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class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Industrial cooling towers</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Industrial_cooling_towers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification_by_build" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification_by_build"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Classification by build</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Classification_by_build-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Classification by build subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Classification_by_build-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Package_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Package_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Package type</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Package_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Field-erected_type" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Field-erected_type"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Field-erected type</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Field-erected_type-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Heat_transfer_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Heat_transfer_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Heat transfer methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Heat_transfer_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Air_flow_generation_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Air_flow_generation_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Air flow generation methods</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Air_flow_generation_methods-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Air flow generation methods subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Air_flow_generation_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hyperboloid_cooling_tower" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperboloid_cooling_tower"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Hyperboloid cooling tower</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperboloid_cooling_tower-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Categorization_by_air-to-water_flow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Categorization_by_air-to-water_flow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Categorization by air-to-water flow</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Categorization_by_air-to-water_flow-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Categorization by air-to-water flow subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Categorization_by_air-to-water_flow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Crossflow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Crossflow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Crossflow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Crossflow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Counterflow" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Counterflow"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Counterflow</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Counterflow-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Common_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Common_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Common aspects</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Common_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Wet_cooling_tower_material_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Wet_cooling_tower_material_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Wet cooling tower material balance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Wet_cooling_tower_material_balance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Wet cooling tower material balance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Wet_cooling_tower_material_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cycles_of_concentration" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cycles_of_concentration"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7.1</span> <span>Cycles of concentration</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cycles_of_concentration-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maintenance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maintenance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Maintenance</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Maintenance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Maintenance subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Maintenance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Water_treatment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Water_treatment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1</span> <span>Water treatment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Water_treatment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Algaecides_and_biocides" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Algaecides_and_biocides"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.1</span> <span>Algaecides and biocides</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Algaecides_and_biocides-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scale_inhibitors" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scale_inhibitors"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.2</span> <span>Scale inhibitors</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scale_inhibitors-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legionnaires'_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legionnaires'_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8.1.3</span> <span>Legionnaires' disease</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legionnaires'_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Terminology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Terminology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Terminology</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Terminology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fog_production" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fog_production"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Fog production</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fog_production-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cloud_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cloud_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>Cloud formation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cloud_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Salt_emission_pollution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Salt_emission_pollution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">12</span> <span>Salt emission pollution</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Salt_emission_pollution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Use_as_a_flue-gas_stack" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Use_as_a_flue-gas_stack"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">13</span> <span>Use as a flue-gas stack</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Use_as_a_flue-gas_stack-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Operation_in_freezing_weather" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Operation_in_freezing_weather"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">14</span> <span>Operation in freezing weather</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Operation_in_freezing_weather-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fire_hazard" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fire_hazard"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">15</span> <span>Fire hazard</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fire_hazard-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structural_stability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structural_stability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">16</span> <span>Structural stability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Structural_stability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">17</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">18</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">19</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cooling tower</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 43 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-43" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">43 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AF" title="برج تبريد – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="برج تبريد" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_d%27enfriamientu" title="Torre d'enfriamientu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Torre d'enfriamientu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Градирня – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Градирня" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8F_(%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%BF%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%B1%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BF%D1%8F%D1%87%D1%8D%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B5)" title="Градзірня (цеплазабеспячэнне) – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Градзірня (цеплазабеспячэнне)" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D1%85%D0%BB%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BA%D1%83%D0%BB%D0%B0" title="Охладителна кула – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Охладителна кула" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_de_refrigeraci%C3%B3" title="Torre de refrigeració – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Torre de refrigeració" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chladic%C3%AD_v%C4%9B%C5%BE" title="Chladicí věž – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Chladicí věž" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BChlturm" title="Kühlturm – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kühlturm" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jahutustorn" title="Jahutustorn – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Jahutustorn" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_de_refrigeraci%C3%B3n" title="Torre de refrigeración – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Torre de refrigeración" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Malvarmiga_turo" title="Malvarmiga turo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Malvarmiga turo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hozte-dorre" title="Hozte-dorre – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Hozte-dorre" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%AC_%D8%AE%D9%86%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%DA%A9%D9%86%D9%86%D8%AF%D9%87" title="برج خنک‌کننده – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="برج خنک‌کننده" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tour_a%C3%A9ror%C3%A9frig%C3%A9rante" title="Tour aéroréfrigérante – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Tour aéroréfrigérante" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%83%89%EA%B0%81%ED%83%91" title="냉각탑 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="냉각탑" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%82%E0%A4%97_%E0%A4%9F%E0%A5%89%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B0" title="कूलिंग टॉवर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कूलिंग टॉवर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rashladni_toranj" title="Rashladni toranj – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Rashladni toranj" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Menara_pendingin" title="Menara pendingin – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Menara pendingin" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%A6liturn" title="Kæliturn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kæliturn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Torre_di_raffreddamento" title="Torre di raffreddamento – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Torre di raffreddamento" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%9E%D7%92%D7%93%D7%9C_%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%A8" title="מגדל קירור – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="מגדל קירור" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%B6%E0%B3%88%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%97%E0%B3%8B%E0%B2%AA%E0%B3%81%E0%B2%B0" title="ಶೈತ್ಯಗೋಪುರ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಶೈತ್ಯಗೋಪುರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D1%8F" title="Градирня – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Градирня" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a 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id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Device which rejects waste heat to the atmosphere through the cooling of a water stream</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For the historical Iranian architectural element, see <a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">windcatcher</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Evaporative_Cooling_Tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Evaporative_Cooling_Tower.jpg/220px-Evaporative_Cooling_Tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Evaporative_Cooling_Tower.jpg/330px-Evaporative_Cooling_Tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/95/Evaporative_Cooling_Tower.jpg/440px-Evaporative_Cooling_Tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A typical evaporative, forced draft open-loop cooling tower rejecting heat from the condenser water loop of an industrial chiller unit</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Didcot_power_station_cooling_tower_zootalures.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Didcot_power_station_cooling_tower_zootalures.jpg/220px-Didcot_power_station_cooling_tower_zootalures.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Didcot_power_station_cooling_tower_zootalures.jpg/330px-Didcot_power_station_cooling_tower_zootalures.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Didcot_power_station_cooling_tower_zootalures.jpg/440px-Didcot_power_station_cooling_tower_zootalures.jpg 2x" data-file-width="893" data-file-height="541" /></a><figcaption>Natural draft wet cooling <a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid_structure" title="Hyperboloid structure">hyperboloid towers</a> at <a href="/wiki/Didcot_Power_Station" class="mw-redirect" title="Didcot Power Station">Didcot Power Station</a> (UK)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Power_station_Westfalen._Cooling_towers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Power_station_Westfalen._Cooling_towers.jpg/220px-Power_station_Westfalen._Cooling_towers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Power_station_Westfalen._Cooling_towers.jpg/330px-Power_station_Westfalen._Cooling_towers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Power_station_Westfalen._Cooling_towers.jpg/440px-Power_station_Westfalen._Cooling_towers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1495" data-file-height="1266" /></a><figcaption>Forced draft wet cooling towers (height: 34 meters) and natural draft wet cooling tower (height: 122 meters) in <a href="/wiki/Westphalia" title="Westphalia">Westphalia</a>, Germany</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooling_tower_power_station_Dresden.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cooling_tower_power_station_Dresden.jpg/220px-Cooling_tower_power_station_Dresden.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cooling_tower_power_station_Dresden.jpg/330px-Cooling_tower_power_station_Dresden.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8a/Cooling_tower_power_station_Dresden.jpg/440px-Cooling_tower_power_station_Dresden.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1124" data-file-height="698" /></a><figcaption>Natural draft wet cooling tower in <a href="/wiki/Dresden" title="Dresden">Dresden</a> (Germany)</figcaption></figure> <p>A <b>cooling tower</b> is a device that rejects <a href="/wiki/Waste_heat" title="Waste heat">waste heat</a> to the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a> through the cooling of a <a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolant</a> stream, usually a water stream, to a lower temperature. Cooling towers may either use the <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> of water to remove heat and cool the working fluid to near the <a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">wet-bulb air temperature</a> or, in the case of <i>dry cooling towers</i>, rely solely on air to cool the working fluid to near the <a href="/wiki/Dry-bulb_temperature" title="Dry-bulb temperature">dry-bulb air temperature</a> using <a href="/wiki/Radiator" title="Radiator">radiators</a>. </p><p>Common applications include cooling the circulating water used in <a href="/wiki/Oil_refineries" class="mw-redirect" title="Oil refineries">oil refineries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Chemical_plant" title="Chemical plant">chemical plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Thermal_power_station" title="Thermal power station">thermal power stations</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear power station">nuclear power stations</a> and <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">HVAC</a> systems for cooling buildings. The classification is based on the type of air induction into the tower: the main types of cooling towers are <a href="/wiki/Natural_convection" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural convection">natural draft</a> and <a href="/wiki/Forced_convection" title="Forced convection">induced draft</a> cooling towers. </p><p>Cooling towers vary in size from small roof-top units to very large <a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid_structure" title="Hyperboloid structure">hyperboloid structures</a> that can be up to 200 metres (660 ft) tall and 100 metres (330 ft) in diameter, or rectangular structures that can be over 40 metres (130 ft) tall and 80 metres (260 ft) long. Hyperboloid cooling towers are often associated with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although they are also used in many coal-fired plants and to some extent in some large chemical and other industrial plants. The <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> is what necessitates the cooling tower. Although these large towers are very prominent, the vast majority of cooling towers are much smaller, including many units installed on or near buildings to discharge heat from <a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">air conditioning</a>. Cooling towers are also often thought to emit <a href="/wiki/Smoke" title="Smoke">smoke</a> or harmful fumes by the general public and environmental activists, when in reality the emissions from those towers mostly do not contribute to <a href="/wiki/Carbon_footprint" title="Carbon footprint">carbon footprint</a>, consisting solely of <a href="/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor">water vapor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Barnard%27s_fanless_self-cooling_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Barnard%27s_fanless_self-cooling_tower.jpg/170px-Barnard%27s_fanless_self-cooling_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Barnard%27s_fanless_self-cooling_tower.jpg/255px-Barnard%27s_fanless_self-cooling_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/86/Barnard%27s_fanless_self-cooling_tower.jpg/340px-Barnard%27s_fanless_self-cooling_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1595" data-file-height="1902" /></a><figcaption>A 1902 engraving of "Barnard's fanless self-cooling tower", an early large evaporative cooling tower that relied on <a href="/wiki/Natural_Draft" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural Draft">natural draft</a> and open sides rather than a fan; water to be cooled was sprayed from the top onto the radial pattern of vertical wire-mesh mats.</figcaption></figure> <p>Cooling towers originated in the 19th century through the development of <a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">condensers</a> for use with the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS1902a_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS1902a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Condensers use relatively cool water, via various means, to condense the steam coming out of the cylinders or turbines. This reduces the <a href="/wiki/Back_pressure" title="Back pressure">back pressure</a>, which in turn reduces the steam consumption, and thus the fuel consumption, while at the same time increasing power and recycling boiler water.<sup id="cite_ref-Croft_1922_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Croft_1922-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the condensers require an ample supply of cooling water, without which they are impractical.<sup id="cite_ref-Heck_1911_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heck_1911-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Engineer_1906_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Engineer_1906-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> While water usage is not an issue with <a href="/wiki/Marine_steam_engine" title="Marine steam engine">marine engines</a>, it forms a significant limitation for many land-based systems.