/wiki/Timurid_dynasty" title="Timurid dynasty">Timurid</a> heir <a href="/wiki/Babur" title="Babur">Babur</a>, was developing in South-Asia. The Mughals adhered (for the most part) to a tolerant Sunni Islam while ruling a largely <a href="/wiki/Hindu" class="mw-redirect" title="Hindu">Hindu</a> population. After the death of Babur, his son <a href="/wiki/Humayun" title="Humayun">Humayun</a> was ousted from his territories and threatened by his half-brother and rival, who had inherited the northern part of Babur's territories.<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_11_101-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards_11-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Having to flee from city to city, Humayun eventually sought refuge at the court of Tahmāsp in Qazvin in 1543. Tahmāsp received Humayun as the true emperor of the Mughal dynasty, despite the fact that Humayun had been living in exile for more than fifteen years.<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_11_101-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards_11-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-102" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After Humayun converted to Shiʻi Islam (under extreme duress),<sup id="cite_ref-Richards_11_101-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Richards_11-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Tahmāsp offered him military assistance to regain his territories in return for <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>, which controlled the overland trade route between central Iran and the Ganges. In 1545 a combined Iranian–Mughal force managed to seize Kandahar and occupy Kabul.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200766_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200766-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Humayun handed over Kandahar, but Tahmāsp was forced to retake it in 1558, after Humayun seized it on the death of the Safavid governor. </p><p>Humayun was not the only royal figure to seek refuge at Tahmasp's court. A dispute arose in the Ottoman Empire over who was to succeed the aged <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman the Magnificent</a>. Suleiman's favourite wife, <a href="/wiki/Roxelana" title="Roxelana">Hürrem Sultan</a>, was eager for her son, <a href="/wiki/Selim_II" title="Selim II">Selim</a>, to become the next sultan. But Selim was an alcoholic and Hürrem's other son, <a href="/wiki/%C5%9Eehzade_Bayezid" title="Şehzade Bayezid">Bayezid</a>, had shown far greater military ability. The two princes quarrelled and eventually Bayezid rebelled against his father. His letter of remorse never reached Suleiman, and he was forced to flee abroad to avoid execution. In 1559 Bayezid arrived in Iran where Tahmasp gave him a warm welcome. Suleiman was eager to negotiate his son's return, but Tahmasp rejected his promises and threats until, in 1561, Suleiman compromised with him. In September of that year, Tahmasp and Bayezid were enjoying a banquet at Tabriz when Tahmasp suddenly pretended he had received news that the Ottoman prince was engaged in a plot against his life. An angry mob gathered and Tahmasp had Bayezid put into custody, alleging it was for his own safety. Tahmasp then handed the prince over to the Ottoman ambassador. Shortly afterwards, Bayezid was killed by agents sent by his own father.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legacy_of_Shah_Tahmasp">Legacy of Shah Tahmasp</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shah_Tahmasp_and_Humayun.jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Shah_Tahmasp_and_Humayun.jpeg/170px-Shah_Tahmasp_and_Humayun.jpeg" decoding="async" width="170" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Shah_Tahmasp_and_Humayun.jpeg/255px-Shah_Tahmasp_and_Humayun.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Shah_Tahmasp_and_Humayun.jpeg/340px-Shah_Tahmasp_and_Humayun.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1666" /></a><figcaption>Shah Tahmasp greets the exiled Humayun</figcaption></figure> <p>When the young Shah Tahmāsp took the throne, Iran was in a dire state. But in spite of a weak economy, a civil war and foreign wars on two fronts, Tahmāsp managed to retain his crown and maintain the territorial integrity of the empire (although much reduced from Ismail's time). During the first 30 years of his long reign, he was able to suppress the internal divisions by exerting control over a strengthened central military force. In the war against the Uzbeks he showed that the Safavids had become a <a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_empires" title="Gunpowder empires">gunpowder empire</a>. His tactics in dealing with the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a> threat eventually allowed for a treaty which preserved peace for twenty years. </p><p>In cultural matters, Tahmāsp presided the revival of the fine arts, which flourished under his patronage. Safavid culture is often admired for the large-scale city planning and architecture, achievements made during the reign of later shahs, but the arts of <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">persian miniature</a>, <a href="/wiki/Book-binding" class="mw-redirect" title="Book-binding">book-binding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Calligraphy" title="Calligraphy">calligraphy</a>, in fact, never received as much attention as they did during his time.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Tahmāsp also planted the seeds that would, unintentionally, produce change much later. During his reign he had realized while both looking to his own empire and that of the neighboring Ottomans, that there were dangerous rivalling factions and internal family rivalries that were a threat to the heads of state. Not taken care of accordingly, these were a serious threat to the ruler, or worse, could bring the fall of the former or could lead to unnecessary court intrigues. According to <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, for Tahmāsp, the problem circled around the military tribal elite of the empire, the <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qezelbāš</a>, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune, and material advancement.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite that Tahmāsp could nullify and neglect some of his consternations regarding potential issues related to his family by having his close direct male relatives such as his brothers and sons routinely transferred around to various governorships in the empire, he understood and realized that any long-term solutions would mainly involve minimizing the political and military presence of the Qezelbāš as a whole. According to <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, his father and founder of the Empire, Ismail I, had begun this process on a bureaucratic level as he appointed a number of prominent Persians in powerful bureaucratic positions, and one can see this continued in Tahmāsp's lengthy and close relationship with the <a href="/wiki/List_of_Safavid_grand_viziers" title="List of Safavid grand viziers">chief vizier</a>, Qāżi Jahān of Qazvin, after 1535.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While Persians continued to fill their historical role as administrators and clerical elites under Tahmāsp, little had been done so far to minimize the military role of the Qezelbāš.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Therefore, in 1540, Shah Tahmāsp started the first of a series of invasions of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> region, both meant as a training and drilling for his soldiers, as well as mainly bringing back massive numbers of <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a> <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> slaves, who would form the basis of a military slave system,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011148_107-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011148-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> alike to the <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">janissaries</a> of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire,<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_108-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as well as at the same time forming a new layer in Iranian society composed of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Caucasus" title="Ethnic groups in the Caucasus">Caucasians</a>. At the fourth invasion in 1553, it was now clear that Tahmāsp followed a policy of annexation and resettlement as he gained control over <a href="/wiki/Tbilisi" title="Tbilisi">Tbilisi</a> (Tiflis) and the region of <a href="/wiki/Kartli" title="Kartli">Kartli</a> while physically transplanting more than 30,000 people to the central Iranian heartlands.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, this would be the starting point for the corps of the <i>ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa</i>, or <i>royal slaves</i>, who would dominate the Safavid military for most of the empire's length. As non-Turcoman converts to Islam, these Circassian and Georgian <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ḡolāmāns</a> (also written as <i>ghulams</i>) were completely unrestrained by clan loyalties and kinship obligations, which was an attractive feature for a ruler like Tahmāsp whose childhood and upbringing had been deeply affected by Qezelbāš tribal politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, many of these transplanted <a href="/wiki/Women_in_Safavid_Iran" title="Women in Safavid Iran">women</a> became wives and concubines of Tahmāsp, and the Safavid harem emerged as a competitive, and sometimes lethal, arena of ethnic politics as cliques of Turkmen, Circassian, and Georgian women and courtiers vied with each other for the shah's attention.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until the reign of Abbas I, during Tahmāsp's time Caucasians would already become important members of the royal household, <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a> and in the civil and military administration,<sup id="cite_ref-Manz_109-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manz-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.nl_110-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and by that becoming their way of eventually becoming an integral part of the society. One of Tahmāsp's sisters married a Circassian, who would use his court office to team up with Tahmāsp's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Pari_Kh%C4%81n_Kh%C4%81num" class="mw-redirect" title="Pari Khān Khānum">Pari Khān Khānum</a> to assert themselves in succession matters after Tahmāsp's death. </p><p>After the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Amasya" title="Peace of Amasya">Peace of Amasya</a>, Tasmāsp underwent what he called a "sincere repentance." Tasmāsp at the same time removed his son Ismail from his Qizilbash followers and imprisoned him at Qahqaha. Moreover, he began to strengthen Shiʻi practice by such things as forbidding in the new capital of Qazvin poetry and music which did not esteem Ali and the Twelve Imams. He also reduced the taxes of districts that were traditionally Shiʻi, regulated services in mosques and engaged Shiʻi propagandists and spies. Extortion, intimidation and harassment were practiced against Sunnis.<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>When Tahmāsp died in 984/1576, Iran was calm domestically, with secure borders and no imminent threat from either the Uzbeks or the Ottomans. What remained unchanged, however, was the constant threat of local disaffection with the weak central authority. That condition would not change (and in fact it would worsen) until Tahmāsp's grandson, Abbas I, assumed the throne. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chaos_under_Tahmasp's_sons"><span id="Chaos_under_Tahmasp.27s_sons"></span>Chaos under Tahmasp's sons</h3></div> <p>On Tahmāsp's death support for a successor coalesced around two of his nine sons; the support divided on ethnic lines—<a href="/wiki/Ismail_II" title="Ismail II">Ismail</a> was supported by most of the Turkmen tribes as well as his sister <a href="/wiki/Pari_Kh%C4%81n_Kh%C4%81num" class="mw-redirect" title="Pari Khān Khānum">Pari Khān Khānum</a>, her Circassian uncle <a href="/wiki/Shamkhal_Sultan" title="Shamkhal Sultan">Shamkhal Sultan</a> as well as the rest of the Circassians, while Haydar was mostly supported by the Georgians at court although he also had support from the Turkmen Ustajlu.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986250–251_112-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986250–251-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ismail had been imprisoned at Qahqaha since 1556 by his father on charges of plotting a coup, but his selection was ensured when 30,000 Qizilbash supporters demonstrated outside the prison.<sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shortly after the installation of Ismail II on August 22, 1576, Haydar was beheaded. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Ismail_II_(r._1576–1577)"><span id="Ismail_II_.28r._1576.E2.80.931577.29"></span>Ismail II (<i>r.</i> 1576–1577)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ismail_II" title="Ismail II">Ismail II</a></div> <p>Ismail's 14-month reign was notable for two things: continual bloodletting of his relatives and others (including his own supporters) and his reversal on religion. He had all his relatives killed except for his older brother, Mohammad Khudabanda, who, being nearly blind, was not a real candidate for the throne, and Mohammad's three sons, Hamza Mirza, Abbas Mirza and Abu Talib Mirza.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011149_114-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011149-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While the murderous actions of Ismail might be explained by political prudence (Ottoman sultans occasionally purged the bloodline to prevent succession rivals<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986251_115-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986251-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>108<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), his actions against Shi’a suggest retaliation against his father, who saw himself as a pious practitioner. Ismail sought to reintroduce Sunni orthodoxy. But even here there may have been practical political considerations; namely, "concern about the excessively powerful position of Shiʻi dignitaries, which would have been undermined by a reintroduction of the Sunna."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986252_116-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986252-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> His conduct might also be explained by his drug use. In any event, he was ultimately killed (according to some accounts) by his Circassian half-sister, <a href="/wiki/Pari_Khan_Khanum" title="Pari Khan Khanum">Pari Khān Khānum</a>, who championed him over Haydar. She is said to have poisoned his opium.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Mohammad_Khodabanda_(r._1578–1587)"><span id="Mohammad_Khodabanda_.28r._1578.E2.80.931587.29"></span>Mohammad Khodabanda (<i>r.</i> 1578–1587)</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Khodabanda" title="Mohammad Khodabanda">Mohammad Khodabanda</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jealousy_among_Rivals.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Jealousy_among_Rivals.png/250px-Jealousy_among_Rivals.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="256" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Jealousy_among_Rivals.png/330px-Jealousy_among_Rivals.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Jealousy_among_Rivals.png/500px-Jealousy_among_Rivals.png 2x" data-file-width="1548" data-file-height="2327" /></a><figcaption>"Jealousy among Rivals" attributed to Muhammadi. Miniature painting contained in a Persian volume entitled <i>Busta</i> by Sa'di in 1579, possibly under the patronage of Vizier <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Salman_Jaberi" title="Mirza Salman Jaberi">Mirza Salman Jaberi</a>. E.M. Soudavar Trust, Houston, Texas.</figcaption></figure> <p>On the death of Ismail II there were three candidates for succession: Shāh Shujā', the infant son of Ismail (only a few weeks old), Ismail's brother, Mohammad Khodabanda; and Mohammad's son, Sultan Hamza Mirza, 11 years old at the time. Pari Khān Khānum, sister of Ismail and Mohammad, hoped to act as regent for any of the three (including her older brother, who was nearly blind). Mohammad was selected and received the crown on February 11, 1579.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986253_118-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986253-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mohammad would rule for 10 years, and his sister at first dominated the court, but she fell in the first of many intrigues which continued even though the Uzbeks and Ottomans again used the opportunity to threaten Safavid territory. </p><p>Mohammad allowed others to direct the affairs of state, but none of them had either the prestige, skill or ruthlessness of either Tahmāsp or Ismail II to rein in the ethnic or palace factions, and each of his rulers met grim ends. Mohammad's younger sister, who had a hand in elevating and deposing Ismail II and thus had considerable influence among the Qizilbash, was the first. She did not last much longer than Mohammad's installation at Qazvin, where she was murdered.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986255_119-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986255-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> She was done in by intrigues by the vizier <a href="/wiki/Mirza_Salman_Jaberi" title="Mirza Salman Jaberi">Mirza Salman Jaberi</a> (who was a holdover from Ismail II's reign) and Mohammad's chief wife <a href="/wiki/Khayr_al-Nisa_Begum" title="Khayr al-Nisa Begum">Khayr al-Nisa Begum</a>, known as Mahd-i 'Ulyā. There is some indication that Mirza Salman was the chief conspirator.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986354_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986354-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Pari_Khan_Khanum" title="Pari Khan Khanum">Pari Khān Khānum</a> could master strong support among the Qizilbash, and her uncle, <a href="/wiki/Shamkhal_Sultan" title="Shamkhal Sultan">Shamkhal Sultan</a>, was a prominent <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> who held a high official position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011149_114-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011149-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>> Mirza Salman left the capital before Pari Khān Khānum closed the gates and was able to meet Mohammad Khodabanda and his wife in Shiraz, to whom he offered his services.<sup id="cite_ref-121" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He may have believed that he would rule once their enemy was disposed of, but Mahd-i 'Ulyā proved the stronger of the two. </p> <blockquote><p> She was by no means content to exercise a more or less indirect influence on affairs of state: instead, she openly carried out all essential functions herself, including the appointment of the chief officers of the realm. In place of the usual royal audience, these high dignitaries had to assemble each morning at the entrance to the women's apartments in order to receive the Begum's orders. On these occasions the royal edicts were drawn up and sealed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986255_119-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986255-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>The amirs demanded that she be removed, and Mahd-i Ulya was strangled in the harem in July 1579 on the ground of an alleged affair with the brother of the <a href="/wiki/Crimean_Khanate" title="Crimean Khanate">Crimean khan</a>, Adil Giray,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986255_119-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986255-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who was captured during the 1578–1590 Ottoman war and held captive in the capital, Qazvin.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESicker20012–3_122-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESicker20012–3-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> None of the perpetrators were brought to justice, although the shah lectured the assembled amirs on how they departed from the old ways when the shah was master to his Sufi disciples. The shah used that occasion to proclaim the 11-year-old Sultan Hamza Mirza (Mahd-i 'Ulyā's favorite) crown-prince.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986256_123-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986256-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The palace intrigues reflected ethnic unrest which would soon erupt into open warfare. Iran's neighbors seized the opportunity to attack. The Uzbeks struck in the Spring of 1578 but were repelled by Murtaza Quli Sultan, governor of Mashhad.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257_124-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More seriously the Ottomans ended the <a href="/wiki/Peace_of_Amasya" title="Peace of Amasya">Peace of Amasya</a> and commenced <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1578%E2%80%9390)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1578–90)">a war with Iran that would last until 1590</a> by invading Iran's territories of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shirvan" title="Shirvan">Shirvan</a>. While the initial attacks were repelled, the Ottomans continued and grabbed considerable territory in <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Kurdistan" title="Safavid Kurdistan">Kurdistan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Lorestan" title="Safavid Lorestan">Lorestan</a> and in 993/1585 they even took <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257,_258_125-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257,_258-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238443738">.mw-parser-output .locmap .od{position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .id{position:absolute;line-height:0}.mw-parser-output .locmap .l0{font-size:0;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv{line-height:110%;position:absolute;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr{line-height:110%;position:absolute;top:-0.75em;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pv>div{display:inline;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pl>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:right}.mw-parser-output .locmap .pr>div{display:inline;padding:1px;float:left}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:#fff!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .locmap{filter:grayscale(0.6)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pv>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pl>div,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .od .pr>div{background:white!important;color:#000!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data .locmap div{background:transparent!important}}</style><div class="locmap noviewer noresize thumb tright"><div class="thumbinner" style="width:302px;border-color:lightgrey"><div style="position:relative;width:300px;border:1px solid lightgray"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" class="mw-file-description" title="Safavid Iran is located in Continental Asia"><img alt="Safavid Iran is located in Continental Asia" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/330px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/500px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png/960px-Map_Asia_physical_%28continental%29.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span><div style="position:absolute;top:0;left:0"><span class="notpageimage" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_the_of_Safavid_Empire,_circa_1588.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_the_of_Safavid_Empire%2C_circa_1588.png/330px-Map_the_of_Safavid_Empire%2C_circa_1588.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_the_of_Safavid_Empire%2C_circa_1588.png/500px-Map_the_of_Safavid_Empire%2C_circa_1588.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Map_the_of_Safavid_Empire%2C_circa_1588.png/960px-Map_the_of_Safavid_Empire%2C_circa_1588.png 2x" data-file-width="3196" data-file-height="1840" /></a></span></div><div id="annotation_270x05" style="position:absolute; 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left:280px; top:74px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Joseon" title="Joseon"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">JO-<br />SEON</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_205x145" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:145px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">AYUT-<br />THAYA</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_220x130" style="position:absolute; left:220px; top:130px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">DAI<br />VIET</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_205x123" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:123px; font-size:6px; font-weight:bold; font-size:6; line-height:8px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Lan_Na" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Lan Na"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">LAN<br />NA</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_152x40" style="position:absolute; left:152px; top:40px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Four_Oirats" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Oirats"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">FOUR<br />OIRATS</span></a></span></div><div id="annotation_205x55" style="position:absolute; left:205px; top:55px; font-size:7px; font-weight:bold; font-size:7; line-height:9px; text-align:center;"><span style="background-color:transparent; color:#000000;"><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan"><span class="mw-no-invert" style="color:#4F311CFF">NORTHERN YUAN</span></a></span></div></div><div class="thumbcaption"><div class="magnify"><a href="/wiki/File:Map_Asia_physical_(continental).png" title="File:Map Asia physical (continental).png">class=notpageimage| </a></div><div class="center">The Safavid Empire and contemporary Asian polities circa 1588</div></div></div></div> <p>In the midst of these foreign perils, rebellion broke out in Khorasan fomented by (or on behalf of) Mohammad's son, Abbas. Ali Quli Khan Shamlu, the <a href="/wiki/Lala_(title)" title="Lala (title)"><i>lala</i></a> of Abbas and Ismail II's man in Herat proclaimed Abbas shah there April 1581.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986259_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986259-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The following year the loyal Qizilbash forces (the Turkmen and Takkalu who controlled Qazvin), with vizier Mirza Salman and crown prince Sultan Hamza Mirza at their head, confronted the rebelling Ustajlu-Shamlu coalition which had assumed control of Khorasan under the nominal rule of young Abbas.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011150_127-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011150-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Ustajlu chief, Murshid Quli Khan, immediately acquiesced and received a royal pardon. The Shumlu leader, Ali Quli Khan, however, holed himself inside Herat with Abbas. The vizier thought that the royal forces failed to prosecute the siege sufficiently and accused the forces of sedition. The loyal Qizibash recoiled at their treatment by Mirza Salman, who they resented for a number of reasons (not least of which was the fact that a Tajik was given military command over them), and demanded that he be turned over to them. The crown prince (the vizier's son-in-law) meekly turned him over, and the Qizilbash executed him and confiscated his property.<sup id="cite_ref-128" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The siege of Herat thus ended in 1583 without Ali Quli Khan's surrender, and Khorasan was in a state of open rebellion. </p><p>In 1585 two events occurred that would combine to break the impasse among the Qizilbash. First, in the west, the Ottomans, seeing the disarray of the warriors, pressed deep into Safavid territory and occupied the old capital of Tabriz. Crown prince Hamza Mirza, now 21 years old and director of Safavid affairs, led a force to confront the Ottomans, but in 1586 was murdered under mysterious circumstances. In the east Murshid Quli Khan, of the Ustajlu tribe, managed to snatch Abbas away from the Shamlus. Two years later in 1587, the massive invasion of Khorasan by the Uzbeks proved the occasion whereby Murshid Quli Khan would make a play for supremacy in <a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a>. When he reached the capital with Abbas a public demonstration in the boy's favor decided the issue, and Shah Mohammad voluntarily handed over the insignia of kingship to his son, who was crowned Abbas I on October 1, 1588. The moment was grave for the empire, with the Ottomans deep in Iranian territory in the west and north and the Uzbeks in possession of half of Khorasan in the east.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shah_Abbas_(r._1588–1629)"><span id="Shah_Abbas_.28r._1588.E2.80.931629.29"></span>Shah Abbas (<i>r.</i> 1588–1629)</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Abbas_the_Great" title="Abbas the Great">Abbas the Great</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg/250px-Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg/330px-Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg/500px-Shah_Abbas_I_engraving_by_Dominicus_Custos_-_Antwerp_artist_printer_and_engraver.jpg 2x" data-file-width="736" data-file-height="1164" /></a><figcaption><i>Shah 'Abbās King of the Persians</i>, copper engraving by <a href="/wiki/Dominicus_Custos" title="Dominicus Custos">Dominicus Custos</a>, <i>Atrium heroicum Caesarum</i> (1600–1602)</figcaption></figure> <p>The 16-year-old Abbas I was installed as nominal shah in 1588, but the real power was intended to remain in the hands of his "mentor," Murshid Quli Khan, who reorganized court offices and principal governorships among the Qizilbash<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011151_130-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011151-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and took the title of <i>wakīl</i> for himself.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abbas' own position seemed even more dependent on Qizilbash approval than Mohammad Khodabanda's was. The dependence of Abbas on the Qizilbash (which provided the only military force) was further reinforced by the precarious situation of the empire, in the vice of Ottoman and Uzbek territorial plunder. Yet over the course of ten years Abbas was able, using cautiously timed but nonetheless decisive steps, to affect a profound transformation of Safavid administration and military, throw back the foreign invaders, and preside over a flourishing of Persian art. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Restoration_of_central_authority">Restoration of central authority</h4></div> <p>Whether Abbas had fully formed his strategy at the onset, at least in retrospect his method of restoring the shah's authority involved three phases: (1) restoration of internal security and law and order; (2) recovery of the eastern territories from the Uzbeks; and (3) recovery of the western territories from the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Before he could begin to embark on the first stage, he needed relief from the most serious threat to the empire: the military pressure from the Ottomans. He did so by taking the humiliating step of coming to peace terms with the Ottomans by making, for now, permanent their territorial gains in Iraq and the territories in the north, including Azerbaijan, <a href="/wiki/Safavid_Karabakh" title="Safavid Karabakh">Karabakh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ganja,_Azerbaijan" title="Ganja, Azerbaijan">Ganja</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a> (comprising the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kingdom of Kartli</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kakheti">Kakheti</a>), <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, and Kurdistan.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011151–152_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011151–152-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the same time, he took steps to ensure that the <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> did not mistake this apparent show of weakness as a signal for more tribal rivalry at the court. Although no one could have bristled more at the power grab of his "mentor" Murshid Quli Khan, he rounded up the leaders of a plot to assassinate the <i>wakīl</i> and had them executed. Then, having made the point that he would not encourage rivalries even purporting to favor his interests, he felt secure enough to have Murshid Quli Khan assassinated on his own orders in July 1589.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was clear that Abbas' style of leadership would be entirely different from Mohammad Khodabanda's leadership. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Matthaus_1598.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Matthaus_1598.jpg/250px-Matthaus_1598.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Matthaus_1598.jpg/330px-Matthaus_1598.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1d/Matthaus_1598.jpg/500px-Matthaus_1598.jpg 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="608" /></a><figcaption>Safavid Persia, 1598</figcaption></figure> <p>Abbas was able to begin gradually transforming the empire from a tribal confederation to a modern imperial government by transferring provinces from <i>mamalik</i> (provincial) rule governed by a Qizilbash chief and the revenue of which mostly supported local Qizilbash administration and forces to <i>khass</i> (central) rule presided over by a court appointee and the revenue of which reverted to the court. Particularly important in this regard were the <a href="/wiki/Gilan_province" title="Gilan province">Gilan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran_province" title="Mazandaran province">Mazandaran</a> provinces, which produced Iran's single most important export; silk. With the substantial new revenue, Abbas was able to build up a central, standing army, loyal only to him. This freed him of his dependence on Qizilbash warriors loyal to local tribal chiefs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011152_136-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011152-136"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hondius_1610.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Hondius_1610.jpg/250px-Hondius_1610.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Hondius_1610.jpg/330px-Hondius_1610.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fb/Hondius_1610.jpg/500px-Hondius_1610.jpg 2x" data-file-width="649" data-file-height="520" /></a><figcaption>Safavid Persia, 1610</figcaption></figure> <p>What effectively fully severed Abbas's dependence on the Qizilbash, however, was how he constituted this new army. In order not to favor one Turkic tribe over another and to avoid inflaming the Turk-Persian enmity, he recruited his army from the "third force", a policy that had been implemented in its <i>baby-steps</i> since the reign of Tahmasp I – the <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> and to a lesser extent Armenian <i><a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ghulāms</a></i> (slaves) which (after conversion to Islam) were trained for the military or some branch of the civil or military administration. The standing army created by Abbas consisted of: (1) 10,000–15,000 cavalry <i>ghulām</i> regiments solely composed of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Ethnic_groups_in_the_Caucasus" title="Ethnic groups in the Caucasus">Caucasians</a>, armed with muskets in addition to the usual weapons (then the largest cavalry in the world<sup id="cite_ref-137" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-137"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>); (2) a corps of musketeers, <i>tufangchiyān</i>, mainly Iranians, originally foot soldiers but eventually mounted, and (3) a corps of artillerymen, <i>tūpchiyān</i>. Both corps of musketeers and artillerymen totaled 12,000 men. In addition the shah's personal bodyguard, made up exclusively of Caucasian <i>ghulāms</i>, was dramatically increased to 3,000.<sup id="cite_ref-138" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-138"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This force of well-trained Caucasian ghulams under Abbas amounted to a total of near 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.<sup id="cite_ref-Savory_1980_79_139-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savory_1980_79-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BN142_140-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN142-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abbas also greatly increased the number of cannons at his disposal, permitting him to field 500 in a single battle.<sup id="cite_ref-BN142_140-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN142-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ruthless discipline was enforced and looting was severely punished. Abbas was also able to draw on military advice from a number of European envoys, particularly from the English adventurers Sir <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Shirley" title="Anthony Shirley">Anthony Shirley</a> and his brother <a href="/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a>, who arrived in 1598 as envoys from the <a href="/wiki/Robert_Devereux,_2nd_Earl_of_Essex" title="Robert Devereux, 2nd Earl of Essex">Earl of Essex</a> on an unofficial mission to induce Iran into an anti-Ottoman alliance.<sup id="cite_ref-141" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-141"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As mentioned by the <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_Iranica" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyclopaedia Iranica">Encyclopaedia Iranica</a></i>, lastly, from 1600 onwards, the Safavid statesman <a href="/wiki/Allahverdi_Khan" title="Allahverdi Khan">Allāhverdī Khan</a>, in conjunction with Robert Sherley, undertook further reorganizations of the army, which meant among other things further dramatically increasing the number of <i>ghulams</i> to 25,000.<sup id="cite_ref-ALLĀHVERDĪ_KHAN_1_142-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALLĀHVERDĪ_KHAN_1-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Abbas also moved the capital to <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, deeper into central Iran. Abbas I built a new city next to the ancient Persian one. From this time the state began to take on a more Persian character. The Safavids ultimately succeeded in establishing a new Persian national monarchy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Recovery_of_territory_from_the_Uzbeks_and_the_Ottomans">Recovery of territory from the Uzbeks and the Ottomans</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931612)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1612)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1612)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbas_I_of_Persia.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Abbas_I_of_Persia.jpg/170px-Abbas_I_of_Persia.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="243" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Abbas_I_of_Persia.jpg/255px-Abbas_I_of_Persia.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Abbas_I_of_Persia.jpg/340px-Abbas_I_of_Persia.jpg 2x" data-file-width="447" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption>Abbas I as shown on one of the paintings in the <a href="/wiki/Chehel_Sotoun" title="Chehel Sotoun">Chehel Sotoun</a> pavilion.</figcaption></figure> <p>Abbas I first fought the Uzbeks, recapturing <a href="/wiki/Herat" title="Herat">Herat</a> and Mashhad in 1598. Then he turned against Iran's archrival, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, recapturing <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasian</a> provinces by 1616, all through the 1603–1618, marking the first grand Safavid pitched victory over the Ottomans. He also used his new force to dislodge the Portuguese from <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a> (1602) and, with English help, from <a href="/wiki/Ormus" title="Ormus">Hormuz</a> (1622), in the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> (a vital link in Portuguese trade with India). He expanded commercial links with the English <a href="/wiki/East_India_Company" title="East India Company">East India Company</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dutch_East_India_Company" title="Dutch East India Company">Dutch East India Company</a>. Thus Abbas was able to break dependence on the Qizilbash for military might indefinitely, and therefore was able to fully centralize control for the first time since the foundation of the Safavid state. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> and Safavids fought over the fertile plains of Iraq for more than 150 years. The capture of Baghdad by Ismail I in 1509 was only followed by its loss to the Ottoman Sultan <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_the_Magnificent" title="Suleiman the Magnificent">Suleiman I</a> in 1534. After subsequent campaigns, the Safavids <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Baghdad_(1624)" title="Capture of Baghdad (1624)">recaptured Baghdad in 1624</a> during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1623%E2%80%9339)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1623–39)</a> yet lost it again to <a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a> in 1638 after Abbas had died. Henceforth a treaty, signed in <a href="/wiki/Qasr-e_Shirin" title="Qasr-e Shirin">Qasr-e Shirin</a> known as the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Zuhab" title="Treaty of Zuhab">Treaty of Zuhab</a> was established delineating a border between Iran and Turkey in 1639, a border which still stands in northwest Iran/southeast Turkey. The 150-year tug-of-war accentuated the Sunni and Shi'a rift in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Quelling_the_Georgian_uprising">Quelling the Georgian uprising</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Shah_Abbas%27_invasions_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Abbas' invasions of Georgia">Shah Abbas' invasions of Georgia</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/170px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="374" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/255px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c9/%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif/340px-%E1%83%A0%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%9B_%E1%83%AE%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98.gif 2x" data-file-width="1775" data-file-height="3904" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Rostom_of_Kartli" title="Rostom of Kartli">Rostom</a> (also known as <i>Rustam Khan</i>), viceroy of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kartli</a>, eastern <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, from 1633 to 1658.</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1614–16 during the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%931618)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–1618)</a>, Abbas suppressed a rebellion led by his formerly most loyal <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> subjects <a href="/wiki/Luarsab_II_of_Kartli" title="Luarsab II of Kartli">Luarsab II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Teimuraz_I_of_Kakheti" title="Teimuraz I of Kakheti">Teimuraz I</a> (also known as <i>Tahmuras Khan</i>) in the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kakheti">Kingdom of Kakheti</a>. In 1613, Abbas had appointed these trusted Georgian <i>gholams</i> of his on the puppet thrones of <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kartli" title="Kingdom of Kartli">Kartli</a> and Kakheti, the Iranian Safavid ruled areas of Georgia. Later that year, when the shah summoned them to join him on a hunting expedition in <a href="/wiki/Mazandaran_province" title="Mazandaran province">Mazandaran</a>, they didn't show up due to the fear they would be either imprisoned or killed.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169_143-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ultimately forming an alliance, the two sought refuge with the Ottoman forces in Ottoman ruled <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Imereti" title="Kingdom of Imereti">Imereti</a>. This defection of two of the shah's most trusted subjects and <i><a href="/wiki/Gholam" class="mw-redirect" title="Gholam">gholams</a></i> infuriated the shah, as reported by the Safavid court historian <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Beg_Munshi" title="Iskandar Beg Munshi">Iskandar Beg Munshi</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169_143-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The following spring in 1614, Abbas I appointed a grandson of <a href="/wiki/Alexander_II_of_Imereti" title="Alexander II of Imereti">Alexander II of Imereti</a> to the throne of Kartli, <a href="/wiki/Jesse_of_Kakheti" title="Jesse of Kakheti">Jesse of Kakheti</a> also known as "Isā Khān".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169_143-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Raised at the court in <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> and a Muslim, he was fully loyal to the shah. Subsequently, the shah marched upon <a href="/wiki/Kutaisi" title="Kutaisi">Grem</a>, the capital of Imereti, and punished its peoples for harbouring his defected subjects. He returned to Kartli, and in two punitive campaigns he <a href="/wiki/Shah_Abbas%27_invasions_of_Georgia" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Abbas' invasions of Georgia">devastated Tbilisi</a>, killed 60–70,000 Kakheti Georgian peasants, and deported between 130,000 and 200,000 <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> captives to mainland Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-144" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-144"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>137<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536_145-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174_146-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Matthee_2012_147-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthee_2012-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After fully securing the region, he executed the rebellious <a href="/wiki/Luarsab_II_of_Kartli" title="Luarsab II of Kartli">Luarsab II of Kartli</a> and later had the Georgian queen <a href="/wiki/Ketevan_the_Martyr" title="Ketevan the Martyr">Ketevan</a>, who had been sent to the shah as negotiator, tortured to death when she refused to renounce Christianity, in an act of revenge for the recalcitrance of Teimuraz.<sup id="cite_ref-148" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-148"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>141<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-149" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-149"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>142<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kakheti lost two-thirds of its population in these years by Abbas' punitive campaign. The majority were deported to Iran, while some were slaughtered.<sup id="cite_ref-150" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-150"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>143<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Teimuraz returned to eastern Georgia in 1615 and defeated a Safavid force. It was just a brief setback, however, as Abbas had already been making long-term plans to prevent further incursions. He was eventually successful in making the eastern Georgian territories an integral part of the Safavid provinces. In 1619 he appointed the loyal <a href="/wiki/Simon_II_of_Kartli" title="Simon II of Kartli">Simon II</a> (or <i>Semayun Khan</i>) on the symbolic throne of Kakheti, while placing a series of his own governors to rule of districts where rebellious inhabitants were mostly located.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169_143-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201169-143"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>136<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Moreover, he planned to deport all nobles of Kartli. Iranian rule had been fully restored over eastern Georgia, but the Georgian territories would continue to produce resistance to Safavid enroachments from 1624 until Abbas' death.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell201170_151-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201170-151"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>144<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Suppressing_the_Kurdish_rebellion">Suppressing the Kurdish rebellion</h4></div> <p>In 1609–10, a war broke out between <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a> tribes and the Safavid Empire. After <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Dimdim" title="Siege of Dimdim">a long and bloody siege</a> led by the Safavid grand vizier <a href="/wiki/Hatem_Beg_Ordubadi" title="Hatem Beg Ordubadi">Hatem Beg</a>, which lasted from November 1609 to the summer of 1610, the Kurdish stronghold of Dimdim was captured. Shah Abbas ordered a general massacre in Beradost and Mukriyan (<a href="/wiki/Mahabad" title="Mahabad">Mahabad</a>, reported by Eskandar Beg Monshi, Safavid Historian (1557–1642), in "Alam Ara Abbasi") and resettled the <a href="/wiki/Turkic_peoples" title="Turkic peoples">Turkic</a> <a href="/wiki/Afshar_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Afshar tribe">Afshar tribe</a> in the region while deporting many Kurdish tribes to <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-152" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-152"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>145<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-153" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-153"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>146<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nowadays, there is a community of nearly 1.7 million people who are descendants of the tribes deported from Kurdistan to Khorasan (Northeastern Iran) by the Safavids.<sup id="cite_ref-154" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-154"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>147<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Contacts_with_Europe_during_Abbas's_reign"><span id="Contacts_with_Europe_during_Abbas.27s_reign"></span>Contacts with Europe during Abbas's reign</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Husain_Ali_Beg.