CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>History of military technology - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"77c24d41-c7d6-424b-870d-6714ca192097","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"History_of_military_technology","wgTitle":"History of military technology","wgCurRevisionId":1245768222,"wgRevisionId":1245768222,"wgArticleId":4999816,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Commons category link is on Wikidata","History of technology","Military science","Military technology","Military economics","Military–industrial complex","Military history by topic","Politics of science"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"History_of_military_technology","wgRelevantArticleId": 4999816,"wgIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":true,"wgRestrictionEdit":[],"wgRestrictionMove":[],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en","pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":40000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q15427277","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"], "GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready","skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.urlShortener.toolbar", "ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions","wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.quicksurveys.init","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="History of military technology - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/x-wiki" title="Edit this page" href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/History_of_military_technology"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject mw-editable page-History_of_military_technology rootpage-History_of_military_technology skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-menu mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-menu"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Main menu</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z"><span>Main page</span></a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia"><span>Contents</span></a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events"><span>Current events</span></a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x"><span>Random article</span></a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works"><span>About Wikipedia</span></a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia"><span>Contact us</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia"><span>Help</span></a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia"><span>Learn to edit</span></a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors"><span>Community portal</span></a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r"><span>Recent changes</span></a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia"><span>Upload file</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <span class="mw-logo-container skin-invert"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </span> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-search mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-search"></span> <span>Search</span> </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > <span class="cdx-text-input__icon cdx-text-input__start-icon"></span> </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class=""><span>Donate</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+military+technology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class=""><span>Create account</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+military+technology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>Log in</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Personal tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en"><span>Donate</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=History+of+military+technology" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>Create account</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=History+of+military+technology" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>Log in</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing"><span>learn more</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y"><span>Contributions</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Science_and_military_technology_before_the_modern_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Science_and_military_technology_before_the_modern_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Science and military technology before the modern era</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Science_and_military_technology_before_the_modern_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_I_and_the_interwar_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_I_and_the_interwar_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>World War I and the interwar years</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_I_and_the_interwar_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>World War II</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-American_Cold_War_science" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#American_Cold_War_science"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>American Cold War science</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-American_Cold_War_science-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle American Cold War science subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-American_Cold_War_science-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Computing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Computing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Computing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Computing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geosciences_and_astrophysics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geosciences_and_astrophysics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Geosciences and astrophysics</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geosciences_and_astrophysics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_sciences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_sciences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Biological sciences</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_sciences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Historical_debate" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_debate"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Historical debate</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_debate-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">History of military technology</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 3 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-3" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">3 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%AA%D9%83%D9%86%D9%88%D9%84%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%A7_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B9%D8%B3%D9%83%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="تاريخ التكنولوجيا العسكرية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ التكنولوجيا العسكرية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8C%D5%A1%D5%A6%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BF%D5%A5%D5%AD%D5%B6%D5%AB%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Ռազմական տեխնիկայի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ռազմական տեխնիկայի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%A8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8C%E0%A4%A6%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%80_%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%87%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8" title="सैन्य प्रौद्योगिकी का इतिहास – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="सैन्य प्रौद्योगिकी का