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>By the turn of the 20th century, several evaporative methods of recycling cooling water were in use in areas lacking an established water supply, as well as in urban locations where municipal water mains may not be of sufficient supply, reliable in times of high demand, or otherwise adequate to meet cooling needs.<sup id="cite_ref-ICS1902a_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICS1902a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Engineer_1906_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Engineer_1906-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In areas with available land, the systems took the form of <a href="/wiki/Cooling_pond" title="Cooling pond">cooling ponds</a>; in areas with limited land, such as in cities, they took the form of cooling towers.<sup id="cite_ref-Heck_1911_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heck_1911-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Snow_1908_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow_1908-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These early towers were positioned either on the rooftops of buildings or as free-standing structures, supplied with air by fans or relying on natural airflow.<sup id="cite_ref-Heck_1911_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Heck_1911-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Snow_1908_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow_1908-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An American engineering textbook from 1911 described one design as "a circular or rectangular shell of light plate—in effect, a chimney stack much shortened vertically (20 to 40 ft. high) and very much enlarged laterally. At the top is a set of distributing troughs, to which the water from the condenser must be pumped; from these it trickles down over "mats" made of wooden slats or woven wire screens, which fill the space within the tower".<sup id="cite_ref-Snow_1908_8-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Snow_1908-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Staatsmijn_Emma_Koeltoren_III_-_Brunssum_-_20260911_-_RCE.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Staatsmijn_Emma_Koeltoren_III_-_Brunssum_-_20260911_-_RCE.jpg/200px-Staatsmijn_Emma_Koeltoren_III_-_Brunssum_-_20260911_-_RCE.jpg" decoding="async" width="200" height="309" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Staatsmijn_Emma_Koeltoren_III_-_Brunssum_-_20260911_-_RCE.jpg/300px-Staatsmijn_Emma_Koeltoren_III_-_Brunssum_-_20260911_-_RCE.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2c/Staatsmijn_Emma_Koeltoren_III_-_Brunssum_-_20260911_-_RCE.jpg/400px-Staatsmijn_Emma_Koeltoren_III_-_Brunssum_-_20260911_-_RCE.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="2188" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Frederik_van_Iterson" title="Frederik van Iterson">Van Iterson</a> cooling tower, 1918</figcaption></figure> <p>A <a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid_structure" title="Hyperboloid structure">hyperboloid</a> cooling tower was patented by the Dutch engineers <a href="/wiki/Frederik_van_Iterson" title="Frederik van Iterson">Frederik van Iterson</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gerard_Kuypers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gerard Kuypers (page does not exist)">Gerard Kuypers</a> in the Netherlands on August 16, 1916.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first hyperboloid reinforced concrete cooling towers were built by the <a href="/wiki/Staatsmijn_Emma" title="Staatsmijn Emma">Dutch State Mine (DSM) Emma</a> in 1918 in <a href="/wiki/Heerlen" title="Heerlen">Heerlen</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first ones in the United Kingdom were built in 1924 at <a href="/wiki/Lister_Drive_power_station" title="Lister Drive power station">Lister Drive power station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, England.<sup id="cite_ref-PopMech1930_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-PopMech1930-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On both locations they were built to cool water used at a coal-fired electrical power station. </p><p>According to a <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://scholar.google.com.tr/scholar?q=INTEGRATED+INDUSTRIAL+WASTEWATER+REUSE+VIA+THE+MAISOTSENKO+CYCLE+HEAT+RECOVERY+PROCESS">Gas Technology Institute (GTI) report</a>, the indirect–dew-point evaporative-cooling Maisotsenko Cycle (M-Cycle) is a theoretically sound method of reducing a working fluid to the ambient fluid’s dew point, which is lower than the ambient fluid’s wet-bulb temperature. The M-cycle utilizes the psychrometric energy (or the potential energy) available from the latent heat of water evaporating into the air. While its current manifestation is as the M-Cycle HMX for air conditioning, through engineering design this cycle could be applied as a heat- and moisture-recovery device for combustion devices, cooling towers, condensers, and other processes involving humid gas streams. </p><p>The consumption of cooling water by inland processing and power plants is estimated to reduce power availability for the majority of thermal power plants by 2040–2069.<sup id="cite_ref-van_VlietWiberg2016_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-van_VlietWiberg2016-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2021, researchers presented a method for steam recapture. The steam is charged using an ion beam, and then captured in a wire mesh of opposite charge. The water's purity exceeded <a href="/wiki/EPA" class="mw-redirect" title="EPA">EPA</a> potability standards.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_by_use">Classification by use</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Classification by use"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Heating,_ventilation_and_air_conditioning_(HVAC)"><span id="Heating.2C_ventilation_and_air_conditioning_.28HVAC.29"></span>Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Heating, ventilation and air conditioning (HVAC)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Loop_Shopping_Centre_Exterior_I.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Loop_Shopping_Centre_Exterior_I.jpg/220px-Loop_Shopping_Centre_Exterior_I.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Loop_Shopping_Centre_Exterior_I.jpg/330px-Loop_Shopping_Centre_Exterior_I.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Loop_Shopping_Centre_Exterior_I.jpg/440px-Loop_Shopping_Centre_Exterior_I.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Two HVAC cooling towers on the rooftop of a shopping center (Darmstadt, Hessen, Germany)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">HVAC</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Induced_Draft_Cooling_Tower_for_HVAC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Induced_Draft_Cooling_Tower_for_HVAC.jpg/220px-Induced_Draft_Cooling_Tower_for_HVAC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="103" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Induced_Draft_Cooling_Tower_for_HVAC.jpg/330px-Induced_Draft_Cooling_Tower_for_HVAC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/55/Induced_Draft_Cooling_Tower_for_HVAC.jpg/440px-Induced_Draft_Cooling_Tower_for_HVAC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="1868" /></a><figcaption>FRP cooling towers installed on roof top</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooling_Tower_Fill_Material.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Cooling_Tower_Fill_Material.jpg/220px-Cooling_Tower_Fill_Material.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Cooling_Tower_Fill_Material.jpg/330px-Cooling_Tower_Fill_Material.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Cooling_Tower_Fill_Material.jpg/440px-Cooling_Tower_Fill_Material.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>Cell of a cross-flow type cooling tower with fill material and circulating water visible</figcaption></figure> <p>An <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">HVAC</a> (heating, ventilating, and air conditioning) cooling tower is used to dispose of ("reject") unwanted heat from a <a href="/wiki/Chiller" title="Chiller">chiller</a>. Liquid-cooled chillers are normally more energy efficient than air-cooled chillers due to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heat_rejection&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heat rejection (page does not exist)">heat rejection</a> to tower water at or near <a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">wet-bulb temperatures</a>. Air-cooled chillers must reject heat at the higher <a href="/wiki/Dry-bulb_temperature" title="Dry-bulb temperature">dry-bulb temperature</a>, and thus have a lower average reverse–<a href="/wiki/Carnot_cycle" title="Carnot cycle">Carnot-cycle</a> effectiveness. In hot climates, large office buildings, hospitals, and schools typically use cooling towers in their air conditioning systems. Generally, industrial cooling towers are much larger than HVAC towers. HVAC use of a cooling tower pairs the cooling tower with a liquid-cooled chiller or liquid-cooled condenser. A <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration#Capacity_ratings" title="Refrigeration"><i>ton</i> of air-conditioning</a> is defined as the removal of 12,000 British thermal units per hour (3.5 kW). The <i>equivalent ton</i> on the cooling tower side actually rejects about 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW) due to the additional waste-heat–equivalent of the energy needed to drive the chiller's compressor. This <i>equivalent ton</i> is defined as the heat rejection in cooling 3 US gallons per minute (11 litres per minute) or 1,500 pounds per hour (680 kg/h) of water by 10 °F (5.6 °C), which amounts to 15,000 British thermal units per hour (4.4 kW), assuming a chiller <a href="/wiki/Coefficient_of_performance" title="Coefficient of performance">coefficient of performance</a> (COP) of 4.0.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This COP is equivalent to an energy efficiency ratio (EER) of 14. </p><p>Cooling towers are also used in HVAC systems that have multiple water source <a href="/wiki/Heat_pumps" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat pumps">heat pumps</a> that share a common piping <i>water loop</i>. In this type of system, the water circulating inside the water loop removes heat from the condenser of the heat pumps whenever the heat pumps are working in the cooling mode, then the externally mounted cooling tower is used to remove heat from the water loop and reject it to the <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere" title="Atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. By contrast, when the heat pumps are working in heating mode, the condensers draw heat out of the loop water and reject it into the space to be heated. When the water loop is being used primarily to supply heat to the building, the cooling tower is normally shut down (and may be drained or winterized to prevent freeze damage), and heat is supplied by other means, usually from separate <a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">boilers</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Industrial_cooling_towers">Industrial cooling towers</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Industrial cooling towers"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Open_loop_Cooling_Tower_for_DG_Set.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Open_loop_Cooling_Tower_for_DG_Set.jpg/220px-Open_loop_Cooling_Tower_for_DG_Set.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Open_loop_Cooling_Tower_for_DG_Set.jpg/330px-Open_loop_Cooling_Tower_for_DG_Set.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/Open_loop_Cooling_Tower_for_DG_Set.jpg/440px-Open_loop_Cooling_Tower_for_DG_Set.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cenk_Endustri_Field_Erected_Industrial_Cooling_Tower.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Cenk_Endustri_Field_Erected_Industrial_Cooling_Tower.JPG/220px-Cenk_Endustri_Field_Erected_Industrial_Cooling_Tower.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="127" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Cenk_Endustri_Field_Erected_Industrial_Cooling_Tower.JPG/330px-Cenk_Endustri_Field_Erected_Industrial_Cooling_Tower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Cenk_Endustri_Field_Erected_Industrial_Cooling_Tower.JPG/440px-Cenk_Endustri_Field_Erected_Industrial_Cooling_Tower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2681" data-file-height="1542" /></a><figcaption>Industrial cooling towers for a power plant</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Industrial_Counterflow_Cooling_Towers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Industrial_Counterflow_Cooling_Towers.jpg/220px-Industrial_Counterflow_Cooling_Towers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Industrial_Counterflow_Cooling_Towers.jpg/330px-Industrial_Counterflow_Cooling_Towers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Industrial_Counterflow_Cooling_Towers.jpg/440px-Industrial_Counterflow_Cooling_Towers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3300" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption>Industrial cooling towers for fruit processing</figcaption></figure> <p>Industrial cooling towers can be used to remove heat from various sources such as machinery or heated process material. The primary use of large, industrial cooling towers is to remove the heat absorbed in the circulating <a href="/wiki/Cooling_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Cooling water">cooling water</a> systems used in <a href="/wiki/Power_plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Power plants">power plants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oil_refinery" title="Oil refinery">petroleum refineries</a>, <a href="/wiki/Petrochemical" title="Petrochemical">petrochemical</a> plants, <a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">natural gas</a> processing plants, food processing plants, semi-conductor plants, and for other industrial facilities such as in condensers of distillation columns, for cooling liquid in crystallization, etc.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The circulation rate of cooling water in a typical 700 MW<sub>th</sub> <a href="/wiki/Coal-fired_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Coal-fired power plant">coal-fired power plant</a> with a cooling tower amounts to about 71,600 cubic metres an hour (315,000 US gallons per minute)<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the circulating water requires a supply water make-up rate of perhaps 5 percent (i.e., 3,600 cubic metres an hour, equivalent to one cubic metre every second). </p><p>If that same plant had no cooling tower and used <b>once-through cooling</b> water, it would require about 100,000 cubic metres an hour<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large cooling water intake typically kills millions of <a href="/wiki/Fish" title="Fish">fish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Larvae" class="mw-redirect" title="Larvae">larvae</a> annually, as the organisms are impinged on the intake <a href="/wiki/Fish_screen" title="Fish screen">screens</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A large amount of water would have to be continuously returned to the ocean, lake or river from which it was obtained and continuously re-supplied to the plant. Furthermore, discharging large amounts of hot water may raise the temperature of the receiving river or lake to an unacceptable level for the local ecosystem. Elevated water temperatures can kill fish and other aquatic organisms (see <i><a href="/wiki/Thermal_pollution" title="Thermal pollution">thermal pollution</a></i>), or can also cause an increase in undesirable organisms such as invasive species of <a href="/wiki/Zebra_mussel" title="Zebra mussel">zebra mussels</a> or <a href="/wiki/Algae" title="Algae">algae</a>. </p><p>A cooling tower serves to dissipate the heat into the atmosphere instead, so that wind and air diffusion spreads the heat over a much larger area than hot water can distribute heat in a body of water. Evaporative cooling water cannot be used for subsequent purposes (other than rain somewhere), whereas surface-only cooling water can be re-used. Some coal-fired and <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a> located in <a href="/wiki/Coastal" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal">coastal</a> areas do make use of once-through ocean water. But even there, the offshore discharge water outlet requires very careful design to avoid environmental problems. </p><p>Petroleum refineries may also have very large cooling tower systems. A typical large refinery processing 40,000 metric tonnes of crude oil per day (300,000 barrels (48,000 m<sup>3</sup>) per day) circulates about 80,000 cubic metres of water per hour through its cooling tower system. </p><p>The world's tallest cooling tower is the 210 metres (690 ft) tall cooling tower of the <a href="/wiki/Pingshan_Power_Station" title="Pingshan Power Station">Pingshan II Power Station</a> in <a href="/wiki/Huaibei" title="Huaibei">Huaibei</a>, Anhui Province, China.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Field_erected_cooling_tower.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Field_erected_cooling_tower.JPG/220px-Field_erected_cooling_tower.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Field_erected_cooling_tower.JPG/330px-Field_erected_cooling_tower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/97/Field_erected_cooling_tower.JPG/440px-Field_erected_cooling_tower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="4320" data-file-height="3240" /></a><figcaption>Field-erected cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classification_by_build">Classification by build</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Classification by build"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Package_type">Package type</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Package type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Field_Errected_Cooling_Towers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Field_Errected_Cooling_Towers.jpg/220px-Field_Errected_Cooling_Towers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Field_Errected_Cooling_Towers.jpg/330px-Field_Errected_Cooling_Towers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Field_Errected_Cooling_Towers.jpg/440px-Field_Errected_Cooling_Towers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Field-erected cooling towers</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Brotep_Eco_coolin_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Brotep_Eco_coolin_tower.jpg/220px-Brotep_Eco_coolin_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Brotep_Eco_coolin_tower.jpg/330px-Brotep_Eco_coolin_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/ba/Brotep_Eco_coolin_tower.jpg/440px-Brotep_Eco_coolin_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Brotep-Eco cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Package_type_cooling_tower.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Package_type_cooling_tower.JPG/170px-Package_type_cooling_tower.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Package_type_cooling_tower.JPG/255px-Package_type_cooling_tower.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5b/Package_type_cooling_tower.JPG/340px-Package_type_cooling_tower.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2311" data-file-height="3197" /></a><figcaption>Package cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <p>These types of cooling towers are factory preassembled, and can be simply transported on trucks, as they are compact machines. The capacity of package type towers is limited and, for that reason, they are usually preferred by facilities with low heat rejection requirements such as food processing plants, textile plants, some chemical processing plants, or buildings like hospitals, hotels, malls, automotive factories, etc. </p><p>Due to their frequent use in or near residential areas, sound level control is a relatively more important issue for package type cooling towers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Field-erected_type">Field-erected type</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Field-erected type"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Facilities such as power plants, steel processing plants, petroleum refineries, or petrochemical plants usually install field-erected type cooling towers due to their greater capacity for heat rejection. Field-erected towers are usually much larger in size compared to the package type cooling towers. </p><p>A typical field-erected cooling tower has a <a href="/wiki/Pultrusion" title="Pultrusion">pultruded</a> <a href="/wiki/Fiber-reinforced_plastic" class="mw-redirect" title="Fiber-reinforced plastic">fiber-reinforced plastic</a> (FRP) structure, FRP <a href="/wiki/Cladding_(construction)" title="Cladding (construction)">cladding</a>, a mechanical unit for <a href="/wiki/Air_draft" title="Air draft">air draft</a>, and a drift eliminator. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Heat_transfer_methods">Heat transfer methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Heat transfer methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>With respect to the <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">heat transfer</a> mechanism employed, the main types are: </p> <ul><li><b>Wet cooling towers</b> or <b>open-circuit Cooling Tower</b> or <b>evaporative cooling towers</b> operate on the principle of <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">evaporative cooling</a>. The working <a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">coolant</a> (usually water) is the evaporated fluid, and is exposed to the elements.</li> <li><b>Closed circuit cooling towers</b> (also called <b>fluid coolers</b>) pass the working coolant through a large <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">heat exchanger</a>, usually a <a href="/wiki/Radiator" title="Radiator">radiator</a>, upon which clean water is sprayed and a fan-induced draft applied. The resulting heat transfer performance is close to that of a wet cooling tower, with the advantage of protecting the working fluid from environmental exposure and contamination.</li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Adiabatic" class="mw-redirect" title="Adiabatic">Adiabatic</a> cooling towers</b> spray water into the incoming air or onto a cardboard pad to cool the air before it passes over an air-cooled heat exchanger. Adiabatic cooling towers use less water than other cooling towers but do not cool the fluid as close to the wet bulb temperature. Most adiabatic cooling towers are also hybrid cooling towers.</li> <li><b>Dry cooling towers</b> (or <b>dry coolers</b>) are closed circuit cooling towers which operate by <a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">heat transfer</a> through a heat exchanger that separates the working coolant from ambient air, such as in a radiator, utilizing convective heat transfer. They do not use evaporation and are air-cooled heat exchangers.</li> <li><b>Hybrid cooling towers</b> or <b>wet-dry cooling towers</b> are closed circuit cooling towers that can switch between wet or adiabatic and dry operation. This helps balance water and energy savings across a variety of weather conditions. Some hybrid cooling towers can switch between dry, wet, and adiabatic modes. Thermal efficiencies up to 92% have been observed in hybrid cooling towers.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In a wet cooling tower (or open circuit cooling tower), the warm water can be cooled to a temperature <i>lower</i> than the ambient air dry-bulb temperature, if the air is relatively dry (see <a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">dew point</a> and <a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">psychrometrics</a>). As ambient air is drawn past a flow of water, a small portion of the water evaporates, and the energy required to evaporate that portion of the water is taken from the remaining mass of water, thus reducing its temperature. Approximately 2,300 kilojoules per kilogram (970 BTU/lb) of heat energy is absorbed for the evaporated water. Evaporation results in saturated air conditions, lowering the temperature of the water processed by the tower to a value close to <a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">wet-bulb temperature</a>, which is lower than the ambient <a href="/wiki/Dry-bulb_temperature" title="Dry-bulb temperature">dry-bulb temperature</a>, the difference determined by the initial humidity of the ambient air. </p><p>To achieve better performance (more cooling), a medium called <i>fill</i> is used to increase the surface area and the time of contact between the air and water flows. <i>Splash fill</i> consists of material placed to interrupt the water flow causing splashing. <i>Film fill</i> is composed of thin sheets of material (usually <a href="/wiki/Polyvinyl_chloride" title="Polyvinyl chloride">PVC</a>) upon which the water flows. Both methods create increased surface area and time of contact between the fluid (water) and the gas (air), to improve heat transfer. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Air_flow_generation_methods">Air flow generation methods</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Air flow generation methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stairway_to_nowhere%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_455003.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Stairway_to_nowhere%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_455003.jpg/220px-Stairway_to_nowhere%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_455003.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Stairway_to_nowhere%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_455003.jpg/330px-Stairway_to_nowhere%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_455003.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/Stairway_to_nowhere%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_455003.jpg/440px-Stairway_to_nowhere%5E_-_geograph.org.uk_-_455003.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Access stairs at the base of a massive hyperboloid cooling tower give a sense of its scale (UK).</figcaption></figure> <p>With respect to drawing air through the tower, there are three types of cooling towers: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Natural_draught" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural draught">Natural draft</a></b> – Utilizes buoyancy via a tall chimney. Warm, moist air <i>naturally</i> rises due to the density differential compared to the dry, cooler outside air. Warm <a href="/wiki/Lighter_than_air#Water_vapour" class="mw-redirect" title="Lighter than air">moist air</a> is less dense than drier air at the same pressure. This moist air buoyancy produces an upwards current of air through the tower.<style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1273380762/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner span:not(.skin-invert-image):not(.skin-invert):not(.bg-transparent) img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:212px;max-width:212px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:210px;max-width:210px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:277px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower.jpg/208px-Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="277" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower.jpg/312px-Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/60/Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower.jpg/416px-Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3120" data-file-height="4160" /></a></span></div></div></div><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:210px;max-width:210px"><div class="thumbimage" style="height:156px;overflow:hidden"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower_3.jpg/208px-Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="208" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower_3.jpg/312px-Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower_3.jpg/416px-Inside_of_a_Natural_Draft_Cooling_Tower_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="3120" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Inside views from a natural draft cooling tower</div></div></div></div></div></li> <li><b>Mechanical draft</b> – Uses power-driven fan motors to force or draw air through the tower. <ul><li><b>Induced draft</b> – A mechanical draft tower with a fan at the discharge (at the top) which pulls air up through the tower. The fan <i>induces</i> hot moist air out the discharge. This produces low entering and high exiting air velocities, reducing the possibility of <i>recirculation</i> in which discharged air flows back into the air intake. This fan/fin arrangement is also known as <i>draw-through</i>.</li> <li><b>Forced draft</b> – A mechanical draft tower with a blower type fan at the intake. The fan <i>forces</i> air into the tower, creating high entering and low exiting air velocities. The low exiting velocity is much more susceptible to recirculation. With the fan on the air intake, the fan is more susceptible to complications due to freezing conditions. Another disadvantage is that a forced draft design typically requires more motor horsepower than an equivalent induced draft design. The benefit of the forced draft design is its ability to work with high <a href="/wiki/Static_pressure" title="Static pressure">static pressure</a>. Such setups can be installed in more-confined spaces and even in some indoor situations. This fan/fin geometry is also known as <i>blow-through</i>.</li></ul></li> <li><b>Fan assisted natural draft</b> – A hybrid type that appears like a natural draft setup, though airflow is assisted by a fan.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hyperboloid_cooling_tower">Hyperboloid cooling tower</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Hyperboloid cooling tower"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 16 August 1916,<sup id="cite_ref-FinancialTimesCollins_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FinancialTimesCollins-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Frederik_van_Iterson" title="Frederik van Iterson">Frederik van Iterson</a> took out the UK patent (108,863) for <i>Improved Construction of Cooling Towers of <a href="/wiki/Reinforced_concrete" title="Reinforced concrete">Reinforced Concrete</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The patent was filed on 9 August 1917, and published on 11 April 1918. In 1918, <a href="/wiki/DSM_(company)" title="DSM (company)">DSM</a> built the first hyperboloid natural-draft cooling tower at the <a href="/wiki/Staatsmijn_Emma" title="Staatsmijn Emma">Staatsmijn Emma</a>, to his design. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid_structure" title="Hyperboloid structure">Hyperboloid</a> (sometimes incorrectly known as <a href="/wiki/Hyperbolic_paraboloid" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperbolic paraboloid">hyperbolic</a>) cooling towers have become the design standard for all natural-draft cooling towers because of their structural strength and minimum usage of material.<sup id="cite_ref-krex-Chen_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-krex-Chen-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sciencing-4899957_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sciencing-4899957-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-drax.com_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-drax.com-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The hyperboloid shape also aids in accelerating the upward <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convective</a> air flow, improving cooling efficiency.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These designs are popularly associated with <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">nuclear power plants</a>. However, this association is misleading, as the same kind of cooling towers are often used at large coal-fired power plants and some geothermal plants as well. The <a href="/wiki/Steam_turbine" title="Steam turbine">steam turbine</a> is what necessitates the cooling tower. Conversely, not all nuclear power plants have cooling towers, and some instead cool their working fluid with lake, river or ocean water. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Categorization_by_air-to-water_flow">Categorization by air-to-water flow</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Categorization by air-to-water flow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crossflow">Crossflow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Crossflow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossflow_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Crossflow_diagram.svg/220px-Crossflow_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="131" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Crossflow_diagram.svg/330px-Crossflow_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0b/Crossflow_diagram.svg/440px-Crossflow_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="555" data-file-height="330" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Factory_assembled_crossflow.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Factory_assembled_crossflow.jpg/220px-Factory_assembled_crossflow.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="196" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Factory_assembled_crossflow.jpg/330px-Factory_assembled_crossflow.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/Factory_assembled_crossflow.jpg/440px-Factory_assembled_crossflow.jpg 2x" data-file-width="482" data-file-height="430" /></a><figcaption>Mechanical draft crossflow cooling tower used in an HVAC application</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossflow_cooling_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Crossflow_cooling_tower.jpg/220px-Crossflow_cooling_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Crossflow_cooling_tower.jpg/330px-Crossflow_cooling_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Crossflow_cooling_tower.jpg/440px-Crossflow_cooling_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4128" data-file-height="2322" /></a><figcaption>Package crossflow cooling tower</figcaption></figure><p>Typically lower initial and long-term cost, mostly due to pump requirements. </p><p>Crossflow is a design in which the airflow is directed perpendicular to the water flow (see diagram at left). Airflow enters one or more vertical faces of the cooling tower to meet the fill material. Water flows (perpendicular to the air) through the fill by gravity. The air continues through the fill and thus past the water flow into an open plenum volume. Lastly, a fan forces the air out into the atmosphere. </p><p>A <i>distribution</i> or <i>hot water basin</i> consisting of a deep pan with holes or <i>nozzles</i> in its bottom is located near the top of a crossflow tower. Gravity distributes the water through the nozzles uniformly across the fill material. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deltacoolingtowers.in/counter-flow-vs-cross-flow.html">Cross Flow V/s Counter Flow</a> </p><p>Advantages of the crossflow design: </p> <ul><li>Gravity water distribution allows smaller pumps and maintenance while in use.</li> <li>Non-pressurized spray simplifies variable flow.</li></ul> <p>Disadvantages of the crossflow design: </p> <ul><li>More prone to freezing than counterflow designs.</li> <li>Variable flow is useless in some conditions.</li> <li>More prone to dirt buildup in the fill than counterflow designs, especially in dusty or sandy areas.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Counterflow">Counterflow</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Counterflow"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooling_tower_-_showers.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cooling_tower_-_showers.jpg/220px-Cooling_tower_-_showers.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cooling_tower_-_showers.jpg/330px-Cooling_tower_-_showers.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Cooling_tower_-_showers.jpg/440px-Cooling_tower_-_showers.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4160" data-file-height="3120" /></a><figcaption>Showers inside cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Counterflow_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Counterflow_diagram.svg/220px-Counterflow_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Counterflow_diagram.svg/330px-Counterflow_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a3/Counterflow_diagram.svg/440px-Counterflow_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="571" data-file-height="408" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Crossflow_Cooling_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Crossflow_Cooling_tower.jpg/220px-Crossflow_Cooling_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="222" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Crossflow_Cooling_tower.jpg/330px-Crossflow_Cooling_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Crossflow_Cooling_tower.jpg/440px-Crossflow_Cooling_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1445" data-file-height="1455" /></a><figcaption>Forced-draft counter-flow package-type cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <p>In a counterflow design, the air flow is directly opposite to the water flow (see diagram at left). Air flow first enters an open area beneath the fill media, and is then drawn up vertically. The water is sprayed through pressurized nozzles near the top of the tower, and then flows downward through the fill, opposite to the air flow. </p><p><br /> Advantages of the counterflow design: </p> <ul><li>Spray water distribution makes the tower more freeze-resistant.</li> <li>Breakup of water in spray makes heat transfer more efficient.</li></ul> <p><br /> Disadvantages of the counterflow design: </p> <ul><li>Typically higher initial and long-term cost, primarily due to pump requirements.</li> <li>Difficult to use variable water flow, as spray characteristics may be negatively affected.</li> <li>Typically noisier, due to the greater water fall height from the bottom of the fill into the cold water basin</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Common_aspects">Common aspects</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Common aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Common aspects of both designs: </p> <ul><li>The interactions of the air and water flow allow a partial equalization of temperature, and evaporation of water.</li> <li>The air, now saturated with water vapor, is discharged from the top of the cooling tower.</li> <li>A "collection basin" or "cold water basin" is used to collect and contain the cooled water after its interaction with the air flow.</li></ul> <p>Both crossflow and counterflow designs can be used in natural draft and in mechanical draft cooling towers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Wet_cooling_tower_material_balance">Wet cooling tower material balance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Wet cooling tower material balance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Quantitatively, the material balance around a wet, evaporative cooling tower system is governed by the operational variables of make-up <a href="/wiki/Volumetric_flow_rate" title="Volumetric flow rate">volumetric flow rate</a>, <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> and windage losses, draw-off rate, and the concentration cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-Beychok_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beychok-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Beychok2_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beychok2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the adjacent diagram, water pumped from the tower basin is the cooling water routed through the process coolers and <a href="/wiki/Condenser_(steam_turbine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Condenser (steam turbine)">condensers</a> in an industrial facility. The cool water absorbs heat from the hot process streams which need to be cooled or condensed, and the absorbed heat warms the circulating water (C). The warm water returns to the top of the cooling tower and trickles downward over the fill material inside the tower. As it trickles down, it contacts ambient air rising up through the tower either by natural draft or by forced draft using large fans in the tower. That contact causes a small amount of the water to be lost as windage or drift (W) and some of the water (E) to <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporate</a>. The heat required to evaporate the water is derived from the water itself, which cools the water back to the original basin water temperature and the water is then ready to recirculate. The evaporated water leaves its dissolved <a href="/wiki/Salt_(chemistry)" title="Salt (chemistry)">salts</a> behind in the bulk of the water which has not been evaporated, thus raising the salt concentration in the circulating cooling water. To prevent the salt concentration of the water from becoming too high, a portion of the water is drawn off or blown down (D) for disposal. Fresh water make-up (M) is supplied to the tower basin to compensate for the loss of evaporated water, the windage loss water and the draw-off water. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frame"><a href="/wiki/File:CoolingTower.