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Husain_Ali_Beg.jpg/250px-Husain_Ali_Beg.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Husain_Ali_Beg.jpg/330px-Husain_Ali_Beg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Husain_Ali_Beg.jpg/500px-Husain_Ali_Beg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="531" data-file-height="794" /></a><figcaption>The ambassador <a href="/wiki/Hossein_Ali_Beg_Bayat" title="Hossein Ali Beg Bayat">Husain Ali Beg</a> led the first <a href="/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1599%E2%80%931602)" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)">Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Abbas's tolerance towards Christians was part of his policy of establishing diplomatic links with European powers to try to enlist their help in the fight against their common enemy, the Ottoman Empire. The idea of such an anti-Ottoman alliance was not a new one – over a century before, <a href="/wiki/Uzun_Hassan" class="mw-redirect" title="Uzun Hassan">Uzun Hassan</a>, then ruler of part of Iran, had asked the <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venetians</a> for military aid – but none of the Safavids had made diplomatic overtures to Europe. Shah Ismail I was the first of the Safavids to try to establish once again an alliance against the common Ottoman enemy through the earlier stages of the <a href="/wiki/Habsburg%E2%80%93Persian_alliance" title="Habsburg–Persian alliance">Habsburg–Persian alliance</a>, but this also proved to be largely unfruitful during his reign.<sup id="cite_ref-155" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-155"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>148<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abbas's attitude, however, was in marked contrast to that of his grandfather, Tahmasp I, who had expelled the English traveller <a href="/wiki/Anthony_Jenkinson" title="Anthony Jenkinson">Anthony Jenkinson</a> from his court on hearing he was a Christian.<sup id="cite_ref-156" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-156"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>149<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For his part, Abbas declared that he "preferred the dust from the shoe soles of the lowest Christian to the highest Ottoman personage."<sup id="cite_ref-157" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-157"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>150<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abbas would take active and all measures needed in order to seal the alliances. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Embassy_to_Europe.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Embassy_to_Europe.jpg/220px-Embassy_to_Europe.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Embassy_to_Europe.jpg/330px-Embassy_to_Europe.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Embassy_to_Europe.jpg/440px-Embassy_to_Europe.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2130" data-file-height="1496" /></a><figcaption>Fresco in the <a href="/wiki/Doge%27s_Palace" title="Doge's Palace">Doge's Palace</a>, depicting <a href="/wiki/Marino_Grimani_(doge)" title="Marino Grimani (doge)">Doge Marino Grimani</a> receiving the Persian Ambassadors, 1599</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1599, Abbas sent his <a href="/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1599%E2%80%931602)" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1599–1602)">first diplomatic mission to Europe</a>. The group crossed the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> and spent the winter in Moscow before proceeding through Norway and Germany (where it was received by <a href="/wiki/Emperor_Rudolf_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Emperor Rudolf II">Emperor Rudolf II</a>) to Rome, where <a href="/wiki/Pope_Clement_VIII" title="Pope Clement VIII">Pope Clement VIII</a> gave the travellers a long audience. They finally arrived at the court of <a href="/wiki/Philip_III_of_Spain" title="Philip III of Spain">Philip III of Spain</a> in 1602. Although the expedition never managed to return to Iran, being shipwrecked on the journey around Africa, it marked an important new step in contacts between Iran and Europe. The Europeans began to be fascinated by the Iranians and their culture – Shakespeare's <i><a href="/wiki/Twelfth_Night" title="Twelfth Night">Twelfth Night</a></i> (1601–02), for example, makes two references (at II.5 and III.4) to 'the <a href="/wiki/Sophy_(Safavid_Empire)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sophy (Safavid Empire)">Sophy</a>', then the English term for the Shahs of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-158" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-158"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>151<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-159" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-159"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>152<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Henceforward, the number of diplomatic missions to and fro greatly increased.<sup id="cite_ref-160" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-160"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>153<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg/250px-Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg/330px-Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/07/Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg/500px-Abbas_I_as_a_new_Caesar_being_honoured_by_the_trumpets_of_fame_and_the_Persian_embassy_in_Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_by_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2100" data-file-height="2652" /></a><figcaption>Abbas I as a new <a href="/wiki/Caesar_(title)" title="Caesar (title)">Caesar</a> being honoured by the Trumpets of Fame, together with the <a href="/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1609%E2%80%9315)" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)">1609–1615 Persian embassy</a>, in <i><a href="/wiki/File:Allegorie_de_l_Occasion_Frans_II_Francken_1628.jpg" title="File:Allegorie de l Occasion Frans II Francken 1628.jpg">Allégorie de l'Occasion</a></i>, by <a href="/wiki/Frans_II_Francken" class="mw-redirect" title="Frans II Francken">Frans II Francken</a>, 1628</figcaption></figure> <p>The shah had set great store on an alliance with Spain, the chief opponent of the Ottomans in Europe. Abbas offered trading rights and the chance to preach Christianity in Iran in return for help against the Ottomans. But the stumbling block of Hormuz remained, a vassal kingdom that had fallen into the hands of the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_Habsburgs" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish Habsburgs">Spanish Habsburgs</a> when the King of Spain inherited the throne of Portugal in 1580. The Spanish demanded Abbas break off relations with the English before they would consider relinquishing the town. Abbas was unable to comply. Eventually Abbas became frustrated with Spain, as he did with the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman Empire</a>, which wanted him to make his over 400,000 <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> subjects swear allegiance to the Pope but did not trouble to inform the shah when the Emperor Rudolf signed a peace treaty with the Ottomans. Contacts with the Pope, Poland and <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Moscow</a> were no more fruitful.<sup id="cite_ref-161" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-161"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>154<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>More came of Abbas's contacts with the English, although England had little interest in fighting against the Ottomans. The Shirley brothers arrived in 1598 and helped reorganize the Iranian army, which proved to be crucial in the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_War_(1603%E2%80%9318)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18)">Ottoman–Safavid War (1603–18)</a>, which resulted in Ottoman defeats in all stages of the war and the first clear pitched Safavid victory of their archrivals. One of the Shirley brothers, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Shirley" title="Robert Shirley">Robert Shirley</a>, would lead Abbas's <a href="/wiki/Persian_embassy_to_Europe_(1609%E2%80%9315)" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian embassy to Europe (1609–15)">second diplomatic mission to Europe</a> from 1609 to 1615.<sup id="cite_ref-162" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-162"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>155<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The English East India Company also began to take an interest in Iran, and in 1622 four of its ships helped Abbas retake Hormuz from the Portuguese in the <a href="/wiki/Capture_of_Ormuz_(1622)" class="mw-redirect" title="Capture of Ormuz (1622)">capture of Ormuz</a>. This was the beginning of the English East India Company's long-running interest in Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-163" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-163"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>156<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Succession_and_legacy_of_Abbas_I">Succession and legacy of Abbas I</h4></div> <p>Due to his obsessive fear of assassination, Shah Abbas either put to death or blinded any member of his family who aroused his suspicion. His oldest son, the crown prince <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Baqer_Mirza" title="Mohammad Baqer Mirza">Mohammad Baqer Mirza</a>, was executed following a court intrigue in which several Circassians were involved, while two others were blinded. Since two other sons had predeceased him, the result was a personal tragedy for Shah Abbas. When he died on 19 January 1629, he had no son capable of succeeding him.<sup id="cite_ref-164" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-164"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>157<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the early 17th century the power of the Qizilbash drastically diminished, the original militia that had helped Ismail I capture Tabriz and that had gained many administrative powers over the centuries. Power was shifting to the new class of <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasian</a> deportees and imports, many of the hundreds of thousands ethnic <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>. This new layer of society would continue to play a vital role in Iranian history up to and including the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar dynasty</a>, some 300 years after Abbas' death. </p><p>At its zenith, during the long reign of Shah Abbas I, the empire's reach comprised <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenia" title="Armenia">Armenia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan" title="Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabardino-Balkaria" title="Kabardino-Balkaria">Kabardino-Balkaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, and parts of <a href="/wiki/Turkmenistan" title="Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uzbekistan" title="Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decline">Decline</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_dynasty" title="Afsharid dynasty">Afsharid dynasty</a>, <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Constantinople_(1724)" title="Treaty of Constantinople (1724)">Treaty of Constantinople (1724)</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shah_Abbas_II.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Shah_Abbas_II.jpg/220px-Shah_Abbas_II.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Shah_Abbas_II.jpg/330px-Shah_Abbas_II.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/85/Shah_Abbas_II.jpg/440px-Shah_Abbas_II.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Abbas_II_of_Persia" title="Abbas II of Persia">Shah Abbas II</a> holding a banquet for foreign dignitaries. Detail from a ceiling fresco at the <a href="/wiki/Chehel_Sotoun" title="Chehel Sotoun">Chehel Sotoun Palace</a> in Isfahan.</figcaption></figure> <p>In addition to fighting its perennial enemies, their archrival the Ottomans and the Uzbeks as the 17th century progressed, Iran had to contend with the rise of new neighbors. Russian <a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Muscovy</a> in the previous century had deposed two western Asian khanates of the <a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a> and expanded its influence into Europe, the Caucasus Mountains and Central Asia. <a href="/wiki/Astrakhan" title="Astrakhan">Astrakhan</a> came under Russian rule, nearing the Safavid possessions in <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a>. In the far eastern territories, the <a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughals</a> of India had expanded into <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Afghanistan" title="Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a>) at the expense of Iranian control, briefly taking <a href="/wiki/Kandahar" title="Kandahar">Kandahar</a>. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:1708._%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97_II-%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/1708._%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97_II-%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98.jpg/170px-1708._%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97_II-%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/1708._%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97_II-%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98.jpg/255px-1708._%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97_II-%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/1708._%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97_II-%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98.jpg/340px-1708._%E1%83%93%E1%83%90%E1%83%95%E1%83%98%E1%83%97_II-%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%AC%E1%83%A7%E1%83%90%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%92%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90%E1%83%AE%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%91%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%A1%E1%83%98%E1%83%92%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/David_II_of_Kakheti" title="David II of Kakheti">David II of Kakheti</a> (<i>Emamqoli Khan</i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>In 1659, the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kakheti" title="Kingdom of Kakheti">Kingdom of Kakheti</a> rose up against the Safavid Iranian rule due to a change of policy that included the mass settling of <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> Turkic tribes in the region in order to repopulate the province, after Shah Abbas' <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I%27s_Kakhetian_and_Kartlian_campaigns" title="Abbas I's Kakhetian and Kartlian campaigns">earlier</a> mass deportations of between 130,000<sup id="cite_ref-165" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-165"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>158<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> – 200,000<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536_145-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174_146-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-166" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-166"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>159<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a> subjects to Iran's mainland and massacre of another thousand in 1616 virtually left the province without any substantial population. This <a href="/wiki/Bakhtrioni_Uprising" class="mw-redirect" title="Bakhtrioni Uprising">Bakhtrioni Uprising</a> was successfully defeated under personal direction of Shah <a href="/wiki/Abbas_II_of_Persia" title="Abbas II of Persia">Abbas II</a> himself. However, strategically it remained inconclusive.<sup id="cite_ref-167" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-167"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>160<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Iranian authority was restored in Kakheti, but the Qizilbash Turkics were prevented from settling in Kakheti, which undermined the planned Iranian policies in the respective province. </p><p>More importantly, European trading companies used their superior means of maritime power to control trade routes in the western Indian Ocean. As a result, Safavid Iran's overseas links to East Africa, the Arabian peninsula and South Asia were greatly diminished.<sup id="cite_ref-168" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-168"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>161<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Overland trade grew notably however, as Iran was able to further develop its overland trade with North and Central Europe during the second half of the seventeenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-169" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-169"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>162<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the late seventeenth century, Iranian merchants established a permanent presence as far north as <a href="/wiki/Narva" title="Narva">Narva</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Baltic_Sea" title="Baltic Sea">Baltic Sea</a>, in what now is <a href="/wiki/Estonia" title="Estonia">Estonia</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-170" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-170"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>163<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Iranian trade with European merchants led to the depletion of much of Iran's metal supplies. Except for Shah Abbas II, the Safavid rulers after Abbas I were therefore rendered ineffectual, and the Iranian government declined and finally collapsed when a serious military threat emerged on its eastern border in the early eighteenth century.<sup id="cite_ref-171" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-171"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>164<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The end of the reign of Abbas II, 1666, thus marked the beginning of the end of the Safavid dynasty. Despite falling revenues and military threats, later shahs had lavish lifestyles. <a href="/wiki/Soltan_Hoseyn" title="Soltan Hoseyn">Soltan Hoseyn</a> (1694–1722) in particular was known for his love of wine and disinterest in governance.<sup id="cite_ref-172" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-172"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>165<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persia,_Caspian_Sea,_part_of_Independent_Tartary.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Persia%2C_Caspian_Sea%2C_part_of_Independent_Tartary.png/250px-Persia%2C_Caspian_Sea%2C_part_of_Independent_Tartary.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Persia%2C_Caspian_Sea%2C_part_of_Independent_Tartary.png/330px-Persia%2C_Caspian_Sea%2C_part_of_Independent_Tartary.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Persia%2C_Caspian_Sea%2C_part_of_Independent_Tartary.png/500px-Persia%2C_Caspian_Sea%2C_part_of_Independent_Tartary.png 2x" data-file-width="2163" data-file-height="1991" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Safavid Empire, published 1736.</figcaption></figure> <p>The country was repeatedly raided on its frontiers – Kerman by <a href="/wiki/Baloch_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="Baloch tribes">Baloch tribes</a> in 1698, Khorasan by the <a href="/wiki/Hotaki_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Hotaki dynasty">Hotakis</a> in 1717, <a href="/wiki/Dagestan" title="Dagestan">Dagestan</a> and northern <a href="/wiki/Shirvan_Beylarbeylik" class="mw-redirect" title="Shirvan Beylarbeylik">Shirvan</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Lezgins" title="Lezgins">Lezgins</a> <a href="/wiki/Sack_of_Shamakhi_(1721)" class="mw-redirect" title="Sack of Shamakhi (1721)">in 1721</a>, constantly in <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamia</a> by Sunni peninsula Arabs. Sultan Hosein tried to forcibly convert his Afghan subjects in Qandahar from Sunni to Twelverism. In response, a <a href="/wiki/Ghilzai" class="mw-redirect" title="Ghilzai">Ghilzai</a> <a href="/wiki/Afghan_(name)" class="mw-redirect" title="Afghan (name)">Afghan</a> chieftain named <a href="/wiki/Mirwais_Hotak" title="Mirwais Hotak">Mirwais Hotak</a> revolted and killed <a href="/wiki/Gurgin_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurgin Khan">Gurgin Khan</a>, the Safavid governor of the region, along with his army. In 1722, an Afghan army led by Mir Wais' son <a href="/wiki/Mir_Mahmud_Hotaki" class="mw-redirect" title="Mir Mahmud Hotaki">Mahmud</a> advanced on the heart of the empire and defeated the government forces at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Gulnabad" title="Battle of Gulnabad">Battle of Gulnabad</a>. He then <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Isfahan" title="Siege of Isfahan">besieged</a> the capital of Isfahan, until Shah Soltan Hoseyn <a href="/wiki/Abdication" title="Abdication">abdicated</a> and acknowledged him as the new king of Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-173" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-173"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>166<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (June 2015)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> At the same time, the <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperial Russia">Russians</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Peter_the_Great" title="Peter the Great">Peter the Great</a> attacked and conquered swaths of Safavid Iran's <a href="/wiki/North_Caucasus" title="North Caucasus">North Caucasian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Transcaucasia" class="mw-redirect" title="Transcaucasia">Transcaucasian</a>, and northern mainland territories through the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722-1723)" class="mw-redirect" title="Russo-Persian War (1722-1723)">Russo-Iranian War (1722–1723)</a>. The Safavids' archrivals, the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a>, invaded western and northwestern Safavid Iran and took swaths of territory there, including the city of <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. Together with the Russians, they agreed to divide and keep the conquered Iranian territories for themselves as confirmed in the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Constantinople_(1724)" title="Treaty of Constantinople (1724)">Treaty of Constantinople (1724)</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-174" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-174"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>167<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>\ </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Moll_1720_Persian_Empire.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Moll_1720_Persian_Empire.JPG/220px-Moll_1720_Persian_Empire.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="210" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Moll_1720_Persian_Empire.JPG/330px-Moll_1720_Persian_Empire.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Moll_1720_Persian_Empire.JPG/440px-Moll_1720_Persian_Empire.JPG 2x" data-file-width="489" data-file-height="467" /></a><figcaption>A map of Safavid Empire in 1720, showing different states of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The tribal Afghans dominated their conquered territory for seven years but were prevented from making further gains by <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a>, a former slave who had risen to military leadership within the <a href="/wiki/Afshar_tribe" class="mw-redirect" title="Afshar tribe">Afshar tribe</a> in Khorasan, a vassal state of the Safavids. Quickly making a name as a military genius both feared and respected amongst the empire's friends and enemies (including Iran's archrival the Ottoman Empire, and Russia; both empires Nader would deal with soon afterwards), Nader Shah easily defeated the Afghan Hotaki forces in the 1729 <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Damghan_(1729)" title="Battle of Damghan (1729)">Battle of Damghan</a>. He had removed them from power and banished them from Iran by 1729. In 1732 by the <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Resht" title="Treaty of Resht">Treaty of Resht</a> and in 1735 <a href="/wiki/Treaty_of_Ganja" title="Treaty of Ganja">Treaty of Ganja</a>, he negotiated an agreement with the government of Empress <a href="/wiki/Anna_of_Russia" title="Anna of Russia">Anna Ioanovna</a> that resulted in the return of the recently annexed Iranian territories, making most of the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> fall back into Iranian hands, while establishing an <a href="/wiki/Iran-Russia_relations" class="mw-redirect" title="Iran-Russia relations">Irano-Russian</a> alliance against the common neighbouring Ottoman enemy.<sup id="cite_ref-175" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-175"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>168<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-176" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-176"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>169<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_War_(1730%E2%80%9335)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Persian War (1730–35)">Ottoman–Iranian War (1730–35)</a>, he retook all territories lost by the Ottoman invasion of the 1720s, as well as beyond. With the Safavid state and its territories secured, in 1738 Nader <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Kandahar" title="Siege of Kandahar">conquered the Hotaki's last stronghold in Kandahar</a>; in the same year, in need of fortune to aid his military careers against his Ottoman and Russian imperial rivals, he started his invasion of the wealthy but weak Mughal Empire accompanied by his Georgian subject <a href="/wiki/Erekle_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Erekle II">Erekle II</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-177" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-177"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>170<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> occupying <a href="/wiki/Ghazni" title="Ghazni">Ghazni</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kabul" title="Kabul">Kabul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lahore" title="Lahore">Lahore</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah%27s_invasion_of_India" title="Nader Shah's invasion of India">as far as Delhi</a>, in India, when he completely humiliated and looted the militarily inferior Mughals. These cities were later inherited by his <a href="/wiki/Durrani" title="Durrani">Abdali</a> Afghan military commander, <a href="/wiki/Ahmad_Shah_Durrani" title="Ahmad Shah Durrani">Ahmad Shah Durrani</a>, who would go on to found the <a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Durrani Empire</a> in 1747. Nadir had effective control under Shah <a href="/wiki/Tahmasp_II" title="Tahmasp II">Tahmasp II</a> and then ruled as regent of the infant <a href="/wiki/Abbas_III" title="Abbas III">Abbas III</a> until 1736 when he had himself crowned shah. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safavid_Persian_Empire.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Safavid_Persian_Empire.jpg/250px-Safavid_Persian_Empire.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="178" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Safavid_Persian_Empire.jpg/330px-Safavid_Persian_Empire.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Safavid_Persian_Empire.jpg/500px-Safavid_Persian_Empire.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1195" data-file-height="969" /></a><figcaption>Part of the Safavid Persian Empire (on right), the Ottoman Empire, and <a href="/wiki/West_Asia" title="West Asia">West Asia</a> in general, Emanuel Bowen, 1744–52</figcaption></figure> <p>Immediately after Nader Shah's assassination in 1747 and the disintegration of his short-lived empire, the Safavids were re-appointed as shahs of Iran in order to lend legitimacy to the nascent <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a>. However, the brief <a href="/wiki/Puppet_state" title="Puppet state">puppet regime</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ismail_III" title="Ismail III">Ismail III</a> ended in 1760 when <a href="/wiki/Karim_Khan" class="mw-redirect" title="Karim Khan">Karim Khan</a> felt strong enough to take nominal power of the country as well and officially end the Safavid dynasty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Society">Society</h2></div> <p>While large in terms of land area, the large proportion of deserts and mountains in its territory meant density was very low; the empire's population is estimated to have probably numbered between eight and ten million in 1650, as compared to <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 20 million</span> for the Ottoman Empire in 1600.<sup id="cite_ref-178" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-178"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>171<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Safavid society was a <a href="/wiki/Meritocracy" title="Meritocracy">meritocracy</a> where officials were appointed on the basis of worth and merit, and not on the basis of birth. It was certainly not an <a href="/wiki/Oligarchy" title="Oligarchy">oligarchy</a>, nor was it an <a href="/wiki/Aristocracy" title="Aristocracy">aristocracy</a>. Sons of nobles were considered for the succession of their fathers as a mark of respect, but they had to prove themselves worthy of the position. This system avoided an entrenched aristocracy or a caste society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007183_179-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007183-179"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>172<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are numerous recorded accounts of laymen that rose to high official posts as a result of their merits.<sup id="cite_ref-180" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-180"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>173<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Nevertheless, the Iranian society during the Safavids was that of a hierarchy, with the Shah at the apex of the hierarchical pyramid, the common people, merchants and peasants at the base, and the aristocrats in between. The term <i>dowlat</i>, which in modern Persian means "government", was then an abstract term meaning "bliss" or "felicity", and it began to be used as concrete sense of the Safavid state, reflecting the view that the people had of their ruler, as someone elevated above humanity.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200777_181-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200777-181"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>174<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Also among the aristocracy, in the middle of the hierarchical pyramid, were the religious officials, who, mindful of the historic role of the religious classes as a buffer between the ruler and his subjects, usually did their best to shield the ordinary people from oppressive governments.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007177_182-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007177-182"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>175<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Turks_and_Tajiks">Turks and Tajiks</h3></div><p> The power structure of the Safavid state was mainly divided into two groups: the Turkic-speaking military/ruling elite – whose job was to maintain the territorial integrity and continuity of the Iranian empire through their leadership – and the Persian-speaking administrative/governing elite – whose job was to oversee the operation and development of the nation and its identity through their high positions. Thus came the term "Turk and Tajik" to describe the <a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Turko-Persian_tradition" class="mw-redirect" title="Turko-Persian tradition">Turko-Persian</a>, nature of many dynasties which ruled over Greater Iran between the 12th and 20th centuries, in that these dynasties promoted and helped continue the dominant Persian linguistic and cultural identity of their states, although the dynasties themselves were of non-Persian (e.g. Turkic) origins. The relationship between the Turkic-speaking 'Turks' and Persian-speaking 'Tajiks' was symbiotic, yet some form of rivalry did exist between the two. As the former represented the "<i>people of the sword</i>" and the latter, "<i>the people of the pen</i>", high-level official posts would naturally be reserved for the Persians. Indeed, this had been the situation throughout Persian history, even before the Safavids, ever since the Arab conquest.<sup id="cite_ref-183" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-183"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>176<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (September 2022)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444" /></p><table class="box-Page_numbers_needed plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-style" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Text_document_with_page_number_icon.svg/40px-Text_document_with_page_number_icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Text_document_with_page_number_icon.svg/60px-Text_document_with_page_number_icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Text_document_with_page_number_icon.svg/80px-Text_document_with_page_number_icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></span></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This article cites its <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">sources</a> but <b>does not provide <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CITEHOW" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:CITEHOW">page references</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> You can help by providing page numbers for existing citations.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">September 2022</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table><p> Shah Tahmasp introduced a change to this, when he, and the other Safavid rulers who succeeded him, sought to blur the formerly defined lines between the two linguistic groups, by taking the sons of Turkic-speaking officers into the royal household for their education in the Persian language. Consequently, they were slowly able to take on administrative jobs in areas which had hitherto been the exclusive preserve of the ethnic Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-184" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-184"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>177<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_third_force:_Caucasians">The third force: Caucasians</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Georgians" title="Iranian Georgians">Iranian Georgians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Circassians" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Circassians">Iranian Circassians</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Daud_Khan_Undiladze.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Daud_Khan_Undiladze.jpg/250px-Daud_Khan_Undiladze.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="257" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Daud_Khan_Undiladze.jpg/255px-Daud_Khan_Undiladze.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/60/Daud_Khan_Undiladze.jpg 2x" data-file-width="272" data-file-height="411" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Daud_Khan_Undiladze" title="Daud Khan Undiladze">Daud Khan Undiladze</a>, military commander, <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ghilman</a> and the governor of <a href="/wiki/Ganja,_Azerbaijan" title="Ganja, Azerbaijan">Ganja</a> and <a href="/wiki/Karabakh" title="Karabakh">Karabakh</a> from 1625 to 1630.</figcaption></figure> <p>From 1540 and onwards, Shah Tahmasp initiated a gradual transformation of the Iranian society by slowly constructing a new branch and layer solely composed of ethnic <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasians</a>. The implementation of this branch would be completed and significantly widened under <a href="/wiki/Abbas_the_Great" title="Abbas the Great">Abbas the Great</a> (Abbas I). According to the <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, for Tahmasp, the background of this initiation and eventual composition that would be only finalized under Shah Abbas I, circled around the military tribal elite of the empire, the Qizilbash, who believed that physical proximity to and control of a member of the immediate Safavid family guaranteed spiritual advantages, political fortune, and material advancement.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This was a huge impedance for the authority of the Shah, and furthermore, it undermined any developments without the agreeing or shared profit of the Qizilbash. As Tahmasp understood and realized that any long-term solutions would mainly involve minimizing the political and military presence of the Qizilbash as a whole, it would require them to be replaced by a whole new layer in society, that would question and battle the authority of the Qizilbash on every possible level, and minimize any of their influences. This layer would be solely composed of hundreds of thousands of deported, imported, and to a lesser extent voluntarily migrated ethnic <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a>, Georgians, and Armenians. This layer would become the "third force" in Iranian society, alongside the other two forces, the Turkomans and Persians. </p><p>The series of campaigns that Tahmāsp subsequently waged after realising this in the wider <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a> between 1540 and 1554 were meant to uphold the morale and the fighting efficiency of the Qizilbash military,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200765_185-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200765-185"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>178<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but they brought home large numbers (over 70,000)<sup id="cite_ref-186" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-186"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>179<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of Christian <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgian</a>, Circassian and Armenian slaves as its main objective, and would be the basis of this third force; the new (Caucasian) layer in society.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011148_107-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011148-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to the <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, this would be as well the starting point for the corps of the <i>ḡolāmān-e ḵāṣṣa-ye-e šarifa</i>, or <i>royal slaves</i>, who would dominate the Safavid military for most of the empire's length, and would form a crucial part of the <i>third force</i>. As non-Turcoman converts to Islam, these Circassian and Georgian <a href="/wiki/Ghilman" title="Ghilman">ḡolāmāns</a> (also written as <i>ghulams</i>) were completely unrestrained by clan loyalties and kinship obligations, which was an attractive feature for a ruler like Tahmāsp whose childhood and upbringing had been deeply affected by Qizilbash tribal politics.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Their formation, implementation, and usage was very much alike to the <a href="/wiki/Janissaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Janissaries">janissaries</a> of the neighbouring Ottoman Empire.<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_108-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In turn, many of these transplanted women became wives and concubines of Tahmasp, and the Safavid harem emerged as a competitive, and sometimes lethal, arena of ethnic politics as cliques of Turkmen, Circassian, and Georgian women and courtiers vied with each other for the king's attention.<sup id="cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the first slave soldiers would not be organized until the reign of Abbas I, during Tahmasp's reign, Caucasians already became important members of the royal household, <a href="/wiki/Harem" title="Harem">Harem</a> and in the civil and military administration,<sup id="cite_ref-Manz_109-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Manz-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-books.google.nl_110-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and were on their way of becoming an integral part of society. Tahmasp I's successor, <a href="/wiki/Ismail_II" title="Ismail II">Ismail II</a>, brought another 30,000 Circassians and Georgians to Iran of which many joined the ghulam force.<sup id="cite_ref-187" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-187"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>180<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the full implementation of this policy by Abbas I, the women (only Circassian and Georgian) now very often came to occupy prominent positions in the harems of the Safavid elite, while the men who became part of the ghulam "class" as part of the powerful third force were given special training on completion of which they were either enrolled in one of the newly created <i>ghilman</i> regiments, or employed in the royal household.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow20099_188-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow20099-188"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>181<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The rest of the masses of deportees and importees, a significant portion numbering many hundreds of thousands, were settled in various regions of mainland Iran, and were given all kinds of roles as part of society, such as craftsmen, farmers, cattle breeders, traders, soldiers, generals, governors, woodcutters, etc., all also part of the newly established layer in Iranian society.<sup id="cite_ref-189" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-189"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>182<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Shah Abbas, who significantly enlargened and completed this program and under whom the creation of this new layer in society may be mentioned as fully "finalized", completed the ghulam system as well. As part of its completion, he greatly expanded the ghulam military corps from just a few hundred during Tahmāsp's era, to 15,000 highly trained cavalrymen,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200937_190-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow200937-190"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>183<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as part of a whole army division of 40,000 <a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Caucasian</a> ghulams. He then went on to completely reduce the number of Qizilbash provincial governorships and systematically moved qizilbash governors to other districts, thus disrupting their ties with the local community, and reducing their power. Most were replaced by a ghulam, and within short time, Georgians, Circassians, and to a lesser extent Armenians had been appointed to many of the highest offices of state, and were employed within all other possible sections of society. By 1595, <a href="/wiki/Allahverdi_Khan" title="Allahverdi Khan">Allahverdi Khan</a>, a Georgian, became one of the most powerful men in the Safavid state, when he was appointed the Governor-General of <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars</a>, one of the richest provinces in Iran. And his power reached its peak in 1598, when he became the commander-in-chief of the armed forces.<sup id="cite_ref-191" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-191"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>184<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus, starting from the reign of Tahmāsp I but only fully implemented and completed by Shah Abbas, this new group solely composed of ethnic Caucasians eventually came to constitute a powerful "third force" within the state as a new layer in society, alongside the Persians and the Qizilbash Turks, and it only goes to prove the meritocratic society of the Safavids. </p><p>It is estimated that during Abbas' reign alone some 130,000–200,000 Georgians,<sup id="cite_ref-192" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-192"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>185<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174_146-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009174-146"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>139<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536_145-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMikaberidze2015291,_536-145"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>138<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Matthee_2012_147-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Matthee_2012-147"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>140<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> tens of thousands of Circassians, and around 300,000 <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a><sup id="cite_ref-193" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-193"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>186<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-194" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-194"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>187<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> had been deported and imported from the Caucasus to mainland Iran, all obtaining functions and roles as part of the newly created layer in society, such as within the highest positions of the state, or as farmers, soldiers, craftspeople, as part of the Royal harem, the Court, and peasantry, amongst others. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Religion">Religion</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></div> <p>Even though the Safavids were not the first Shiʻi rulers in Iran, they played a crucial role in forcefully making Shiʻa Islam the official religion in the whole of Iran, as well as what is nowadays the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Azerbaijan" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Azerbaijan">Republic of Azerbaijan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-195" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-195"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>188<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were large Shiʻi communities in some cities like <a href="/wiki/Qom" title="Qom">Qom</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sabzevar" title="Sabzevar">Sabzevar</a> as early as the 8th century. In the 10th and 11th centuries the <a href="/wiki/Buwayhid" class="mw-redirect" title="Buwayhid">Buwayhids</a>, who were of the <a href="/wiki/Zaidiyyah" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaidiyyah">Zaidiyyah</a> branch of Shiʻa Islam, ruled in <a href="/wiki/Fars_province" title="Fars province">Fars</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan (city)">Isfahan</a> and <a href="/wiki/Baghdad" title="Baghdad">Baghdad</a>. As a result of the Mongol conquest and the relative religious tolerance of the <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ilkhanids">Ilkhanids</a>, Shiʻi dynasties were re-established in Iran, <a href="/wiki/Sarbedaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Sarbedaran">Sarbedaran</a> in <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> being the most important. The Ilkhanid ruler <a href="/wiki/%C3%96ljait%C3%BC" title="Öljaitü">Öljaitü</a> converted to Twelver Shiʻism in the 13th century. </p><p>Following his conquest of Iran and Azerbaijan, Ismail I made conversion mandatory for the largely <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> population. The Sunni <a href="/wiki/Ulema" class="mw-redirect" title="Ulema">Ulema</a> or clergy were either killed or exiled<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="A disputed historic fact, needs strong citations (April 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. Ismail I, brought in mainstream Twelver Shi'a religious leaders and granted them land and money in return for loyalty. Later, during the Safavid and especially <a href="/wiki/Qajar_dynasty" title="Qajar dynasty">Qajar</a> period, the Shiʻi Ulema's power increased and they were able to exercise a role, independent of or compatible with the government. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emergence_of_a_clerical_aristocracy">Emergence of a clerical aristocracy</h4></div> <p>An important feature of the Safavid society was the alliance that emerged between the <a href="/wiki/Ulama" title="Ulama">ulama</a> (the religious class) and the merchant community. The latter included merchants trading in the bazaars, the trade and artisan guilds (<i>asnāf</i>) and members of the quasi-religious organizations run by <a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervishes</a> (<i>futuvva</i>). Because of the relative insecurity of property ownership in Iran, many private landowners secured their lands by donating them to the clergy as so called <i>vaqf</i>. They would thus retain the official ownership and secure their land from being confiscated by royal commissioners or local governors, as long as a percentage of the revenues from the land went to the ulama. Increasingly, members of the religious class, particularly the <a href="/wiki/Mujtahid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mujtahid">mujtahids</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Seyyed" class="mw-redirect" title="Seyyed">seyyeds</a>, gained full ownership of these lands, and, according to contemporary historian <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Beg_Munshi" title="Iskandar Beg Munshi">Iskandar Munshi</a>, Iran started to witness the emergence of a new and significant group of landowners.