इतिहास" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q15427277#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_technology" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c"><span>Article</span></a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:History_of_military_technology" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t"><span>Talk</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">English</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_technology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-edit" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Tools</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/History_of_military_technology"><span>Read</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-edit" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit" title="Edit this page [e]" accesskey="e"><span>Edit</span></a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=history"><span>View history</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/History_of_military_technology" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j"><span>What links here</span></a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/History_of_military_technology" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k"><span>Related changes</span></a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u"><span>Upload file</span></a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q"><span>Special pages</span></a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&oldid=1245768222" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page"><span>Permanent link</span></a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=info" title="More information about this page"><span>Page information</span></a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=History_of_military_technology&id=1245768222&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page"><span>Cite this page</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_military_technology"><span>Get shortened URL</span></a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FHistory_of_military_technology"><span>Download QR code</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=History_of_military_technology&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file"><span>Download as PDF</span></a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p"><span>Printable version</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_military_technology" hreflang="en"><span>Wikimedia Commons</span></a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q15427277" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p><p>The history of <a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">military technology</a>, including the military <a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">funding of science</a>, has had a powerful transformative effect on the practice and products of <a href="/wiki/Scientific_research" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific research">scientific research</a> since the early 20th century. Particularly since <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, advanced science-based technologies have been viewed as essential elements of a successful military. </p><p>World War I is often called "the chemists' war", both for the extensive <a href="/wiki/Poison_gas_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Poison gas in World War I">use of poison gas</a> and the importance of <a href="/wiki/Nitrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Nitrates">nitrates</a> and advanced <a href="/wiki/High_explosive" class="mw-redirect" title="High explosive">high explosives</a>. Poison gas, beginning in 1915 with <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> from the powerful German dye industry, was used extensively by the Germans and the British; over the course of the war, scientists on both sides raced to develop more and more potent chemicals and devise countermeasures against the newest enemy gases.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Physicists also contributed to the war effort, developing wireless communication technologies and sound-based methods of detecting <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a>, resulting in the first tenuous long-term connections between academic science and the military.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> marked a massive increase in the military funding of science, particularly physics. In addition to the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> and the resulting <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_weapon" title="Nuclear weapon">atomic bomb</a>, British and American work on <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> was widespread and ultimately highly influential in the course of the war; radar enabled detection of enemy ships and aircraft, as well as the radar-based <a href="/wiki/Proximity_fuze" title="Proximity fuze">proximity fuze</a>. Mathematical <a href="/wiki/Cryptography" title="Cryptography">cryptography</a>, <a href="/wiki/Meteorology" title="Meteorology">meteorology</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">rocket science</a> were also central to the war effort, with military-funded wartime advances having a significant long-term effect on each discipline. The technologies employed at the end—<a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">jet aircraft</a>, radar and proximity fuzes, and the atomic bomb—were radically different from pre-war technology; military leaders came to view continued advances in technology as the critical element for success in future wars. The advent of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> solidified the links between military institutions and academic science, particularly in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Soviet_Union" title="Soviet Union">Soviet Union</a>, so that even during a period of nominal peace military funding continued to expand. Funding spread to the <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> as well as the <a href="/wiki/Natural_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural sciences">natural sciences</a>. Emerging fields such as <a href="/wiki/Digital_computing" class="mw-redirect" title="Digital computing">digital computing</a>, were born of military patronage. Following the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War_(1985-1991)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cold War (1985-1991)">end of the Cold War</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Dissolution_of_the_Soviet_Union" title="Dissolution of the Soviet Union">dissolution of the Soviet Union</a>, military funding of science has decreased substantially, but much of the American <a href="/wiki/Military-scientific_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Military-scientific complex">military-scientific complex</a> remains in place. </p><p>The sheer scale of military funding for science since World War II has instigated a large body of historical literature analyzing the effects of that funding, especially for American science. Since <a href="/wiki/Paul_Forman_(historian)" title="Paul Forman (historian)">Paul Forman</a>'s 1987 article "Behind quantum electronics: National security as a basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960," there has been an ongoing historical debate over precisely how and to what extent military funding affected the course of scientific research and discovery.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Forman and others have argued that military funding fundamentally redirected science—particularly physics—toward applied research, and that military technologies predominantly formed the basis for subsequent research even in areas of basic science; ultimately the very culture and ideals of science were colored by extensive collaboration between scientists and military planners. An alternate view has been presented by <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kevles" title="Daniel Kevles">Daniel Kevles</a>, that while military funding provided many new opportunities for scientists and dramatically expanded the scope of physical research, scientists by-and-large retained their intellectual autonomy. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Science_and_military_technology_before_the_modern_era">Science and military technology before the modern era</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Science and military technology before the modern era"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Replica_catapult.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Replica_catapult.jpg/300px-Replica_catapult.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="217" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/Replica_catapult.jpg/450px-Replica_catapult.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cb/Replica_catapult.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="433" /></a><figcaption>Replica catapult at <a href="/wiki/Ch%C3%A2teau_des_Baux" title="Château des Baux">Château des Baux</a>, <a href="/wiki/France" title="France">France</a></figcaption></figure> <p>While there were numerous instances of military support for scientific work before the 20th century, these were typically isolated instances; knowledge gained from technology was generally far more important for the development of science than scientific knowledge was to technological innovation.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a>, for example, is a science partly born from military technology: one of the many sources of the <a href="/wiki/First_law_of_thermodynamics" title="First law of thermodynamics">first law of thermodynamics</a> was <a href="/wiki/Count_Rumford" class="mw-redirect" title="Count Rumford">Count Rumford</a>'s observation of the heat produced by boring <a href="/wiki/Cannon" title="Cannon">cannon</a> barrels.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mathematics was important in the development of the Greek <a href="/wiki/Catapult" title="Catapult">catapult</a> and other weapons,<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but analysis of <a href="/wiki/Ballistics" title="Ballistics">ballistics</a> was also important for the development of mathematics, while <a href="/wiki/Galileo" class="mw-redirect" title="Galileo">Galileo</a> tried to promote the telescope as a military instrument to the military-minded <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Republic of Venice</a> before turning it to the skies while seeking the <a href="/wiki/Patronage" title="Patronage">patronage</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Medici" class="mw-redirect" title="Medici">Medici</a> court in Florence.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In general, craft-based innovation, disconnected from the formal systems of science, was the key to military technology well into the 19th century. </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Interchangeable_parts.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Interchangeable_parts.gif/200px-Interchangeable_parts.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Interchangeable_parts.gif/300px-Interchangeable_parts.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/aa/Interchangeable_parts.gif/400px-Interchangeable_parts.gif 2x" data-file-width="453" data-file-height="399" /></a><figcaption>Interchangeable gun parts, illustrated in the 1832 <i>Edinburgh Encyclopaedia</i></figcaption></figure> <p>Even craft-based military technologies were not generally produced by military funding. Instead, craftsmen and inventors developed weapons and military tools independently and actively sought the interest of military patrons afterward.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Following the rise of <a href="/wiki/Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a> as a profession in the 18th century, governments and military leaders did try to harness the methods of both science and engineering for more specific ends, but frequently without success. In the decades leading up to the <a href="/wiki/French_Revolution" title="French Revolution">French Revolution</a>, French artillery officers were often trained as engineers, and military leaders from this mathematical tradition attempted to transform the process of weapons manufacture from a craft-based enterprise to an organized and standardized system based on engineering principles and <a href="/wiki/Interchangeable_parts" title="Interchangeable parts">interchangeable parts</a> (pre-dating the work of <a href="/wiki/Eli_Whitney" title="Eli Whitney">Eli Whitney</a> in the U.S.). During the Revolution, even natural scientists participated directly, attempting to create “weapons more powerful than any we possess” to aid the cause of the new French Republic, though there were no means for the revolutionary army to fund such work.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Each of these efforts, however, was ultimately unsuccessful in producing militarily useful results. A slightly different outcome came from the longitude prize of the 18th century, offered by the British government for an accurate method of determining a ship's <a href="/wiki/Longitude" title="Longitude">longitude</a> at sea (essential for the safe navigation of the powerful British navy): intended to promote—and financially reward—a scientific solution, it was instead won by a scientific outsider, the clockmaker <a href="/wiki/John_Harrison" title="John Harrison">John Harrison</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the naval utility of <a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">astronomy</a> did help increase the number of capable astronomers and focus research on developing more powerful and versatile instruments. </p><p>Through the 19th century, science and technology grew closer together, particularly through electrical and acoustic inventions and the corresponding mathematical theories. The late 19th and early 20th centuries witnessed a trend toward military mechanization, with the advent of repeating rifles with <a href="/wiki/Smokeless_powder" title="Smokeless powder">smokeless powder</a>, long-range artillery, <a href="/wiki/High_explosive" class="mw-redirect" title="High explosive">high explosives</a>, <a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">machine guns</a>, and mechanized transport along with <a href="/wiki/Telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Telegraph">telegraphic</a> and later <a href="/wiki/Wireless_telegraph" class="mw-redirect" title="Wireless telegraph">wireless</a> battlefield communication. Still, independent inventors, scientists and engineers were largely responsible for these drastic changes in military technology (with the exception of the development of <a href="/wiki/Battleship" title="Battleship">battleships</a>, which could only have been created through organized large-scale effort).<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_I_and_the_interwar_years">World War I and the interwar years</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: World War I and the interwar years"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_I" title="Technology during World War I">Technology during World War I</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a> marked the first large-scale mobilization of science for military purposes. Prior to the war, the American military ran a few small laboratories as well as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Bureau_of_Standards" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Bureau of Standards">Bureau of Standards</a>, but independent inventors and industrial firms predominated.