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/87/CoolingTower.png" decoding="async" width="256" height="369" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="256" data-file-height="369" /></a><figcaption>Fan-induced draft, counter-flow cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <p>Using these flow rates and concentration dimensional units: </p> <table border="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td align="right"><b>M</b> </td> <td align="left">= Make-up water in m<sup>3</sup>/h </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>C</b> </td> <td align="left">= Circulating water in m<sup>3</sup>/h </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>D</b> </td> <td align="left">= Draw-off water in m<sup>3</sup>/h </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>E</b> </td> <td align="left">= Evaporated water in m<sup>3</sup>/h </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>W</b> </td> <td align="left">= Windage loss of water in m<sup>3</sup>/h </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>X</b> </td> <td align="left">= Concentration in <a href="/wiki/Parts_per_notation" class="mw-redirect" title="Parts per notation">ppmw</a> (of any completely soluble salts ... usually chlorides) </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b><span class="texhtml">X<sub>M</sub></span></b> </td> <td align="left">= Concentration of <a href="/wiki/Chloride" title="Chloride">chlorides</a> in make-up water (M), in ppmw </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>X<sub>C</sub></b> </td> <td align="left">= Concentration of chlorides in circulating water (C), in ppmw </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>Cycles</b> </td> <td align="left">= Cycles of concentration = X<sub>C</sub> / X<sub>M</sub> (dimensionless) </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>ppmw</b> </td> <td align="left">= parts per million by weight </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>A water balance around the entire system is then:<sup id="cite_ref-Beychok2_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beychok2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="texhtml"><var style="padding-right: 1px;">M</var> = <var style="padding-right: 1px;">E</var> + <var style="padding-right: 1px;">D</var> + <var style="padding-right: 1px;">W</var></span></dd></dl> <p>Since the evaporated water (E) has no salts, a chloride balance around the system is:<sup id="cite_ref-Beychok2_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beychok2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="texhtml"><var style="padding-right: 1px;">MX<sub>M</sub></var> = <var style="padding-right: 1px;">DX<sub>C</sub></var> + <var style="padding-right: 1px;">WX<sub>C</sub></var> = <var style="padding-right: 1px;">X<sub>C</sub></var>(<var style="padding-right: 1px;">D</var> + <var style="padding-right: 1px;">W</var>)</span></dd> <dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle MX_{M}=DX_{C}+WX_{C}=X_{C}(D+W)}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>M</mi> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>M</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <mi>D</mi> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>+</mo> <mi>W</mi> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo>=</mo> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>W</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle MX_{M}=DX_{C}+WX_{C}=X_{C}(D+W)}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/7a0572a6fd9599f88d435490da8975b40fe54cec" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -0.838ex; width:38.948ex; height:2.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle MX_{M}=DX_{C}+WX_{C}=X_{C}(D+W)}"></span></dd></dl> <p>and, therefore:<sup id="cite_ref-Beychok2_30-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beychok2-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {X_{C} \over X_{M}}={\text{Cycles of concentration}}={M \over (D+W)}={M \over (M-E)}=1+{E \over (D+W)}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>C</mi> </mrow> </msub> <msub> <mi>X</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>M</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtext>Cycles of concentration</mtext> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>M</mi> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>W</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>M</mi> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>M</mi> <mo>−</mo> <mi>E</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mn>1</mn> <mo>+</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>E</mi> <mrow> <mo stretchy="false">(</mo> <mi>D</mi> <mo>+</mo> <mi>W</mi> <mo stretchy="false">)</mo> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {X_{C} \over X_{M}}={\text{Cycles of concentration}}={M \over (D+W)}={M \over (M-E)}=1+{E \over (D+W)}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/34d91165594d5ce94b687f6bf9e2f073ae2ead6c" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.671ex; width:73.909ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {X_{C} \over X_{M}}={\text{Cycles of concentration}}={M \over (D+W)}={M \over (M-E)}=1+{E \over (D+W)}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>From a simplified heat balance around the cooling tower: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle E={C\Delta Tc_{p} \over H_{V}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mi>E</mi> <mo>=</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>C</mi> <mi mathvariant="normal">Δ</mi> <mi>T</mi> <msub> <mi>c</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>p</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mrow> <msub> <mi>H</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mi>V</mi> </mrow> </msub> </mfrac> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle E={C\Delta Tc_{p} \over H_{V}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/f488a9206fdce530a37387d18c37ae370257cddf" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.338ex; width:13.115ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle E={C\Delta Tc_{p} \over H_{V}}}"></span></dd></dl> <table border="0" cellpadding="2"> <tbody><tr> <td align="right">where: </td> <td>  </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>H<sub>V</sub></b> </td> <td align="left">= latent heat of vaporization of water = 2260 kJ / kg </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b><span class="texhtml">ΔT</span></b> </td> <td align="left">= water temperature difference from tower top to tower bottom, in °C </td></tr> <tr> <td align="right"><b>c<sub>p</sub></b> </td> <td align="left">= specific heat of water = 4.184 kJ / (kg<span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle \cdot }"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mo>⋅</mo> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle \cdot }</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/ba2c023bad1bd39ed49080f729cbf26bc448c9ba" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: 0.439ex; margin-bottom: -0.61ex; width:0.647ex; height:1.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle \cdot }"></span>°C) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Windage (or drift) losses (W) is the amount of total tower water flow that is entrained in the flow of air to the atmosphere. From large-scale industrial cooling towers, in the absence of manufacturer's data, it may be assumed to be: </p> <dl><dd><b>W</b> = 0.3 to 1.0 percent of C for a natural draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators</dd> <dd><b>W</b> = 0.1 to 0.3 percent of C for an induced draft cooling tower without windage drift eliminators</dd> <dd><b>W</b> = about 0.005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators</dd> <dd><b>W</b> = about 0.0005 percent of C (or less) if the cooling tower has windage drift eliminators and uses sea water as make-up water.</dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cycles_of_concentration">Cycles of concentration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Cycles of concentration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cycle of concentration represents the accumulation of dissolved minerals in the recirculating cooling water. Discharge of draw-off (or blowdown) is used principally to control the buildup of these minerals. </p><p>The chemistry of the make-up water, including the amount of dissolved minerals, can vary widely. Make-up waters low in dissolved minerals such as those from surface water supplies (lakes, rivers etc.) tend to be aggressive to metals (corrosive). Make-up waters from <a href="/wiki/Ground_water" class="mw-redirect" title="Ground water">ground water</a> supplies (such as <a href="/wiki/Water_well" class="mw-redirect" title="Water well">wells</a>) are usually higher in minerals, and tend to be <a href="/wiki/Limescale" title="Limescale">scaling</a> (deposit minerals). Increasing the amount of minerals present in the water by cycling can make water less aggressive to piping; however, excessive levels of minerals can cause scaling problems. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cycles-Of-Concentration.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cycles-Of-Concentration.png/220px-Cycles-Of-Concentration.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="159" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cycles-Of-Concentration.png/330px-Cycles-Of-Concentration.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Cycles-Of-Concentration.png/440px-Cycles-Of-Concentration.png 2x" data-file-width="721" data-file-height="521" /></a><figcaption>Relationship between cycles of concentration and flow rates in a cooling tower</figcaption></figure><p> As the cycles of concentration increase, the water may not be able to hold the minerals in <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>. When the <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">solubility</a> of these minerals have been exceeded they can <a href="/wiki/Precipitate" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitate">precipitate</a> out as mineral solids and cause fouling and heat exchange problems in the cooling tower or the <a href="/wiki/Heat_exchangers" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat exchangers">heat exchangers</a>. The temperatures of the recirculating water, piping and heat exchange surfaces determine if and where minerals will precipitate from the recirculating water. Often a professional <a href="/wiki/Industrial_water_treatment" title="Industrial water treatment">water treatment</a> consultant will evaluate the make-up water and the operating conditions of the cooling tower and recommend an appropriate range for the cycles of concentration. The use of water treatment chemicals, pretreatment such as <a href="/wiki/Water_softening" title="Water softening">water softening</a>, <a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a> adjustment, and other techniques can affect the acceptable range of cycles of concentration. </p><p>Concentration cycles in the majority of cooling towers usually range from 3 to 7. In the United States, many water supplies use well water which has significant levels of dissolved solids. On the other hand, one of the largest water supplies, for <a href="/wiki/New_York_City_water_supply_system" title="New York City water supply system">New York City</a>, has a surface rainwater source quite low in minerals; thus cooling towers in that city are often allowed to concentrate to 7 or more cycles of concentration. </p><p>Since higher cycles of concentration represent less make-up water, <a href="/wiki/Water_conservation" title="Water conservation">water conservation</a> efforts may focus on increasing cycles of concentration.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Highly treated recycled water may be an effective means of reducing cooling tower consumption of potable water, in regions where potable water is scarce.<sup id="cite_ref-Diego_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Diego-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Maintenance">Maintenance</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Maintenance"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Clean visible dirt & debris from the cold water basin and surfaces with any visible biofilm (i.e., slime).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Disinfectant and other chemical levels in cooling towers and hot tubs should be continuously maintained and regularly monitored.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Regular checks of water quality (specifically the aerobic bacteria levels) using <a href="/wiki/Dip_slide" title="Dip slide">dipslides</a> should be taken as the presence of other organisms can support legionella by producing the organic nutrients that it needs to thrive.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Water_treatment">Water treatment</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Water treatment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Industrial_water_treatment" title="Industrial water treatment">Industrial water treatment</a></div> <p>Besides treating the circulating cooling water in large industrial cooling tower systems to minimize scaling and <a href="/wiki/Fouling" title="Fouling">fouling</a>, the water should be <a href="/wiki/Filter_(water)" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter (water)">filtered</a> to remove particulates, and also be dosed with <a href="/wiki/Biocide" title="Biocide">biocides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Algaecide" title="Algaecide">algaecides</a> to prevent growths that could interfere with the continuous flow of the water.<sup id="cite_ref-Beychok_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Beychok-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under certain conditions, a <a href="/wiki/Biofilm" title="Biofilm">biofilm</a> of micro-organisms such as bacteria, fungi and algae can grow very rapidly in the cooling water, and can reduce the heat transfer efficiency of the cooling tower. Biofilm can be reduced or prevented by using <a href="/wiki/Sodium_chlorite" title="Sodium chlorite">sodium chlorite</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> based chemicals. A normal industrial practice is to use two biocides, such as oxidizing and non-oxidizing types to complement each other's strengths and weaknesses, and to ensure a broader spectrum of attack. In most cases, a continual low level oxidizing biocide is used, then alternating to a periodic shock dose of non-oxidizing biocides.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2019)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Algaecides_and_biocides">Algaecides and biocides</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Algaecides and biocides"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Algaecides, as their name might suggest, is intended to kill algae and other related plant-like microbes in the water. Biocides can reduce other living matter that remains, improving the system and keeping clean and efficient water usage in a cooling tower. One of the most common options when it comes to biocides for your water is bromine.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Scale_inhibitors">Scale inhibitors</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Scale inhibitors"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Among the issues that cause the most damage and strain to a water tower's systems is scaling. When an unwanted material or contaminant in the water builds up in a certain area, it can create deposits that grow over time. This can cause issues ranging from the narrowing of pipes to total blockages and equipment failures.<sup id="cite_ref-auto_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The water consumption of the cooling tower comes from Drift, Bleed-off, Evaporation loss, The water that is immediately replenished into the cooling tower due to loss is called Make-up Water. The function of make-up water is to make machinery and equipment run safely and stably.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Legionnaires'_disease"><span id="Legionnaires.27_disease"></span>Legionnaires' disease</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Legionnaires' disease"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Legionella_pneumophila_(SEM)_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Legionella_pneumophila_%28SEM%29_2.jpg/220px-Legionella_pneumophila_%28SEM%29_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Legionella_pneumophila_%28SEM%29_2.jpg/330px-Legionella_pneumophila_%28SEM%29_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Legionella_pneumophila_%28SEM%29_2.jpg/440px-Legionella_pneumophila_%28SEM%29_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2835" data-file-height="1927" /></a><figcaption><i>Legionella pneumophila</i> (5000 × magnification)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Legionellosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionellosis">Legionellosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Legionella" title="Legionella">Legionella</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cooling_Tower_Algal_Mat.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Cooling_Tower_Algal_Mat.jpg/220px-Cooling_Tower_Algal_Mat.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Cooling_Tower_Algal_Mat.jpg/330px-Cooling_Tower_Algal_Mat.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c5/Cooling_Tower_Algal_Mat.jpg/440px-Cooling_Tower_Algal_Mat.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>A multitude of microscopic organisms such as bacterial colonies, fungi, and algae can easily thrive within the moderately high temperatures present inside a cooling tower.</figcaption></figure> <p>Another very important reason for using biocides in cooling towers is to prevent the growth of <i><a href="/wiki/Legionella" title="Legionella">Legionella</a></i>, including species that cause <a href="/wiki/Legionellosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Legionellosis">legionellosis</a> or Legionnaires' disease, most notably <i>L. pneumophila</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <i><a href="/wiki/Mycobacterium_avium" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycobacterium avium">Mycobacterium avium</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The various <i>Legionella</i> species are the cause of Legionnaires' disease in humans and transmission is via exposure to <a href="/wiki/Particulate" class="mw-redirect" title="Particulate">aerosols</a>—the inhalation of mist droplets containing the bacteria. Common sources of <i>Legionella</i> include cooling towers used in open recirculating evaporative cooling water systems, domestic hot water systems, fountains, and similar disseminators that tap into a public water supply. Natural sources include freshwater ponds and creeks.<sup id="cite_ref-Cun2016_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cun2016-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-CDC2016Start_38-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CDC2016Start-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>French researchers found that <i>Legionella</i> bacteria travelled up to 6 kilometres (3.7 mi) through the air from a large contaminated cooling tower at a petrochemical plant in Pas-de-Calais, France. That outbreak killed 21 of the 86 people who had a laboratory-confirmed infection.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Drift (or windage) is the term for water droplets of the process flow allowed to escape in the cooling tower discharge. Drift eliminators are used in order to hold drift rates typically to 0.001–0.005% of the circulating flow rate. A typical drift eliminator provides multiple directional changes of airflow to prevent the escape of water droplets. A well-designed and well-fitted drift eliminator can greatly reduce water loss and potential for <i>Legionella</i> or water treatment chemical exposure. Also, about every six months, inspect the conditions of the drift eliminators making sure there are no gaps to allow the free flow of dirt.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/US_Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" class="mw-redirect" title="US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">US Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a> (CDC) does not recommend that health-care facilities regularly test for the <i>Legionella pneumophila</i> bacteria. Scheduled microbiologic monitoring for <i>Legionella</i> remains controversial because its presence is not necessarily evidence of a potential for causing disease. The CDC recommends aggressive disinfection measures for cleaning and maintaining devices known to transmit <i>Legionella</i>, but does not recommend regularly-scheduled microbiologic assays for the bacteria. However, scheduled monitoring of potable water within a hospital might be considered in certain settings where persons are highly susceptible to illness and mortality from <i>Legionella</i> infection (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Hematopoietic_stem_cell" title="Hematopoietic stem cell">hematopoietic stem cell</a> transplantation units, or solid organ transplant units). Also, after an outbreak of legionellosis, health officials agree that monitoring is necessary to identify the source and to evaluate the efficacy of biocides or other prevention measures.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="The material near this tag failed verification of its source citation(s). (January 2021)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Studies have found <i>Legionella</i> in 40% to 60% of cooling towers.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Terminology">Terminology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Terminology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">May 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Floor_of_cooling_tower,_Iru_Power_Plant,_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Floor_of_cooling_tower%2C_Iru_Power_Plant%2C_2.jpg/220px-Floor_of_cooling_tower%2C_Iru_Power_Plant%2C_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Floor_of_cooling_tower%2C_Iru_Power_Plant%2C_2.jpg/330px-Floor_of_cooling_tower%2C_Iru_Power_Plant%2C_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Floor_of_cooling_tower%2C_Iru_Power_Plant%2C_2.jpg/440px-Floor_of_cooling_tower%2C_Iru_Power_Plant%2C_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>Fill plates at the bottom of the <a href="/wiki/Iru_Power_Plant" title="Iru Power Plant">Iru Power Plant</a> cooling tower (Estonia). Tower is shut down, revealing numerous water spray heads.