<sup id="cite_ref-196" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-196"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>189<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Akhbaris_versus_Usulis">Akhbaris versus Usulis</h5></div> <p>The Akhbari movement "crystalized" as a "separate movement" with the writings of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Amin_al-Astarabadi" title="Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi">Muhammad Amin al-Astarabadi</a> (died 1627 AD). It rejected the use of reasoning in deriving verdicts and believed that only the Quran, hadith, (prophetic sayings and recorded opinions of the <a href="/wiki/Imamah_(Shi%27a_Twelver_doctrine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Imamah (Shi'a Twelver doctrine)">Imams</a>) and consensus should be used as sources to derive verdicts (<i><a href="/wiki/Fatw%C4%81" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatwā">fatāwā</a></i>). Unlike <a href="/wiki/Usuli" class="mw-redirect" title="Usuli">Usulis</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akhbari" title="Akhbari">Akhbari</a> did and do not follow <i><a href="/wiki/Marja%27_(Islamic_law)" class="mw-redirect" title="Marja' (Islamic law)">marjas</a></i> who practice <i><a href="/wiki/Ijtihad" title="Ijtihad">ijtihad</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-197" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-197"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>190<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>It achieved its greatest influence in the late Safavid and early post-Safavid era, when it dominated Twelver Shiʻi Islam.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985127_198-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985127-198"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>191<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, shortly thereafter <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_Behbahani" title="Muhammad Baqir Behbahani">Muhammad Baqir Behbahani</a> (died 1792), along with other Usuli mujtahids, crushed the Akhbari movement.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985222_199-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985222-199"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>192<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It remains only a small minority in the Shiʻi world. One result of the resolution of this conflict was the rise in importance of the concept of ijtihad and the position of the mujtahid (as opposed to other ulama) in the 18th and early 19th centuries. It was from this time that the division of the Shiʻa world into mujtahid (those who could follow their own independent judgment) and <i><a href="/wiki/Taqlid" title="Taqlid">muqallid</a></i> (those who had to follow the rulings of a mujtahid) took place. According to author <a href="/wiki/Moojan_Momen" title="Moojan Momen">Moojan Momen</a>, "up to the middle of the 19th century there were very few mujtahids (three or four) anywhere at any one time," but "several hundred existed by the end of the 19th century".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985204_200-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985204-200"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>193<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Allamah_Majlisi">Allamah Majlisi</h5></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Baqir_Majlisi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Baqir Majlisi">Muhammad Baqir Majlisi</a>, commonly referenced to using the title <a href="/wiki/Allamah" title="Allamah">Allamah</a>, was a highly influential scholar during the 17th century (Safavid era). Majlisi's works emphasized his desire to purge Twelver Shiʻism of the influences of mysticism and philosophy, and to propagate an ideal of strict adherence to the Islamic law (sharia).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985115_201-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985115-201"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>194<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Majlisi promoted specifically Shiʻi rituals such as mourning for Hussein ibn Ali and visitation (<i><a href="/wiki/Ziyarat" title="Ziyarat">ziyarat</a></i>) of the tombs of the Imams and Imamzadas, stressing "the concept of the Imams as mediators and intercessors for man with God".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985116_202-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985116-202"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>195<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Government">Government</h2></div> <p>The Safavid state was one of checks and balance, both within the government and on a local level. At the apex of this system was the Shah, with total power over the state, legitimized by his bloodline as a <a href="/wiki/Sayyid" title="Sayyid">sayyid</a>, or descendant of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>. So absolute was his power, that the French merchant, and later ambassador to Iran, <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a> thought the Safavid Shahs ruled their land with an iron fist and often in a despotic manner.<sup id="cite_ref-203" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-203"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>196<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To ensure transparency and avoid decisions being made that circumvented the Shah, a complex system of bureaucracy and departmental procedures had been put in place that prevented fraud. Every office had a deputy or superintendent, whose job was to keep records of all actions of the state officials and report directly to the Shah. The Shah himself exercised his own measures for keeping his ministers under control by fostering an atmosphere of rivalry and competitive surveillance. And since the Safavid society was meritocratic, and successions seldom were made on the basis of heritage, this meant that government offices constantly felt the pressure of being under surveillance and had to make sure they governed in the best interest of their leader, and not merely their own. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Structure">Structure</h3></div> <p>There probably did not exist any <a href="/wiki/Parliament" title="Parliament">parliament</a>, as we know them today. But the Portuguese ambassador to the Safavids, <a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Silva_Figueroa" title="García de Silva Figueroa">De Gouvea</a>, still mentions the <i><a href="/wiki/Council_of_State" class="mw-redirect" title="Council of State">Council of State</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009173_204-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009173-204"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>197<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in his records, which perhaps was a term for governmental gatherings of the time. </p><p>The highest level in the government was that of the Prime Minister, or <a href="/wiki/Vizier#In_Islamic_states" title="Vizier">Grand Vizier</a> (<i>Etemad-e Dowlat</i>), who was always chosen from among doctors of law. He enjoyed tremendous power and control over national affairs as he was the immediate deputy of the Shah. No act of the Shah was valid without the counter seal of the Prime Minister. But even he stood accountable to a deputy (<i>vak’anevis</i>), who kept records of his decision-makings and notified the Shah. Second to the Prime Minister post were the General of the Revenues (<i>mostoufi-ye mamalek</i>), or finance minister,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <i>Divanbegi</i>, Minister of Justice. The latter was the final appeal in civil and criminal cases, and his office stood next to the main entrance to the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālī Qāpū">Ali Qapu</a> palace. In earlier times, the Shah had been closely involved in judicial proceedings, but this part of the royal duty was neglected by <a href="/wiki/Shah_Safi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Safi">Shah Safi</a> and the later kings.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._80-82-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Next in authority were the generals: the General of the Royal Troops (the <i>Shahsevans</i>), General of the Musketeers, General of the Ghulams and The Master of Artillery. A separate official, the Commander-in-Chief, was appointed to be the head of these officials.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._80-82-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_royal_court">The royal court</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jean_Chardin_1739.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Jean_Chardin_1739.jpg/170px-Jean_Chardin_1739.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Jean_Chardin_1739.jpg/255px-Jean_Chardin_1739.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/29/Jean_Chardin_1739.jpg/340px-Jean_Chardin_1739.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2141" data-file-height="2622" /></a><figcaption>Frontpage on Jean Chardin's book on his journeys to Persia, published in 1739.</figcaption></figure> <p>As for the royal household, the highest post was that of the <a href="/wiki/Nazir_(title)" title="Nazir (title)">Nazir</a>, Court Minister. He was perhaps the closest advisor to the Shah, and, as such, functioned as his eyes and ears within the Court. His primary job was to appoint and supervise all the officials of the household and to be their contact with the Shah. But his responsibilities also included that of being the treasurer of the Shah's properties. This meant that even the Prime Minister, who held the highest office in the state, had to work in association with the Nazir when it came to managing those transactions that directly related to the Shah.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._80-82-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second most senior appointment was the Grand Steward (<i>Ichik Agasi bashi</i>), who would always accompany the Shah and was easily recognizable because of the great baton that he carried with him. He was responsible for introducing all guests, receiving petitions presented to the Shah and reading them if required. Next in line were the Master of the Royal Stables (<i>Mirakor bashi</i>) and the Master of the Hunt (<i>Mirshekar bashi</i>). The Shah had stables in all the principal towns, and Shah Abbas was said to have about 30,000 horses in <a href="/wiki/Stud_farm" title="Stud farm">studs</a> around the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009170_207-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009170-207"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>200<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to these, there were separate officials appointed for the caretaking of royal banquets and for entertainment. </p><p>Chardin specifically noticed the rank of doctors and astrologers and the respect that the Shahs had for them. The Shah had a dozen of each in his service and would usually be accompanied by three doctors and three astrologers, who were authorized to sit by his side on various occasions.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._80-82-206"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>199<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Chief Physician (<i>Hakim-bashi</i>) was a highly considered member of the Royal court,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007221_208-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007221-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the most revered astrologer of the court was given the title <i>Munajjim-bashi</i> (Chief Astrologer).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009175_209-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009175-209"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>202<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Safavid court was furthermore a rich mix of peoples from its earliest days.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As David Blow states, foremost among the <a href="/wiki/Courtiers" class="mw-redirect" title="Courtiers">courtiers</a> were the old nobility of Turkoman <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> lords and their sons. Although already by the early years of king <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Abbas</a>' reign (r. 1588–1629) they were no longer controlling the state, the Turkoman Qizilbash continued to provide many of the senior army officers and to fill important administrative and ceremonial offices in the royal household.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were the Persians who still dominated the bureaucracy and under Abbas held the two highest government offices of <a href="/wiki/List_of_Safavid_Viziers" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Safavid Viziers">Grand Vizier</a> and Comptroller-General of the Revenues (<i>mostoufi-ye mamalek</i>), which was the nearest thing to a finance minister.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There were also the large number of <i><a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Safavid_dynasty#Ghulam" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Safavid dynasty">gholams</a></i> or "slaves of the shah", who were mainly <a href="/wiki/Georgians" title="Georgians">Georgians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassians</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result of Abbas' reforms, they held high offices in the army, the administration and the royal household. Last but by no means least there were the palace <a href="/wiki/Eunuchs" class="mw-redirect" title="Eunuchs">eunuchs</a> who were also ghulams – "white" eunuchs largely from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, and "black" eunuchs from India and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Abbas, the eunuchs became an increasingly important element at the court.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the first century of the dynasty, the primary court language remained <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azeri</a>, although this increasingly changed after the capital was moved to Isfahan.<sup id="cite_ref-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> David Blow adds; "it seems likely that most, if not all, of the Turkoman grandees at the court also spoke Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, as well as of the majority of the population. But the reverse seems not to have been true. When Abbas had a lively conversation in Turkish with the Italian traveller <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Della_Valle" title="Pietro Della Valle">Pietro Della Valle</a>, in front of his courtiers, he had to translate the conversation afterwards into Persian for the benefit of most of those present."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, due to the large amount of Georgians, Circassians, and Armenians at the Safavid court (the <i>gholams</i> and in the harem), the <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian language">Circassian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> languages were spoken as well, since these were their <a href="/wiki/Mother_tongues" class="mw-redirect" title="Mother tongues">mother tongues</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165–166_210-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165–166-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Abbas himself was able to speak Georgian as well.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009118–119,_166_211-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009118–119,_166-211"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>204<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Local_governments">Local governments</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_Safavid_governors_of_Kerman" title="List of Safavid governors of Kerman">List of Safavid governors of Kerman</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:03_Chardin_Tblisi_1671.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/03_Chardin_Tblisi_1671.jpg/330px-03_Chardin_Tblisi_1671.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/03_Chardin_Tblisi_1671.jpg/500px-03_Chardin_Tblisi_1671.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/41/03_Chardin_Tblisi_1671.jpg/960px-03_Chardin_Tblisi_1671.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1423" data-file-height="531" /></a><figcaption>View of Tbilisi by French traveler <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a>, 1671.</figcaption></figure> <p>On a local level, the government was divided into public land and royal possessions. The public land was under the rule of local governors, or <i>Khans</i>. Since the earliest days of the Safavid dynasty, the <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> generals had been appointed to most of these posts. They ruled their provinces like petty shahs and spent all their revenues on their own province, only presenting the Shah with the balance. In return, they had to keep ready a standing army at all times and provide the Shah with military assistance upon his request. It was also requested from them that they appoint a lawyer (<i>vakil</i>) to the Court who would inform them on matters pertaining to the provincial affairs.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._85-89_212-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._85-89-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Shah Abbas I</a> intended to decrease the power of the Qizilbash by bringing some of these provinces into his direct control, creating so called <i>Crown Provinces</i> (<i>Khassa</i>). But it was <a href="/wiki/Shah_Safi" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah Safi">Shah Safi</a>, under influence by his Prime Minister, <a href="/wiki/Saru_Taqi" title="Saru Taqi">Saru Taqi</a>, that initiated the program of trying to increase the royal revenues by buying land from the governors and putting in place local commissioners.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._85-89_212-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._85-89-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In time, this proved to become a burden to the people that were under the direct rule of the Shah, as these commissioners, unlike the former governors, had little knowledge about the local communities that they controlled and were primarily interested in increasing the income of the Shah. And, while it was in the governors' own interest to increase the productivity and prosperity of their provinces, the commissioners received their income directly from the royal treasury and, as such, did not care so much about investing in agriculture and local industries. Thus, the majority of the people suffered from rapacity and corruption carried out in the name of the Shah.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._85-89_212-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._85-89-212"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>205<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Democratic_institutions_in_an_authoritarian_society">Democratic institutions in an authoritarian society</h3></div> <p>In 16th and 17th century Iran, there existed a considerable number of local democratic institutions. Examples of such were the trade and artisan guilds, which had started to appear in Iran from the 1500s. Also, there were the quasi-religious fraternities called <i>futuvva</i>, which were run by local <a href="/wiki/Dervish" title="Dervish">dervishes</a>. Another official selected by the consensus of the local community was the <i>kadkhoda</i>, who functioned as a common law administrator.<sup id="cite_ref-213" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-213"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>206<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The local sheriff (<i>kalantar</i>), who was not elected by the people but directly appointed by the Shah, and whose function was to protect the people against injustices on the part of the local governors, supervised the kadkhoda.<sup id="cite_ref-214" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-214"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>207<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Law">Law</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:49_Chardin_Safavid_Legal_system_Karkan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/49_Chardin_Safavid_Legal_system_Karkan.jpg/250px-49_Chardin_Safavid_Legal_system_Karkan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/49_Chardin_Safavid_Legal_system_Karkan.jpg/330px-49_Chardin_Safavid_Legal_system_Karkan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/49_Chardin_Safavid_Legal_system_Karkan.jpg/500px-49_Chardin_Safavid_Legal_system_Karkan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="960" data-file-height="1471" /></a><figcaption>The <i>Karkan</i>, a tool used for punishment of state criminals</figcaption></figure> <p>In Safavid Iran there was little distinction between theology and jurisprudence, or between divine justice and human justice, and it all went under <i>Islamic jurisprudence</i> (<a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">fiqh</a>). The legal system was built up of two branches: <a href="/wiki/Civil_law_(legal_system)" title="Civil law (legal system)">civil law</a>, which had its roots in <a href="/wiki/Sharia" title="Sharia">sharia</a>, <i>received wisdom</i>, and <a href="/wiki/Urf" title="Urf">urf</a>, meaning <i>traditional experience</i> and very similar to the Western form of <a href="/wiki/Common_law" title="Common law">common law</a>. While the imams and judges of law applied civil law in their practice, urf was primarily exercised by the local commissioners, who inspected the villages on behalf of the Shah, and by the Minister of Justice (<i>Divanbegi</i>). The latter were all secular functionaries working on behalf of the Shah.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier_90-4_215-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier_90-4-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The highest level in the legal system was the Minister of Justice, and the law officers were divided into senior appointments, such as the magistrate (<i>darughah</i>), inspector (<i>visir</i>), and recorder (<i>vak’anevis</i>). The lesser officials were the <a href="/wiki/Qadi" title="Qadi">qazi</a>, corresponding a civil lieutenant, who ranked under the local governors and functioned as judges in the provinces. </p><p>According to <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Chardin</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_p._91_216-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_p._91-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>There were no particular place assigned for the administration of justice. Each magistrate executes justice in his own house in a large room opening on to a courtyard or a garden which is raised two or three feet above the ground. The Judge is seated at one end of the room having a writer and a man of law by his side.</p></blockquote> <p>Chardin also noted that bringing cases into court in Iran was easier than in the West. The judge (qazi) was informed of relevant points involved and would decide whether or not to take up the case. Having agreed to do so, a sergeant would investigate and summon the defendant, who was then obliged to pay the fee of the sergeant. The two parties with their witnesses pleaded their respective cases, usually without any counsel, and the judge would pass his judgment after the first or second hearing.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier;_p._91_216-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier;_p._91-216"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>209<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Criminal_law" title="Criminal law">Criminal justice</a> was entirely separate from civil law and was judged upon <i>common law</i> administered through the Minister of Justice, local governors and the Court minister (the <i>Nazir</i>). Despite being based on <i>urf</i>, it relied upon certain sets of legal principles. Murder was punishable by death, and the penalty for bodily injuries was invariably the <a href="/wiki/Bastinado" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastinado">bastinado</a>. Robbers had their right wrists amputated the first time, and sentenced to death on any subsequent occasion. State criminals were subjected to the <i>karkan</i>, a triangular wooden collar placed around the neck. On extraordinary occasions when the Shah took justice into his own hand, he would dress himself up in red for the importance of the event, according to ancient tradition.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier_90-4_215-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier_90-4-215"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>208<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Military">Military</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Military_of_the_Safavid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of the Safavid dynasty">Military of the Safavid dynasty</a> and <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safavid-helmet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Safavid-helmet.jpg/250px-Safavid-helmet.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="229" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Safavid-helmet.jpg/330px-Safavid-helmet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Safavid-helmet.jpg/500px-Safavid-helmet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1000" data-file-height="1348" /></a><figcaption>A Safavid helmet</figcaption></figure> <p>The Qizilbash were a wide variety of Shiʻi Muslims (<i><a href="/wiki/Ghulat" title="Ghulat">ghulāt</a></i>) and mostly <a href="/wiki/Oghuz_Turks" title="Oghuz Turks">Turcoman</a> militant groups who helped found the Safavid Empire. Their military power was essential during the reign of the Shahs Ismail and Tahmasp. The Qizilbash tribes were essential to the military of Iran until the rule of <a href="/wiki/Abbas_I_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbas I of Persia">Shah Abbas I</a> – their leaders were able to exercise enormous influence and participate in court intrigues (assassinating Shah <a href="/wiki/Ismail_II" title="Ismail II">Ismail II</a> for example). </p><p>A major problem faced by <a href="/wiki/Ismail_I" title="Ismail I">Ismail I</a> after the establishment of the Safavid state was how to bridge the gap between the two major ethnic groups in that state: the <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a> ("Redhead") Turcomans, the "men of sword" of classical Islamic society whose military prowess had brought him to power, and the <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persian</a> elements, the "men of the pen", who filled the ranks of the bureaucracy and the religious establishment in the Safavid state as they had done for centuries under previous rulers of Iran, be they <a href="/wiki/Arabs" title="Arabs">Arabs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mongols" title="Mongols">Mongols</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Turkmen_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Turkmen people">Turkmens</a>. As <a href="/wiki/Vladimir_Minorsky" title="Vladimir Minorsky">Vladimir Minorsky</a> put it, friction between these two groups was inevitable, because the Qizilbash "were no party to the national Persian tradition". </p><p>Between 1508 and 1524, the year of Ismail's death, the shah appointed five successive Persians to the office of <i>vakil</i>. When the second Persian vakil was placed in command of a Safavid army in <a href="/wiki/Transoxiana" title="Transoxiana">Transoxiana</a>, the Qizilbash, considering it a dishonor to be obliged to serve under him, deserted him on the battlefield with the result that he was slain. The fourth vakil was murdered by the Qizilbash, and the fifth was put to death by them.<sup id="cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ismailsafaviiranica-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Reforms_in_the_military">Reforms in the military</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Persian_Musketeer.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Persian_Musketeer.jpg/250px-Persian_Musketeer.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="327" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Persian_Musketeer.jpg/330px-Persian_Musketeer.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2e/Persian_Musketeer.jpg/340px-Persian_Musketeer.jpg 2x" data-file-width="445" data-file-height="857" /></a><figcaption>Persian Musketeer in time of Abbas I by Habib-Allah Mashadi after Falsafi (Berlin Museum of Islamic Art).</figcaption></figure> <p>Shah Abbas realized that in order to retain absolute control over his empire without antagonizing the Qizilbash, he needed to create reforms that reduced the dependency that the shah had on their military support. Part of these reforms was the creation of <a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty#Society" title="Safavid dynasty">the 3rd force</a> within the aristocracy and all other functions within the empire, but even more important in undermining the authority of the Qizilbash was the introduction of the Royal Corps into the military. This military force would serve the shah only and eventually consisted of four separate branches:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200937–38_217-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow200937–38-217"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>210<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Shahsevans: these were 12,000 strong and built up from the small group of <i>qurchis</i> that Shah Abbas had inherited from his predecessor. The <a href="/wiki/Shahsevan" title="Shahsevan">Shahsevans</a>, or "Friends of the King", were Qizilbash tribesmen who had forsaken their tribal allegiance for allegiance to the shah alone.<sup id="cite_ref-218" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-218"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>211<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Ghulams: Tahmasp I had started introducing huge amounts of <a href="/wiki/Georgian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgian people">Georgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassians" title="Circassians">Circassian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenian</a> slaves and deportees from the <a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a>, of whom a sizeable amount would become part of the future ghulam system. Shah Abbas expanded this program significantly and fully implemented it, and eventually created a force of 15,000 ghulam cavalrymen and 3,000 ghulam royal bodyguards. With the advent of the brother's Shirley at Abbas' court and by the efforts of statesman <a href="/wiki/Allahverdi_Khan" title="Allahverdi Khan">Allahverdi Khan</a>, from 1600 onwards, the ghulam fighting regiments were further dramatically expanded under Abbas reaching 25,000.<sup id="cite_ref-ALLĀHVERDĪ_KHAN_1_142-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALLĀHVERDĪ_KHAN_1-142"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under Abbas, this force amounted to a total of near 40,000 soldiers paid for and beholden to the Shah.<sup id="cite_ref-Savory_1980_79_139-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Savory_1980_79-139"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-BN142_140-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BN142-140"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986265_219-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986265-219"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>212<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> They would become the elite soldiers of the Safavid armies (like the Ottoman <a href="/wiki/Janissary" title="Janissary">Janissary</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_108-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-iranicaonline.org-108"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Musketeers: realizing the advantages that the Ottomans had because of their firearms, Shah Abbas was at pains to equip both the qurchi and the ghulam soldiers with up-to-date weaponry. More importantly, for the first time in Iranian history, a substantial infantry corps of musketeers (<i>tofang-chis</i>), numbering 12 000, was created.</li> <li>Artillery Corps: with the help of Westerners, he also formed an artillery corps of 12 000 men, although this was the weakest element in his army. According to <a href="/wiki/Sir_Thomas_Herbert,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir Thomas Herbert, 1st Baronet">Sir Thomas Herbert</a>, who accompanied an English embassy to Iran in 1628, the Persians relied heavily on support from the Europeans in manufacturing cannons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200938_220-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow200938-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It wasn't until a century later, when <a href="/wiki/Nader_Shah" title="Nader Shah">Nader Shah</a> became the Commander in Chief of the military that sufficient effort was put into modernizing the artillery corps and the Persians managed to excel and become self-sufficient in the manufacturing of firearms.</li></ul> <p>Despite the reforms, the Qizilbash would remain the strongest and most effective element within the military, accounting for more than half of its total strength.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200938_220-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow200938-220"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>213<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the creation of this large standing army, that, for the first time in Safavid history, was serving directly under the Shah, significantly reduced their influence, and perhaps any possibilities for the type of civil unrest that had caused havoc during the reign of the previous shahs. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Economy">Economy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Isfahan_to_the_north_side_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Isfahan_to_the_north_side_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg/250px-Isfahan_to_the_north_side_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Isfahan_to_the_north_side_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg/330px-Isfahan_to_the_north_side_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Isfahan_to_the_north_side_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg/500px-Isfahan_to_the_north_side_by_Eug%C3%A8ne_Flandin.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1938" data-file-height="1053" /></a><figcaption>A 19th-century drawing of Isfahan</figcaption></figure> <p>The growth of Safavid economy was fuelled by the stability which allowed the agriculture to thrive, as well as trade, due to Iran's position between the burgeoning civilizations of Europe to its west and India and Islamic <a href="/wiki/Central_Asia" title="Central Asia">Central Asia</a> to its east and north. The <a href="/wiki/Silk_Road" title="Silk Road">Silk Road</a> which led through northern Iran was revived in the 16th century. Abbas I also supported direct trade with Europe, particularly England and The Netherlands which sought <a href="/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">Persian carpet</a>, silk and textiles. Other exports were horses, goat hair, pearls and an inedible bitter almond hadam-talka used as a spice in India. The main imports were spice, textiles (woolens from Europe, cottons from Gujarat), metals, coffee, and sugar. </p><p>According to traveller <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a> in 1660 farmers in Iran had higher living standards than farmers in the most fertile European countries.<sup id="cite_ref-221" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-221"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>214<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Agriculture">Agriculture</h3></div> <p>According to the historian <a href="/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Roger Savory</a>, the twin bases of the domestic economy were <a href="/wiki/Pastoralism" title="Pastoralism">pastoralism</a> and agriculture. And, just as the higher levels of the social hierarchy was divided between the Turkish "men of the sword" and the Persian "men of the pen"; so were the lower level divided between the Turcoman tribes, who were cattle breeders and lived apart from the surrounding population, and the Persians, who were settled agriculturalists.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007186–187_222-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007186–187-222"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>215<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Safavid economy was to a large extent based on agriculture and taxation of agricultural products. According to the French jeweller <a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a>, the variety in agricultural products in Iran was unrivaled in Europe and consisted of fruits and vegetables never even heard of in Europe. Chardin was present at some feasts in Isfahan were there were more than fifty different kinds of fruit. He thought that there was nothing like it in France or Italy:<sup id="cite_ref-223" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-223"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>216<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Tobacco grew all over the country and was as strong as that grown in Brazil. Saffron was the best in the world... Melons were regarded as excellent fruit, and there were more than 50 different sorts, the finest of which came from <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a>. And in spite of being transported for more than thirty days, they were fresh when they reached Isfahan... After melons the finest fruits were grapes and dates, and the best dates were grown in <a href="/wiki/Jahrom" title="Jahrom">Jahrom</a>.</p></blockquote> <p>Despite this, he was disappointed when travelling the country and witnessing the abundance of land that was not irrigated, or the fertile plains that were not cultivated, something he thought was in stark contrast to Europe. He blamed this on misgovernment, the sparse population of the country, and lack of appreciation of agriculture amongst the Persians.<sup id="cite_ref-224" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-224"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>217<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the period prior to Shah Abbas I, most of the land was assigned to officials (civil, military and religious). From the time of Shah Abbas onwards, more land was brought under the direct control of the shah. And since agriculture accounted for by far largest share of tax revenue, he took measures to expand it. What remained unchanged, was the "<i>crop-sharing agreement</i>" between whoever was the landlord, and the farmer. This agreement consisted of five elements: land, water, plough-animals, seed and labour. Each element constituted 20 percent of the crop production, and if, for instance, the farmer provided the labour force and the animals, he would be entitled to 40 percent of the earnings.<sup id="cite_ref-225" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-225"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>218<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009211_226-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009211-226"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>219<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to contemporary historians, though, the landlord always had the worst of the bargain with the farmer in the crop-sharing agreements. In general, the farmers lived in comfort, and they were well paid and wore good clothes, although it was also noted that they were subject to forced labour and lived under heavy demands.<sup id="cite_ref-227" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-227"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>220<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Travel_and_caravanserais">Travel and caravanserais</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hotel_Shah_Abbas_Sahn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Hotel_Shah_Abbas_Sahn.jpg/250px-Hotel_Shah_Abbas_Sahn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Hotel_Shah_Abbas_Sahn.jpg/330px-Hotel_Shah_Abbas_Sahn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Hotel_Shah_Abbas_Sahn.jpg/500px-Hotel_Shah_Abbas_Sahn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="519" /></a><figcaption>The Mothers Inn caravanserai in Isfahan, that was built during the reign of <a href="/wiki/Abbas_II_of_Persia" title="Abbas II of Persia">Shah Abbas II</a>, was a luxury resort meant for the wealthiest merchants and selected guests of the shah. Today it is a luxury hotel and goes under the name of <a href="/wiki/Abbasi_Hotel" title="Abbasi Hotel">Hotel Abassi</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p>Horses were the most important of all the beasts of burden, and the best were brought in from Arabia and Central-Asia. They were costly because of the widespread trade in them, including to Turkey and India. The next most important mount, when traveling through Iran, was the mule. Also, the camel was a good investment for the merchant, as they cost nearly nothing to feed, carried a lot weight and could travel almost anywhere.<sup id="cite_ref-228" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-228"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>221<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under the governance of the strong shahs, especially during the first half of the 17th century, traveling through Iran was easy because of good roads and the <a href="/wiki/Caravanserai" title="Caravanserai">caravanserais</a>, that were strategically placed along the route. <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Th%C3%A9venot" title="Jean de Thévenot">Thévenot</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jean-Baptiste_Tavernier" title="Jean-Baptiste Tavernier">Tavernier</a> commented that the Iranian caravanserais were better built and cleaner than their Turkish counterparts.<sup id="cite_ref-229" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-229"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>222<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Chardin, they were also more abundant than in the Mughal or Ottoman Empires, where they were less frequent but larger.<sup id="cite_ref-230" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-230"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>223<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Caravanserais were designed especially to benefit poorer travelers, as they could stay there for as long as they wished, without payment for lodging. During the reign of Shah Abbas I, as he tried to upgrade the Silk Road to improve the commercial prosperity of the Empire, an abundance of caravanserais, bridges, bazaars and roads were built, and this strategy was followed by wealthy merchants who also profited from the increase in trade. To uphold the standard, another source of revenue was needed, and road toll, that were collected by guards (<i>rah-dars</i>), were stationed along the trading routes. They in turn provided for the safety of the travelers, and both Thevenot and Tavernier stressed the safety of traveling in 17th century Iran, and the courtesy and refinement of the policing guards.<sup id="cite_ref-231" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-231"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>224<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Italian traveler <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Della_Valle" title="Pietro Della Valle">Pietro Della Valle</a> was impressed by an encounter with one of these road guards:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009210_232-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009210-232"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>225<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>He examined our baggage, but in the most obliging manner possible, not opening our trunks or packages, and was satisfied with a small tax, which was his due...</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Foreign_trade_and_the_Silk_Road">Foreign trade and the Silk Road</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chehel_Sotoon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Chehel_Sotoon.jpg/220px-Chehel_Sotoon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="193" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Chehel_Sotoon.jpg/330px-Chehel_Sotoon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Chehel_Sotoon.jpg/440px-Chehel_Sotoon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1821" data-file-height="1600" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Chehel_Sotoun" title="Chehel Sotoun">Chehel Sotoun</a> Palace in Isfahan was where the Shah would meet foreign dignitaries and embassies. It is famous for the frescoes that cover its walls.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese Empire</a> and the discovery of the trading route around the <a href="/wiki/Cape_of_Good_Hope" title="Cape of Good Hope">Cape of Good Hope</a> in 1487 not only hit a death blow to <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> as a trading nation, but it also hurt the trade that was going on along the Silk Road and especially the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>. They correctly identified the three key points to control all seaborne trade between Asia and Europe: The <a href="/wiki/Gulf_of_Aden" title="Gulf of Aden">Gulf of Aden</a>, The Persian Gulf and the <a href="/wiki/Straits_of_Malacca" class="mw-redirect" title="Straits of Malacca">Straits of Malacca</a> by cutting off and controlling these strategic locations with high taxation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007193–195_233-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007193–195-233"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>226<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1602, Shah Abbas I drove the Portuguese out of <a href="/wiki/Bahrain" title="Bahrain">Bahrain</a>, but he needed naval assistance from the newly arrived English East India Company to finally expel them from the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Hormuz" title="Strait of Hormuz">Strait of Hormuz</a> and regain control of this trading route.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009113–131_234-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009113–131-234"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>227<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He convinced the English to assist him by allowing them to open factories in Shiraz, Isfahan and Jask.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009"Chapter:_English_adventurers_at_the_servise_of_Shah_Abbas."_235-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009"Chapter:_English_adventurers_at_the_servise_of_Shah_Abbas."-235"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>228<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-236" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-236"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>229<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the later end of the Portuguese Empire, the English, Dutch and French in particular gained easier access to Persian seaborne trade, although they, unlike the Portuguese, did not arrive as colonisers, but as merchant adventurers. The terms of trade were not imposed on the Safavid shahs, but rather negotiated. </p><p>Furthermore, the Safavids maintained a sizeable sphere of influence overseas, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/Deccan_Plateau" title="Deccan Plateau">Deccan</a> region of India. The Sultanates of <a href="/wiki/Ahmadnagar_Sultanate" title="Ahmadnagar Sultanate">Ahmednagar</a>, <a href="/wiki/Adil_Shahi_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Adil Shahi dynasty">Bijapur</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Golconda_Fort" class="mw-redirect" title="Golconda Fort">Golconda</a> all sought Persian suzerainty not just because of religious or cultural ties, but also because of the need for a counterweight to Mughal expansion.<sup id="cite_ref-237" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-237"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>230<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persians complied, and thousands of Persians emigrated to the Deccan during the 16th and 17th centuries, continuing a process that already began under the <a href="/wiki/Bahmani_Sultanate" class="mw-redirect" title="Bahmani Sultanate">Bahmani Sultanate</a> of the Deccan. From here, Persian traders ventured eastwards to <a href="/wiki/Southeast_Asia" title="Southeast Asia">Southeast Asian</a> kingdoms, most notably <a href="/wiki/Ayutthaya_Kingdom" title="Ayutthaya Kingdom">Ayutthaya Siam</a>, where influential Persian families like the <a href="/wiki/Bunnag_family" title="Bunnag family">Bunnag</a> helped foster cordial diplomatic relations between <a href="/wiki/Thailand" title="Thailand">Thailand</a> and Iran, as evidenced in the expedition of <a href="/wiki/Safine-ye_Solaymani" title="Safine-ye Solaymani">Suleyman's Ship</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-238" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-238"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>231<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Persians were also active in the <a href="/wiki/Aceh_Sultanate" title="Aceh Sultanate">Aceh Sultanate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Brunei" title="Brunei">Brunei Sultanate</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Demak_Sultanate" title="Demak Sultanate">Demak Sultanate</a>, and <a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Dai Viet</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-239" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-239"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>232<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-240" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-240"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>233<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-241" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-241"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>234<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Silk_route.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/250px-Silk_route.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="143" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/330px-Silk_route.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/74/Silk_route.jpg/500px-Silk_route.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2868" data-file-height="1866" /></a><figcaption>The Silk Road</figcaption></figure> <p>In the long term, however, the seaborne trade route was of less significance to the Persians than was the traditional Silk Road. Lack of investment in ship building and the navy provided the Europeans with the opportunity to monopolize this trading route. The land-borne trade would thus continue to provide the bulk of revenues to the Iranian state from transit taxes. The revenue came not so much from exports, as from the custom charges and transit dues levied on goods passing through the country.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009212_242-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009212-242"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>235<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shah Abbas was determined to greatly expand this trade, but faced the problem of having to deal with the Ottomans, who controlled the two most vital routes: the route across Arabia to the Mediterranean ports, and the route through <a href="/wiki/Anatolia" title="Anatolia">Anatolia</a> and Istanbul. A third route was therefore devised which circumvented Ottoman territory. By travelling across the <a href="/wiki/Caspian_Sea" title="Caspian Sea">Caspian Sea</a> to the north, they would reach Russia. And with the assistance of the <a href="/wiki/Muscovy_Company" title="Muscovy Company">Muscovy Company</a> they could cross over to Moscow, reaching Europe via Poland. This trading route proved to be of vital importance, especially during times of war with the Ottomans.