</figcaption></figure> <p><span class="anchor" id="Windage"></span><span class="anchor" id="Drift"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Windage</b> or <b>Drift</b> – Water droplets that are carried out of the cooling tower with the exhaust air. Drift droplets have the same concentration of impurities as the water entering the tower. The drift rate is typically reduced by employing baffle-like devices, called drift eliminators, through which the air must travel after leaving the fill and spray zones of the tower. Drift can also be reduced by using warmer entering cooling tower temperatures.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Blow-out"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Blow-out</b> – Water droplets blown out of the cooling tower by wind, generally at the air inlet openings. Water may also be lost, in the absence of wind, through splashing or misting. Devices such as wind screens, louvers, splash deflectors and water diverters are used to limit these losses.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Plume"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Plume</b> – The stream of saturated exhaust air leaving the cooling tower. The plume is visible when water vapor it contains condenses in contact with cooler ambient air, like the saturated air in one's breath fogs on a cold day. Under certain conditions, a cooling tower plume may present fogging or icing hazards to its surroundings. Note that the water evaporated in the cooling process is "pure" water, in contrast to the very small percentage of drift droplets or water blown out of the air inlets.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Draw-off"></span><span class="anchor" id="Blow-down"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Draw-off</b> or <b>blow-down</b> – The portion of the circulating water flow that is removed (usually discharged to a drain) in order to maintain the amount of <a href="/wiki/Total_dissolved_solids" title="Total dissolved solids">total dissolved solids</a> (TDS) and other impurities at an acceptably low level. Higher TDS concentration in solution may result from greater cooling tower efficiency. However the higher the TDS concentration, the greater the risk of scale, biological growth, and corrosion. The amount of blow-down is primarily regulated by measuring by the <a href="/wiki/Electrical_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical conductivity">electrical conductivity</a> of the circulating water. Biological growth, scaling, and corrosion can be prevented by chemicals (respectively, biocide, sulfuric acid, corrosion inhibitor). On the other hand, the only practical way to decrease the electrical conductivity is by increasing the amount of blow-down discharge and subsequently increasing the amount of clean make-up water.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Zero_bleed_for_cooling_towers"></span><span class="anchor" id="Zero"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Zero bleed for cooling towers</b>, also called <b>zero blow-down for cooling towers</b>, is a process for significantly reducing the need for bleeding <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a> with residual <a href="/wiki/Solid" title="Solid">solids</a> from the system by enabling the water to hold more solids in solution.<sup id="cite_ref-WilliamHClark1997_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WilliamHClark1997-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-InstituteofIndustrialEngineers1981-1982_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-InstituteofIndustrialEngineers1981-1982-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mathie1998_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mathie1998-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Make-up"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Make-up</b> – The water that must be added to the circulating water system in order to compensate for water losses such as evaporation, drift loss, blow-out, blow-down, etc.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Noise"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Noise</b> – Sound energy emitted by a cooling tower and heard (recorded) at a given distance and direction. The sound is generated by the impact of falling water, by the movement of air by fans, the fan blades moving in the structure, vibration of the structure, and the motors, gearboxes or drive belts.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Approach"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Approach</b> – The approach is the difference in temperature between the cooled-water temperature and the entering-air <a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">wet bulb temperature</a> (twb). Since the cooling towers are based on the principles of evaporative cooling, the maximum cooling tower efficiency depends on the wet bulb temperature of the air. The wet-bulb temperature is a type of temperature measurement that reflects the physical properties of a system with a mixture of a gas and a vapor, usually air and water vapor</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Range"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Range</b> – The range is the temperature difference between the warm water inlet and cooled water exit.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Fill"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Fill</b> – Inside the tower, fills are added to increase contact surface as well as contact time between air and water, to provide better heat transfer. The efficiency of the tower depends on the selection and amount of fill. There are two types of fills that may be used: <ul><li><b>Film type fill</b> (causes water to spread into a thin film)</li> <li><b>Splash type fill</b> (breaks up falling stream of water and interrupts its vertical progress)</li></ul></li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Full-Flow_Filtration"></span><span class="anchor" id="Full-Flow"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Full-flow filtration</b> – Full-flow filtration continuously strains particulates out of the entire system flow. For example, in a 100-ton system, the flow rate would be roughly 300 gal/min. A filter would be selected to accommodate the entire 300 gal/min flow rate. In this case, the filter typically is installed after the cooling tower on the discharge side of the pump. While this is the ideal method of filtration, for higher flow systems it may be cost-prohibitive.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Side-Stream_Filtration"></span><span class="anchor" id="Side-Stream"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Side-stream filtration</b> – Side-stream filtration, although popular and effective, does not provide complete protection. With side-stream filtration, a portion of the water is filtered continuously. This method works on the principle that continuous particle removal will keep the system clean. Manufacturers typically package side-stream filters on a skid, complete with a pump and controls. For high flow systems, this method is cost-effective. Properly sizing a side-stream filtration system is critical to obtain satisfactory filter performance, but there is some debate over how to properly size the side-stream system. Many engineers size the system to continuously filter the cooling tower basin water at a rate equivalent to 10% of the total circulation flow rate. For example, if the total flow of a system is 1,200 gal/min (a 400-ton system), a 120 gal/min side-stream system is specified.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Cycle_of_concentration"></span><span class="anchor" id="Cycle"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Cycle of concentration</b> – Maximum allowed multiplier for the amount of miscellaneous substances in circulating water compared to the amount of those substances in make-up water.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Treated_timber"></span><span class="anchor" id="Treated"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Treated timber</b> – A structural material for cooling towers which was largely abandoned in the early 2000s. It is still used occasionally due to its low initial costs, in spite of its short life expectancy. The life of treated timber varies a lot, depending on the operating conditions of the tower, such as frequency of shutdowns, treatment of the circulating water, etc. Under proper working conditions, the estimated life of treated timber structural members is about 10 years.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Leaching"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Leaching</b> – The loss of wood preservative chemicals by the washing action of the water flowing through a wood structure cooling tower.</li></ul> <p><span class="anchor" id="Pultruded_FRP"></span><span class="anchor" id="Pultruded"></span> </p> <ul><li><b>Pultruded FRP</b> – A common structural material for smaller cooling towers, <a href="/wiki/Fibre-reinforced_plastic" title="Fibre-reinforced plastic">fibre-reinforced plastic</a> (FRP) is known for its high corrosion-resistance capabilities. Pultruded FRP is produced using <a href="/wiki/Pultrusion" title="Pultrusion">pultrusion</a> technology, and has become the most common structural material for small cooling towers. It offers lower costs and requires less maintenance compared to reinforced concrete, which is still in use for large structures.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fog_production">Fog production</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Fog production"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clouds,_natural_and_otherwise_-_geograph.org.uk_-_778331.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Clouds%2C_natural_and_otherwise_-_geograph.org.uk_-_778331.jpg/220px-Clouds%2C_natural_and_otherwise_-_geograph.org.uk_-_778331.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Clouds%2C_natural_and_otherwise_-_geograph.org.uk_-_778331.jpg/330px-Clouds%2C_natural_and_otherwise_-_geograph.org.uk_-_778331.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Clouds%2C_natural_and_otherwise_-_geograph.org.uk_-_778331.jpg/440px-Clouds%2C_natural_and_otherwise_-_geograph.org.uk_-_778331.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Fog produced by <a href="/wiki/Eggborough_power_station" title="Eggborough power station">Eggborough power station</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Under certain ambient conditions, plumes of water vapor can be seen rising out of the discharge from a cooling tower, and can be mistaken as smoke from a fire. If the outdoor air is at or near saturation, and the tower adds more water to the air, saturated air with liquid water droplets can be discharged, which is seen as fog. This phenomenon typically occurs on cool, humid days, but is rare in many climates. Fog and clouds associated with cooling towers can be described as homogenitus, as with other clouds of man-made origin, such as <a href="/wiki/Contrail" title="Contrail">contrails</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ship_track" class="mw-redirect" title="Ship track">ship tracks</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This phenomenon can be prevented by decreasing the relative humidity of the saturated discharge air. For that purpose, in hybrid towers, saturated discharge air is mixed with heated low relative humidity air. Some air enters the tower above drift eliminator level, passing through heat exchangers. The relative humidity of the dry air is even more decreased instantly as being heated while entering the tower. The discharged mixture has a relatively lower relative humidity and the fog is invisible.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cloud_formation">Cloud formation</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cloud formation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Issues related to applied meteorology of cooling towers, including the assessment of the impact of cooling towers on cloud enhancement were considered in a series of models and experiments. One of the results by <a href="/wiki/Krzysztof_Edward_Haman" title="Krzysztof Edward Haman">Haman's group</a> indicated significant dynamic influences of the condensation trails on the surrounding atmosphere, manifested in temperature and humidity disturbances. The mechanism of these influences seemed to be associated either with the airflow over the trail as an obstacle or with vertical waves generated by the trail, often at a considerable altitude above it.<sup id="cite_ref-Haman1989_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Haman1989-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Salt_emission_pollution">Salt emission pollution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Salt emission pollution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When wet cooling towers with seawater make-up are installed in various industries located in or near coastal areas, the drift of fine droplets emitted from the cooling towers contain nearly 6% sodium chloride which deposits on the nearby land areas. This deposition of sodium salts on the nearby agriculture and vegetative lands can convert them into <a href="/wiki/Soil_salinity_control" title="Soil salinity control">sodic saline</a> or <a href="/wiki/Alkali_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali soils">sodic alkaline soils</a> depending on the nature of the soil and enhance the <a href="/wiki/Sodium_adsorption_ratio" title="Sodium adsorption ratio">sodicity</a> of ground and surface water. The salt deposition problem from such cooling towers aggravates where pollution control standards are not imposed or not implemented to minimize the drift emissions from wet cooling towers using seawater make-up.<sup id="cite_ref-wet_cooling_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wet_cooling-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Respirable_suspended_particle" class="mw-redirect" title="Respirable suspended particle">Respirable suspended particulate matter</a>, of less than 10 <a href="/wiki/Micrometre" title="Micrometre">micrometers</a> (μm) in size, can be present in the drift from cooling towers. Larger particles above 10 μm in size are generally filtered out in the nose and throat via cilia and mucus but particulate matter smaller than 10 μm, referred to as PM<sub>10</sub>, can settle in the bronchi and lungs and cause health problems. Similarly, particles smaller than 2.5 μm, (PM<sub>2.5</sub>), tend to penetrate into the gas exchange regions of the lung, and very small particles (less than 100 nanometers) may pass through the lungs to affect other organs. Though the total particulate emissions from wet cooling towers with fresh water make-up is much less, they contain more PM<sub>10</sub> and PM<sub>2.5</sub> than the total emissions from wet cooling towers with sea water make-up. This is due to lesser salt content in fresh water drift (below 2,000 ppm) compared to the salt content of sea water drift (60,000 ppm).<sup id="cite_ref-wet_cooling_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-wet_cooling-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Use_as_a_flue-gas_stack">Use as a flue-gas stack</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Use as a flue-gas stack"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chimney_included_in_cooling_tower.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Chimney_included_in_cooling_tower.jpg/170px-Chimney_included_in_cooling_tower.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Chimney_included_in_cooling_tower.jpg/255px-Chimney_included_in_cooling_tower.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b1/Chimney_included_in_cooling_tower.jpg/340px-Chimney_included_in_cooling_tower.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2362" data-file-height="3642" /></a><figcaption>Flue-gas stack inside a natural draft wet cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Power_station_Duisburg_Walsum.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Power_station_Duisburg_Walsum.JPG/220px-Power_station_Duisburg_Walsum.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="133" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Power_station_Duisburg_Walsum.JPG/330px-Power_station_Duisburg_Walsum.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Power_station_Duisburg_Walsum.JPG/440px-Power_station_Duisburg_Walsum.JPG 2x" data-file-width="637" data-file-height="386" /></a><figcaption>Flue gas stack connection into a natural draft wet cooling tower</figcaption></figure> <p>At some modern power stations equipped with <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization" title="Flue-gas desulfurization">flue gas purification</a>, such as the <a href="/wiki/Gro%C3%9Fkrotzenburg_Power_Station" title="Großkrotzenburg Power Station">Großkrotzenburg Power Station</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Rostock_Power_Station" title="Rostock Power Station">Rostock Power Station</a>, the cooling tower is also used as a <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_stack" title="Flue-gas stack">flue-gas stack</a> (industrial chimney), thus saving the cost of a separate chimney structure. At plants without flue gas purification, problems with corrosion may occur, due to reactions of raw flue gas with water to form <a href="/wiki/Acid" title="Acid">acids</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Sometimes, natural draft cooling towers are constructed with structural steel in place of concrete (RCC) when the construction time of natural draft cooling tower is exceeding the construction time of the rest of the plant or the local soil is of poor strength to bear the heavy weight of RCC cooling towers or cement prices are higher at a site to opt for cheaper natural draft cooling towers made of structural steel.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2021)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Operation_in_freezing_weather">Operation in freezing weather</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Operation in freezing weather"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Cooling_tower" title="Special:EditPage/Cooling tower">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">April 2021</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%AD%D0%A65_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_VizuIMG_2181.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%AD%D0%A65_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_VizuIMG_2181.JPG/220px-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%AD%D0%A65_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_VizuIMG_2181.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%AD%D0%A65_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_VizuIMG_2181.JPG/330px-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%AD%D0%A65_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_VizuIMG_2181.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%AD%D0%A65_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_VizuIMG_2181.JPG/440px-%D0%9F%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%B8%D0%BD_%D0%A2%D0%AD%D0%A65_%D0%93%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B8_VizuIMG_2181.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2682" data-file-height="2003" /></a><figcaption>Large <a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid" title="Hyperboloid">hyperboloid</a> cooling towers made of structural steel for a power plant in Kharkiv (Ukraine)</figcaption></figure> <p>Some cooling towers (such as smaller building air conditioning systems) are shut down seasonally, drained, and winterized to prevent freeze damage. </p><p>During the winter, other sites continuously operate cooling towers with 4 °C (39 °F) water leaving the tower. Basin heaters, tower draindown, and other freeze protection methods are often employed in cold climates. Operational cooling towers with malfunctions can freeze during very cold weather. Typically, freezing starts at the corners of a cooling tower with a reduced or absent heat load. Severe freezing conditions can create growing volumes of ice, resulting in increased structural loads which can cause structural damage or collapse. </p><p>To prevent freezing, the following procedures are used: </p> <ul><li>The use of water modulating by-pass systems is not recommended during freezing weather. In such situations, the control flexibility of variable speed motors, two-speed motors, and/or two-speed motors multi-cell towers should be considered a requirement.</li> <li>Do not operate the tower unattended. Remote sensors and alarms may be installed to monitor tower conditions.</li> <li>Do not operate the tower without a heat load. Basin heaters may be used to keep the water in the tower pan at an above-freezing temperature. Heat trace ("heating tape") is a resistive heating element that is installed along water pipes to prevent freezing in cold climates.</li> <li>Maintain design water flow rate over the tower fill.</li> <li>Manipulate or reduce airflow to maintain water temperature above freezing point.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Fire_hazard">Fire hazard</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Fire hazard"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Cooling towers constructed in whole or in part of combustible materials can support internal fire propagation. Such fires can become very intense, due to the high <a href="/wiki/Surface-volume_ratio" class="mw-redirect" title="Surface-volume ratio">surface-volume ratio</a> of the towers, and fires can be further intensified by natural convection or fan-assisted draft. The resulting damage can be sufficiently severe to require the replacement of the entire cell or tower structure. For this reason, some <a href="/wiki/Model_building_code" title="Model building code">codes</a> and standards<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> recommend that combustible cooling towers be provided with an automatic <a href="/wiki/Fire_sprinkler_system" title="Fire sprinkler system">fire sprinkler system</a>. Fires can propagate internally within the tower structure when the cell is not in operation (such as for maintenance or construction), and even while the tower is in operation, especially those of the induced-draft type, because of the existence of relatively dry areas within the towers.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structural_stability">Structural stability</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Structural stability"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Being very large structures, cooling towers are susceptible to wind damage, and several spectacular failures have occurred in the past. At <a href="/wiki/Ferrybridge_power_station" class="mw-redirect" title="Ferrybridge power station">Ferrybridge power station</a> on 1 November 1965, the station was the site of a major <a href="/wiki/Structural_failure" class="mw-redirect" title="Structural failure">structural failure</a>, when three of the cooling towers collapsed owing to vibrations in 85 mph (137 km/h) winds.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the structures had been built to withstand higher wind speeds, the shape of the cooling towers caused westerly winds to be funneled into the towers themselves, creating a <a href="/wiki/Vortex" title="Vortex">vortex</a>. Three out of the original eight cooling towers were destroyed, and the remaining five were severely damaged. The towers were later rebuilt and all eight cooling towers were strengthened to tolerate adverse weather conditions. Building codes were changed to include improved structural support, and <a href="/wiki/Wind_tunnel" title="Wind tunnel">wind tunnel</a> tests were introduced to check tower structures and configuration.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_tallest_cooling_towers" title="List of tallest cooling towers">List of tallest cooling towers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_soils" class="mw-redirect" title="Alkali soils">Alkali soils</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_lake_water_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Deep lake water cooling">Deep lake water cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">Evaporative cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil fuel power plant">Fossil fuel power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">Heating, ventilating and air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperboloid_structure" title="Hyperboloid structure">Hyperboloid structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_plant" title="Nuclear power plant">Nuclear power plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spray_pond" title="Spray pond">Spray pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_cooling" title="Water cooling">Water cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willow_Island_disaster" title="Willow Island disaster">Willow Island disaster</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023052158/http://blog.cleanenergy.org/2012/12/31/identifying-nuclear-reactors-in-google-earth/">"Identifying Nuclear Reactors in Google Earth"</a>. <i>CleanEnergy Footprints (cleanenergy.org)</i>. 31 December 2012. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 May</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=CleanEnergy+Footprints+%28cleanenergy.org%29&rft.atitle=Identifying+Nuclear+Reactors+in+Google+Earth&rft.date=2012-12-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.cleanenergy.org%2F2012%2F12%2F31%2Fidentifying-nuclear-reactors-in-google-earth%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACooling+tower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rsc.org/news-events/articles/2007/02-february/cooling-towers/">"Myth of cooling towers is symptomatic of global warming information shortage"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Chemistry" title="Royal Society of Chemistry">Royal Society of Chemistry</a></i>. 15 February 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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United States.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=report&rft.btitle=Profile+of+the+Fossil+Fuel+Electric+Power+Generation+Industry&rft.pub=United+States&rft.date=1997&rft.au=U.S.+Environmental+Protection+Agency+%28EPA%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.epa.gov%2Fcompliance%2Fresources%2Fpublications%2Fassistance%2Fsectors%2Fnotebooks%2Ffossil.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACooling+tower" class="Z3988"></span> Document No. EPA/310-R-97-007. p. 79.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.epa.gov/waterscience/presentations/maulbetsch.pdf">Cooling System Retrofit Costs</a> EPA Workshop on Cooling Water Intake Technologies, John Maulbetsch, Maulbetsch Consulting, May 2003</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas J. Feeley, III, Lindsay Green, James T. Murphy, Jeffrey Hoffmann, and Barbara A. 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Page 5 of 12, column 1, paragraph 3. Most professional and government agencies do not recommend testing for <i>Legionella</i> bacteria on a routine basis"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cti.org/downloads/WTP-148.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on 13 May 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">14 July</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Cooling+Tower+Institute%2C+July+2008.+Page+5+of+12%2C+column+1%2C+paragraph+3.+Most+professional+and+government+agencies+do+not+recommend+testing+for+Legionella+bacteria+on+a+routine+basis.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.cti.org%2Fdownloads%2FWTP-148.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACooling+tower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-WilliamHClark1997-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-WilliamHClark1997_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilliam_H_Clark1997" class="citation cs2">William H Clark (1997), <i>Retrofitting for energy conservation</i>, McGraw-Hill Professional, p. 66, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-07-011920-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-07-011920-8"><bdi>978-0-07-011920-8</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Retrofitting+for+energy+conservation&rft.pages=66&rft.pub=McGraw-Hill+Professional&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-07-011920-8&rft.au=William+H+Clark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACooling+tower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-InstituteofIndustrialEngineers1981-1982-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-InstituteofIndustrialEngineers1981-1982_44-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFInstitute_of_Industrial_Engineers_1981–1982" class="citation cs2">Institute of Industrial Engineers 1981– (1982), <i>Proceedings, Volume 1982</i>, Institute of Industrial Engineers/American Institute of Industrial Engineers, p. 101</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Proceedings%2C+Volume+1982&rft.pages=101&rft.pub=Institute+of+Industrial+Engineers%2FAmerican+Institute+of+Industrial+Engineers&rft.date=1982&rft.au=Institute+of+Industrial+Engineers+1981%E2%80%93&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACooling+tower" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Citation" title="Template:Citation">citation</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_numeric_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mathie1998-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Mathie1998_45-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMathie1998" class="citation cs2">Mathie, Alton J. 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"Observations of cooling tower and stack plumes and their comparison with plume model "ALINA"<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>". <i>Atmospheric Environment</i>. <b>23</b> (6). Elsevier: <span class="nowrap">1223–</span>1234. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1989AtmEn..23.1223H">1989AtmEn..23.1223H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2F0004-6981%2889%2990149-2">10.1016/0004-6981(89)90149-2</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Atmospheric+Environment&rft.atitle=Observations+of+cooling+tower+and+stack+plumes+and+their+comparison+with+plume+model+%22ALINA%22&rft.volume=23&rft.issue=6&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1223-%3C%2Fspan%3E1234&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2F0004-6981%2889%2990149-2&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1989AtmEn..23.1223H&rft.aulast=Haman&rft.aufirst=Krzysztof+E.&rft.au=Malinowski%2C+Szymon+P.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACooling+tower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-wet_cooling-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-wet_cooling_48-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-wet_cooling_48-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ec.gc.ca/inrp-npri/default.asp?lang=En&n=2ED8CFA7-1">Wet Cooling Tower Guidance For Particulate Matter, Environment Canada</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150403110105/http://www.ec.gc.ca/inrp-npri/default.asp?lang=En&n=2ED8CFA7-1">Archived</a> 3 April 2015 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Retrieved on 2013-01-29</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/National_Fire_Protection_Association" title="National Fire Protection Association">National Fire Protection Association</a> (NFPA). NFPA 214, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=214"><i>Standard on Water-Cooling Towers</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100617095816/http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=214">Archived</a> 17 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">NFPA 214, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=214"><i>Standard on Water-Cooling Towers.</i></a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100617095816/http://www.nfpa.org/aboutthecodes/AboutTheCodes.asp?DocNum=214">Archived</a> 17 June 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> Section A1.1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/uk-england-leeds-35927009">"Ferrybridge C Power Station officially closes after 50 years"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 31 March 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Ferrybridge+C+Power+Station+officially+closes+after+50+years&rft.date=2016-03-31&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fuk-england-leeds-35927009&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACooling+tower" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cooling_tower&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Cooling_towers" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Cooling towers"><span style="font-style:italic; font-weight:bold;">Cooling towers</span></a>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cti.org/whatis/coolingtowerdetail.shtml">What is a cooling tower?</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100507124703/http://www.cti.org/whatis/coolingtowerdetail.shtml">Archived</a> 7 May 2010 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> – Cooling Technology Institute</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nucleartourist.com/systems/ct.htm">"Cooling Towers" – includes diagrams</a> – Virtual Nuclear Tourist</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150403110105/http://www.ec.gc.ca/inrp-npri/default.asp?lang=En&n=2ED8CFA7-1">Wet cooling tower guidance for particulate matter, Environment Canada.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lonelyplanet.com/news/2017/02/15/photographer-europes-abandoned-cooling-towers/">Striking pictures of Europe's abandoned cooling towers</a> by Reginald Van de Velde, Lonely Planet, 15 February 2017 (see also excerpt from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/av/world-europe-38029636/see-inside-giant-cooling-towers">radio interview</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/World_Update" title="World Update">World Update</a></i>, BBC, 21 November 2016)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist 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autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output 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id="Electricity_delivery729" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Electricity_delivery" title="Electricity delivery">Electricity delivery</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_generation_control" title="Automatic generation control">Automatic generation control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Backfeeding" title="Backfeeding">Backfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Base_load" title="Base load">Base load</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_factor" title="Demand factor">Demand factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Droop_speed_control" title="Droop speed control">Droop speed control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power" title="Electric power">Electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_quality" title="Electric power quality">Electric power quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_fault" title="Electrical fault">Electrical fault</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_demand_management" title="Energy demand management">Energy demand management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_return_on_investment" title="Energy return on investment">Energy return on investment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_code" title="Grid code">Grid code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_energy_storage" title="Grid energy storage">Grid energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grid_strength" class="mw-redirect" title="Grid strength">Grid strength</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_storage" title="Home energy storage">Home energy storage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load-following_power_plant" title="Load-following power plant">Load-following</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merit_order" title="Merit order">Merit order</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nameplate_capacity" title="Nameplate capacity">Nameplate capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peak_demand" title="Peak demand">Peak demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_factor" title="Power factor">Power factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power-flow_study" title="Power-flow study">Power-flow study</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Repowering" title="Repowering">Repowering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_frequency" title="Utility frequency">Utility frequency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_renewable_energy" title="Variable renewable energy">Variability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vehicle-to-grid" title="Vehicle-to-grid">Vehicle-to-grid</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Abspannportal.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt"><img alt="Portal pylons of Kriftel substation near Frankfurt" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/120px-Abspannportal.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/180px-Abspannportal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Abspannportal.jpg/240px-Abspannportal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Non-renewable_resource" title="Non-renewable resource">Non-renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_power_station" title="Fossil fuel power station">Fossil fuel power station</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_gas" title="Natural gas">Natural gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum" title="Petroleum">Petroleum</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power" title="Nuclear power">Nuclear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7em"><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy" title="Renewable energy">Renewable</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biofuel" title="Biofuel">Biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogas" title="Biogas">Biogas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass" title="Biomass">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geothermal_power" title="Geothermal power">Geothermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydroelectricity" title="Hydroelectricity">Hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_energy" title="Marine energy">Marine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_current_power" title="Marine current power">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmotic_power" title="Osmotic power">Osmotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_thermal_energy_conversion" title="Ocean thermal energy conversion">Thermal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_power" title="Tidal power">Tidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_power" title="Wave power">Wave</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_power" title="Solar power">Solar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sustainable_biofuel" title="Sustainable biofuel">Sustainable biofuel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_power" title="Wind power">Wind</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Power_station_technology" title="Category:Power station technology">Generation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/AC_power" title="AC power">AC power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cogeneration" title="Cogeneration">Cogeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_cycle_power_plant" title="Combined cycle power plant">Combined cycle</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Induction_generator" title="Induction generator">Induction generator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Micro_combined_heat_and_power" title="Micro combined heat and power">Micro CHP</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rankine_cycle" title="Rankine cycle">Rankine cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three-phase_electric_power" title="Three-phase electric power">Three-phase electric power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_power_plant" title="Virtual power plant">Virtual power plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Transmission</a><br />and <a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">distribution</a></div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demand_response" title="Demand response">Demand response</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distributed_generation" title="Distributed generation">Distributed generation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_demand_(electric_power)" title="Dynamic demand (electric power)">Dynamic demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_distribution" title="Electric power distribution">Electric power distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_system" title="Electric power system">Electric power system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_power_transmission" title="Electric power transmission">Electric power transmission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_busbar_system" title="Electrical busbar system">Electrical busbar system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_grid" title="Electrical grid">Electrical grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrical_substation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical substation">Electrical substation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electricity_retailing" title="Electricity retailing">Electricity retailing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_direct_current" title="High-voltage direct current">High-voltage direct current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-voltage_shore_connection" title="High-voltage shore connection">High-voltage shore connection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interconnector" title="Interconnector">Interconnector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_management" title="Load management">Load management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mains_electricity_by_country" title="Mains electricity by country">Mains electricity by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overhead_power_line" title="Overhead power line">Overhead power line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_station" title="Power station">Power station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumped-storage_hydroelectricity" title="Pumped-storage hydroelectricity">Pumped