<sup id="cite_ref-243" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-243"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>236<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the end of the 17th century, the Dutch had become dominant in the trade that went via the Persian Gulf, having won most trade agreements, and managed to strike deals before the English or French were able to. They particularly established monopoly of the spice and porcelain trade between the Far East and Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-244" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-244"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>237<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protected by Dutch naval power, competition from Bengali silk and Sino-Japanese porcelain contributed to the decline of the Safavid economy during the late 17th century.<sup id="cite_ref-245" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-245"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>238<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-246" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-246"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>239<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Culture">Culture</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Iran" title="Category:Iran">a series</a> on the</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Culture of Iran</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Qajar_princess_paiting.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qajar_princess_paiting.JPG/120px-Qajar_princess_paiting.JPG" decoding="async" width="100" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Qajar_princess_paiting.JPG/250px-Qajar_princess_paiting.JPG 1.5x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="741" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-above"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ethnicities_in_Iran" title="Ethnicities in Iran">People</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iran" title="Languages of Iran">Languages</a></li></ul></div><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_symbols_of_Iran" title="National symbols of Iran">Symbols</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_festivals_in_Iran" title="List of festivals in Iran">Festivals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_World_Heritage_Sites_in_Iran" title="List of World Heritage Sites in Iran">World Heritage Sites</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Mythology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folklore" title="Iranian folklore">Folklore</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Religion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Irreligion_in_Iran" title="Irreligion in Iran">Irreligion</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arts_of_Iran" title="Arts of Iran">Arts</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Architecture</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Literature_in_Iran" title="Literature in Iran">Literature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">Music</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dastgah" class="mw-redirect" title="Dastgah">Dastgah</a>)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_dance" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian dance">Dance</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_theatre" title="Persian theatre">Theater</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iran" title="Cinema of Iran">Cinema</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Gardens</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Visual art history</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">Modern art</a>, <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Miniature painting</a>)</li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_handicrafts" title="Iranian handicrafts">Handicrafts</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_embroidery" title="Persian embroidery">Embroidery</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_calligraphy" title="Persian calligraphy">Calligraphy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_carpet" title="Persian carpet">Carpet</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_pottery" title="Persian pottery">Pottery</a>,</li><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Jewels" title="Persian Jewels">Jewelry</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_cuisine" title="Iranian cuisine">Cuisine</a></li></ul></div></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Balochi_cuisine" title="Balochi cuisine">Balochi cuisine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_cuisine" title="Caspian cuisine">Caspian cuisine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_cuisine" title="Kurdish cuisine">Kurdish cuisine</a></li></ul></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="32" height="18" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/60px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/120px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Culture_of_Iran" title="Template:Culture of Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Culture_of_Iran" title="Template talk:Culture of Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Culture_of_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Culture of Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Jean_Chardin" title="Jean Chardin">Jean Chardin</a>, the 17th-century French traveler, spent many years in Iran and commented at length on their culture, customs and character. He admired their consideration towards foreigners, but he also stumbled upon characteristics that he found challenging. His descriptions of the public appearance, clothes and customs are corroborated by the miniatures, drawings and paintings from that time which have survived.<sup id="cite_ref-Ferrier_110_247-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ferrier_110-247"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>240<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He considered them to be a well-educated and well-behaved people.<sup id="cite_ref-248" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-248"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>241<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Unlike Europeans, they much disliked physical activity, and were not in favor of exercise for its own sake, preferring the leisure of repose and luxuries that life could offer. Travelling was valued only for the specific purpose of getting from one place to another, not interesting themselves in seeing new places and experiencing different cultures. It was perhaps this sort of attitude towards the rest of the world that accounted for the ignorance of Persians regarding other countries of the world. The exercises that they took part in were for keeping the body supple and sturdy and to acquire skills in handling of arms. <a href="/wiki/Archery" title="Archery">Archery</a> took first place. Second place was held by <a href="/wiki/Fencing" title="Fencing">fencing</a>, where the wrist had to be firm but flexible and movements agile. Thirdly there was horsemanship. A very strenuous form of exercise which the Persians greatly enjoyed was hunting.<sup id="cite_ref-249" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-249"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>242<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Art">Art</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Safavid_art" title="Safavid art">Safavid art</a></div> <p>Abbas I recognized the commercial benefit of promoting the arts – artisan products provided much of Iran's foreign trade. In this period, handicrafts such as tile making, pottery and textiles developed and great advances were made in miniature painting, bookbinding, decoration and calligraphy. In the 16th century, carpet weaving evolved from a nomadic and peasant craft to a well-executed industry with specialization of design and manufacturing. <a href="/wiki/Tabriz" title="Tabriz">Tabriz</a> was the center of this industry. The <a href="/wiki/Ardabil_Carpet" title="Ardabil Carpet">carpets of Ardabil</a> were commissioned to commemorate the Safavid dynasty. The elegantly baroque yet famously <a href="/wiki/Isfahan_rug" title="Isfahan rug">Polonaise carpets</a> were made in Iran during the 17th century. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg/170px-Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg/255px-Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/24/Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg/340px-Riza-yi-Abbasi_008.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1582" data-file-height="2500" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Reza_Abbasi" title="Reza Abbasi">Reza Abbasi</a>, <i>Youth reading</i>, 1625–26</figcaption></figure> <p>Using traditional forms and materials, <a href="/wiki/Reza_Abbasi" title="Reza Abbasi">Reza Abbasi</a> (1565–1635) introduced new subjects to Persian painting – semi-nude women, youth, lovers. His painting and calligraphic style influenced Iranian artists for much of the Safavid period, which came to be known as the Isfahan school. Increased contact with distant cultures in the 17th century, especially Europe, provided a boost of inspiration to Iranian artists who adopted modeling, foreshortening, spatial recession, and the medium of oil painting (Shah Abbas II sent <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Zaman" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad Zaman">Muhammad Zaman</a> to study in Rome). The epic <i><a href="/wiki/Shahnameh" title="Shahnameh">Shahnameh</a></i> ("Book of Kings"), a stellar example of manuscript illumination and calligraphy, was made during Shah Tahmasp's reign. (This book was written by <a href="/wiki/Ferdowsi" title="Ferdowsi">Ferdowsi</a> in 1000 AD for Sultan Mahmood Ghaznawi) Another manuscript is the <a href="/wiki/Khamsa_of_Nizami_(British_Library,_Or._12208)" title="Khamsa of Nizami (British Library, Or. 12208)">Khamsa</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nizami_Ganjavi" title="Nizami Ganjavi">Nizami</a> executed 1539–1543 by <a href="/wiki/Aqa_Mirak" title="Aqa Mirak">Aqa Mirak</a> and his school in Isfahan. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Architecture">Architecture</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Persian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian architecture">Persian architecture</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Masjid_Shah,_view_of_the_courtyard_by_Pascal_Coste.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Masjid_Shah%2C_view_of_the_courtyard_by_Pascal_Coste.jpg/250px-Masjid_Shah%2C_view_of_the_courtyard_by_Pascal_Coste.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Masjid_Shah%2C_view_of_the_courtyard_by_Pascal_Coste.jpg/330px-Masjid_Shah%2C_view_of_the_courtyard_by_Pascal_Coste.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Masjid_Shah%2C_view_of_the_courtyard_by_Pascal_Coste.jpg/500px-Masjid_Shah%2C_view_of_the_courtyard_by_Pascal_Coste.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2709" data-file-height="1752" /></a><figcaption>Painting by the French architect, <a href="/wiki/Pascal_Coste" title="Pascal Coste">Pascal Coste</a>, visiting Persia in 1841 (from <i>Monuments modernes de la Perse</i>). In the Safavid era the <a href="/wiki/Persian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian architecture">Persian architecture</a> flourished again and saw many new monuments, such as the <a href="/wiki/Shah_Mosque_(Isfahan)" title="Shah Mosque (Isfahan)">Masjid-e Shah</a>, part of <a href="/wiki/Naghsh-i_Jahan_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="Naghsh-i Jahan Square">Naghsh-i Jahan Square</a> which is the biggest historic plaza in the world.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Esfahan-shah-sq.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Esfahan-shah-sq.jpg/330px-Esfahan-shah-sq.jpg" decoding="async" width="330" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Esfahan-shah-sq.jpg/495px-Esfahan-shah-sq.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/Esfahan-shah-sq.jpg/660px-Esfahan-shah-sq.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="189" /></a><figcaption><i><a href="/wiki/Naqsh-i_Jahan_Square" class="mw-redirect" title="Naqsh-i Jahan Square">Naqshe Jahan square</a></i> in Isfahan is the epitome of 16th-century <a href="/wiki/Persian_architecture" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian architecture">Iranian architecture</a>.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Isfahan_(city)" class="mw-redirect" title="Isfahan (city)">Isfahan</a> bears the most prominent samples of the Safavid architecture, all constructed in the years after Shah Abbas I permanently moved the capital there in 1598: the Imperial Mosque, <a href="/wiki/Shah_Mosque_(Isfahan)" title="Shah Mosque (Isfahan)">Masjid-e Shah</a>, completed in 1630, the <a href="/wiki/Imam_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Imam Mosque">Imam Mosque</a> (Masjid-e Imami) the <a href="/wiki/Sheikh_Lotf_Allah_Mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheikh Lotf Allah Mosque">Lutfallah Mosque</a> and the Royal Palace. </p><p>According to William Cleveland and Martin Bunton,<sup id="cite_ref-250" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-250"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>243<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the establishment of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a> as the Great capital of Iran and the material splendor of the city attracted intellectual's from all corners of the world, which contributed to the city's rich cultural life. The impressive achievements of its 400,000 residents prompted the inhabitants to coin their famous boast, "Isfahan is half the world". </p><p>A new age in <a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Iranian architecture</a> began with the rise of the Safavid dynasty. Economically robust and politically stable, this period saw a flourishing growth of theological sciences. Traditional architecture evolved in its patterns and methods leaving its impact on the architecture of the following periods. </p><p>Indeed, one of the greatest legacies of the Safavids is the architecture. In 1598, when Shah Abbas decided to move the capital of his Iranian empire from the north-western city of <a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> to the central city of <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>, he initiated what would become one of the greatest programmes in Iranian history; the complete remaking of the city. By choosing the central city of Isfahan, fertilized by the <a href="/wiki/Zayanderud" title="Zayanderud">Zāyande roud</a> ("The <i>life-giving river</i>"), lying as an oasis of intense cultivation in the midst of a vast area of arid landscape, he both distanced his capital from any future assaults by the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottomans</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Uzbeks" title="Uzbeks">Uzbeks</a>, and at the same time gained more control over the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>, which had recently become an important trading route for the Dutch and English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007155_251-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007155-251"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>244<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Qazvin_-_Chehel_Sotun.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Qazvin_-_Chehel_Sotun.jpg/220px-Qazvin_-_Chehel_Sotun.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Qazvin_-_Chehel_Sotun.jpg/330px-Qazvin_-_Chehel_Sotun.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Qazvin_-_Chehel_Sotun.jpg/440px-Qazvin_-_Chehel_Sotun.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="682" /></a><figcaption>The 16th-century Chehel Sotun pavilion in Qazvin, Iran. It is the last remains of the palace of the second Safavid king, Shah Tahmasp; it was heavily restored by the Qajars in the 19th century.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Chief architect of this colossal task of urban planning was <a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Bahai" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaykh Bahai">Shaykh Bahai</a> (Baha' ad-Din al-'Amili), who focused the programme on two key features of Shah Abbas's master plan: the <a href="/wiki/Charbagh,_Isfahan" class="mw-redirect" title="Charbagh, Isfahan">Chahar Bagh</a> avenue, flanked at either side by all the prominent institutions of the city, such as the residences of all foreign dignitaries. And the <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Jahan_Square" title="Naqsh-e Jahan Square">Naqsh-e Jahan Square</a> ("<i>Examplar of the World</i>").<sup id="cite_ref-252" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-252"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>245<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prior to the Shah's ascent to power, Iran had a decentralized power-structure, in which different institutions battled for power, including both the military (the <a href="/wiki/Qizilbash" title="Qizilbash">Qizilbash</a>) and governors of the different provinces making up the empire. Shah Abbas wanted to undermine this political structure, and the recreation of Isfahan, as a Grand capital of Iran, was an important step in centralizing the power.<sup id="cite_ref-253" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-253"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>246<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ingenuity of the square, or <i>Maidān</i>, was that, by building it, Shah Abbas would gather the three main components of power in Iran in his own backyard; the power of the clergy, represented by the <a href="/wiki/Shah_mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Shah mosque">Masjed-e Shah</a>, the power of the merchants, represented by the <a href="/wiki/Grand_Bazaar,_Isfahan" title="Grand Bazaar, Isfahan">Grand Bazaar</a>, and of course, the power of the Shah himself, residing in the <a href="/wiki/%C4%80l%C4%AB_Q%C4%81p%C5%AB" class="mw-redirect" title="Ālī Qāpū">Ali Qapu</a> Palace. </p><p>Distinctive monuments like the <a href="/wiki/Lotfollah_mosque" class="mw-redirect" title="Lotfollah mosque">Sheikh Lotfallah</a> (1618), <a href="/wiki/Hasht_Behesht" title="Hasht Behesht">Hasht Behesht</a> (Eight Paradise Palace) (1469) and the <a href="/wiki/Chahar_Bagh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Chahar Bagh School">Chahar Bagh School</a> (1714) appeared in Isfahan and other cities. This extensive development of architecture was rooted in Persian culture and took form in the design of schools, baths, houses, caravanserai and other urban spaces such as bazaars and squares. It continued until the end of the Qajar reign.<sup id="cite_ref-254" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-254"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>247<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Literature">Literature</h4></div> <p>Poetry stagnated under the Safavids; the great medieval <a href="/wiki/Ghazal" title="Ghazal">ghazal</a> form languished in over-the-top lyricism. Poetry lacked the royal patronage of other arts and was hemmed in by religious prescriptions. </p><p>The arguably most renowned historian from this time was <a href="/wiki/Iskandar_Beg_Munshi" title="Iskandar Beg Munshi">Iskandar Beg Munshi</a>. His <i>History of Shah Abbas the Great</i> written a few years after its subject's death, achieved a nuanced depth of history and character. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Isfahan_School_–_Islamic_philosophy_revived"><span id="The_Isfahan_School_.E2.80.93_Islamic_philosophy_revived"></span>The Isfahan School – Islamic philosophy revived</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/School_of_Isfahan" title="School of Isfahan">School of Isfahan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mir_Fendereski" title="Mir Fendereski">Mir Fendereski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Bahai" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaykh Bahai">Shaykh Bahai</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Fayz_Kashani" title="Mohsen Fayz Kashani">Mohsen Fayz Kashani</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chahar_bagh_school_drawing.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Chahar_bagh_school_drawing.jpg/220px-Chahar_bagh_school_drawing.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Chahar_bagh_school_drawing.jpg/330px-Chahar_bagh_school_drawing.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Chahar_bagh_school_drawing.jpg/440px-Chahar_bagh_school_drawing.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3948" data-file-height="2694" /></a><figcaption>19th-century painting of the <a href="/wiki/Chahar_Bagh_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Chahar Bagh School">Chahar Bagh School</a> in Isfahan, built during the time of Soltan Hossein to serve as a theological and clerical school</figcaption></figure> <p>Islamic philosophy<sup id="cite_ref-255" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-255"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>248<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> flourished in the Safavid era in what scholars commonly refer to the School of Isfahan. <a href="/wiki/Mir_Damad" title="Mir Damad">Mir Damad</a> is considered the founder of this school. Among luminaries of this school of philosophy, the names of Iranian philosophers such as Mir Damad, <a href="/wiki/Mir_Fendereski" title="Mir Fendereski">Mir Fendereski</a>, <a href="/wiki/Shaykh_Bahai" class="mw-redirect" title="Shaykh Bahai">Shaykh Bahai</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mohsen_Fayz_Kashani" title="Mohsen Fayz Kashani">Mohsen Fayz Kashani</a> standout. The school reached its apogee with that of the Iranian philosopher <a href="/wiki/Mulla_Sadra" title="Mulla Sadra">Mulla Sadra</a> who is arguably the most significant Islamic philosopher after Avicenna. Mulla Sadra has become the dominant philosopher of the Islamic East, and his approach to the nature of philosophy has been exceptionally influential up to this day.<sup id="cite_ref-256" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-256"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>249<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He wrote the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Hikma_al-muta%E2%80%98aliya_fi-l-asfar_al-%27aqliyya_al-arba%E2%80%98a&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Hikma al-muta‘aliya fi-l-asfar al-'aqliyya al-arba‘a (page does not exist)">Al-Hikma al-muta‘aliya fi-l-asfar al-'aqliyya al-arba‘a</a></i> ("The Transcendent Philosophy of the Four Journeys of the Intellect"),<sup id="cite_ref-257" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-257"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>250<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> a meditation on what he called <i><a href="/wiki/Transcendent_theosophy" title="Transcendent theosophy">meta philosophy</a></i> which brought to a synthesis the philosophical mysticism of Sufism, the theology of <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a Islam">Shi'a Islam</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Peripatetic_school" title="Peripatetic school">Peripatetic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Illuminationist_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Illuminationist philosophy">Illuminationist</a> philosophies of <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> and <a href="/wiki/Suhrawardi_Maqtul" class="mw-redirect" title="Suhrawardi Maqtul">Suhrawardi</a>. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Iranologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranologist">Iranologist</a> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Nelson_Frye" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard Nelson Frye">Richard Nelson Frye</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-258" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-258"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>251<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>They were the continuers of the classical tradition of Islamic thought, which after <a href="/wiki/Averroes" title="Averroes">Averroes</a> died in the Arab west. The Persians schools of thought were the true heirs of the great Islamic thinkers of the <a href="/wiki/Islamic_Golden_Age" title="Islamic Golden Age">Islamic Golden Age</a>, whereas in the Ottoman empire there was an intellectual stagnation, as far as the traditions of Islamic philosophy were concerned.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medicine">Medicine</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Canons_of_medicine.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Canons_of_medicine.JPG/250px-Canons_of_medicine.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Canons_of_medicine.JPG/330px-Canons_of_medicine.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Canons_of_medicine.JPG/500px-Canons_of_medicine.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1272" data-file-height="890" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Latin_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin language">Latin</a> copy of <i>The Canon of Medicine</i>, dated 1484, located at the P.I. Nixon Medical Historical Library of The <a href="/wiki/University_of_Texas_Health_Science_Center_at_San_Antonio" title="University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio">University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio</a>, US.</figcaption></figure> <p>The status of physicians during the Safavids stood as high as ever. Whereas neither the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greeks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greeks">ancient Greeks</a> nor the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Romans</a> accorded high social status to their doctors, Iranians had from ancient times honored their physicians, who were often appointed counselors of the Shahs. This would not change with the <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_Persia" title="Muslim conquest of Persia">Arab conquest of Iran</a>, and it was primarily the Persians that took upon them the works of <a href="/wiki/Persian_philosophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian philosophy">philosophy</a>, logic, medicine, mathematics, <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a>, music and <a href="/wiki/Alchemy" title="Alchemy">alchemy</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007220–225_259-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007220–225-259"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>252<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By the sixteenth century, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic science">Islamic science</a>, which to a large extent meant <a href="/wiki/Persian_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian science">Persian science</a>, was resting on its laurels. The works of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_ibn_Zakariya_al-Razi" class="mw-redirect" title="Muhammad ibn Zakariya al-Razi">al-Razi</a> (865–892) (known to the West as Razes) were still used in European universities as standard textbooks of alchemy, <a href="/wiki/Pharmacology" title="Pharmacology">pharmacology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">pediatrics</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">The Canon of Medicine</a> by <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> (c. 980–1037) was still regarded as one of the primary textbooks in medicine throughout most of the civilized world.<sup id="cite_ref-260" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-260"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>253<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As such, the status of medicine in the Safavid period did not change much, and relied as much on these works as ever before. <a href="/wiki/Physiology" title="Physiology">Physiology</a> was still based on the four humours of ancient and mediaeval medicine, and bleeding and purging were still the principal forms of therapy by surgeons, something even <a href="/wiki/Jean_de_Th%C3%A9venot" title="Jean de Thévenot">Thevenot</a> experienced during his visit to Iran.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007221_208-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007221-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The only field within medicine where some progress were made was pharmacology, with the compilement of the "Tibb-e Shifa’i" in 1556. This book was translated into French in 1681 by <a href="/wiki/Ange_de_Saint_Joseph" class="mw-redirect" title="Ange de Saint Joseph">Angulus de Saint</a>, under the name "Pharmacopoea Persica".<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007221_208-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007221-208"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>201<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Entertainment">Entertainment</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan.jpg/170px-Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="264" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan.jpg/255px-Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan.jpg/340px-Polo_game_from_poem_Guy_u_Chawgan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="933" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">persian miniature</a> depicting a polo-match</figcaption></figure> <p>Since pre-Islamic times, the sport of <a href="/wiki/Wrestling" title="Wrestling">wrestling</a> had been an integral part of the Iranian identity, and the professional wrestlers, who performed in <a href="/wiki/Zurkhaneh" class="mw-redirect" title="Zurkhaneh">Zurkhanehs</a>, were considered important members of the society. Each town had their own troop of wrestlers, called <a href="/wiki/Varzesh-e_Pahlavani" class="mw-redirect" title="Varzesh-e Pahlavani">Pahlavans</a>. Their sport also provided the masses with entertainment and spectacle. Chardin described one such event:<sup id="cite_ref-261" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-261"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>254<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The two wrestlers were covered in grease. They are present on the level ground, and a small drum is always playing during the contest for excitement. They swear to a good fight and shake hands. That done, they slap their thighs, buttocks and hips to the rhythm of the drum. That is for the women and to get themselves in good form. After that they join together in uttering a great cry and trying to overthrow each other.</p></blockquote> <p>As well as wrestling, what gathered the masses was fencing, tightrope dancers, puppet-players and acrobats, performing in large squares, such as the <a href="/wiki/Naqsh-e_Jahan_Square" title="Naqsh-e Jahan Square">Royal square</a>. A leisurely form of amusement was to be found in the <a href="/wiki/Cabaret" title="Cabaret">cabarets</a>, particularly in certain districts, like those near the mausoleum of Harun-e Velayat. People met there to drink liqueurs or coffee, to smoke tobacco or opium, and to chat or listen to poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-262" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-262"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>255<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothes_and_appearances">Clothes and appearances</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:74_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_women_customs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/74_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_women_customs.jpg/250px-74_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_women_customs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="114" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/74_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_women_customs.jpg/330px-74_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_women_customs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/74_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_women_customs.jpg/500px-74_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_women_customs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1116" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>Ladies' clothing in the 1600s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:73_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_men_customs.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/73_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_men_customs.jpg/250px-73_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_men_customs.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="169" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/73_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_men_customs.jpg/330px-73_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_men_customs.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/5d/73_Chardin_Safavid_Persia_men_customs.jpg 2x" data-file-width="411" data-file-height="315" /></a><figcaption>Men's clothing in the 1600s</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atlas_cloth_iran_17th_century.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Atlas_cloth_iran_17th_century.jpg/170px-Atlas_cloth_iran_17th_century.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Atlas_cloth_iran_17th_century.jpg/255px-Atlas_cloth_iran_17th_century.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Atlas_cloth_iran_17th_century.jpg/340px-Atlas_cloth_iran_17th_century.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3648" data-file-height="5472" /></a><figcaption>A brocade garment, Safavid era</figcaption></figure> <p>As noted before, a key aspect of the Persian character was its love of luxury, particularly on keeping up appearances. They would adorn their clothes, wearing stones and decorate the harness of their horses. Men wore many rings on their fingers, almost as many as their wives. They also placed jewels on their arms, such as on daggers and swords. Daggers were worn at the waist. In describing the lady's clothing, he noted that Persian dress revealed more of the figure than did the European, but that women appeared differently depending on whether they were at home in the presence of friends and family, or if they were in the public. In private they usually wore a veil that only covered the hair and the back, but upon leaving the home, they put on <i><a href="/wiki/Manteaus" class="mw-redirect" title="Manteaus">manteaus</a></i>, large cloaks that concealed their whole bodies except their faces. They often dyed their feet and hands with <a href="/wiki/Henna#Traditions_of_henna_as_body_art" title="Henna">henna</a>. Their hairstyle was simple, the hair gathered back in tresses, often adorned at the ends with pearls and clusters of jewels. Women with slender waists were regarded as more attractive than those with larger figures. Women from the provinces and slaves pierced their left nostrils with rings, but well-born Persian women would not do this.<sup id="cite_ref-263" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-263"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>256<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The most precious accessory for men was the <a href="/wiki/Turban" title="Turban">turban</a>. Although they lasted a long time it was necessary to have changes for different occasions like weddings and the <a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Nowruz</a>, while men of status never wore the same turban two days running. Clothes that became soiled in any way were changed immediately.<sup id="cite_ref-264" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-264"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>257<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Language">Language</h2></div> <p>The Safavids by the time of their rise were <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a>-speaking although they also used <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> as a second language. The language chiefly used by the Safavid court and military establishment was Azerbaijani.<sup id="cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzaoui-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cambridgesafa_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cambridgesafa-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the official<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986331"Depressing_though_the_condition_in_the_country_may_have_been_at_the_time_of_the_fall_of_Safavids,_they_cannot_be_allowed_to_overshadow_the_achievements_of_the_dynasty,_which_was_in_many_respects_to_prove_essential_factors_in_the_development_of_Persia_in_modern_times._These_include_the_maintenance_of_Persian_as_the_official_language_and_of_the_present-day_boundaries_of_the_country,_adherence_to_the_Twelever_Shiʻi,_the_monarchical_system,_the_planning_and_architectural_features_of_the_urban_centers,_the_centralised_administration_of_the_state,_the_alliance_of_the_Shiʻi_Ulama_with_the_merchant_bazaars,_and_the_symbiosis_of_the_Persian-speaking_population_with_important_non-Persian,_especially_Turkish_speaking_minorities"._265-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986331"Depressing_though_the_condition_in_the_country_may_have_been_at_the_time_of_the_fall_of_Safavids,_they_cannot_be_allowed_to_overshadow_the_achievements_of_the_dynasty,_which_was_in_many_respects_to_prove_essential_factors_in_the_development_of_Persia_in_modern_times._These_include_the_maintenance_of_Persian_as_the_official_language_and_of_the_present-day_boundaries_of_the_country,_adherence_to_the_Twelever_Shiʻi,_the_monarchical_system,_the_planning_and_architectural_features_of_the_urban_centers,_the_centralised_administration_of_the_state,_the_alliance_of_the_Shiʻi_Ulama_with_the_merchant_bazaars,_and_the_symbiosis_of_the_Persian-speaking_population_with_important_non-Persian,_especially_Turkish_speaking_minorities".-265"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>258<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> language of the empire as well as the administrative language, language of correspondence, literature and historiography was Persian.<sup id="cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzaoui-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The inscriptions on Safavid currency were also in Persian.<sup id="cite_ref-266" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-266"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>259<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg/170px-The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="261" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg/255px-The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6e/The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg/340px-The_Mantiq_al-tair.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2583" data-file-height="3968" /></a><figcaption>Scene from <a href="/wiki/Attar_of_Nishapur" title="Attar of Nishapur">Attar</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Conference_of_the_Birds" title="The Conference of the Birds">The Conference of the Birds</a></i>, by Habibulla Meshedi (1600).</figcaption></figure> <p>Safavids also used <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a> as a cultural and administrative language throughout the empire and were bilingual in Persian.<sup id="cite_ref-Mino_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mino-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Arnold J. Toynbee,<sup id="cite_ref-267" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-267"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>260<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the heyday of the Mughal, Safawi, and Ottoman regimes New Persian was being patronized as the language of litterae humaniores by the ruling element over the whole of this huge realm, while it was also being employed as the official language of administration in those two-thirds of its realm that lay within the Safawi and the Mughal frontiers</p></blockquote> <p>According to John R. Perry,<sup id="cite_ref-268" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-268"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>261<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In the 16th century, the Turcophone Safavid family of Ardabil in Azerbaijan, probably of Turkicized Iranian, origin, conquered Iran and established Turkic, the language of the court and the military, as a high-status vernacular and a widespread contact language, influencing spoken Persian, while written Persian, the language of high literature and civil administration, remained virtually unaffected in status and content.</p></blockquote> <p>According to Zabiollah Safa,<sup id="cite_ref-cambridgesafa_16-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cambridgesafa-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In day-to-day affairs, the language chiefly used at the Safavid court and by the great military and political officers, as well as the religious dignitaries, was Turkish, not Persian; and the last class of persons wrote their religious works mainly in Arabic. Those who wrote in Persian were either lacking in proper tuition in this tongue, or wrote outside Iran and hence at a distance from centers where Persian was the accepted vernacular, endued with that vitality and susceptibility to skill in its use which a language can have only in places where it truly belongs.</p></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Prince_Muhammad-Beik_by_Reza_Abbasi.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Prince_Muhammad-Beik_by_Reza_Abbasi.jpg/170px-Prince_Muhammad-Beik_by_Reza_Abbasi.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="366" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/57/Prince_Muhammad-Beik_by_Reza_Abbasi.jpg/255px-Prince_Muhammad-Beik_by_Reza_Abbasi.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/5/57/Prince_Muhammad-Beik_by_Reza_Abbasi.jpg 2x" data-file-width="297" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><i>Prince Muhammad-Beik of <a href="/wiki/Georgia_(country)" title="Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></i> by <a href="/wiki/Reza_Abbasi" title="Reza Abbasi">Reza Abbasi</a> (1620)</figcaption></figure> <p>According to É. Á. Csató et al.,<sup id="cite_ref-csatoetal_269-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-csatoetal-269"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>262<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>A specific Turkic language was attested in Safavid Persia during the 16th and 17th centuries, a language that Europeans often called Persian Turkish ("Turc Agemi", "lingua turcica agemica"), which was a favourite language at the court and in the army because of the Turkic origins of the Safavid dynasty. The original name was just turki, and so a convenient name might be Turki-yi Acemi. This variety of Persian Turkish must have been also spoken in the Caucasian and Transcaucasian regions, which during the 16th century belonged to both the Ottomans and the Safavids, and were not fully integrated into the Safavid empire until 1606. Though that language might generally be identified as Middle Azerbaijanian, it is not yet possible to define exactly the limits of this language, both in linguistic and territorial respects. It was certainly not homogenous – maybe it was an Azerbaijanian-Ottoman mixed language, as Beltadze (1967:161) states for a translation of the gospels in Georgian script from the 18th century.</p></blockquote> <p>According to Rula Jurdi Abisaab,<sup id="cite_ref-270" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-270"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>263<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Although the Arabic language was still the medium for religious scholastic expression, it was precisely under the Safavids that hadith complications and doctrinal works of all sorts were being translated to Persian. The <a href="/wiki/Jabal_Amel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabal Amel">'Amili</a> (Shiite scholars of what is now <a href="/wiki/South_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="South Lebanon">South Lebanon</a>) operating through the Court-based religious posts, were forced to master the Persian language; their students translated their instructions into Persian. Persianization went hand in hand with the popularization of 'mainstream' Shiʻi belief.</p></blockquote> <p>According to Cornelis Versteegh,<sup id="cite_ref-271" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-271"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>264<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The Safavid dynasty under Shah Ismail (961/1501) adopted Persian and the Shiʻite form of Islam as the national language and religion.</p></blockquote> <p>According to David Blow,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>198<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The primary court language [with Abbas I's reign (r. 1588–1629)] remained Turkish. But it was not the Turkish of Istanbul. It was a Turkish dialect, the dialect of the Qizilbash Turkomans, which is still spoken today in the province of Azerbaijan, in north-western Iran. This form of Turkish was also the mother-tongue of Shah Abbas, although he was equally at ease speaking Persian. It seems likely that most, if not all, of the Turkoman grandees at the court also spoke Persian, which was the language of the administration and culture, as well as of the majority of the population. But the reverse seems not to have been true. When Abbas had a lively conversation in Turkish with the Italian traveller <a href="/wiki/Pietro_Della_Valle" title="Pietro Della Valle">Pietro Della Valle</a>, in front of his courtiers, he had to translate the conversation afterwards into Persian for the benefit of most of those present.</p></blockquote> <p>Regarding the usage of <a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a>, <a href="/wiki/Circassian_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Circassian language">Circassian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a> at the Royal Court, David Blow states,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165–166_210-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165–166-210"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>203<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken, since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem. <a href="/wiki/Garc%C3%ADa_de_Silva_Figueroa" title="García de Silva Figueroa">Figueroa</a> heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had no doubt acquired from his Georgian ghulams and concubines.</p></blockquote> <p>According to Willem Floor and Hasan Javadi,<sup id="cite_ref-272" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-272"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>265<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> During the Safavid period Azerbaijani Turkish, or, as it was also referred to at that time, Qizilbash Turkish, occupied an important place in society, and it was spoken both atcourt and by the common people. Although Turkish was widely spoken in Safavid Iran this fact is rarely mentioned. Usually neither Persian nor European authors mention in which language people communicated with each other. The Turkish spoken in Safavid Iran was mostly what nowadays is referred to as Azeri or Azerbaijani Turkish. However, at that time it was referred to by various other names. It would seemthat the poet and miniaturist Sadeqi Afshar (1533–1610), whose mother tongue was not Azerbaijani Turkish, but Chaghatay (although he was born in Tabriz), was the first to refer to speakers of Qizilbashi (motakallemin-e Qizilbash), but he, and one century later 'Abdol-Jamil Nasiri, were the exception to this general rule of calling the language "Turki".</p></blockquote> <p>According to <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Dale" title="Stephen Dale">Stephen Dale</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-273" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-273"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>266<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Shah Ismail's Azeri dialect never became a state language and its use remained largely confined to <a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Azerbaijan</a>, where it is still spoken by many Iranians. Otherwise, Turkic speech in Iran largely remained a tribal/Qizilbash and provincial Azerbaijani phenomenon, subordinate to Persian as the language of formal education and the dominant literary culture.</p></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Legacy">Legacy</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Safavid-star.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Safavid-star.png/250px-Safavid-star.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Safavid-star.png/330px-Safavid-star.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/15/Safavid-star.png 2x" data-file-width="343" data-file-height="349" /></a><figcaption>Safavid Star from ceiling of Shah Mosque, Isfahan, Iran.</figcaption></figure> <p>It was the Safavids who made Iran the spiritual bastion of Shiʻism, and the repository of Persian cultural traditions and self-awareness of Iranianhood, acting as a bridge to modern Iran. The founder of the dynasty, Shah Isma'il, adopted the title of "King of Iran" (<i>Pādišah-ī Īrān</i>), with its implicit notion of an Iranian state stretching from <a href="/wiki/Greater_Khorasan" title="Greater Khorasan">Khorasan</a> as far as <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a>, and from the <a href="/wiki/Oxus" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxus">Oxus</a> to the southern Territories of the <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-274" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-274"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>267<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Professor <a href="/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Roger Savory</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-275" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-275"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>268<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-276" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-276"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>269<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712" /><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>In a number of ways the Safavids affected the development of the modern Iranian state: first, they ensured the continuance of various ancient and traditional Persian institutions, and transmitted these in a strengthened, or more 'national', form; second, by imposing Ithna 'Ashari <a href="/wiki/Shi%27a_Islam" class="mw-redirect" title="Shi'a Islam">Shi'a Islam</a> on Iran as the official religion of the Safavid state, they enhanced the power of <a href="/wiki/Mujtahid" class="mw-redirect" title="Mujtahid">mujtahids</a>. The Safavids thus set in train a struggle for power between the turban and the crown that is to say, between the proponents of secular government and the proponents of a theocratic government; third, they laid the foundation of alliance between the religious classes ('Ulama') and the bazaar which played an important role both in the Persian Constitutional Revolution of 1905–1906, and again in the Islamic Revolution of 1979; fourth the policies introduced by Shah Abbas I conduced to a more centralized administrative system.