hydro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Single-wire_earth_return" title="Single-wire earth return">Single-wire earth return</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_grid" title="Smart grid">Smart grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Super_grid" title="Super grid">Super grid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transformer" title="Transformer">Transformer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_system_operator" title="Transmission system operator">Transmission system operator</a> (TSO)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transmission_tower" title="Transmission tower">Transmission tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Utility_pole" title="Utility pole">Utility pole</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Failure modes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_start" title="Black start">Black start</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brownout_(electricity)" title="Brownout (electricity)">Brownout</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascading_failure" title="Cascading failure">Cascading failure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_outage" title="Power outage">Power outage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rolling_blackout" title="Rolling blackout">Rolling blackout</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Protective<br />devices</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arc-fault_circuit_interrupter" title="Arc-fault circuit interrupter">Arc-fault circuit interrupter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Circuit_breaker" title="Circuit breaker">Circuit breaker</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Earth-leakage_circuit_breaker" title="Earth-leakage circuit breaker">Earth-leakage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sulfur_hexafluoride_circuit_breaker" title="Sulfur hexafluoride circuit breaker">Sulfur hexafluoride</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generator_interlock_kit" title="Generator interlock kit">Generator interlock kit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numerical_relay" title="Numerical relay">Numerical relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Power_system_protection" title="Power system protection">Power system protection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protective_relay" title="Protective relay">Protective relay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Residual-current_device" title="Residual-current device">Residual-current device</a> (GFI)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Economics<br />and policies</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Availability_factor" title="Availability factor">Availability factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Capacity_factor" title="Capacity factor">Capacity factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_offsets_and_credits" title="Carbon offsets and credits">Carbon offsets and credits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cost_of_electricity_by_source" title="Cost of electricity by source">Cost of electricity by source</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_subsidy" title="Energy subsidy">Energy subsidies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_tax" title="Environmental tax">Environmental tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed-in_tariff" title="Feed-in tariff">Feed-in tariff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fossil_fuel_phase-out" title="Fossil fuel phase-out">Fossil fuel phase-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Load_factor_(electrical)" title="Load factor (electrical)">Load factor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Net_metering" title="Net metering">Net metering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pigouvian_tax" title="Pigouvian tax">Pigouvian tax</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Certificate_(United_States)" title="Renewable Energy Certificate (United States)">Renewable Energy Certificates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_energy_commercialization" title="Renewable energy commercialization">Renewable energy commercialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_Energy_Payments" title="Renewable Energy Payments">Renewable Energy Payments</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spark_spread" title="Spark spread">Spark/Dark/Quark/Bark spread</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Statistics and<br />production</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Electric_energy_consumption" title="Electric energy consumption">Electric energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_electricity_sectors" title="List of electricity sectors">List of electricity sectors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Electric_power_distribution" title="Category:Electric power distribution">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning216" style="vertical-align: middle;;padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:HVAC" title="Template:HVAC"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:HVAC" title="Template talk:HVAC"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:HVAC" title="Special:EditPage/Template:HVAC"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning216" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Heating,_ventilation,_and_air_conditioning" title="Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning">Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Fundamental <br />concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_changes_per_hour" title="Air changes per hour">Air changes per hour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bake-out" title="Bake-out">Bake-out</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_envelope" title="Building envelope">Building envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">Convection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dilution_(equation)" title="Dilution (equation)">Dilution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Domestic_energy_consumption" title="Domestic energy consumption">Domestic energy consumption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enthalpy" title="Enthalpy">Enthalpy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fluid_dynamics" title="Fluid dynamics">Fluid dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump_and_refrigeration_cycle" title="Heat pump and refrigeration cycle">Heat pump and refrigeration cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_transfer" title="Heat transfer">Heat transfer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_(HVAC)" title="Infiltration (HVAC)">Infiltration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noise_control" title="Noise control">Noise control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">Outgassing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Particulates" title="Particulates">Particulates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sensible_heat" title="Sensible heat">Sensible heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_effect" title="Stack effect">Stack effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_comfort" title="Thermal comfort">Thermal comfort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_destratification" title="Thermal destratification">Thermal destratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_mass" title="Thermal mass">Thermal mass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapour_pressure_of_water" title="Vapour pressure of water">Vapour pressure of water</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Absorption-compression_heat_pump" title="Absorption-compression heat pump">Absorption-compression heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Absorption_refrigerator" title="Absorption refrigerator">Absorption refrigerator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_barrier" title="Air barrier">Air barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioning" title="Air conditioning">Air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antifreeze" title="Antifreeze">Antifreeze</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automobile_air_conditioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Automobile air conditioning">Automobile air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autonomous_building" title="Autonomous building">Autonomous building</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_insulation_material" title="Building insulation material">Building insulation materials</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_heating" title="Central heating">Central heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_solar_heating" title="Central solar heating">Central solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_beam" title="Chilled beam">Chilled beam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chilled_water" title="Chilled water">Chilled water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constant_air_volume" title="Constant air volume">Constant air volume</a> (CAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coolant" title="Coolant">Coolant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross_ventilation" title="Cross ventilation">Cross ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dedicated_outdoor_air_system" title="Dedicated outdoor air system">Dedicated outdoor air system</a> (DOAS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_water_source_cooling" title="Deep water source cooling">Deep water source cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demand_controlled_ventilation" title="Demand controlled ventilation">Demand controlled ventilation</a> (DCV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_ventilation" title="Displacement ventilation">Displacement ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_cooling" title="District cooling">District cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/District_heating" title="District heating">District heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electric_heating" title="Electric heating">Electric heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_recovery_ventilation" class="mw-redirect" title="Energy recovery ventilation">Energy recovery ventilation</a> (ERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firestop" title="Firestop">Firestop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air" title="Forced-air">Forced-air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forced-air_gas" title="Forced-air gas">Forced-air gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_cooling" title="Free cooling">Free cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_recovery_ventilation" title="Heat recovery ventilation">Heat recovery ventilation</a> (HRV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hybrid_heat" title="Hybrid heat">Hybrid heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronics" title="Hydronics">Hydronics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice_storage_air_conditioning" title="Ice storage air conditioning">Ice storage air conditioning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_ventilation" title="Kitchen ventilation">Kitchen ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixed-mode_ventilation" title="Mixed-mode ventilation">Mixed-mode ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgeneration" title="Microgeneration">Microgeneration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_cooling" title="Passive cooling">Passive cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_daytime_radiative_cooling" title="Passive daytime radiative cooling">Passive daytime radiative cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_house" title="Passive house">Passive house</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_ventilation" title="Passive ventilation">Passive ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating_and_cooling" title="Radiant heating and cooling">Radiant heating and cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant cooling">Radiant cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiant_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiant heating">Radiant heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radon_mitigation" title="Radon mitigation">Radon mitigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renewable_heat" title="Renewable heat">Renewable heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_air_distribution" title="Room air distribution">Room air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_air_heat" title="Solar air heat">Solar air heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_combisystem" title="Solar combisystem">Solar combisystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar cooling">Solar cooling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_heating" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar heating">Solar heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_insulation" title="Thermal insulation">Thermal insulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermosiphon" title="Thermosiphon">Thermosiphon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_air_distribution" title="Underfloor air distribution">Underfloor air distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underfloor_heating" title="Underfloor heating">Underfloor heating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_barrier" title="Vapor barrier">Vapor barrier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor-compression_refrigeration" title="Vapor-compression refrigeration">Vapor-compression refrigeration</a> (VCRS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_air_volume" title="Variable air volume">Variable air volume</a> (VAV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_refrigerant_flow" title="Variable refrigerant flow">Variable refrigerant flow</a> (VRF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ventilation_(architecture)" title="Ventilation (architecture)">Ventilation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_heat_recycling" title="Water heat recycling">Water heat recycling</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Components</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_conditioner_inverter" class="mw-redirect" title="Air conditioner inverter">Air conditioner inverter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_door" title="Air door">Air door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_filter" title="Air filter">Air filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_handler" title="Air handler">Air handler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_ioniser" title="Air ioniser">Air ionizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air-mixing_plenum" title="Air-mixing plenum">Air-mixing plenum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_purifier" title="Air purifier">Air purifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_source_heat_pump" title="Air source heat pump">Air source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_fan" title="Attic fan">Attic fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Automatic_balancing_valve" title="Automatic balancing valve">Automatic balancing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Back_boiler" title="Back boiler">Back boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_pipe" title="Barrier pipe">Barrier pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blast_damper" title="Blast damper">Blast damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler" title="Boiler">Boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_fan" title="Centrifugal fan">Centrifugal fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceramic_heater" title="Ceramic heater">Ceramic heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chiller" title="Chiller">Chiller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensate_pump" title="Condensate pump">Condensate pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condenser_(heat_transfer)" title="Condenser (heat transfer)">Condenser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensing_boiler" title="Condensing boiler">Condensing boiler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convection_heater" title="Convection heater">Convection heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Compressor" title="Compressor">Compressor</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damper_(flow)" title="Damper (flow)">Damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dehumidifier" title="Dehumidifier">Dehumidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_(flow)" title="Duct (flow)">Duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economizer" title="Economizer">Economizer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_precipitator" title="Electrostatic precipitator">Electrostatic precipitator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporator" title="Evaporator">Evaporator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exhaust_hood" class="mw-redirect" title="Exhaust hood">Exhaust hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expansion_tank" title="Expansion tank">Expansion tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_(machine)" title="Fan (machine)">Fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_coil_unit" title="Fan coil unit">Fan coil unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_filter_unit" title="Fan filter unit">Fan filter unit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fan_heater" title="Fan heater">Fan heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire_damper" title="Fire damper">Fire damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace" title="Fireplace">Fireplace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireplace_insert" title="Fireplace insert">Fireplace insert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freeze_stat" title="Freeze stat">Freeze stat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flue" title="Flue">Flue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freon" title="Freon">Freon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fume_hood" title="Fume hood">Fume hood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Furnace_(house_heating)" class="mw-redirect" title="Furnace (house heating)">Furnace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_compressor" class="mw-redirect" title="Gas compressor">Gas compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_heater" title="Gas heater">Gas heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gasoline_heater" title="Gasoline heater">Gasoline heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grease_duct" title="Grease duct">Grease duct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grille_(architecture)" title="Grille (architecture)">Grille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground-coupled_heat_exchanger" title="Ground-coupled heat exchanger">Ground-coupled heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_source_heat_pump" title="Ground source heat pump">Ground source heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_exchanger" title="Heat exchanger">Heat exchanger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pipe" title="Heat pipe">Heat pipe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_pump" title="Heat pump">Heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_film" title="Heating film">Heating film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heating_system" title="Heating system">Heating system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HEPA" title="HEPA">HEPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_efficiency_glandless_circulating_pump" title="High efficiency glandless circulating pump">High efficiency glandless circulating pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High-pressure_cut-off_switch" class="mw-redirect" title="High-pressure cut-off switch">High-pressure cut-off switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidifier" title="Humidifier">Humidifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_heater" title="Infrared heater">Infrared heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inverter_compressor" title="Inverter compressor">Inverter compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kerosene_heater" title="Kerosene heater">Kerosene heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louver" title="Louver">Louver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_room" title="Mechanical room">Mechanical room</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_heater" title="Oil heater">Oil heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Packaged_terminal_air_conditioner" title="Packaged terminal air conditioner">Packaged terminal air conditioner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plenum_space" title="Plenum space">Plenum space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressurisation_ductwork" title="Pressurisation ductwork">Pressurisation ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Process_duct_work" title="Process duct work">Process duct work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_(heating)" title="Radiator (heating)">Radiator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiator_reflector" title="Radiator reflector">Radiator