</p></blockquote> <p>According to Donald Struesand, "although the Safavid unification of the eastern and western halves of the Iranian plateau and imposition of Twelver Shiʻi Islam on the region created a recognizable precursor of modern Iran, the Safavid polity itself was neither distinctively Iranian nor national."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011137_277-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011137-277"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>270<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rudolph Matthee concluded that "though not a nation-state, Safavid Iran contained the elements that would later spawn one by generating many enduring bureaucratic features and by initiating a polity of overlapping religious and territorial boundaries."<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthee1999231_278-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthee1999231-278"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>271<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Iran" title="Category:History of Iran">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History of <span class="fn org label">Iran</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/250px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/330px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg/500px-Persepolis_24.11.2009_11-12-14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2477" data-file-height="1857" /></a></span><br /> The <a href="/wiki/Gate_of_All_Nations" title="Gate of All Nations">Gate of All Nations</a> in Fars</td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistoric period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">BCE / BC</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baradostian_culture" title="Baradostian culture">Baradostian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 36,000–18,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarzian_culture" title="Zarzian culture">Zarzian culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 20,000–10,000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shulaveri%E2%80%93Shomu_culture" title="Shulaveri–Shomu culture">Shulaveri–Shomu culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6000–5000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zayandeh_River_Culture" title="Zayandeh River Culture">Zayandeh River Culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 6th millennium</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dalma_culture" title="Dalma culture">Dalma culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 5th millennium</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Prehistory" title="History of Iran">Ancient period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura–Araxes culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3400–2000</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Helmand_culture" title="Helmand culture">Helmand culture</a>/<a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3300–2200</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3200–2700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi Kingdom</a>/<a href="/wiki/Zamua" title="Zamua">Zamua</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 3100-675</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elam</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2700–539</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Marhasi" title="Marhasi">Marhaši</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2550-2020</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">Oxus Civilization</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 2400–1700</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 2400–2150</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–1155</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Avestan_period" title="Avestan period">Avestan period</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1500–500</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 911–609</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 860–590</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mannaea" title="Mannaea">Mannaea</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 850–616</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zikirti" title="Zikirti">Zikirti</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750-521</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saparda" title="Saparda">Saparda</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 720-670</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Classical_antiquity" title="History of Iran">Imperial period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Median_state" class="mw-redirect" title="Median state">Median Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 678–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 652–625 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Teispids" title="Teispids">Anshanite Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 635 BC–550 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 626 BC–539 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sogdia" title="Sogdia">Sogdia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 6th century BC</span>–11th century AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550 BC–330 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of Armenia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 331 BC–428 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 323 BC</span>–226 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of Cappadocia</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 320s BC–17 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 312 BC–63 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of Pontus</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 281 BC–62 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Fratarakas" class="mw-redirect" title="Fratarakas">Fratarakas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 3rd-century BC–132 BC</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 247 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Elymais" title="Elymais">Elymais</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 147 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Characene" title="Characene">Characene</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 141 BC–222 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of Persis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 132 BC–224 AD</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Indo-Parthian_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="Indo-Parthian Kingdom">Indo-Parthian Kingdom</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 19 AD–224/5</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Paratarajas" title="Paratarajas">Paratarajas</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 125–300</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 224–651</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zarmihrids" title="Zarmihrids">Zarmihrids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 6th century–785</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qarinvand_dynasty" title="Qarinvand dynasty">Qarinvandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 550s–11th century</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Medieval_period" title="History of Iran">Medieval period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><i><a href="/wiki/Common_Era" title="Common Era">CE / AD</a></i> <table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 632-661</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 661–750</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 750–1258</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Dabuyid_dynasty" title="Dabuyid dynasty">Dabuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 642–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Bavand_dynasty" title="Bavand dynasty">Bavandids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–1349</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Masmughans_of_Damavand" title="Masmughans of Damavand">Masmughans of Damavand</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 651–760</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Baduspanids" title="Baduspanids">Baduspanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 665–1598</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Justanids" title="Justanids">Justanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 791 – 11th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alid dynasties</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 864 – 14th century</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 821–873</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 819–999</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 861–1003</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> pre-879 – 1215</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sajid_dynasty" title="Sajid dynasty">Sajid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 889–929</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sallarid_dynasty" title="Sallarid dynasty">Sallarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 919–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 930–1090</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Banu_Ilyas" title="Banu Ilyas">Ilyasids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 932–968</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 934–1062</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Rawadid_dynasty" title="Rawadid dynasty">Rawadid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 955–1070</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hasanwayhids" title="Hasanwayhids">Hasanwayhids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 959–1095</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 977–1186</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Annazids" title="Annazids">Annazids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 990/1–1117</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kakuyids" title="Kakuyids">Kakuyids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1008–1141</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Nasrid_dynasty_(Sistan)" title="Nasrid dynasty (Sistan)">Nasrid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1029–1236</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Shabankara" title="Shabankara">Shabankara</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1030–1355</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1037–1194</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Khwarazmian dynasty">Khwarazmian dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1077–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1135–1225</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Atabegs_of_Yazd" title="Atabegs of Yazd">Atabegs of Yazd</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1141–1319</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Salghurids" title="Salghurids">Salghurids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1148–1282</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Hazaraspids" title="Hazaraspids">Hazaraspids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1424</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pishkinid_dynasty" title="Pishkinid dynasty">Pishkinid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1155–1231</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Khorshidi_dynasty" title="Khorshidi dynasty">Khorshidi dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1184-1597</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qutlugh-Khanids" title="Qutlugh-Khanids">Qutlugh-Khanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1223-1306</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mihrabanids" title="Mihrabanids">Mihrabanids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1236–1537</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kurt_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurt dynasty">Kurt dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1244–1396</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1256–1335</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1393</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Sarbadars" title="Sarbadars">Sarbadars</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1337–1376</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Injuids" title="Injuids">Injuids</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1335–1357</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afrasiyab_dynasty" title="Afrasiyab dynasty">Afrasiyab dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1349–1504</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Mar%27ashis" title="Mar'ashis">Mar'ashis</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1359–1596</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid Empire</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370–1507</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Kar-Kiya_dynasty" title="Kar-Kiya dynasty">Kar-Kiya dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1370s–1592</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1406–1468</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1468–1508</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Early_modern_period" title="History of Iran">Early modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Safavid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1501–1736</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> (<a href="/wiki/Hotak_dynasty" title="Hotak dynasty">Hotak dynasty</a>)</td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1722–1729</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1736–1796</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand dynasty</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1751–1794</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Modern_period" title="History of Iran">Modern period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1789–1925</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_Iran" title="Pahlavi Iran">Pahlavi Iran</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1925–1979</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran#Contemporary_period" title="History of Iran">Contemporary period</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><table style="width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0px 0px;border:none"><tbody><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979</td></tr><tr style="vertical-align:top"><td style="text-align:left;padding-right:0.2em"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Islamic Republic</a></td><td style="text-align:right;font-size:90%;white-space:nowrap"> 1979–present</td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee;text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Related articles</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Name_of_Iran" title="Name of Iran">Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_history_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT history in Iran">LGBT history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_women_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of women in Iran">Women's history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_wars_involving_Iran" title="List of wars involving Iran">Wars</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Iranian_history" title="Timeline of Iranian history">Timeline</a><br /><span class="nowrap"><span class="mw-image-border noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/20px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png" decoding="async" width="17" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Flag_of_Iran.svg/40px-Flag_of_Iran.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="630" data-file-height="360" /></span></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Iran" title="Portal:Iran">Iran portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Iran" title="Template talk:History of Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persianate" class="mw-redirect" title="Persianate">Persianate states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Shi%27a_Muslim_dynasties" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Shi'a Muslim dynasties">List of Shi'a Muslim dynasties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Khanates of the Caucasus</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Official language,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986189_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986189-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> coinage,<sup id="cite_ref-MatheeIranica_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MatheeIranica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> civil administration,<sup id="cite_ref-Perry_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> court (since Isfahan became capital),<sup id="cite_ref-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> literary,<sup id="cite_ref-MatheeIranica_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MatheeIranica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Perry_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Perry-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> theological discourse,<sup id="cite_ref-MatheeIranica_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MatheeIranica-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> diplomatic correspondence, historiography,<sup id="cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzaoui-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> court-based religious posts,<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> poetry<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Court,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> religious dignitaries, military,<sup id="cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzaoui-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007213qizilbash_normally_spoke_Azari_brand_of_Turkish_at_court,_as_did_the_Safavid_shahs_themselves;_lack_of_familiarity_with_the_Persian_language_may_have_contributed_to_the_decline_from_the_pure_classical_standards_of_former_times_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007213qizilbash_normally_spoke_Azari_brand_of_Turkish_at_court,_as_did_the_Safavid_shahs_themselves;_lack_of_familiarity_with_the_Persian_language_may_have_contributed_to_the_decline_from_the_pure_classical_standards_of_former_times-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-cambridgesafa_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cambridgesafa-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> mother tongue,<sup id="cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzaoui-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> poetry.<sup id="cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-mazzaoui-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Court.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Branch: <a href="/wiki/Twelver_Shi%27ism" title="Twelver Shi'ism">Twelver</a><br />School of <a href="/wiki/Fiqh" title="Fiqh">Jurisprudence</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ja%27fari_school" title="Ja'fari school">Ja'fari</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">ممالک محروسهٔ ایران</span></span>, <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Mamâlek-e Mahruse-ye Irân</i></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/æ/: 'a' in 'bad'">æ</span><span title="'f' in 'find'">f</span><span title="/ə/: 'a' in 'about'">ə</span><span title="'v' in 'vie'">v</span><span title="/ɪ/: 'i' in 'kit'">ɪ</span><span title="'d' in 'dye'">d</span></span>,<span class="wrap"> </span><span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="'s' in 'sigh'">s</span><span title="/ɑː/: 'a' in 'father'">ɑː</span></span>-/</a></span></span>)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><span title="Persian-language text"><span lang="fa" dir="rtl">شاهنشاهی صفوی</span></span>, <span title="Persian-language romanization"><i lang="fa-Latn">Šāhanšāhi-ye Safavi</i></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626" /><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"... the Order of the Lion and the Sun, a device which, since the 17 century at least, appeared on the national flag of the Safavids the lion representing 'Ali and the sun the glory of the Shiʻi faith", Mikhail Borisovich Piotrovskiĭ, J. M. Rogers, Hermitage Rooms at Somerset House, Courtauld Institute of Art, <i>Heaven on earth: Art from Islamic Lands: Works from the State Hermitage Museum and the Khalili Collection</i>, Prestel, 2004, p. 178.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986189-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986189_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 189.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MatheeIranica-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MatheeIranica_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MatheeIranica_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-MatheeIranica_3-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Rudi Matthee, "<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids">Safavids</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220901053617/https://iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids">Archived</a> 2022-09-01 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>" in <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, accessed on April 4, 2010. "The Persian focus is also reflected in the fact that theological works also began to be composed in the Persian language and in that Persian verses replaced Arabic on the coins." "The political system that emerged under them had overlapping political and religious boundaries and a core language, Persian, which served as the literary tongue, and even began to replace Arabic as the vehicle for theological discourse".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald W Ferrier, <i>The Arts of Persia</i>. Yale University Press. 1989, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Perry-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Perry_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Perry_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John R Perry, "Turkic-Iranian contacts", <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>, January 24, 2006: "... written Persian, the language of high literature and civil administration, remained virtually unaffected in status and content".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Cyril_Glassé_2003,_pg_392_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Cyril Glassé (ed.), <i>The New Encyclopedia of Islam</i>, Lanham, Maryland: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, revised ed., 2003, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-7591-0190-6">0-7591-0190-6</a>, p. 392: "Shah Abbas moved his capital from <a href="/wiki/Qazvin" title="Qazvin">Qazvin</a> to <a href="/wiki/Isfahan" title="Isfahan">Isfahan</a>. His reigned marked the peak of Safavid dynasty's achievement in art, diplomacy, and commerce. It was probably around this time that the court, which originally spoke a Turkic language, began to use Persian"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnold J. Toynbee, <i>A Study of History</i>, V, pp. 514–515. Excerpt: "in the heyday of the Mughal, Safawi, and Ottoman regimes New Persian was being patronized as the language of <i>literae humaniores</i> by the ruling element over the whole of this huge realm, while it was also being employed as the official language of administration in those two-thirds of its realm that lay within the Safawi and the Mughal frontiers"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-mazzaoui-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-mazzaoui_8-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMazzaouiCanfield,_Robert2002" class="citation book cs1">Mazzaoui, Michel B; Canfield, Robert (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qwwoozMU0LMC&pg=PA86">"Islamic Culture and Literature in Iran and Central Asia in the early modern period"</a>. <i>Turko-Persia in Historical Perspective</i>. Cambridge University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">86–</span>87. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-52291-5"><bdi>978-0-521-52291-5</bdi></a>. <q>Safavid power with its distinctive Persian-Shiʻi culture, however, remained a middle ground between its two mighty Turkish neighbors. The Safavid state, which lasted at least until 1722, was essentially a "Turkish" dynasty, with Azeri Turkish (Azerbaijan being the family's home base) as the language of the rulers and the court as well as the Qizilbash military establishment. Shah Ismail wrote poetry in Turkish. The administration nevertheless was Persian, and the Persian language was the vehicle of diplomatic correspondence (insha'), of belles-lettres (adab), and of history (tarikh).</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Islamic+Culture+and+Literature+in+Iran+and+Central+Asia+in+the+early+modern+period&rft.btitle=Turko-Persia+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E86-%3C%2Fspan%3E87&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-52291-5&rft.aulast=Mazzaoui&rft.aufirst=Michel+B&rft.au=Canfield%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqwwoozMU0LMC%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruda Jurdi Abisaab. "Iran and Pre-Independence Lebanon" in Houchang Esfandiar Chehabi, <i>Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the Last 500 Years</i>, IB Tauris 2006, p. 76: "Although the Arabic language was still the medium for religious scholastic expression, it was precisely under the Safavids that hadith complications and doctrinal works of all sorts were being translated to Persian. The ʻAmili (Lebanese scholars of Shiʻi faith) operating through the Court-based religious posts, were forced to master the Persian language; their students translated their instructions into Persian. Persianization went hand in hand with the popularization of 'mainstream' Shiʻi belief."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSavoryKaramustafa2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi#ii">"ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ: His poetry"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ESM%C4%80%CA%BF%C4%AAL+I+%E1%B9%A2AFAW%C4%AA%3A+His+poetry&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+Iranica&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=Roger+M.&rft.au=Karamustafa%2C+Ahmet+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fesmail-i-safawi%23ii&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFloorJavadi2013" class="citation journal cs1">Floor, Willem; Javadi, Hasan (2013). "The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran". <i>Iranian Studies</i>. <b>46</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">569–</span>581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2013.784516">10.1080/00210862.2013.784516</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161700244">161700244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Azerbaijani+Turkish+in+Safavid+Iran&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E569-%3C%2Fspan%3E581&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2013.784516&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161700244%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Floor&rft.aufirst=Willem&rft.au=Javadi%2C+Hasan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHovannisianSabagh1998" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_G._Hovannisian" title="Richard G. Hovannisian">Hovannisian, Richard G.</a>; Sabagh, Georges (1998). <i>The Persian Presence in the Islamic World</i>. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 240. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521591850" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521591850"><bdi>978-0521591850</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Persian+Presence+in+the+Islamic+World&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pages=240&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0521591850&rft.aulast=Hovannisian&rft.aufirst=Richard+G.&rft.au=Sabagh%2C+Georges&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAxworthy2010" class="citation book cs1">Axworthy, Michael (2010). <i>The Sword of Persia: Nader Shah, from Tribal Warrior to Conquering Tyrant</i>. I.B. Tauris. p. 33. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857721938" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857721938"><bdi>978-0857721938</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sword+of+Persia%3A+Nader+Shah%2C+from+Tribal+Warrior+to+Conquering+Tyrant&rft.pages=33&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-0857721938&rft.aulast=Axworthy&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007213qizilbash_normally_spoke_Azari_brand_of_Turkish_at_court,_as_did_the_Safavid_shahs_themselves;_lack_of_familiarity_with_the_Persian_language_may_have_contributed_to_the_decline_from_the_pure_classical_standards_of_former_times-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007213qizilbash_normally_spoke_Azari_brand_of_Turkish_at_court,_as_did_the_Safavid_shahs_themselves;_lack_of_familiarity_with_the_Persian_language_may_have_contributed_to_the_decline_from_the_pure_classical_standards_of_former_times_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 213, qizilbash normally spoke Azari brand of Turkish at court, as did the Safavid shahs themselves; lack of familiarity with the Persian language may have contributed to the decline from the pure classical standards of former times.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cambridgesafa-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-cambridgesafa_16-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cambridgesafa_16-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-cambridgesafa_16-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Zabiollah Safa (1986), "Persian Literature in the Safavid Period", <i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i>, vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20094-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20094-6">0-521-20094-6</a>, pp. 948–965. P. 950: "In day-to-day affairs, the language chiefly used at the Safavid court and by the great military and political officers, as well as the religious dignitaries, was Turkish, not Persian; and the last class of persons wrote their religious works mainly in Arabic. Those who wrote in Persian were either lacking in proper tuition in this tongue, or wrote outside Iran and hence at a distance from centers where Persian was the accepted vernacular, endued with that vitality and susceptibility to skill in its use which a language can have only in places where it truly belongs."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPrice2005" class="citation book cs1">Price, Massoume (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gzpdq679oJwC&pg=PA66"><i>Iran's Diverse Peoples: A Reference Sourcebook</i></a>. ABC-CLIO. p. 66. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-993-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-993-5"><bdi>978-1-57607-993-5</bdi></a>. <q>The Shah was a native Turkic speaker and wrote poetry in the Azerbaijani language.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran%27s+Diverse+Peoples%3A+A+Reference+Sourcebook&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-993-5&rft.aulast=Price&rft.aufirst=Massoume&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dgzpdq679oJwC%26pg%3DPA66&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, pp. 165–166. "Georgian, Circassian and Armenian were also spoken [at the court], since these were the mother-tongues of many of the ghulams, as well as of a high proportion of the women of the harem. Figueroa heard Abbas speak Georgian, which he had no doubt acquired from his Georgian ghulams and concubines."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The New Encyclopedia of Islam</i>, Ed. Cyril Glassé, (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2008), 449.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGhereghlou2017" class="citation journal cs1">Ghereghlou, Kioumars (October–December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academiccommons.columbia.edu/doi/10.7916/D8ZW33DF">"Chronicling a Dynasty on the Make: New Light on the Early Ṣafavids in Ḥayātī Tabrīzī's <i>Tārīkh</i> (961/1554)"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_the_American_Oriental_Society" title="Journal of the American Oriental Society">Journal of the American Oriental Society</a></i>. <b>137</b> (4): 827. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.4.0805">10.7817/jameroriesoci.137.4.0805</a></span> – via <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University_Libraries" title="Columbia University Libraries">Columbia Academic Commons</a>. <q>Shah Ismāʿīl's enthronement took place in Tabrīz immediately after the <a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%9E%C9%99rur_d%C3%B6y%C3%BC%C5%9F%C3%BC" class="extiw" title="az:Şərur döyüşü">battle of Sharūr</a>, on 1 Jumādā II 907/22 December 1501.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+American+Oriental+Society&rft.atitle=Chronicling+a+Dynasty+on+the+Make%3A+New+Light+on+the+Early+%E1%B9%A2afavids+in+%E1%B8%A4ay%C4%81t%C4%AB+Tabr%C4%ABz%C4%AB%27s+T%C4%81r%C4%ABkh+%28961%2F1554%29&rft.volume=137&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=827&rft.date=2017-10%2F2017-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.7817%2Fjameroriesoci.137.4.0805&rft.aulast=Ghereghlou&rft.aufirst=Kioumars&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Facademiccommons.columbia.edu%2Fdoi%2F10.7916%2FD8ZW33DF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Elton L. Daniel, <i>The History of Iran</i> (Greenwood Press, 2001) p. 95</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-OxfordArea-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-OxfordArea_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBangBaylyScheidel2020" class="citation book cs1">Bang, Peter Fibiger; Bayly, C. A.; Scheidel, Walter (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9mkLEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA92"><i>The Oxford World History of Empire: Volume One: The Imperial Experience</i></a>. Oxford University Press. pp. <span class="nowrap">92–</span>94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-977311-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-977311-4"><bdi>978-0-19-977311-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+World+History+of+Empire%3A+Volume+One%3A+The+Imperial+Experience&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E92-%3C%2Fspan%3E94&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-0-19-977311-4&rft.aulast=Bang&rft.aufirst=Peter+Fibiger&rft.au=Bayly%2C+C.+A.&rft.au=Scheidel%2C+Walter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D9mkLEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA92&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Blake, Stephen P., ed. (2013), "Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires", Time in Early Modern Islam: Calendar, Ceremony, and Chronology in the Safavid, Mughal and Ottoman Empires, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 21–47, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9781139343305.004">10.1017/CBO9781139343305.004</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03023-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-107-03023-7">978-1-107-03023-7</a>, retrieved 2021-11-10</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier, RW, <i>A Journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire</i>, p. ix.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFlaskerud2010" class="citation book cs1">Flaskerud, Ingvild (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fH1pvM0AdNIC&pg=PA182"><i>Visualizing Belief and Piety in Iranian Shiism</i></a>. A&C Black. pp. <span class="nowrap">182–</span>3. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4907-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4411-4907-7"><bdi>978-1-4411-4907-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Visualizing+Belief+and+Piety+in+Iranian+Shiism&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E182-%3C%2Fspan%3E3&rft.pub=A%26C+Black&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4411-4907-7&rft.aulast=Flaskerud&rft.aufirst=Ingvild&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfH1pvM0AdNIC%26pg%3DPA182&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Helen_Chapin_Metz" title="Helen Chapin Metz">Helen Chapin Metz</a>, ed., <i>Iran, a Country study</i>. 1989. University of Michigan, p. 313.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Emory C. Bogle. <i>Islam: Origin and Belief</i>. University of Texas Press. 1989, p. 145.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Jay Shaw. History of the Ottoman Empire. Cambridge University Press. 1977, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew J. Newman, <i>Safavid Iran: Rebirth of a Persian Empire</i>, IB Tauris (2006).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (March 2024)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Iranica-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_36-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_36-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Iranica_36-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatthee2017" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudi_Matthee" title="Rudi Matthee">Matthee, Rudi</a> (2017) [2008]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids">"Safavid Dynasty"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Columbia_University" title="Columbia University">Columbia University</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F2330-4804_EIRO_COM_509">10.1163/2330-4804_EIRO_COM_509</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2330-4804">2330-4804</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220525211301/https://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids">Archived</a> from the original on 25 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">23 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Safavid+Dynasty&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Columbia+University&rft.date=2017&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F2330-4804_EIRO_COM_509&rft.issn=2330-4804&rft.aulast=Matthee&rft.aufirst=Rudi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fsafavids&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011135-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011135_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 135.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-savoryeiref-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-savoryeiref_38-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSavory2012" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Savory, Roger</a> (2012) [1995]. "Ṣafawids". In <a href="/wiki/Clifford_Edmund_Bosworth" title="Clifford Edmund Bosworth">Bosworth, C. E.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Emeri_Johannes_van_Donzel" class="mw-redirect" title="Emeri Johannes van Donzel">van Donzel, E. J.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Wolfhart_Heinrichs" title="Wolfhart Heinrichs">Heinrichs, W. P.</a>; Lewis, B.; <a href="/wiki/Charles_Pellat" title="Charles Pellat">Pellat, Ch.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Schacht" title="Joseph Schacht">Schacht, J.</a> (eds.). <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclopaedia_of_Islam#2nd_edition,_EI2" title="Encyclopaedia of Islam">Encyclopaedia of Islam, Second Edition</a></i>. Vol. 8. <a href="/wiki/Leiden" title="Leiden">Leiden</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boston" title="Boston">Boston</a>: <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0964">10.1163/1573-3912_islam_COM_0964</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16121-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16121-4"><bdi>978-90-04-16121-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%E1%B9%A2afawids&rft.btitle=Encyclopaedia+of+Islam%2C+Second+Edition&rft.place=Leiden+and+Boston&rft.pub=Brill+Publishers&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F1573-3912_islam_COM_0964&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16121-4&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Matthee_2021-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Matthee_2021_39-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBaltacıoğlu-Brammer2021" class="citation book cs1">Baltacıoğlu-Brammer, Ayşe (2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=gWBCEAAAQBAJ&pg=PA15">"The emergence of the Safavids as a mystical order and their subsequent rise to power in the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries"</a>. In Matthee, Rudi (ed.). <i>The Safavid World</i>. Routledge Worlds (1st ed.). <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a> and <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. pp. <span class="nowrap">15–</span>36. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.4324%2F9781003170822">10.4324/9781003170822</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-003-17082-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-003-17082-2"><bdi>978-1-003-17082-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:236371308">236371308</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+emergence+of+the+Safavids+as+a+mystical+order+and+their+subsequent+rise+to+power+in+the+fourteenth+and+fifteenth+centuries&rft.btitle=The+Safavid+World&rft.place=New+York+and+London&rft.series=Routledge+Worlds&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E36&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A236371308%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.4324%2F9781003170822&rft.isbn=978-1-003-17082-2&rft.aulast=Baltac%C4%B1o%C4%9Flu-Brammer&rft.aufirst=Ay%C5%9Fe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DgWBCEAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA15&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">* Matthee, Rudi. (2005). <i>The Pursuit of Pleasure: Drugs and Stimulants in Iranian History, 1500–1900</i>. Princeton University Press. p. 18; "(<i>...)ethnic Turks generally held military and political power in Iran, whereas ethnic Iranians, called Tajiks, were dominant in the areas of administration and culture. The Safavids, as Iranians of Kurdish ancestry and of nontribal background, did not fit this pattern, although the state they set up with the aid of Turkmen tribal forces of Eastern Anatolia closely resembled this division in its makeup. (...)"</i>. <ul><li>Amoretti, Biancamaria Scarcia; Matthee, Rudi. (2009). "Ṣafavid Dynasty". In Esposito, John L. (ed.) <i>The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World</i>. Oxford University Press. "<i>Of Kurdish ancestry, the Ṣafavids started as a Sunnī mystical order (...)"</i></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li>Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998) <i>ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ</i>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6</i>, pp. 628–636</li> <li>Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). <i>ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI</i>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aptin Khanbaghi (2006) <i>The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early</i>. London & New York. IB Tauris. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-84511-056-0" title="Special:BookSources/1-84511-056-0">1-84511-056-0</a>, pp. 130–131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001493-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEYarshater2001493_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFYarshater2001">Yarshater 2001</a>, p. 493.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKhanbaghi2006130-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKhanbaghi2006130_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKhanbaghi2006">Khanbaghi 2006</a>, p. 130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Anthony_Bryer_1975-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Anthony_Bryer_1975_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Anthony_Bryer_1975_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Bryer. "Greeks and Türkmens: The Pontic Exception", <i>Dumbarton Oaks Papers, Vol. 29</i> (1975), Appendix II "Genealogy of the Muslim Marriages of the Princesses of Trebizond"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iranica-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-iranica_46-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ii2-islamic-period-page-4">"Safavid Iran"</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i>, "The origins of the Safavids are clouded in obscurity. They may have been of Kurdish origin (see R. Savory, Iran Under the Safavids, 1980, p. 2; R. Matthee, "Safavid Dynasty" at iranica.com), but for all practical purposes they were Turkish-speaking and Turkified."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory20073"Why_is_there_such_confusion_about_the_origins_of_this_important_dynasty,_which_reasserted_Iranian_identity_and_established_an_independent_Iranian_state_after_eight_and_a_half_centuries_of_rule_by_foreign_dynasties?"-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory20073"Why_is_there_such_confusion_about_the_origins_of_this_important_dynasty,_which_reasserted_Iranian_identity_and_established_an_independent_Iranian_state_after_eight_and_a_half_centuries_of_rule_by_foreign_dynasties?"_47-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 3, "Why is there such confusion about the origins of this important dynasty, which reasserted Iranian identity and established an independent Iranian state after eight and a half centuries of rule by foreign dynasties?".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHerzig,_EdmundStewart,_Sarah2011" class="citation book cs1">Herzig, Edmund; Stewart, Sarah (2011). <i>Early Islamic Iran</i>. I. B. Tauris.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Early+Islamic+Iran&rft.pub=I.+B.+Tauris.&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Herzig%2C+Edmund&rft.au=Stewart%2C+Sarah&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory20072–3...Turcoman,_tribal_forces_(qizilbash)_which_had_been_largely_responsible_for_bringing_the_Safavids_to_power...-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory20072–3...Turcoman,_tribal_forces_(qizilbash)_which_had_been_largely_responsible_for_bringing_the_Safavids_to_power..._49-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, pp. 2–3, ...Turcoman, tribal forces (qizilbash) which had been largely responsible for bringing the Safavids to power....</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986213,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986213,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, pp. 213, 353, Chapter: "The Safavid Period".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow20095-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow20095_51-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 5.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986229,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986229,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"_52-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986229,_353Chapter:_"The_Safavid_Period"_52-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, pp. 229, 353, Chapter: "The Safavid Period".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-archive-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-archive_53-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/20240326_20240326_1336/page/n9/mode/1up">"Iran under the Safavids"</a>. <i>www.archive.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2025-02-05</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=www.archive.com&rft.atitle=Iran+under+the+Safavids&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2F20240326_20240326_1336%2Fpage%2Fn9%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span> <i>Containing text in <a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat199713-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat199713_54-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmanat1997">Amanat 1997</a>, p. 13.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat2017443-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat2017443_55-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmanat2017">Amanat 2017</a>, p. 443.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat199715-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat199715_56-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmanat1997">Amanat 1997</a>, p. 15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAmanat201933-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAmanat201933_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAmanat2019">Amanat 2019</a>, p. 33.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEAshraf202482–83-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAshraf202482–83_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAshraf2024">Ashraf 2024</a>, pp. 82–83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory1974180-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory1974180_59-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1974">Savory 1974</a>, p. 180.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthee2009241-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthee2009241_60-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthee2009">Matthee 2009</a>, p. 241.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Yar-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Yar_61-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Yar_61-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/azerbaijan-vii">"Safavid Iran"</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Charanis. "Review of Emile Janssens' <i>Trébizonde en Colchide</i>", <i>Speculum</i>, Vol. 45, No. 3 (July 1970), p. 476.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Bryer, <i>open citation</i>, p. 136.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Virani, Shafique N. <i>The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation</i> (New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The writer Ṛūmlu documented the most important of them in his history.