reflector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recuperator" title="Recuperator">Recuperator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant" title="Refrigerant">Refrigerant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Register_(air_and_heating)" title="Register (air and heating)">Register</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reversing_valve" title="Reversing valve">Reversing valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Run-around_coil" title="Run-around coil">Run-around coil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sail_switch" title="Sail switch">Sail switch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scroll_compressor" title="Scroll compressor">Scroll compressor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_chimney" title="Solar chimney">Solar chimney</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar-assisted_heat_pump" title="Solar-assisted heat pump">Solar-assisted heat pump</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_heater" title="Space heater">Space heater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_canopy" title="Smoke canopy">Smoke canopy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_damper" title="Smoke damper">Smoke damper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoke_exhaust_ductwork" title="Smoke exhaust ductwork">Smoke exhaust ductwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_expansion_valve" title="Thermal expansion valve">Thermal expansion valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermal_wheel" title="Thermal wheel">Thermal wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trickle_vent" title="Trickle vent">Trickle vent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trombe_wall" title="Trombe wall">Trombe wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/TurboSwing" title="TurboSwing">TurboSwing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turning_vanes_(HVAC)" title="Turning vanes (HVAC)">Turning vanes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultra-low_particulate_air" title="Ultra-low particulate air">Ultra-low particulate air</a> (ULPA)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whole-house_fan" title="Whole-house fan">Whole-house fan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windcatcher" title="Windcatcher">Windcatcher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wood-burning_stove" title="Wood-burning stove">Wood-burning stove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zone_valve" title="Zone valve">Zone valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Measurement<br />and control</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_flow_meter" title="Air flow meter">Air flow meter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquastat" title="Aquastat">Aquastat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BACnet" title="BACnet">BACnet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blower_door" title="Blower door">Blower door</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_automation" title="Building automation">Building automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide_sensor" title="Carbon dioxide sensor">Carbon dioxide sensor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clean_air_delivery_rate" title="Clean air delivery rate">Clean air delivery rate</a> (CADR)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Control_valve" title="Control valve">Control valve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_detector" title="Gas detector">Gas detector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Home_energy_monitor" title="Home energy monitor">Home energy monitor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidistat" title="Humidistat">Humidistat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/HVAC_control_system" title="HVAC control system">HVAC control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infrared_thermometer" title="Infrared thermometer">Infrared thermometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intelligent_buildings" class="mw-redirect" title="Intelligent buildings">Intelligent buildings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LonWorks" title="LonWorks">LonWorks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_efficiency_reporting_value" title="Minimum efficiency reporting value">Minimum efficiency reporting value</a> (MERV)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_temperature_and_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Normal temperature and pressure">Normal temperature and pressure</a> (NTP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/OpenTherm" title="OpenTherm">OpenTherm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_communicating_thermostat" title="Programmable communicating thermostat">Programmable communicating thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Programmable_thermostat" title="Programmable thermostat">Programmable thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychrometrics" title="Psychrometrics">Psychrometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Room_temperature" title="Room temperature">Room temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smart_thermostat" title="Smart thermostat">Smart thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">Standard temperature and pressure</a> (STP)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermographic_camera" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermographic camera">Thermographic camera</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostat" title="Thermostat">Thermostat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermostatic_radiator_valve" title="Thermostatic radiator valve">Thermostatic radiator valve</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Professions,<br />trades,<br />and services</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_acoustics" title="Architectural acoustics">Architectural acoustics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_engineering" title="Architectural engineering">Architectural engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architectural_technologist" title="Architectural technologist">Architectural technologist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_services_engineering" title="Building services engineering">Building services engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_information_modeling" title="Building information modeling">Building information modeling</a> (BIM)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_energy_retrofit" title="Deep energy retrofit">Deep energy retrofit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_cleaning" class="mw-redirect" title="Duct cleaning">Duct cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duct_leakage_testing" title="Duct leakage testing">Duct leakage testing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_engineering" title="Environmental engineering">Environmental engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronic_balancing" title="Hydronic balancing">Hydronic balancing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kitchen_exhaust_cleaning" title="Kitchen exhaust cleaning">Kitchen exhaust cleaning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical_engineering" title="Mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mechanical,_electrical,_and_plumbing" title="Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing">Mechanical, electrical, and plumbing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mold_growth,_assessment,_and_remediation" class="mw-redirect" title="Mold growth, assessment, and remediation">Mold growth, assessment, and remediation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refrigerant_reclamation" title="Refrigerant reclamation">Refrigerant reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testing,_adjusting,_balancing" title="Testing, adjusting, balancing">Testing, adjusting, balancing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry <br />organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_Conditioning,_Heating_and_Refrigeration_Institute" title="Air Conditioning, Heating and Refrigeration Institute">AHRI</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_Movement_and_Control_Association" title="Air Movement and Control Association">AMCA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASHRAE" title="ASHRAE">ASHRAE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ASTM_International" title="ASTM International">ASTM International</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_Research_Establishment" title="Building Research Establishment">BRE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BSRIA" title="BSRIA">BSRIA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chartered_Institution_of_Building_Services_Engineers" title="Chartered Institution of Building Services Engineers">CIBSE</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Refrigeration" title="Institute of Refrigeration">Institute of Refrigeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Institute_of_Refrigeration" title="International Institute of Refrigeration">IIR</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leadership_in_Energy_and_Environmental_Design" class="mw-redirect" title="Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design">LEED</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sheet_Metal_and_Air_Conditioning_Contractors%27_National_Association" title="Sheet Metal and Air Conditioning Contractors' National Association">SMACNA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniform_Mechanical_Code" title="Uniform Mechanical Code">UMC</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Health and safety</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indoor_air_quality" title="Indoor air quality">Indoor air quality</a> (IAQ)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Passive_smoking" title="Passive smoking">Passive smoking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sick_building_syndrome" title="Sick building syndrome">Sick building syndrome</a> (SBS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volatile_organic_compound" title="Volatile organic compound">Volatile organic compound</a> (VOC)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">See also</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0;text-align: middle;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASHRAE_Handbook" title="ASHRAE Handbook">ASHRAE Handbook</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Building_science" title="Building science">Building science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fireproofing" title="Fireproofing">Fireproofing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glossary_of_HVAC_terms" title="Glossary of HVAC terms">Glossary of HVAC terms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warm_Spaces" title="Warm Spaces">Warm Spaces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/World_Refrigeration_Day" title="World Refrigeration Day">World Refrigeration Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Home_automation" title="Template:Home automation">Template:Home automation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Solar_energy" title="Template:Solar energy">Template:Solar energy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Wastewater267" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Wastewater" title="Template:Wastewater"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Wastewater" title="Template talk:Wastewater"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Wastewater" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Wastewater"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Wastewater267" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Wastewater" title="Wastewater">Wastewater</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sources and types</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acid_mine_drainage" title="Acid mine drainage">Acid mine drainage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ballast_water_discharge_and_the_environment" title="Ballast water discharge and the environment">Ballast water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bathroom" title="Bathroom">Bathroom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_(coal)" title="Blackwater (coal)">Blackwater (coal)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackwater_(waste)" title="Blackwater (waste)">Blackwater (waste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiler_blowdown" title="Boiler blowdown">Boiler blowdown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brine" title="Brine">Brine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_sewer" title="Combined sewer">Combined sewer</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Wet_cooling_tower_material_balance">Cooling tower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_cooling" title="Water cooling">Cooling water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">Fecal sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greywater" title="Greywater">Greywater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration/Inflow" title="Infiltration/Inflow">Infiltration/Inflow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment#Sources_of_industrial_wastewater" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange#Regeneration_wastewater" title="Ion exchange">Ion exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leachate" title="Leachate">Leachate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concentrated_animal_feeding_operation" title="Concentrated animal feeding operation">Manure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_effects_of_paper#Water_pollution" class="mw-redirect" title="Environmental effects of paper">Papermaking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Produced_water" title="Produced water">Produced water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Return_flow" title="Return flow">Return flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis#Waste_stream_considerations" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septage" class="mw-redirect" title="Septage">Septage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage" title="Sewage">Sewage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge" title="Sewage sludge">Sewage sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Toilet" title="Toilet">Toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_runoff" title="Urban runoff">Urban runoff</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_quality_indicators" title="Wastewater quality indicators">Quality indicators</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adsorbable_organic_halides" title="Adsorbable organic halides">Adsorbable organic halides</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biochemical_oxygen_demand" title="Biochemical oxygen demand">Biochemical oxygen demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_oxygen_demand" title="Chemical oxygen demand">Chemical oxygen demand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coliform_index" title="Coliform index">Coliform index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oxygen_saturation" title="Oxygen saturation">Oxygen saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_metals" title="Heavy metals">Heavy metals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/PH" title="PH">pH</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salinity" title="Salinity">Salinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_dissolved_solids" title="Total dissolved solids">Total dissolved solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Total_suspended_solids" title="Total suspended solids">Total suspended solids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidity" title="Turbidity">Turbidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_surveillance" title="Wastewater surveillance">Wastewater surveillance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment" title="Wastewater treatment">Treatment options</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Activated_sludge" title="Activated sludge">Activated sludge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerated_lagoon" title="Aerated lagoon">Aerated lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agricultural_wastewater_treatment" title="Agricultural wastewater treatment">Agricultural wastewater treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/API_oil%E2%80%93water_separator" title="API oil–water separator">API oil–water separator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbon_filtering" title="Carbon filtering">Carbon filtering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_chlorination" title="Water chlorination">Chlorination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clarifier" title="Clarifier">Clarifier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructed_wetland" title="Constructed wetland">Constructed wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decentralized_wastewater_system" title="Decentralized wastewater system">Decentralized wastewater system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extended_aeration" title="Extended aeration">Extended aeration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facultative_lagoon" title="Facultative lagoon">Facultative lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fecal_sludge_management" title="Fecal sludge management">Fecal sludge management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filtration" title="Filtration">Filtration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imhoff_tank" title="Imhoff tank">Imhoff tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_wastewater_treatment" title="Industrial wastewater treatment">Industrial wastewater treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_exchange" title="Ion exchange">Ion exchange</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_bioreactor" title="Membrane bioreactor">Membrane bioreactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_osmosis" title="Reverse osmosis">Reverse osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rotating_biological_contactor" title="Rotating biological contactor">Rotating biological contactor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_treatment" title="Secondary treatment">Secondary treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sedimentation_(water_treatment)" title="Sedimentation (water treatment)">Sedimentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_tank" title="Septic tank">Septic tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Settling_basin" title="Settling basin">Settling basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_sludge_treatment" title="Sewage sludge treatment">Sewage sludge treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_treatment" title="Sewage treatment">Sewage treatment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewer_mining" title="Sewer mining">Sewer mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stabilization_pond" class="mw-redirect" title="Stabilization pond">Stabilization pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trickling_filter" title="Trickling filter">Trickling filter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet_germicidal_irradiation" title="Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation">Ultraviolet germicidal irradiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upflow_anaerobic_sludge_blanket_digestion" title="Upflow anaerobic sludge blanket digestion">UASB</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermifilter" title="Vermifilter">Vermifilter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wastewater_treatment_plant" class="mw-redirect" title="Wastewater treatment plant">Wastewater treatment plant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Disposal options</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Combined_sewer" title="Combined sewer">Combined sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporation_pond" title="Evaporation pond">Evaporation pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Groundwater_recharge" title="Groundwater recharge">Groundwater recharge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infiltration_basin" title="Infiltration basin">Infiltration basin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Injection_well" title="Injection well">Injection well</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irrigation" title="Irrigation">Irrigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_dumping" class="mw-redirect" title="Marine dumping">Marine dumping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_outfall" title="Marine outfall">Marine outfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reclaimed_water" title="Reclaimed water">Reclaimed water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanitary_sewer" title="Sanitary sewer">Sanitary sewer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Septic_drain_field" title="Septic drain field">Septic drain field</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sewage_farm" title="Sewage farm">Sewage farm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_drain" title="Storm drain">Storm drain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_runoff" title="Surface runoff">Surface runoff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuum_sewer" title="Vacuum sewer">Vacuum sewer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, 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