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Masters_2009-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Masters_2009_66-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMasters2009" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Masters, Bruce (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA71">"Baghdad"</a>. In Ágoston, Gábor; Masters, Bruce (eds.). <i>Encyclopedia of the Ottoman Empire</i>. <a href="/wiki/New_York_City" title="New York City">New York</a>: <a href="/wiki/Facts_on_File" class="mw-redirect" title="Facts on File">Facts on File</a>. p. 71. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-6259-1"><bdi>978-0-8160-6259-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/LCCN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="LCCN (identifier)">LCCN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lccn.loc.gov/2008020716">2008020716</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160516202344/https://books.google.com/books?id=QjzYdCxumFcC&pg=PA71">Archived</a> from the original on 16 May 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 June</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Baghdad&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Alccn%2F2008020716&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-6259-1&rft.aulast=Masters&rft.aufirst=Bruce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DQjzYdCxumFcC%26pg%3DPA71&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ismailsafaviiranica-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ismailsafaviiranica_67-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Ismail Safavi" <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mino-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mino_68-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mino_68-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">V. Minorsky, "The Poetry of Shāh Ismā‘īl I", <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>, University of London 10/4 (1942): 1006–1053.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <ul><li>Savory, Roger M.; Karamustafa, Ahmet T. (1998) <i>ESMĀʿĪL I ṢAFAWĪ</i>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica Vol. VIII, Fasc. 6</i>, pp. 628–636</li> <li>Ghereghlou, Kioumars (2016). <i>ḤAYDAR ṢAFAVI</i>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i></li></ul> </span></li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory20072-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory20072_70-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 2.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYıldırım2020" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Yıldırım, Rıza (2020). <i>Aleviliğin doğuşu: Kızılbaş sufiliğinin toplumsal ve siyasal temelleri 1300-1501</i> [<i>The Emergence of Alevism: The Social and Political Foundations of Qizilbash Sufism, 1300-1501</i>] (in Turkish) (3rd ed.). İstanbul: İletişim Yayınları. p. 149. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-975-05-2238-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-975-05-2238-3"><bdi>978-975-05-2238-3</bdi></a>. <q>The author cites from Zeki V. Togan, "Sur L'origine des Safavides", Melanges Massignon, III, 1957, p. 356.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Alevili%C4%9Fin+do%C4%9Fu%C5%9Fu%3A+K%C4%B1z%C4%B1lba%C5%9F+sufili%C4%9Finin+toplumsal+ve+siyasal+temelleri+1300-1501&rft.place=%C4%B0stanbul&rft.pages=149&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=%C4%B0leti%C5%9Fim+Yay%C4%B1nlar%C4%B1&rft.date=2020&rft.isbn=978-975-05-2238-3&rft.aulast=Y%C4%B1ld%C4%B1r%C4%B1m&rft.aufirst=R%C4%B1za&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200722–23-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200722–23_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, pp. 22–23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-:0_73-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFGündüz2015" class="citation book cs1">Gündüz, Tufan (2015). <i>Kızılbaşlar Osmanlılar Safevîler</i> [<i>Qizilbash, Ottomans, Safavids</i>]. Yeditepe Yayınevi. Cağaloğlu, İstanbul: Yeditepe. pp. <span class="nowrap">116–</span>119. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-605-5200-71-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-605-5200-71-8"><bdi>978-605-5200-71-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=K%C4%B1z%C4%B1lba%C5%9Flar+Osmanl%C4%B1lar+Safev%C3%AEler&rft.place=Ca%C4%9Falo%C4%9Flu%2C+%C4%B0stanbul&rft.series=Yeditepe+Yay%C4%B1nevi&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E116-%3C%2Fspan%3E119&rft.pub=Yeditepe&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-605-5200-71-8&rft.aulast=G%C3%BCnd%C3%BCz&rft.aufirst=Tufan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Tapper. "Shahsevan in Safavid Persia", <i>Bulletin of the School of Oriental and African Studies</i>, University of London, Vol. 37, No. 3, 1974, p. 324.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lawrence Davidson, Arthur Goldschmid, <i>A Concise History of the Middle East</i>, Westview Press, 2006, p. 153.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377424/Safavid-dynasty"><i>Britannica Concise</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080120194533/http://concise.britannica.com/ebc/article-9377424/Safavid-dynasty">Archived</a> 2008-01-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>. "Safavid Dynasty", Online Edition 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">George Lenczowski, "Iran under the Pahlavis", Hoover Institution Press, 1978, p. 79: "Ismail Safavi, descendant of the pious Shaykh Ishaq Safi al-Din (d. 1334), seized Tabriz assuming the title of Shahanshah-e-Iran".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Stefan Sperl, C. Shackle, Nicholas Awde, "Qasida poetry in Islamic Asia and Africa", Brill Academic Pub; Set Only edition (February 1996), p. 193: "Like Shah Ni'mat Allah-i Vali he hosted distinguished visitors among them Ismail Safavi, who had proclaimed himself Shahanshah of Iran in 1501 after having taken Tabriz, the symbolic and political capital of Iran".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Heinz Halm, Janet Watson, Marian Hill, <i>Shiʻism</i>, translated by Janet Watson, Marian Hill, Edition: 2, illustrated, published by Columbia University Press, 2004, p. 80: "...he was able to make his triumphal entry into Alvand's capital Tabriz. Here he assumed the ancient Iranian title of King of Kings (Shahanshah) and setup up Shiʻi as the ruling faith"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Virani, Shafique N. <i>The Ismailis in the Middle Ages: A History of Survival, A Search for Salvation</i> (New York: Oxford University Press), 2007, 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986339"Further_evidence_of_a_desire_to_follow_in_the_line_of_Turkmen_rulers_is_Ismail's_assumption_of_the_title_"Padishah-i-Iran"-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986339"Further_evidence_of_a_desire_to_follow_in_the_line_of_Turkmen_rulers_is_Ismail's_assumption_of_the_title_"Padishah-i-Iran"_81-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 339, "Further evidence of a desire to follow in the line of Turkmen rulers is Ismail's assumption of the title "Padishah-i-Iran".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">"Iranian identity iii. Medieval Islamic period" in <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-iii-medieval-islamic-period">Encyclopædia Iranica</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191025192310/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iranian-identity-iii-medieval-islamic-period">Archived</a> 2019-10-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>: "The Safavid kings called themselves, among other appellations, the "heart of the shrine of ʿAli" (<i>kalb-e āstān-e ʿAli</i>), while assuming the title of <i>Šāhanšāh</i> (the king of kings) of <a href="/wiki/Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="Persia">Persia</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a>". Quote 2: "Even Ottoman sultans, when addressing the Āq Quyunlu and Safavid kings, used such titles as the "king of Iranian lands" or the "sultan of the lands of Iran" or "the king of kings of Iran, the lord of the Persians" or the "holders of the glory of Jamšid and the vision of Faridun and the wisdom of Dārā." They addressed Shah Esmaʿil as: "the king of Persian lands and the heir to Jamšid and Kay-ḵosrow" (Navāʾi, pp. 578, 700–702, 707). During Shah ʿAbbās's reign the transformation is complete and Shiʿite Iran comes to face the two adjacent Sunni powers: the Ottoman Empire to the west and the Kingdom of Uzbeks to the east."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWard2014" class="citation book cs1">Ward, Steven R. (2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MOuVAgAAQBAJ&pg=PA43"><i>Immortal, Updated Edition: A Military History of Iran and Its Armed Forces</i></a>. Georgetown University Press. p. 43. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-032-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-62616-032-3"><bdi>978-1-62616-032-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Immortal%2C+Updated+Edition%3A+A+Military+History+of+Iran+and+Its+Armed+Forces&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=Georgetown+University+Press&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-1-62616-032-3&rft.aulast=Ward&rft.aufirst=Steven+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMOuVAgAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSinclair1989" class="citation book cs1">Sinclair, T.A. (1989). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LKpEBAAAQBAJ&pg=PA289"><i>Eastern Turkey: An Architectural & Archaeological Survey, Volume II</i></a>. Pindar Press. p. 289. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-904597-75-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-904597-75-9"><bdi>978-1-904597-75-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Eastern+Turkey%3A+An+Architectural+%26+Archaeological+Survey%2C+Volume+II&rft.pages=289&rft.pub=Pindar+Press&rft.date=1989&rft.isbn=978-1-904597-75-9&rft.aulast=Sinclair&rft.aufirst=T.A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DLKpEBAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA289&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-85">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRayfield2013" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Donald_Rayfield" title="Donald Rayfield">Rayfield, Donald</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=PxQpmg_JIpwC&pg=PA165"><i>Edge of Empires: A History of Georgia</i></a>. Reaktion Books. p. 165. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-070-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78023-070-2"><bdi>978-1-78023-070-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Edge+of+Empires%3A+A+History+of+Georgia&rft.pages=165&rft.pub=Reaktion+Books&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-1-78023-070-2&rft.aulast=Rayfield&rft.aufirst=Donald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DPxQpmg_JIpwC%26pg%3DPA165&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFChristine_Woodhead2011" class="citation book cs1">Christine Woodhead (2011). <i>The Ottoman World</i>. Routledge. p. 94. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-49894-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-49894-7"><bdi>978-1-136-49894-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ottoman+World&rft.pages=94&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-136-49894-7&rft.au=Christine+Woodhead&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi">Shah Ismail I</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190725111610/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/esmail-i-safawi">Archived</a> 2019-07-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Retrieved July 2015</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146_88-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 146.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin P. Mitchell, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tahmasp-i">"Ṭahmāsp I"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150517061306/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tahmasp-i">Archived</a> 2015-05-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i> (July 15, 2009).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986233–234-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986233–234_90-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, pp. 233–234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234-91"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234_91-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 234.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234–237-92"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986234–237_92-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, pp. 234–237.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200760–64-93"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200760–64_93-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, pp. 60–64.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146–147-94"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011146–147_94-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, pp. 146–147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Colin P. Mitchell, <i>The Practice of Politics in Safavid Iran: Power, Religion and Rhetoric</i> (London: I.B. Tauris, 2000), p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011147-96"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011147_96-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011147_96-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 147.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mikheil Svanidze, "The Amasya Peace Treaty between the Ottoman Empire and Iran (June 1, 1555) and Georgia," <i>Bulletin of the Georgian National Academy of Sciences</i>, Vol. 3, pp. 191–97 (2009) ("Svanidze"), p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Svanidze, p. 192</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand201150-99"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand201150_99-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 50.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Max Scherberger, "The Confrontation between Sunni and Shiʻi Empires: Ottoman-Safavid Relations between the Fourteenth and the Seventeenth Centuries" in <i>The Sunna and Shi'a in History: Division and Ecumenism in the Muslim Middle East</i> ed. by Ofra Bengio & Meir Litvak (New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2011) ("Scherberger"), p. 60.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Richards_11-101"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Richards_11_101-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richards_11_101-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Richards_11_101-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/John_F._Richards" title="John F. Richards">John F. Richards</a>, <i>The Mughal Empire</i> (Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, c. 1995), p. 11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Riazul Islam; <i>Indo-Persian Relations: A Study of the Political and Diplomatic Relations between the Mughal Empire and Iran</i> (Tehran: Iranian Cultural Foundation, 1970), pp. 22–47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200766-103"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200766_103-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 66.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahavandi and Bomati pp. 284–286</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory, pp. 129–131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tahmāsp_I-106"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tahmāsp_I_106-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/tahmasp-i">"Tahmāsp I"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Tahm%C4%81sp+I&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Ftahmasp-i&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011148-107"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011148_107-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011148_107-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 148.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-iranicaonline.org-108"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_108-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_108-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-iranicaonline.org_108-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/barda-v">"BARDA and BARDA-DĀRI v. Military slavery in Islamic Iran"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BARDA+and+BARDA-D%C4%80RI+v.+Military+slavery+in+Islamic+Iran&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fbarda-v&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Manz-109"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Manz_109-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Manz_109-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFManz" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Manz, Beatrice. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141102192506/http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems">"Čarkas"</a>. <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/carkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems">the original</a> on 2 November 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%C4%8Carkas&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.aulast=Manz&rft.aufirst=Beatrice&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iranicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fcarkas-cherkes-term-used-in-persian-arabic-and-turkic-for-the-circassian-people-of-the-northwest-caucasus-who-call-thems&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-books.google.nl-110"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.nl_110-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-books.google.nl_110-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLapidus2012" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Ira_M._Lapidus" title="Ira M. Lapidus">Lapidus, Ira M.</a> (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qcPZ1k65pqkC&pg=PA494"><i>Islamic Societies to the Nineteenth Century: A Global History</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. p. 494. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51441-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-51441-5"><bdi>978-0-521-51441-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Societies+to+the+Nineteenth+Century%3A+A+Global+History&rft.pages=494&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=978-0-521-51441-5&rft.aulast=Lapidus&rft.aufirst=Ira+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqcPZ1k65pqkC%26pg%3DPA494&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-111"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-111">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Rosemary Stanfield Johnson, "Sunni Survival in Safavid Iran: Anti-Sunni Activities during the Reign of Tahmasp I," <i>Iranian Studies,</i> vol. 27, pp. 123–133 (1994), pp. 125–126, 128–131</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986250–251-112"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986250–251_112-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, pp. 250–251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFarrokh2011" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kaveh_Farrokh" title="Kaveh Farrokh">Farrokh, Kaveh</a> (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=TVObCwAAQBAJ"><i>Iran at War: 1500–1988</i></a>. Bloomsbury Publishing. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78096-240-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78096-240-5"><bdi>978-1-78096-240-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran+at+War%3A+1500%E2%80%931988&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-78096-240-5&rft.aulast=Farrokh&rft.aufirst=Kaveh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DTVObCwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011149-114"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011149_114-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011149_114-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 149.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986251-115"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986251_115-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 251.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986252-116"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986252_116-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 252.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986253-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986253_118-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 253.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986255-119"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a 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class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSicker2001">Sicker 2001</a>, pp. 2–3.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986256-123"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986256_123-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257-124"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257_124-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257,_258-125"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986257,_258_125-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, pp. 257, 258.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986259-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986259_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 September</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Why+Did+Men+Stop+Wearing+High+Heels%3F&rft.date=2013-01-25&rft.aulast=Kremer&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-21151350&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory, pp. 78–79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Savory_1980_79-139"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Savory_1980_79_139-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Savory_1980_79_139-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory1980">Savory 1980</a>, p. 79<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSavory1980 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BN142-140"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-BN142_140-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BN142_140-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-BN142_140-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, pp. 141–142<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-141"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-141">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998">Bomati & Nahavandi 1998</a>, p. 143<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFBomatiNahavandi1998 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-ALLĀHVERDĪ_KHAN_1-142"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ALLĀHVERDĪ_KHAN_1_142-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-ALLĀHVERDĪ_KHAN_1_142-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFR.M." class="citation web cs1">R.M., Savory. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/allahverdi-khan-d-1">"ALLĀHVERDĪ KHAN (1)"</a>. <i>Encyclopaedia Iranica</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Georgians in the Safavid Administration"</a>. <i>iranicaonline.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 May</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=iranicaonline.org&rft.atitle=GEORGIA+vii.+Georgians+in+the+Safavid+Administration&rft.date=2012-02-07&rft.aulast=Matthee&rft.aufirst=Rudi&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Firanicaonline.org%2Farticles%2Fgeorgia-vii-&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Suny p. 50<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:CITESHORT" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:CITESHORT"><span title="More information is required to link this short citation to its long citation. (September 2014)">incomplete short citation</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFAsat'ianiBendianachvili1997">Asat'iani & Bendianachvili 1997</a>, p. 188<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFAsat'ianiBendianachvili1997 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://farig.org/images/stories/pdfs/research-alaverdi-part1.pdf">"Alaverdy Eparchy"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Alaverdy+Eparchy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffarig.org%2Fimages%2Fstories%2Fpdfs%2Fresearch-alaverdi-part1.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMitchell201170-151"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMitchell201170_151-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMitchell2011">Mitchell 2011</a>, p. 70.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-152"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-152">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/dimdim">"Safavid Iran"</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-153"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-153">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDzhalilov1967" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Dzhalilov, O Dzh (1967). <i>Kurdski geroicheski epos Zlatoruki Khan (The Kurdish heroic epic Gold-hand Khan)</i> (in Russian). Moscow. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89158-296-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89158-296-0"><bdi>978-0-89158-296-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kurdski+geroicheski+epos+Zlatoruki+Khan+%28The+Kurdish+heroic+epic+Gold-hand+Khan%29&rft.place=Moscow&rft.date=1967&rft.isbn=978-0-89158-296-0&rft.aulast=Dzhalilov&rft.aufirst=O+Dzh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-154"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-154">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.lib.utexas.edu/maps/commonwealth/commonwealth_islamic_groups.jpg">"Islamic Groups"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(<a href="/wiki/JPEG" title="JPEG">JPEG</a>)</span>. University of Texas.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Islamic+Groups&rft.pub=University+of+Texas&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.lib.utexas.edu%2Fmaps%2Fcommonwealth%2Fcommonwealth_islamic_groups.jpg&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-155"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-155">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFVehse1856" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Karl_Eduard_Vehse" title="Karl Eduard Vehse">Vehse, Karl Eduard</a> (1856). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=vZVHAAAAIAAJ"><i>Memoirs of the Court, Aristocracy, and Diplomacy of Austria</i></a>. Longman, Brown, Green, and Longmans. p. 71.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoirs+of+the+Court%2C+Aristocracy%2C+and+Diplomacy+of+Austria&rft.pages=71&rft.pub=Longman%2C+Brown%2C+Green%2C+and+Longmans&rft.date=1856&rft.aulast=Vehse&rft.aufirst=Karl+Eduard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DvZVHAAAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-156"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-156">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Laurence Lockhart in <i>The Legacy of Persia</i> ed. A. J. 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Classic Books Company. p. 177. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7426-5294-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7426-5294-1"><bdi>978-0-7426-5294-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Twelfth+Night%3A+Or%2C+What+You+Will&rft.pages=177&rft.pub=Classic+Books+Company&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7426-5294-1&rft.aulast=Shakespeare&rft.aufirst=William&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDNKKsveMfhQC%26pg%3DPA177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-159"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-159">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Wilson, "When Golden Time Convents": Twelfth Night and Shakespeare's Eastern Promise, <i>Shakespeare</i>, Volume 6, Issue 2 June 2010, pp. 209–226.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-160"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-160">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahavandi, Bomati pp. 128–130.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-161"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-161">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahavandi, Bomati, pp. 130–137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-162"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-162">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFOlsonShadle1996" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_S._Olson" title="James S. Olson">Olson, James S.</a>; Shadle, Robert (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=-YwDfm1pFF8C&pg=PA1005"><i>Historical Dictionary of the British Empire</i></a>. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 1005. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29367-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-313-29367-2"><bdi>978-0-313-29367-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+the+British+Empire&rft.pages=1005&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-313-29367-2&rft.aulast=Olson&rft.aufirst=James+S.&rft.au=Shadle%2C+Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D-YwDfm1pFF8C%26pg%3DPA1005&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-163"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-163">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Nahavandi, Bomati, pp. 161–162.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-164"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-164">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i>, "Abbas I the Great", p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-165"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-165">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMunshī1978">Munshī 1978</a>, p. 1116<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFMunshī1978 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-166"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-166">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSīstānī">Sīstānī</a>, p. 509<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFSīstānī (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources#What_information_to_include" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="A complete citation is needed. (May 2015)">full citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-167"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-167">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJavakhishvili1970">Javakhishvili 1970</a><span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> harvnb error: no target: CITEREFJavakhishvili1970 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears. (May 2015)">page needed</span></a></i>]</sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-168"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-168">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSubrahmanyam1988" class="citation journal cs1">Subrahmanyam, Sanjay (1988). "Persians, pilgrims, and Portuguese: The travails of Masulipatnam shipping in the western Indian ocean, 1590–1665". <i>Modern Asian Studies</i>. <b>22</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">503–</span>530. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0026749X00009653">10.1017/S0026749X00009653</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144502214">144502214</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Modern+Asian+Studies&rft.atitle=Persians%2C+pilgrims%2C+and+Portuguese%3A+The+travails+of+Masulipatnam+shipping+in+the+western+Indian+ocean%2C+1590%E2%80%931665&rft.volume=22&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E503-%3C%2Fspan%3E530&rft.date=1988&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0026749X00009653&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144502214%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Subrahmanyam&rft.aufirst=Sanjay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-169"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-169">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKotilaine2005" class="citation book cs1">Kotilaine, Jarmo T. (2005). <span class="id-lock-limited" title="Free access subject to limited trial, subscription normally required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiasforeigntr00koti"><i>Russia's foreign trade and economic expansion in the seventeenth century: Windows on the world</i></a></span>. Leiden. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/russiasforeigntr00koti/page/n347">330</a>–360, <span class="nowrap">450–</span>485. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004138964" title="Special:BookSources/9789004138964"><bdi>9789004138964</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+foreign+trade+and+economic+expansion+in+the+seventeenth+century%3A+Windows+on+the+world&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pages=330-360%2C+%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E450-%3C%2Fspan%3E485&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=9789004138964&rft.aulast=Kotilaine&rft.aufirst=Jarmo+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frussiasforeigntr00koti&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-170"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-170">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFUtz2011" class="citation thesis cs1">Utz, Axel (2011). <i>Cultural exchange, imperialist violence, and pious missions: Local perspectives from Tanjavur and Lenape country, 1720–1760</i> (Ph.D. thesis). Pennsylvania State University. pp. <span class="nowrap">84–</span>85, <span class="nowrap">93–</span>94. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ProQuest" title="ProQuest">ProQuest</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.proquest.com/docview/902171220">902171220</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Cultural+exchange%2C+imperialist+violence%2C+and+pious+missions%3A+Local+perspectives+from+Tanjavur+and+Lenape+country%2C+1720%E2%80%931760&rft.degree=Ph.D.&rft.inst=Pennsylvania+State+University&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Utz&rft.aufirst=Axel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-171"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-171">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFFloorClawson2000" class="citation journal cs1">Floor, Willem; Clawson, Patrick (2000). "Safavid Iran's search for silver and gold". <i>International Journal of Middle East Studies</i>. <b>32</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">345–</span>368. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0020743800021139">10.1017/S0020743800021139</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162418783">162418783</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Middle+East+Studies&rft.atitle=Safavid+Iran%27s+search+for+silver+and+gold&rft.volume=32&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E345-%3C%2Fspan%3E368&rft.date=2000&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0020743800021139&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162418783%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Floor&rft.aufirst=Willem&rft.au=Clawson%2C+Patrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-172"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-172">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mottahedeh, Roy, <i>The Mantle of the Prophet: Religion and Politics in Iran</i>, One World, Oxford, 1985, 2000, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-173"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-173">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Axworthy pp. 39–55</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UWYdLuA34OQC&pg=PA49"><i>Aspects of Altaic Civilization III: Proceedings of the Thirtieth Meeting of the Permanent International Altaistic Conference, Indiana University, Bloomington, Indiana, June 19–25, 1987</i></a>. Psychology Press. 1996. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0380-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7007-0380-7"><bdi>978-0-7007-0380-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Aspects+of+Altaic+Civilization+III%3A+Proceedings+of+the+Thirtieth+Meeting+of+the+Permanent+International+Altaistic+Conference%2C+Indiana+University%2C+Bloomington%2C+Indiana%2C+June+19%E2%80%9325%2C+1987&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Psychology+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-7007-0380-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUWYdLuA34OQC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2011" class="citation book cs1">Mikaberidze, Alexander (2011). "Treaty of Ganja (1735)". In Mikaberidze, Alexander (ed.). <i>Conflict and Conquest in the Islamic World: A Historical Encyclopedia</i>. ABC-CLIO. p. 329. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1598843361" title="Special:BookSources/978-1598843361"><bdi>978-1598843361</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Treaty+of+Ganja+%281735%29&rft.btitle=Conflict+and+Conquest+in+the+Islamic+World%3A+A+Historical+Encyclopedia&rft.place=ABC-CLIO&rft.pages=329&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1598843361&rft.aulast=Mikaberidze&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-176"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-176">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/nader-shah">"Safavid Iran"</a> at <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-177"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-177">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLang1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/David_Marshall_Lang" title="David Marshall Lang">Lang, David Marshall</a> (1957). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ITnRAAAAMAAJ"><i>The Last Years of the Georgian Monarchy, 1658–1832</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 142. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231937108" title="Special:BookSources/9780231937108"><bdi>9780231937108</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Years+of+the+Georgian+Monarchy%2C+1658%E2%80%931832&rft.pages=142&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=9780231937108&rft.aulast=Lang&rft.aufirst=David+Marshall&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DITnRAAAAMAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-178"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-178">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/time-in-early-modern-islam/safavid-mughal-and-ottoman-empires/9D55F0A0262017473EC8A9A7ED86C508/core-reader#:~:text=In%201600%20the%20population%20of%20the%20empire%20was%20about%20twenty%20million">Safavid, Mughal, and Ottoman Empires.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210927203951/https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/time-in-early-modern-islam/safavid-mughal-and-ottoman-empires/9D55F0A0262017473EC8A9A7ED86C508/core-reader#:~:text=In%201600%20the%20population%20of%20the%20empire%20was%20about%20twenty%20million">Archived</a> 2021-09-27 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Cambridge Core. See also <a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_population_in_1700" title="List of countries by population in 1700">List of countries by population in 1700</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007183-179"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007183_179-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 183.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-180"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-180">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sir E. Denison Ross, Sir Anthony Sherley and his Persian Adventure, pp. 219–220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200777-181"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200777_181-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 77.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007177-182"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007177_182-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 177.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-183"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-183">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Axworthy" title="Michael Axworthy">Axworthy, Michael</a>; <i>History of Iran</i> (2010).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-184"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-184">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; pp. 184–185.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory200765-185"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory200765_185-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 65.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-186"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-186">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBabaieBabayanMcCabeFarhad2004" class="citation book cs1">Babaie, Sussan; <a href="/wiki/Kathryn_Babayan" title="Kathryn Babayan">Babayan, Kathryn</a>; McCabe, Ina; Farhad, Massumeh (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2BMVnw9JQh8C"><i>Slaves of the Shah:New Elites of Safavid Iran</i></a>. Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781860647215" title="Special:BookSources/9781860647215"><bdi>9781860647215</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">1 April</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Slaves+of+the+Shah%3ANew+Elites+of+Safavid+Iran&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=9781860647215&rft.aulast=Babaie&rft.aufirst=Sussan&rft.au=Babayan%2C+Kathryn&rft.au=McCabe%2C+Ina&rft.au=Farhad%2C+Massumeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2BMVnw9JQh8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-187"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-187">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Oberling, Pierre, <i>Georgians and Circassians in Iran</i>, The Hague, 1963; pp. 127–143</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow20099-188"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow20099_188-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 9.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-189"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-189">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Matthee, Rudolph P. (1999), <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5U0yECMV--wC">The Politics of Trade in Safavid Iran: Silk for Silver, 1600–1730</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221020172718/https://books.google.com/books?id=5U0yECMV--wC">Archived</a> 2022-10-20 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow200937-190"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200937_190-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 37.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-191"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-191">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; p. 82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-192"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-192">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Eskandar Beg, pp. 900–901, tr. Savory, II, p. 1116</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-193"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-193">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/George_Bournoutian" title="George Bournoutian">Bournoutian, George A.</a>; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jIvtAAAAMAAJ&q=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians"><i>A Concise History of the Armenian People: (from Ancient Times to the Present)</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221118074628/https://books.google.nl/books?id=jIvtAAAAMAAJ&q=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&dq=shah+abbas+deported+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CDUQ6AEwBDgKahUKEwjLyJXbxvzIAhUGjnIKHd5fAuQ">Archived</a> 2022-11-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> (original from the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Michigan" title="University of Michigan">University of Michigan</a>) Mazda Publishers, 2002 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1568591414" title="Special:BookSources/978-1568591414">978-1568591414</a> p. 208</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-194"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-194">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Aslanian, Sebouh. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=l0Kn-DMl5ZoC&dq=shah+abbas+deport+300%2C000+armenians&pg=PA1"><i>From the Indian Ocean to the Mediterranean: The Global Trade Networks of Armenian Merchants from New Julfa</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221118074628/https://books.google.nl/books?id=l0Kn-DMl5ZoC&pg=PA1&dq=shah+abbas+deport+300,000+armenians&hl=nl&sa=X&ved=0CBwQ6AEwAGoVChMI5f3ChMX8yAIVA_FyCh3OHgFY#v=onepage&q=shah%20abbas%20deport%20300%2C000%20armenians&f=false">Archived</a> 2022-11-18 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>, 4 mei 2011 <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0520947573" title="Special:BookSources/978-0520947573">978-0520947573</a> p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-195"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-195">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAkiner2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Shirin_Akiner" title="Shirin Akiner">Akiner, Shirin</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=N8IKR0oqdRkC&pg=PA158"><i>The Caspian: Politics, Energy and Security</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 158. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-203-64167-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-203-64167-5"><bdi>978-0-203-64167-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Caspian%3A+Politics%2C+Energy+and+Security&rft.pages=158&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-203-64167-5&rft.aulast=Akiner&rft.aufirst=Shirin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DN8IKR0oqdRkC%26pg%3DPA158&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-196"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-196">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory, pp. 185–186.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-197"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-197">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFNasr2006" class="citation book cs1">Nasr, Vali (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shiarevivalhowco00nasr/page/69"><i>The Shia revival : how conflicts within Islam will shape the future</i></a>. New York: Norton. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/shiarevivalhowco00nasr/page/69">69</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06211-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-393-06211-3"><bdi>978-0-393-06211-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shia+revival+%3A+how+conflicts+within+Islam+will+shape+the+future&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Norton&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-393-06211-3&rft.aulast=Nasr&rft.aufirst=Vali&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fshiarevivalhowco00nasr%2Fpage%2F69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985127-198"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985127_198-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 127.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985222-199"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985222_199-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 222.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985204-200"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985204_200-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 204.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985115-201"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985115_201-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMomen1985116-202"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMomen1985116_202-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMomen1985">Momen 1985</a>, p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-203"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-203">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier, R. W.; A Journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire; pp. 71–71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009173-204"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009173_204-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165-205"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165_205-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 165.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._80-82-206"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._80-82_206-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier, pp. 80–82.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009170-207"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009170_207-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 170.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007221-208"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007221_208-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007221_208-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007221_208-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 221.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009175-209"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009175_209-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 175.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165–166-210"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165–166_210-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009165–166_210-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, pp. 165–166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009118–119,_166-211"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009118–119,_166_211-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, pp. 118–119, 166.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferrier;_pp._85-89-212"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._85-89_212-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._85-89_212-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_pp._85-89_212-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; pp. 85–89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-213"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-213">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Malcolm; vol II, p. 456.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-214"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-214">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; p. 182.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferrier_90-4-215"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier_90-4_215-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier_90-4_215-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier, RW, A journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's Portrait of a Seventeenth-century Empire, pp. 90–94.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ferrier;_p._91-216"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_p._91_216-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Ferrier;_p._91_216-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier p. 91.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow200937–38-217"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200937–38_217-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, pp. 37–38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-218"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-218">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.events.ir/no002/002d.htm">"Shahsavan Tribes"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071008114155/http://www.events.ir/no002/002d.htm">Archived</a> 2007-10-08 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Dr P. Shahsavand, Professor of Sociology at Islamic Azad University. <i>Events</i> Magazine, Cultural, Economical and General Events of Iran (retrieved 4 Sep 2007).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986265-219"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986265_219-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 265.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow200938-220"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200938_220-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow200938_220-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 38.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-221"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-221">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFPaul_Bairoch1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Bairoch" title="Paul Bairoch">Paul Bairoch</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171012060209/https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch"><i>Economics and World History: Myths and Paradoxes</i></a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. p. 107. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/document/193124153/Economics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch">the original</a> on 2017-10-12<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-01-03</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Economics+and+World+History%3A+Myths+and+Paradoxes&rft.pages=107&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1995&rft.au=Paul+Bairoch&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdocument%2F193124153%2FEconomics-and-World-History-Myths-and-Paradoxes-Paul-Bairoch&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007186–187-222"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007186–187_222-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, pp. 186–187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-223"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-223">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier, R. W.; <i>A journey to Persia: Jean Chardin's portrait of a seventeenth-century Empire</i>; p. 24.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-224"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-224">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; p. 23.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-225"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-225">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; p. 187.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009211-226"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009211_226-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 211.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-227"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-227">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Lambton, A. K. S.; <i>Landlord and Peasant in Persia</i> (Oxford 1953); pp. 127–128.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-228"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-228">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; pp. 25–26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-229"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-229">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; p. 190.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-230"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-230">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; p. 31.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-231"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-231">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; p. 191.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009210-232"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009210_232-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, p. 210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007193–195-233"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007193–195_233-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, pp. 193–195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009113–131-234"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009113–131_234-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, pp. 113–131.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlow2009"Chapter:_English_adventurers_at_the_servise_of_Shah_Abbas."-235"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBlow2009"Chapter:_English_adventurers_at_the_servise_of_Shah_Abbas."_235-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBlow2009">Blow 2009</a>, "Chapter: English adventurers at the servise of Shah Abbas.".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-236"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-236">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; p. 195.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-237"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-237">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAnwar1991" class="citation journal cs1">Anwar, M. 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Cleveland and Martin P. Bunton, <i>A History of the Modern Middle East</i> (Westview Press, 2000), 2nd ed., pp. 56–57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007155-251"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007155_251-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, p. 155.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-252"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-252">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sir Roger Stevens; <i>The Land of the Great Sophy</i>, p. 172.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-253"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-253">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory; chpt: <i>The Safavid empire at the height of its power under Shāh Abbas the Great (1588–1629)</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-254"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-254">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jodidio, Philip, <i>Iran: Architecture For Changing Societies</i>: Umberto Allemandi (August 2, 2006).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-255"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-255">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dabashi, H. (1996) 'Mir Damad and the Founding of the School of Isfahan', in SH Nasr and O. Leaman (eds) History of Islamic Philosophy, London: Routledge, ch. 34, 597–634.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-256"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-256">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRizvi2009" class="citation book cs1">Rizvi, Sajjad (2009). "Mulla Sadra". In Zalta, Edward N (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/archives/sum2009/entries/mulla-sadra/"><i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i></a>. Metaphysics Research Lab, Stanford University.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Mulla+Sadra&rft.btitle=The+Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.pub=Metaphysics+Research+Lab%2C+Stanford+University&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Rizvi&rft.aufirst=Sajjad&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Farchives%2Fsum2009%2Fentries%2Fmulla-sadra%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-257"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-257">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Seyyed_Hossein_Nasr" title="Seyyed Hossein Nasr">Nasr, Seyyed Hossein</a>, <i>Sadr al-Din Shirazi and his Transcendent Theosophy, Background, Life and Works</i>, 2nd ed., Tehran: Institute for Humanities and Cultural Studies.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-258"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-258">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">RN Frye, <i>The Golden Age of Persia</i>, Phoenix Press, 2000, p. 234</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESavory2007220–225-259"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESavory2007220–225_259-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFSavory2007">Savory 2007</a>, pp. 220–225.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-260"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-260">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Savory, p. 220.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-261"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-261">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; p. 116.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-262"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-262">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; pp. 117–118.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-263"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-263">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; pp. 120–124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-264"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-264">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ferrier; p. 124.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoemer1986331"Depressing_though_the_condition_in_the_country_may_have_been_at_the_time_of_the_fall_of_Safavids,_they_cannot_be_allowed_to_overshadow_the_achievements_of_the_dynasty,_which_was_in_many_respects_to_prove_essential_factors_in_the_development_of_Persia_in_modern_times._These_include_the_maintenance_of_Persian_as_the_official_language_and_of_the_present-day_boundaries_of_the_country,_adherence_to_the_Twelever_Shiʻi,_the_monarchical_system,_the_planning_and_architectural_features_of_the_urban_centers,_the_centralised_administration_of_the_state,_the_alliance_of_the_Shiʻi_Ulama_with_the_merchant_bazaars,_and_the_symbiosis_of_the_Persian-speaking_population_with_important_non-Persian,_especially_Turkish_speaking_minorities".-265"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoemer1986331"Depressing_though_the_condition_in_the_country_may_have_been_at_the_time_of_the_fall_of_Safavids,_they_cannot_be_allowed_to_overshadow_the_achievements_of_the_dynasty,_which_was_in_many_respects_to_prove_essential_factors_in_the_development_of_Persia_in_modern_times._These_include_the_maintenance_of_Persian_as_the_official_language_and_of_the_present-day_boundaries_of_the_country,_adherence_to_the_Twelever_Shiʻi,_the_monarchical_system,_the_planning_and_architectural_features_of_the_urban_centers,_the_centralised_administration_of_the_state,_the_alliance_of_the_Shiʻi_Ulama_with_the_merchant_bazaars,_and_the_symbiosis_of_the_Persian-speaking_population_with_important_non-Persian,_especially_Turkish_speaking_minorities"._265-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoemer1986">Roemer 1986</a>, p. 331, "Depressing though the condition in the country may have been at the time of the fall of Safavids, they cannot be allowed to overshadow the achievements of the dynasty, which was in many respects to prove essential factors in the development of Persia in modern times. These include the maintenance of Persian as the official language and of the present-day boundaries of the country, adherence to the Twelever Shiʻi, the monarchical system, the planning and architectural features of the urban centers, the centralised administration of the state, the alliance of the Shiʻi Ulama with the merchant bazaars, and the symbiosis of the Persian-speaking population with important non-Persian, especially Turkish speaking minorities"..</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-266"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-266">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ronald W. Ferrier, <i>The Arts of Persia</i>, Yale University Press, 1989, p. 199.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-267"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-267">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Arnold J. Toynbee, <i>A Study of History</i>, V, pp. 514–515.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-268"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-268">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">John R. Perry, "Turkic-Iranian contacts", <i><a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Iranica" title="Encyclopædia Iranica">Encyclopædia Iranica</a></i>, 2006.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-csatoetal-269"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-csatoetal_269-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">É. Á. Csató, B. Isaksson, C Jahani. <i>Linguistic Convergence and Areal Diffusion: Case Studies from Iranian, Semitic and Turkic</i>, Routledge, 2004, p. 228, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-415-30804-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-415-30804-6">0-415-30804-6</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-270"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-270">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ruda Jurdi Abisaab. "Iran and Pre-Independence Lebanon" in Houchang Esfandiar Chehabi, <i>Distant Relations: Iran and Lebanon in the Last 500 Years</i>, I.B. Tauris (2006), p. 76.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-271"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-271">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cornelis Henricus Maria Versteegh, <i>The Arabic Language</i>, Columbia University Press, 1997, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-272"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-272">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHasan_JavadiWillem_Floor2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hasan Javadi; Willem Floor (2013). "The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran". <i>Iranian Studies</i>. <b>46</b> (4). Routledge: 1. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2013.784516">10.1080/00210862.2013.784516</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161700244">161700244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Azerbaijani+Turkish+in+Safavid+Iran&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2013.784516&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161700244%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Hasan+Javadi&rft.au=Willem+Floor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-273"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-273">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFDale2020" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Dale" title="Stephen Dale">Dale, Stephen Frederic</a> (2020). "Turks, Turks and türk Turks: Anatolia, Iran and India in Comparative Perspective". In <a href="/wiki/A._C._S._Peacock" title="A. C. S. Peacock">Peacock, A.C.S.</a>; McClary, Richard Piran (eds.). <i>Turkish History and Culture in India: Identity, Art and Transregional Connections</i>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">74–</span>75.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Turks%2C+Turks+and+t%C3%BCrk+Turks%3A+Anatolia%2C+Iran+and+India+in+Comparative+Perspective&rft.btitle=Turkish+History+and+Culture+in+India%3A+Identity%2C+Art+and+Transregional+Connections&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E74-%3C%2Fspan%3E75&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2020&rft.aulast=Dale&rft.aufirst=Stephen+Frederic&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-274"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-274">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hillenbrand R., <i>Islamic Art and Architecture</i>, London (1999), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-500-20305-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-500-20305-9">0-500-20305-9</a>, p. 228.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-275"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-275">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSavory" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Savory, RM. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unesco.org/culture/humanity/html_eng/volume5.htm">"18 Iran, Armenia and Georgia – Rise of a Shiʻi State in Iran and New Orientation in Islamic Thought and Culture"</a>. <i>UNESCO: History of Humanity</i>. Vol. 5: From the Sixteenth to the Eighteenth Century. London, New York: Routledge. p. 263.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=18+Iran%2C+Armenia+and+Georgia+%E2%80%93+Rise+of+a+Shi%CA%BBi+State+in+Iran+and+New+Orientation+in+Islamic+Thought+and+Culture&rft.btitle=UNESCO%3A+History+of+Humanity&rft.place=London%2C+New+York&rft.pages=263&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=RM&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unesco.org%2Fculture%2Fhumanity%2Fhtml_eng%2Fvolume5.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-276"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-276">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mujtahid: A <i>mujtahid</i> in Arabic means a person who qualified to engage in <i>ijtihad</i>, or interpretation of religious texts. <i>Ithna 'ashari</i> is the number twelve in Arabic, signifying Twelver Imami Shiʻi Islam. Ulama: Arabic for religious scholars.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011137-277"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEStreusand2011137_277-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFStreusand2011">Streusand 2011</a>, p. 137.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatthee1999231-278"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatthee1999231_278-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMatthee1999">Matthee 1999</a>, p. 231.<span class="error harv-error" style="display: none; font-size:100%"> sfn error: no target: CITEREFMatthee1999 (<a href="/wiki/Category:Harv_and_Sfn_template_errors" title="Category:Harv and Sfn template errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmanat1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Abbas_Amanat" title="Abbas Amanat">Amanat, Abbas</a> (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=xdFu7X2UtpAC"><i>Pivot of the Universe: Nasir Al-Din Shah Qajar and the Iranian Monarchy, 1831–1896</i></a>. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845118280" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845118280"><bdi>978-1845118280</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pivot+of+the+Universe%3A+Nasir+Al-Din+Shah+Qajar+and+the+Iranian+Monarchy%2C+1831%E2%80%931896&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-1845118280&rft.aulast=Amanat&rft.aufirst=Abbas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DxdFu7X2UtpAC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmanat2017" class="citation book cs1">Amanat, Abbas (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=omo3DwAAQBAJ"><i>Iran: A Modern History</i></a>. Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0300112542" title="Special:BookSources/978-0300112542"><bdi>978-0300112542</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran%3A+A+Modern+History&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=978-0300112542&rft.aulast=Amanat&rft.aufirst=Abbas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Domo3DwAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAmanat2019" class="citation book cs1">Amanat, Abbas (2019). "Remembering the Persianate". In Amanat, Abbas; Ashraf, Assef (eds.). <i>The Persianate World: Rethinking a Shared Sphere</i>. Brill. pp. <span class="nowrap">15–</span>62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38728-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-38728-7"><bdi>978-90-04-38728-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Remembering+the+Persianate&rft.btitle=The+Persianate+World%3A+Rethinking+a+Shared+Sphere&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E15-%3C%2Fspan%3E62&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019&rft.isbn=978-90-04-38728-7&rft.aulast=Amanat&rft.aufirst=Abbas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFAshraf2024" class="citation book cs1">Ashraf, Assef (2024). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=WBrxEAAAQBAJ"><i>Making and Remaking Empire in Early Qajar Iran</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1009361552" title="Special:BookSources/978-1009361552"><bdi>978-1009361552</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Making+and+Remaking+Empire+in+Early+Qajar+Iran&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2024&rft.isbn=978-1009361552&rft.aulast=Ashraf&rft.aufirst=Assef&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DWBrxEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlow2009" class="citation book cs1">Blow, David (2009). <i>Shah Abbas: The Ruthless King Who Became an Iranian Legend</i>. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0857716767" title="Special:BookSources/978-0857716767"><bdi>978-0857716767</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Shah+Abbas%3A+The+Ruthless+King+Who+Became+an+Iranian+Legend&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-0857716767&rft.aulast=Blow&rft.aufirst=David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFKhanbaghi2006" class="citation book cs1">Khanbaghi, Aptin (2006). <i>The Fire, the Star and the Cross: Minority Religions in Medieval and Early Modern Iran</i>. I.B. Tauris. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1845110567" title="Special:BookSources/978-1845110567"><bdi>978-1845110567</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fire%2C+the+Star+and+the+Cross%3A+Minority+Religions+in+Medieval+and+Early+Modern+Iran&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1845110567&rft.aulast=Khanbaghi&rft.aufirst=Aptin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLockhartJackson1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Lockhart, Laurence; <a href="/wiki/Peter_Jackson_(historian)" title="Peter Jackson (historian)">Jackson, Peter</a>, eds. (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=fY01Tc2SZVEC"><i>The Cambridge History of Iran</i></a>. Vol. 6: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20094-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20094-6"><bdi>0-521-20094-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-20094-6&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DfY01Tc2SZVEC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatthee2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudi_Matthee" title="Rudi Matthee">Matthee, Rudi</a> (2009). "Was Safavid Iran an Empire?". <i>Journal of the Economic and Social History of the Orient</i>. <b>53</b> (<span class="nowrap">1–</span>2). Brill: <span class="nowrap">233–</span>265. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F002249910X12573963244449">10.1163/002249910X12573963244449</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+the+Economic+and+Social+History+of+the+Orient&rft.atitle=Was+Safavid+Iran+an+Empire%3F&rft.volume=53&rft.issue=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1%E2%80%93%3C%2Fspan%3E2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E233-%3C%2Fspan%3E265&rft.date=2009&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F002249910X12573963244449&rft.aulast=Matthee&rft.aufirst=Rudi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMikaberidze2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Mikaberidze" title="Alexander Mikaberidze">Mikaberidze, Alexander</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=JNNQCgAAQBAJ&q=sakhltukhutsesi"><i>Historical Dictionary of Georgia</i></a> (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1442241466" title="Special:BookSources/978-1442241466"><bdi>978-1442241466</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Historical+Dictionary+of+Georgia&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=Rowman+%26+Littlefield&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-1442241466&rft.aulast=Mikaberidze&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJNNQCgAAQBAJ%26q%3Dsakhltukhutsesi&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMitchell2011" class="citation book cs1">Mitchell, Colin P. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=1uCaELAsv3MC&pg=PA69"><i>New Perspectives on Safavid Iran: Empire and Society</i></a>. Taylor & Francis. p. 69. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99194-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-136-99194-3"><bdi>978-1-136-99194-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=New+Perspectives+on+Safavid+Iran%3A+Empire+and+Society&rft.pages=69&rft.pub=Taylor+%26+Francis&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-136-99194-3&rft.aulast=Mitchell&rft.aufirst=Colin+P.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D1uCaELAsv3MC%26pg%3DPA69&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMomen1985" class="citation book cs1">Momen, Moojan (1985). <i>An Introduction to Shi'i Islam: The History and Doctrines of Twelver Shi'ism</i>. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85398-201-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85398-201-2"><bdi>978-0-85398-201-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Shi%27i+Islam%3A+The+History+and+Doctrines+of+Twelver+Shi%27ism&rft.place=New+Haven%2C+CT&rft.pub=Yale+University+Press&rft.date=1985&rft.isbn=978-0-85398-201-2&rft.aulast=Momen&rft.aufirst=Moojan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFRoemer1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Roemer, Hans Robert (1986). Jackson, Peter; Lockhart, Laurence (eds.). <i>The Safavid Period</i>. The Cambridge History of Iran. Vol. 66: The Timurid and Safavid Periods. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-20094-6" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-20094-6"><bdi>0-521-20094-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Safavid+Period&rft.place=Cambridge&rft.series=The+Cambridge+History+of+Iran&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-521-20094-6&rft.aulast=Roemer&rft.aufirst=Hans+Robert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSavory1974" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Roger_Savory" title="Roger Savory">Savory, Roger</a> (1974). "The Safavid State and Polity". <i>Iranian Studies</i>. <b>28</b> (1/2). Cambridge University Press: <span class="nowrap">179–</span>212. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210867408701463">10.1080/00210867408701463</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4310161">4310161</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Safavid+State+and+Polity&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=1%2F2&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E179-%3C%2Fspan%3E212&rft.date=1974&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210867408701463&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4310161%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Access_to_sources" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">registration required</a>)</span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSavory2007" class="citation book cs1">Savory, Roger (2007). <i>Iran under the Safavids</i> (1. publ. 1980; digitally printed version 2007 ed.). <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0521042512" title="Special:BookSources/978-0521042512"><bdi>978-0521042512</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Iran+under+the+Safavids&rft.edition=1.+publ.+1980%3B+digitally+printed+version+2007&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0521042512&rft.aulast=Savory&rft.aufirst=Roger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFSicker2001" class="citation book cs1">Sicker, Martin (2001). <i>The Islamic World in Decline: From the Treaty of Karlowitz to the Disintegration of the Ottoman Empire</i>. Greenwood Publishing Group. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0275968915" title="Special:BookSources/978-0275968915"><bdi>978-0275968915</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Islamic+World+in+Decline%3A+From+the+Treaty+of+Karlowitz+to+the+Disintegration+of+the+Ottoman+Empire&rft.pub=Greenwood+Publishing+Group&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0275968915&rft.aulast=Sicker&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFStreusand2011" class="citation book cs1">Streusand, Douglas E. (2011). <i>Islamic Gunpowder Empires: Ottomans, Safavids, and Mughals</i>. Westview Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780813313597" title="Special:BookSources/9780813313597"><bdi>9780813313597</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Islamic+Gunpowder+Empires%3A+Ottomans%2C+Safavids%2C+and+Mughals&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=9780813313597&rft.aulast=Streusand&rft.aufirst=Douglas+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFYarshater2001" class="citation book cs1">Yarshater, Ehsan (2001). <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i>. Routledge & Kegan Paul. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0933273566" title="Special:BookSources/978-0933273566"><bdi>978-0933273566</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Iranica&rft.pub=Routledge+%26+Kegan+Paul&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0933273566&rft.aulast=Yarshater&rft.aufirst=Ehsan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMatthee2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudi_Matthee" title="Rudi Matthee">Matthee, Rudi</a>, ed. (2021). <i>The Safavid World</i>. Abingdon, Oxon: <a href="/wiki/Routledge" title="Routledge">Routledge</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-138-94406-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-138-94406-0"><bdi>978-1-138-94406-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Safavid+World&rft.place=Abingdon%2C+Oxon&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-1-138-94406-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFMelville2021" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Charles_P._Melville" title="Charles P. Melville">Melville, Charles</a>, ed. (2021). <i>Safavid Persia in the Age of Empires</i>. The Idea of Iran, Vol. 10. London: <a href="/wiki/I.B._Tauris" title="I.B. Tauris">I.B. Tauris</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-3378-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7556-3378-4"><bdi>978-0-7556-3378-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Safavid+Persia+in+the+Age+of+Empires&rft.place=London&rft.series=The+Idea+of+Iran%2C+Vol.+10&rft.pub=I.B.+Tauris&rft.date=2021&rft.isbn=978-0-7556-3378-4&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Christoph Marcinkowski (tr.),<i>Persian Historiography and Geography: Bertold Spuler on Major Works Produced in Iran, the Caucasus, Central Asia, India and Early Ottoman Turkey</i>, Singapore: Pustaka Nasional, 2003, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-77-488-7" title="Special:BookSources/9971-77-488-7">9971-77-488-7</a>.</li> <li>Christoph Marcinkowski (tr., ed.),<i>Mirza Rafi‘a's <a href="/wiki/Dastur_al-Muluk" title="Dastur al-Muluk">Dastur al-Muluk</a>: A Manual of Later Safavid Administration. Annotated English Translation, Comments on the Offices and Services, and Facsimile of the Unique Persian Manuscript</i>, Kuala Lumpur, ISTAC, 2002, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/983-9379-26-7" title="Special:BookSources/983-9379-26-7">983-9379-26-7</a>.</li> <li>Christoph Marcinkowski,<i>From Isfahan to Ayutthaya: Contacts between Iran and Siam in the 17th Century</i>, Singapore, Pustaka Nasional, 2005, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9971-77-491-7" title="Special:BookSources/9971-77-491-7">9971-77-491-7</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://depts.washington.edu/uwch/silkroad/texts/olearius/travels.html">"The Voyages and Travels of the Ambassadors"</a>, Adam Olearius, translated by John Davies (1662),</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFHasan_JavadiWillem_Floor2013" class="citation journal cs1">Hasan Javadi; Willem Floor (2013). "The Role of Azerbaijani Turkish in Safavid Iran". <i>Iranian Studies</i>. <b>46</b> (4). Routledge: <span class="nowrap">569–</span>581. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00210862.2013.784516">10.1080/00210862.2013.784516</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:161700244">161700244</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Iranian+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Role+of+Azerbaijani+Turkish+in+Safavid+Iran&rft.volume=46&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E569-%3C%2Fspan%3E581&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00210862.2013.784516&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A161700244%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Hasan+Javadi&rft.au=Willem+Floor&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ASafavid+Iran" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409" /> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Safavid_Empire" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Safavid Empire">Safavid Empire</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/safavids/safavids.php">History of the Safavids on Iran Chamber</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/safavids">"Safavid dynasty"</a>, <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i> by Rudi Matthee</li> <li>The History Files: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.historyfiles.co.uk/KingListsMiddEast/EasternPersia.htm">Rulers of Persia</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/religion/religions/islam/history/safavidempire_1.shtml">BBC History of Religion</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050831022857/http://www.iranian.ws/7000-6.htm">Iranian culture and history site</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/georgia-vii-">"Georgians in the Safavid administration"</a>, <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.metmuseum.org/toah/hd/safa/hd_safa.htm">Artistic and cultural history of the Safavids from the Metropolitan Museum of Art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.art-arena.com/safavidart.htm">History of Safavid art</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071008023151/http://www.imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?print=589">A Study of the Migration of Shiʻi Works from Arab Regions to Iran at the Early Safavid Era.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranchamber.com/history/articles/reflections_safavid_history_historiography1.php">Why is Safavid history important?</a> (Iran Chamber Society)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100616060412/http://imamreza.net/eng/imamreza.php?id=3021">Historiography During the Safawid Era</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/iran-ix23-shiism-in-iran-since-the-safavids">"Iran ix. Religions in Iran (2) Islam in Iran (2.3) Shiʿism in Iran Since the Safavids: Safavid Period"</a>, <i>Encyclopædia Iranica</i> by Hamid Algar</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output 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dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Safavid_Iran88" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Safavid_Iran" title="Template:Safavid Iran"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Safavid_Iran" title="Template talk:Safavid Iran"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Safavid_Iran" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Safavid Iran"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Safavid_Iran88" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Safavid Iran</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Dynasty</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia#Safavid_Empire_(1501–1736)" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Safavid shahs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mothers_of_the_Safavid_shahs" title="List of mothers of the Safavid shahs">List of mothers of the Safavid shahs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty" title="Safavid dynasty">Safavid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_dynasty_family_tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Safavid dynasty family tree">Safavid dynasty family tree</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Safavid_grand_viziers" title="List of Safavid grand viziers">Grand viziers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ideology and religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_order" title="Safavid order">Safaviyya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideology_of_Safavids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ideology of Safavids">Ideology of Safavids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_conversion_of_Iran_to_Shia_Islam" title="Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam">Safavid conversion of Iran to Shia Islam</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Safavid_art" title="Safavid art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_miniature" title="Persian miniature">Miniature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/School_of_Isfahan" title="School of Isfahan">School of Isfahan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Military and wars</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Safavid_Iran" title="Military of Safavid Iran">Military of Safavid Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Ottoman–Persian Wars">Ottoman–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian%E2%80%93Portuguese_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Persian–Portuguese War">Persian–Portuguese War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russo-Persian_War_(1722%E2%80%931723)" title="Russo-Persian War (1722–1723)">Russo-Persian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian%E2%80%93Uzbek_wars" title="Persian–Uzbek wars">Persian–Uzbek wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mughal%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Mughal–Persian Wars">Mughal–Persian Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Campaignbox_Georgian-Safavid_Wars" title="Template:Campaignbox Georgian-Safavid Wars">Georgian-Safavid Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_walls_in_Safavid_Iran" title="Defensive walls in Safavid Iran">Defensive walls</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman%E2%80%93Safavid_relations" title="Ottoman–Safavid relations">Ottoman–Safavid relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunpowder_Empire" title="Gunpowder Empire">Gunpowder Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasi_(currency)" title="Abbasi (currency)">Abbasi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_abazi" title="Georgian abazi">Abazi</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Empires160" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Empires" title="Template:Empires"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Empires" title="Template talk:Empires"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Empires" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Empires"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Empires160" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Empire" title="Empire">Empires</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_history" title="Ancient history">Ancient</a><br />(<a href="/wiki/Colonies_in_antiquity" title="Colonies in antiquity">colonies</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satrapy_of_Armenia" title="Satrapy of Armenia">Orontid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Ancient</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyria" title="Assyria">Assyrian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Babylonia" title="Babylonia">Babylonian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Babylonian_Empire" title="Old Babylonian Empire">Old Babylonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qin_dynasty" title="Qin dynasty">Qin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Han_dynasty" title="Han dynasty">Han</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(266%E2%80%93420)" title="Jin dynasty (266–420)">Jin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%CA%BFmt" title="Dʿmt">Dʿmt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Old Kingdom of Egypt">Old Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="Middle Kingdom of Egypt">Middle Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goguryeo" title="Goguryeo">Goguryeo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harsha" title="Harsha">Harsha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenistic_period" title="Hellenistic period">Hellenistic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Macedonia_(ancient_kingdom)#Empire" title="Macedonia (ancient kingdom)">Macedonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ptolemaic_Kingdom" title="Ptolemaic Kingdom">Ptolemaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Bactrian_Kingdom" title="Greco-Bactrian Kingdom">Bactrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Greek_Kingdom" title="Indo-Greek Kingdom">Indo-Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Huns" title="History of the Huns">Hunnic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hephthalites" title="Hephthalites">White</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xiongnu" title="Xiongnu">Xiongnu</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Kush" title="Kingdom of Kush">Kush</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kushan_Empire" title="Kushan Empire">Kushan</a></li> <li>Magadha <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haryanka_dynasty" title="Haryanka dynasty">Haryanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shaishunaga_dynasty" title="Shaishunaga dynasty">Shaishunaga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nanda_Empire" title="Nanda Empire">Nanda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maurya_Empire" title="Maurya Empire">Maurya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shunga_Empire" title="Shunga Empire">Shunga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_Empire" title="Gupta Empire">Gupta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Carthage" title="Ancient Carthage">Carthaginian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Roman_Empire" title="Western Roman Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satavahana_dynasty" title="Satavahana dynasty">Satavahana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Third_Dynasty_of_Ur" title="Third Dynasty of Ur">Neo-Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xianbei" title="Xianbei">Xianbei</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rouran_Khaganate" title="Rouran Khaganate">Rouran</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Post-classical_history" title="Post-classical history">Post-classical</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angevin_Empire" title="Angevin Empire">Angevin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crown_of_Aragon" title="Crown of Aragon">Aragonese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Kingdom of Armenia (disambiguation)">Armenian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bagratid_Armenia" title="Bagratid Armenia">Bagratid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Vaspurakan" title="Kingdom of Vaspurakan">Vaspurakan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Artsakh" title="Kingdom of Artsakh">Artsakh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Kingdom_of_Cilicia" title="Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia">Cilician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zakarid_Armenia" title="Zakarid Armenia">Zakarid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_Empire" title="Aztec Empire">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Benin" title="Kingdom of Benin">Benin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire#Shift_of_the_Sayfuwa_court_from_Kanem_to_Bornu" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Bornu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bruneian_Sultanate_(1368%E2%80%931888)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bruneian Sultanate (1368–1888)">Bruneian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Bulgarian Empire (disambiguation)">Bulgarian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Bulgarian_Empire" title="First Bulgarian Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Bulgarian_Empire" title="Second Bulgarian Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pagan_kingdom" title="Pagan kingdom">First</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calakmul" title="Calakmul">Calakmul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caliphate" title="Caliphate">Caliphate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalukya_dynasty" title="Chalukya dynasty">Chalukya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Chalukya_Empire" title="Western Chalukya Empire">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Chalukyas" title="Eastern Chalukyas">Eastern</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sui_dynasty" title="Sui dynasty">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tang_dynasty" title="Tang dynasty">Tang</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liao_dynasty" title="Liao dynasty">Liao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Song_dynasty" title="Song dynasty">Song</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jin_dynasty_(1115%E2%80%931234)" title="Jin dynasty (1115–1234)">Jīn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chola_Empire" title="Chola Empire">Chola</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Aksum" title="Kingdom of Aksum">Aksum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zagwe_dynasty" title="Zagwe dynasty">Zagwe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Solomonic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Georgia" title="Kingdom of Georgia">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garabito_Empire" title="Garabito Empire">Huetar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inca_Empire" title="Inca Empire">Inca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripartite_Struggle" title="Tripartite Struggle">Kannauj</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pala_Empire" title="Pala Empire">Pala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurjara-Pratihara_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Gurjara-Pratihara dynasty">Gurjara-Pratihara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashtrakuta_Empire" title="Rashtrakuta Empire">Rashtrakuta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Persian Empire (disambiguation)">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yamato_period" title="Yamato period">Yamato</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kamakura_shogunate" title="Kamakura shogunate">Kamakura</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashikaga_shogunate" title="Ashikaga shogunate">Muromachi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tokugawa_shogunate" title="Tokugawa shogunate">Edo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanem%E2%80%93Bornu_Empire" title="Kanem–Bornu Empire">Kanem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Empire" title="Khmer Empire">Khmer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_Empire" title="Latin Empire">Latin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lithuania" title="History of Lithuania">Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Lithuania" title="Grand Duchy of Lithuania">Grand Duchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Majapahit" title="Majapahit">Majapahit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mali_Empire" title="Mali Empire">Mali</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yuan_dynasty" title="Yuan dynasty">Yuan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golden_Horde" title="Golden Horde">Golden Horde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chagatai_Khanate" title="Chagatai Khanate">Chagatai Khanate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate">Ilkhanate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Idrisid_dynasty" title="Idrisid dynasty">Idrisid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almoravid_dynasty" title="Almoravid dynasty">Almoravid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Almohad_Caliphate" title="Almohad Caliphate">Almohad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norgesveldet" class="mw-redirect" title="Norgesveldet">Norwegian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Sea_Empire" title="North Sea Empire">North Sea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oyo_Empire" title="Oyo Empire">Oyo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Poland" title="History of Poland">Polish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Poland" title="Kingdom of Poland">Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Commonwealth</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Nicaea" title="Empire of Nicaea">Nicaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Thessalonica" title="Empire of Thessalonica">Thessalonica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Trebizond" title="Empire of Trebizond">Trebizond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_Epirus" title="Despotate of Epirus">Epirus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Despotate_of_the_Morea" title="Despotate of the Morea">Morea</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Germanic_culture" title="Romano-Germanic culture">Romano-Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_Empire" title="Carolingian Empire">Carolingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holy_Roman_Empire" title="Holy Roman Empire">Holy Roman</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serbian_Empire" title="Serbian Empire">Serbian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Singhasari" title="Singhasari">Singhasari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Songhai_Empire" title="Songhai Empire">Songhai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srivijaya" title="Srivijaya">Srivijaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Empire" title="Tibetan Empire">Tibetan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiwanaku_Empire" title="Tiwanaku Empire">Tiwanaku</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toltec_Empire" title="Toltec Empire">Toltec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Great Seljuk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khwarazmian_Empire" title="Khwarazmian Empire">Khwarezmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6kt%C3%BCrks" title="Göktürks">Turkic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Turkic_Khaganate" title="First Turkic Khaganate">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Western_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Western Turkic Khaganate">Western</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Eastern Turkic Khaganate">Eastern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Turkic_Khaganate" title="Second Turkic Khaganate">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BCrgesh" title="Türgesh">Türgesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uyghur_Khaganate" title="Uyghur Khaganate">Uighur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Khaganate" title="Kyrgyz Khaganate">Kyrgyz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venetian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90inh_dynasty" title="Đinh dynasty">Dinh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Early Lê dynasty">Early Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%BD_dynasty" title="Lý dynasty">Ly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Trần dynasty">Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/H%E1%BB%93_dynasty" title="Hồ dynasty">Ho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Later_Tr%E1%BA%A7n_dynasty" title="Later Trần dynasty">Later Tran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Lê dynasty">Later Le</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vijayanagara_Empire" title="Vijayanagara Empire">Vijayanagara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghana_Empire" title="Ghana Empire">Wagadou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wari_Empire" title="Wari Empire">Wari</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Modern_era" title="Modern era">Modern</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Durrani_Empire" title="Durrani Empire">Afghan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ashanti_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Ashanti Empire">Ashanti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austrian_Empire" title="Austrian Empire">Austrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austro-Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Brazil" title="Empire of Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Empire_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Burmese Empire (disambiguation)">Burmese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Toungoo_Empire" title="First Toungoo Empire">Second</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Konbaung_dynasty" title="Konbaung dynasty">Third</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_African_Empire" title="Central African Empire">Central African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ming_dynasty" title="Ming dynasty">Ming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qing_dynasty" title="Qing dynasty">Qing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_China_(1915%E2%80%931916)" title="Empire of China (1915–1916)">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchukuo" title="Manchukuo">Manchukuo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_imperialism" title="Chinese imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethiopian_Empire" title="Ethiopian Empire">Ethiopian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Haiti" title="History of Haiti">Haitian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Empire_of_Haiti" title="First Empire of Haiti">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Empire_of_Haiti" title="Second Empire of Haiti">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_France" title="History of France">French</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_French_Empire" title="First French Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_French_Empire" title="Second French Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Germany" title="History of Germany">German</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/German_Empire" title="German Empire">German Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Raj" title="British Raj">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mughal_Empire" title="Mughal Empire">Mughal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikh_Empire" title="Sikh Empire">Sikh</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Safavid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Japan" title="Empire of Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Korean_Empire" title="Korean Empire">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maratha_Empire" class="mw-redirect" title="Maratha Empire">Maratha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mexico" title="History of Mexico">Mexican</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/First_Mexican_Empire" title="First Mexican Empire">First</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Mexican_Empire" title="Second Mexican Empire">Second</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Yuan" title="Northern Yuan">Mongol</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oirat_Confederation" title="Oirat Confederation">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khoshut_Khanate" title="Khoshut Khanate">Khoshut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dzungar_Khanate" title="Dzungar Khanate">Dzungar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalmyk_Khanate" title="Kalmyk Khanate">Kalmyk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bogd_Khanate_of_Mongolia" title="Bogd Khanate of Mongolia">Bogd</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Morocco" title="History of Morocco">Moroccan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Saadi_Sultanate" title="Saadi Sultanate">Saadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alawi_Sultanate" title="Alawi Sultanate">'Alawi</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Polish_Republic" title="Second Polish Republic">Polish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tsardom_of_Russia" title="Tsardom of Russia">Tsarist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Imperial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_imperialism#Contemporary_Russian_imperialism" title="Russian imperialism">Contemporary</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sokoto_Caliphate" title="Sokoto Caliphate">Sokoto</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Somalia" title="History of Somalia">Somali</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Isaaq_Sultanate" title="Isaaq Sultanate">Isaaq</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_Empire" title="Swedish Empire">Swedish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tu%CA%BBi_Tonga_Empire" title="Tuʻi Tonga Empire">Tongan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C4%90%E1%BA%A1i_Vi%E1%BB%87t" title="Đại Việt">Vietnamese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/M%E1%BA%A1c_dynasty" title="Mạc dynasty">Mạc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Revival_L%C3%AA_dynasty" title="Revival Lê dynasty">Revival Lê</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%A2y_S%C6%A1n_dynasty" title="Tây Sơn dynasty">Tay Sơn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nguy%E1%BB%85n_dynasty" title="Nguyễn dynasty">Dainam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empire_of_Vietnam" title="Empire of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Colonial28" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Colonial_empire" title="Colonial empire">Colonial</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. imperialism">American</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belgian_colonial_empire" title="Belgian colonial empire">Belgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_overseas_possessions" title="English overseas possessions">English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="Scottish colonization of the Americas">Scottish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_Empire" title="Chinese Empire">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Danish_overseas_colonies" title="Danish overseas colonies">Danish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dutch_colonial_empire" title="Dutch colonial empire">Dutch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/French_colonial_empire" title="French colonial empire">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/German_colonial_empire" title="German colonial empire">German</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italian_Empire" title="Italian Empire">Italian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_colonial_empire" title="Japanese colonial empire">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mongol_Empire" title="Mongol Empire">Mongol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omani_Empire" title="Omani Empire">Omani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Polish%E2%80%93Lithuanian_Commonwealth" title="Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth">Polish–Lithuanian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Curonian_colonisation" title="Curonian colonisation">Couronian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Colonization_attempts_by_Poland" title="Colonization attempts by Poland">attempts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Empire" title="Portuguese Empire">Portuguese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Empire" title="Spanish Empire">Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swedish_overseas_colonies" title="Swedish overseas colonies">Swedish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_empires" title="List of empires">Empires</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_empires" title="List of largest empires">largest</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_great_powers" title="List of ancient great powers">Ancient great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_medieval_great_powers" title="List of medieval great powers">Medieval great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_modern_great_powers" title="List of modern great powers">Modern great powers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_colonialism" title="History of colonialism">European colonialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/African_empires" class="mw-redirect" title="African empires">African empires</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist F" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_imperialism" title="Academic imperialism">Academic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-imperialism" title="Anti-imperialism">Anti-imperialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_imperialism" title="Cultural imperialism">Cultural</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_imperialism" title="Ecological imperialism">Ecological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_imperialism" title="Green imperialism">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_imperialism" title="Media imperialism">Media</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liberal_Imperialists" title="Liberal Imperialists">Liberal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linguistic_imperialism" title="Linguistic imperialism">Linguistic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_imperialism" title="Social imperialism">Social</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_empire" title="Soviet empire">Soviet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_imperialism" title="Theories of imperialism">Theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/U.S._imperialism" class="mw-redirect" title="U.S. imperialism">U.S.</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Iran_topics215" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231" /><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Iran_topics" title="Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Iran_topics" title="Template talk:Iran topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Iran_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Iran topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Iran_topics215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="History215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">History</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div id="Prehistory84"><a href="/wiki/Prehistory_of_Iran" title="Prehistory of Iran">Prehistory</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">3400–539 BC</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kura%E2%80%93Araxes_culture" title="Kura–Araxes culture">Kura-Araxes <span class="nowrap">culture (3400–2000 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Elamite">Proto-Elamite <span class="nowrap">civilization (3100–2700 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elam" title="Elam">Elamite <span class="nowrap">dynasties (2700–540 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian <span class="nowrap">Empire (c.2334 BC–c.2154 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lullubi" title="Lullubi">Lullubi <span class="nowrap">(c.2300–675 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kassites" title="Kassites">Kassites <span class="nowrap">(c.1595–c.1155 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mannaeans" class="mw-redirect" title="Mannaeans">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Mannai (10th–7th century BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian <span class="nowrap">Empire (911–609 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urartu" title="Urartu">Urartu <span class="nowrap">(860 BC–590 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Median_kingdom" title="Median kingdom">Median <span class="nowrap">Empire (678–549 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythian <span class="nowrap">Kingdom (652–625 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian <span class="nowrap">Empire (626–539 BC)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">550 BC–AD 224</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid <span class="nowrap">Empire (550–330 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atropatene" title="Atropatene">Atropatene <span class="nowrap">(c.323 BC–AD 226)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Armenia_(antiquity)" title="Kingdom of Armenia (antiquity)">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Armenia (321 BC–AD 428)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cappadocia" title="Kingdom of Cappadocia">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Cappadocia (320s BC–AD 17)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid <span class="nowrap">Empire (312–63 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frataraka" title="Frataraka">Frataraka <span class="nowrap">(c.295–220 BC)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Pontus" title="Kingdom of Pontus">Kingdom of <span class="nowrap">Pontus (281 BC–AD 62)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian <span class="nowrap">Empire (247 BC–AD 224)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kings_of_Persis" title="Kings of Persis">Kings of <span class="nowrap">Persis (after 132 BC–AD 224)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em">AD 224–651</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sasanian <span class="nowrap">Empire (AD 224–651)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Medieval and<br />early modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">632–1090</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (632–661)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (661–750)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid <span class="nowrap">Caliphate (750–1258)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samanid_Empire" title="Samanid Empire">Samanid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (819–999)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tahirid_dynasty" title="Tahirid dynasty">Tahirid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (821–873)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alid_dynasties_of_northern_Iran" title="Alid dynasties of northern Iran">Alavid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (864–928)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saffarid_dynasty" title="Saffarid dynasty">Saffarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (861–1003)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ziyarid_dynasty" title="Ziyarid dynasty">Ziyarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (931–1090)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buyid_dynasty" title="Buyid dynasty">Buyid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (934–1062)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">977–1432</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ghaznavids" title="Ghaznavids">Ghaznavid <span class="nowrap">Empire (977–1186)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghurid_dynasty" title="Ghurid dynasty">Ghurid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1011–1215)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk <span class="nowrap">Empire (1037–1194)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anushtegin_dynasty" title="Anushtegin dynasty">Anushtegin <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1077–1231)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eldiguzids" title="Eldiguzids">Eldiguzids <span class="nowrap">(1135/36-1225)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kart_dynasty" title="Kart dynasty">Kart <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1244–1381)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ilkhanate" title="Ilkhanate"><span class="nowrap">Ilkhanate (1256–1335)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muzaffarids_(Iran)" title="Muzaffarids (Iran)">Muzaffarid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1314–1393)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jalayirid_Sultanate" title="Jalayirid Sultanate">Jalayirid Sultanate <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1335–1432)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chobanids" title="Chobanids">Chobanid <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1338–1357)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1370–1925</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timurid_Empire" title="Timurid Empire">Timurid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1370–1507)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qara_Qoyunlu" title="Qara Qoyunlu">Qara Qoyunlu <span class="nowrap">Turcomans (1374–1468)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aq_Qoyunlu" title="Aq Qoyunlu">Aq Qoyunlu <span class="nowrap">Turcomans (1378–1508)</span></a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Safavid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1501–1736)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Afsharid_Iran" title="Afsharid Iran">Afsharid <span class="nowrap">Empire (1736–1796)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zand_dynasty" title="Zand dynasty">Zand <span class="nowrap">Dynasty (1751–1794)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qajar_Iran" title="Qajar Iran">Qajar <span class="nowrap">Empire (1789–1925)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_Azerbaijan" title="Khanates of Azerbaijan">Khanates of <span class="nowrap">Azerbaijan (18th–20th centuries)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khanates_of_the_Caucasus" title="Khanates of the Caucasus">Khanates of the <span class="nowrap">Caucasus (18th–19th centuries)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution (1905–1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1908_bombardment_of_the_Majlis" title="1908 bombardment of the Majlis">1908 bombardment of the Majlis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_separatism_in_Iran" title="Kurdish separatism in Iran">Kurdish separatism in Iran (1918–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1921_Persian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1921 Persian coup d'état">1921 Persian coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_separatism_in_Khuzestan" title="Arab separatism in Khuzestan">Arab separatism in Khuzestan (1922–2020)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Modern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;">1925–1979</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_dynasty" title="Pahlavi dynasty">Pahlavi <span class="nowrap">dynasty (1925–1979)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shatt_al-Arab_dispute" title="Shatt al-Arab dispute">Shatt al-Arab dispute (1936–1975)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_crisis_of_1946" title="Iran crisis of 1946">Iran crisis of 1946</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insurgency_in_Balochistan" title="Insurgency in Balochistan">Insurgency in Balochistan (1948–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1949_Iranian_Constituent_Assembly_election" title="1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election">1949 Iranian Constituent Assembly election</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1953_Iranian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1953 Iranian coup d'état">1953 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_revolution" title="Iranian revolution">Iranian <span class="nowrap">revolution (1979)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:9.0em;font-weight:normal;font-size:85%;"><span style="font-size:120%"><a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Islamic Republic</a></span><br />1979–present</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" title="History of the Islamic Republic of Iran"><span class="nowrap">History (1979–)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran" title="Interim Government of Iran">Interim Government (1979)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/March_1979_Iranian_Islamic_Republic_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum">March 1979 Iranian Islamic Republic referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1979_Khuzestan_insurgency" title="1979 Khuzestan insurgency">1979 Khuzestan insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_hostage_crisis" title="Iran hostage crisis">Iran hostage crisis (1979–1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/December_1979_Iranian_constitutional_referendum" class="mw-redirect" title="December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum">December 1979 Iranian constitutional referendum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Embassy_siege" title="Iranian Embassy siege">Iranian Embassy <span class="nowrap">siege (1980)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nojeh_coup_plot" title="Nojeh coup plot">Nojeh coup plot (1980)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq <span class="nowrap">War (1980–88)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interim_Government_of_Iran_(1981)" title="Interim Government of Iran (1981)">Interim Government of Iran (1981)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1987_Mecca_incident" title="1987 Mecca incident">1987 Mecca incident</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Air_Flight_655" title="Iran Air Flight 655">Iran Air Flight 655 <span class="nowrap">shootdown (1988)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/KDPI_insurgency_(1989%E2%80%931996)" title="KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)">KDPI insurgency (1989–1996)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93PJAK_conflict" title="Iran–PJAK conflict">PJAK conflict (2004–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election_protests" title="2009 Iranian presidential election protests">2009 Iranian presidential election protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war (2011–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_military_intervention_against_the_Islamic_State" class="mw-redirect" title="International military intervention against the Islamic State">International military intervention against the Islamic State (2014–)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action (2015)</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_withdrawal_from_the_Joint_Comprehensive_Plan_of_Action" title="United States withdrawal from the Joint Comprehensive Plan of Action">United States withdrawal (2018)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2017%E2%80%932018_Iranian_protests" title="2017–2018 Iranian protests">2017–2018 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2018%E2%80%932019_Iranian_general_strikes_and_protests" title="2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests">2018–2019 Iranian general strikes and protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic_in_Iran" title="COVID-19 pandemic in Iran">COVID-19 pandemic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2019 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%932020_Iranian_protests" title="2019–2020 Iranian protests">2019–2020 Iranian protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021_Sistan_and_Baluchestan_protests" title="2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests">2021 Sistan and Baluchestan protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2021%E2%80%932022_Iranian_protests" title="2021–2022 Iranian protests">2021–2022 Iranian protests</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Persians" title="List of ancient Persians">Ancient Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persianization" title="Persianization">Persianization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persianate_society" title="Persianate society">Persianate society</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Turco-Persian_tradition" title="Turco-Persian tradition">Turco-Persian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Persian_culture" title="Indo-Persian culture">Indo-Persian</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranic peoples</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">languages</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jiroft_culture" title="Jiroft culture">Jiroft culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aryan" title="Aryan">Aryans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijanis" title="Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peoples_of_the_Caucasus" class="mw-redirect" title="Peoples of the Caucasus">Peoples of the Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persians" title="Persians">Persians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_monarchs_of_Persia" class="mw-redirect" title="List of monarchs of Persia">Monarchs of Persia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heads_of_state_of_Iran" title="List of heads of state of Iran">Heads of state of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_democracy_in_classical_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="History of democracy in classical Iran">History of democracy in classical Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history_of_Iran" title="Military history of Iran">Military history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_electricity_in_Iran" title="History of electricity in Iran">Electric history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Iran" title="List of years in Iran">Years in Iran</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Geography215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Iran" title="Geography of Iran">Geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Borders_of_Iran" title="Borders of Iran">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Iran_by_province" title="List of cities in Iran by province">Cities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_largest_cities_of_Iran" title="List of largest cities of Iran">largest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_twin_towns_and_sister_cities_in_Iran" title="List of twin towns and sister cities in Iran">twin towns and sister cities</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_earthquakes_in_Iran" title="List of earthquakes in Iran">Earthquakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Climate_change_in_Iran" title="Climate change in Iran">Climate change</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijan_(Iran)" title="Azerbaijan (Iran)">Iranian Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sistan_and_Baluchestan_province" title="Sistan and Baluchestan province">Iranian Balochistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caspian_Hyrcanian_mixed_forests" class="mw-redirect" title="Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests">Caspian Hyrcanian mixed forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasus" title="Caucasus">Caucasus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Kurdistan" title="Iranian Kurdistan">Iranian Kurdistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_plateau" title="Iranian plateau">Iranian plateau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Urmia" title="Lake Urmia">Lake Urmia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_islands_of_Iran" title="List of islands of Iran">Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_mountains_in_Iran" title="List of mountains in Iran">Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Provinces_of_Iran" title="Provinces of Iran">Provinces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Iran" title="Wildlife of Iran">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Iran" title="Politics of Iran">Politics</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Iran" title="Censorship in Iran">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Iran" title="Constitution of Iran">Constitution</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_Constitutional_Revolution" title="Persian Constitutional Revolution">Persian Constitutional Revolution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Iran" title="Elections in Iran">Elections</a> (<a href="/wiki/2009_Iranian_presidential_election" title="2009 Iranian presidential election">2009 presidential</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Iran" title="Foreign relations of Iran">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_of_the_Islamic_Republic_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran">Government of the Islamic Republic of Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Iran" title="Human rights in Iran">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Childrens%27_Rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Childrens' Rights in Iran">Children's rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Iran">LGBT</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_in_Iran" title="Women's rights in Iran">Women's rights</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_judicial_system_of_Iran" title="History of the judicial system of Iran">Judicial system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Armed_Forces" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Armed Forces">Military</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Army" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Air_Force" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Air Force">Air Force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Navy" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Navy">Navy</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_Intelligence_(Iran)" title="Ministry of Intelligence (Iran)">Ministry of Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare_and_Iran" title="Cyberwarfare and Iran">Cyberwarfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Iran" title="List of political parties in Iran">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principlists" class="mw-redirect" title="Principlists">Principlists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Propaganda_in_Iran" title="Propaganda in Iran">Propaganda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Reformists" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Reformists">Reformists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assassination_and_terrorism_in_Iran" title="Assassination and terrorism in Iran">Terrorism</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iran_and_state-sponsored_terrorism" title="Iran and state-sponsored terrorism">state-sponsorship allegations</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/White_Revolution" title="White Revolution">White Revolution (1963)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women%27s_rights_movement_in_Iran" title="Women's rights movement in Iran">Women's rights movement</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Councils</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_of_Experts" title="Assembly of Experts">Assembly (or Council) of Experts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expediency_Discernment_Council" title="Expediency Discernment Council">Expediency Discernment Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guardian_Council" title="Guardian Council">Guardian Council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Consultative_Assembly" title="Islamic Consultative Assembly">Islamic Consultative Assembly (parliament)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Local_councils_of_Iran" title="Local councils of Iran">Local councils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_National_Security_Council" title="Supreme National Security Council">Supreme National Security Council</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_officials" title="List of Iranian officials">Officials</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_ambassadors_from_Iran" title="List of current ambassadors from Iran">Ambassadors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Iran" title="President of Iran">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_current_Iran_governors-general" title="List of current Iran governors-general">Provincial governors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Leader_of_Iran" title="Supreme Leader of Iran">Supreme Leader</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Economy215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Iran" title="Economy of Iran">Economy</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bonyad" title="Bonyad">Bonyad (charitable trust)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_capital_flight_from_Iran" title="Human capital flight from Iran">Brain drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Iran" title="List of companies of Iran">Companies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Automotive_industry_in_Iran" title="Automotive industry in Iran">Automotive industry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Child_labour_in_Iran" title="Child labour in Iran">Child labour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_Cooperation_Organization" title="Economic Cooperation Organization">Economic Cooperation Organization (ECO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economic_history_of_Iran" title="Economic history of Iran">Economic history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Economic_Reform_Plan" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Economic Reform Plan">Economic Reform Plan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_in_Iran" title="Energy in Iran">Energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_issues_in_Iran" title="Environmental issues in Iran">Environmental issues</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_direct_investment_in_Iran" title="Foreign direct investment in Iran">Foreign direct investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_property_in_Iran" title="Intellectual property in Iran">Intellectual property</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_oil_bourse" title="Iranian oil bourse">International oil bourse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_and_the_World_Trade_Organization" title="Iran and the World Trade Organization">Iran and the World Trade Organization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taxation_in_Iran" title="Taxation in Iran">Taxation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_economic_laws_in_Iran" title="List of economic laws in Iran">Main economic laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_the_Middle_East" title="Economy of the Middle East">Economy of the Middle East</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Milad_Tower" title="Milad Tower">Milad Tower and complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_equipment_manufactured_in_Iran" title="List of military equipment manufactured in Iran">Military equipment manufactured</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_program_of_Iran" title="Nuclear program of Iran">Nuclear program</a> (<a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1747" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1747">UN Security Council Resolution 1747</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Privatization_in_Iran" title="Privatization in Iran">Privatization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rial" title="Iranian rial">Rial (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Space_Agency" title="Iranian Space Agency">Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Execution_of_Imam_Khomeini%27s_Order" title="Execution of Imam Khomeini's Order">Setad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Audit_Court_of_Iran" title="Supreme Audit Court of Iran">Supreme Audit Court</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Stock_Exchange" title="Tehran Stock Exchange">Tehran Stock Exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Venture_capital_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Venture capital in Iran">Venture capital</a> (<a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran#Technology_start-ups" title="Communications in Iran">Technology start-ups</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economic_sector" title="Economic sector">Sectors</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Iran" title="Agriculture in Iran">Agriculture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Fruit_production_in_Iran" title="Fruit production in Iran">fruit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banking_and_insurance_in_Iran" title="Banking and insurance in Iran">Banking and insurance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Iran" title="Central Bank of Iran">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shetab_Banking_System" title="Shetab Banking System">Shetab Banking System</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construction_industry_of_Iran" title="Construction industry of Iran">Construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defense_industry_of_Iran" title="Defense industry of Iran">Defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Healthcare_in_Iran" title="Healthcare in Iran">Health care</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pharmaceuticals_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceuticals in Iran">Pharmaceuticals</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_of_Iran" title="Industry of Iran">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mining_in_Iran" title="Mining in Iran">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Iran" title="Petroleum industry in Iran">Petroleum</a> (<a href="/wiki/Anglo-Persian_Oil_Company" title="Anglo-Persian Oil Company">Anglo-Persian Oil Company</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_in_Iran" title="Communications in Iran">Telecommunications and IT</a> (<a href="/wiki/Telecommunication_Company_of_Iran" title="Telecommunication Company of Iran">TCI</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Iran" title="Transport in Iran">Transport</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_airlines_of_Iran" title="List of airlines of Iran">airlines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehran_Metro" title="Tehran Metro">metro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islamic_Republic_of_Iran_Railways" title="Islamic Republic of Iran Railways">railways</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IRISL_Group" title="IRISL Group">shipping</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Iran" title="Tourism in Iran">Tourism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding:0.35em 1.0em;line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/State-owned_enterprise" title="State-owned enterprise">State-owned<br />companies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Defense_Industries_Organization" title="Defense Industries Organization">Defense Industries Organization (DIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/IDRO_Group" title="IDRO Group">Industrial Development and Renovation Organization (IDRO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Aviation_Industries_Organization" title="Iran Aviation Industries Organization">Iran Aviation Industries Organization (IAIO)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran_Electronics_Industries" title="Iran Electronics Industries">Iran Electronics Industries (IEI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Iranian_Oil_Company" title="National Iranian Oil Company">National Iranian Oil Company (NIOC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Development_Fund_of_Iran" title="National Development Fund of Iran">National Development Fund</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asaluyeh" title="Asaluyeh">Asaluyeh industrial corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chabahar_Free_Trade-Industrial_Zone" title="Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone">Chabahar Free Trade-Industrial Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kish_Island" title="Kish Island">Kish Island Free Trade Zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_research_centers" title="List of Iranian research centers">Research centers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Society215" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Iran" title="Category:Society of Iran">Society</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Demographics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Iran" title="Languages of Iran">Languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_language" title="Persian language">Persian (Farsi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azerbaijani_language" title="Azerbaijani language">Azerbaijani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish languages">Kurdish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_language" title="Hebrew language">Hebrew</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_language" title="Georgian language">Georgian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_Neo-Aramaic" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian Neo-Aramaic">Neo-Aramaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Peoples</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Iran" title="Demographics of Iran">Iranian citizens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_diaspora" title="Iranian diaspora">abroad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ethnic_minorities_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Ethnic minorities in Iran">Ethnic minorities</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Armenians" title="Iranian Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrians_in_Iran" title="Assyrians in Iran">Assyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Azerbaijanis" title="Iranian Azerbaijanis">Azerbaijanis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circassians_in_Iran" title="Circassians in Iran">Circassians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Georgians" title="Iranian Georgians">Georgians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Iran" title="Kurds in Iran">Kurds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Jews_in_Iran" title="History of the Jews in Iran">Jews</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_Turkmens" title="Iranian Turkmens">Turkmen</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Iran" title="Religion in Iran">Religion</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%AD_Faith_in_Iran" title="Baháʼí Faith in Iran">Baháʼí Faith</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Bah%C3%A1%CA%BC%C3%ADs" title="Persecution of Baháʼís">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Iran" title="Christianity in Iran">Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism_in_Iran" title="Zoroastrianism in Iran">Zoroastrians</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persecution_of_Zoroastrians" title="Persecution of Zoroastrians">persecution</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freedom_of_religion_in_Iran" title="Freedom of religion in Iran">Freedom of religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;font-weight:normal;">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Iran" title="Corruption in Iran">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crime_in_Iran" title="Crime in Iran">Crime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Iran" title="Education in Iran">Education</a> (<a href="/wiki/Higher_education_in_Iran" title="Higher education in Iran">higher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_pre-modern_Iranian_scientists_and_scholars" title="List of pre-modern Iranian scientists and scholars">scientists and scholars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_universities_in_Iran" title="List of universities in Iran">universities</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Iran" title="International rankings of Iran">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_nationality_law" title="Iranian nationality law">Nationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Iran" title="Water supply and sanitation in Iran">Water supply and sanitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Iran" title="Women in Iran">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Iran" title="Culture of Iran">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_architecture" title="Iranian architecture">Architecture</a> (<a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_architecture" title="Achaemenid architecture">Achaemenid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architects_of_Iran" title="Architects of Iran">architects</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_art" title="Persian art">Art</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_modern_and_contemporary_art" title="Iranian modern and contemporary art">modern / contemporary</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_astronomy" title="Persian astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blogging_in_Iran" title="Blogging in Iran">Blogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_calendars" title="Iranian calendars">Calendars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Nowruz" title="Nowruz">Persian New Year (<i>Nowruz</i>)</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fashion_in_Iran" title="Fashion in Iran">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Persian_antiquities_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="University of Chicago Persian antiquities dispute">Chicago Persian antiquities dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Iran" title="Cinema of Iran">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_cuisine" title="Iranian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Persian_wine" title="Persian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folklore" title="Iranian folklore">Folklore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intellectual_movements_in_Iran" title="Intellectual movements in Iran">Intellectual movements</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranians" title="List of Iranians">Iranians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_studies" title="Iranian studies">Iranian studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islam_in_Iran" title="Islam in Iran">Islam</a> (<a href="/wiki/Islamization_of_Iran" title="Islamization of Iran">Islamization</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_literature" title="Persian literature">Literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Iran" title="Mass media in Iran">Media</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Iranian_news_agencies" title="List of Iranian news agencies">news agencies</a> (<a href="/wiki/Iranian_Students_News_Agency" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Students News Agency">student</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_newspapers_in_Iran" title="List of newspapers in Iran">newspapers</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_National_Jewels" title="Iranian National Jewels">National Jewels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_national_symbols_of_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="List of national symbols of Iran">National symbols</a> (<a href="/wiki/Imperial_Anthem_of_Iran" title="Imperial Anthem of Iran">Imperial Anthem</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Opium_in_Iran" title="Opium in Iran">Opium consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_gardens" title="Persian gardens">Persian gardens</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_name" title="Persian name">Persian name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_philosophy" title="Iranian philosophy">Philosophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Iran" title="Public holidays in Iran">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouting_in_Iran" title="Scouting in Iran">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Iran" title="Sport in Iran">Sport</a> (<a href="/wiki/Football_in_Iran" title="Football in Iran">football</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5.2em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Iran" title="Music of Iran">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_folk_music" title="Iranian folk music">Folk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_jazz" title="Iranian jazz">Jazz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_pop_music" title="Iranian pop music">Pop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_hip_hop" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian hip hop">Rap and hip-hop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_rock" title="Iranian rock">Rock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Persian_traditional_music" title="Persian traditional music">Traditional</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ey_Iran" title="Ey Iran">Ey Iran</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_and_technology_in_Iran" title="Science and technology in Iran">Science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Iranian_sentiment" title="Anti-Iranian sentiment">Anti-Iranian sentiment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tehrangeles" title="Tehrangeles">Tehrangeles</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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src="https://auth.wikimedia.org/loginwiki/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Safavid_Iran&oldid=1283367446">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Safavid_Iran&oldid=1283367446</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Former_monarchies_of_Iran" title="Category:Former monarchies of Iran">Former monarchies of Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Monarchy_in_Persia_and_Iran" title="Category:Monarchy in Persia and Iran">Monarchy in Persia and Iran</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Dagestan" title="Category:History of Dagestan">History of 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