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly in Europe, military-directed scientific research and development was minimal. The powerful new technologies that led to <a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">trench warfare</a>, however, reversed the traditional advantage of fast-moving offensive tactics; fortified positions supported by machine guns and artillery resulted in high attrition but strategic stalemate. Militaries turned to scientists and engineers for even newer technologies, but the introduction of <a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">tanks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aircraft" title="Aircraft">aircraft</a> had only a marginal impact; the <a href="/wiki/Poison_gas_in_World_War_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Poison gas in World War I">use of poison gas</a> made a tremendous psychological impact, but decisively favored neither side. The war ultimately turned on maintaining adequate supplies of materials, a problem also addressed by military-funded science—and, through the international chemical industry, closely related to the advent of chemical warfare. </p><p>The Germans introduced gas as a weapon in part because <a href="/wiki/Naval_blockade" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval blockade">naval blockades</a> limited their supply of <a href="/wiki/Nitrate" title="Nitrate">nitrate</a> for explosives, while the massive German <a href="/wiki/Dye" title="Dye">dye</a> industry could easily produce <a href="/wiki/Chlorine" title="Chlorine">chlorine</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_chemical" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic chemical">organic chemicals</a> in large amounts. Industrial capacity was completely mobilized for war, and <a href="/wiki/Fritz_Haber" title="Fritz Haber">Fritz Haber</a> and other industrial scientists were eager to contribute to the German cause; soon they were closely integrated into the military hierarchy as they tested the most effective ways of producing and delivering weaponized chemicals. Though the initial impetus for gas warfare came from outside the military, further developments in chemical weapon technology might be considered military-funded, considering the blurring of lines between industry and nation in Germany.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg/250px-British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="155" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg/375px-British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dc/British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg/500px-British_55th_Division_gas_casualties_10_April_1918.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="743" /></a><figcaption>Poison gas casualties from the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Estaires" class="mw-redirect" title="Battle of Estaires">Battle of Estaires</a>, April 10, 1918</figcaption></figure> <p>Following the first chlorine attack by the Germans in May 1915, the British quickly moved to recruit scientists for developing their own gas weapons. Gas research escalated on both sides, with chlorine followed by <a href="/wiki/Phosgene" title="Phosgene">phosgene</a>, a variety of <a href="/wiki/Tear_gas" title="Tear gas">tear gases</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Mustard_gas" title="Mustard gas">mustard gas</a>. A wide array of research was conducted on the physiological effects of other gases, such and <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_cyanide" title="Hydrogen cyanide">hydrogen cyanide</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arsenic" title="Arsenic">arsenic</a> compounds, and a host of complex organic chemicals. The British built from scratch what became an expansive research facility at <a href="/wiki/Porton_Down" title="Porton Down">Porton Down</a>, which remains a significant military research institution into the 21st century. Unlike many earlier military-funded scientific ventures, the research at Porton Down did not stop when the war ended or an immediate goal was achieved. In fact, every effort was made to create an attractive research environment for top scientists, and chemical weapons development continued apace—though in secret—through the interwar years and into World War II. German military-backed gas warfare research did not resume until the Nazi era, following the 1936 discovery of <a href="/wiki/Tabun_(nerve_agent)" title="Tabun (nerve agent)">tabun</a>, the first nerve agent, through industrial <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">insecticide</a> research. </p><p>In the United States, the established tradition of engineering was explicitly competing with the rising discipline of physics for World War I military largess. A host of inventors, led by <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Edison" title="Thomas Edison">Thomas Edison</a> and his newly created <a href="/wiki/Naval_Consulting_Board" title="Naval Consulting Board">Naval Consulting Board</a>, cranked out thousands of inventions to solve military problems and aid the war effort, while academic scientists worked through the <a href="/wiki/United_States_National_Research_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="United States National Research Council">National Research Council</a> (NRC) led by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Millikan" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Millikan">Robert Millikan</a>. <a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarine</a> detection was the most important problem that both the physicists and inventors hoped to solve, as German <a href="/wiki/U-boat" title="U-boat">U-boats</a> were decimating the crucial naval supply lines from the U.S. to England. Edison's Board produced very few useful innovations, but NRC research resulted in a moderately successful sound-based methods for locating submarines and hidden ground-based artillery, as well as useful navigational and photographic equipment for aircraft. Because of the success of academic science in solving specific military problems, the NRC was retained after the war's end, though it gradually decoupled from the military.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many industrial and academic chemists and physicists came under military control during the Great War, but post-war research by the Royal Engineers Experimental Station at Porton Down and the continued operation of the National Research Council were exceptions to the overall pattern; wartime chemistry funding was a temporary redirection of a field largely driven by industry and later medicine, while physics grew closer to industry than to the military. The discipline of modern meteorology, however, was largely built from military funding. During World War I, the French civilian meteorological infrastructure was largely absorbed into the military. The introduction of military aircraft during the war as well as the role of wind and weather in the success or failure of gas attacks meant meteorological advice was in high demand. The French army (among others) created its own supplementary meteorological service as well, retraining scientists from other fields to staff it. At war's end, the military continued to control French meteorology, sending weathermen to French colonial interests and integrating weather service with the growing air corps; most of the early-twentieth century growth in European meteorology was the direct result of military funding.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> World War II would result in a similar transformation of American meteorology, initiating a transition from an <a href="/wiki/Apprenticeship" title="Apprenticeship">apprenticeship</a> system for training weathermen (based on intimate knowledge of local trends and geography) to the university-based, science-intensive system that has predominated since. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II">World War II</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: World War II"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Technology_during_World_War_II" title="Technology during World War II">Technology during World War II</a></div> <p>If World War I was the chemists' war, World War II was the physicists' war. As with other <a href="/wiki/Total_war" title="Total war">total wars</a>, it is difficult to draw a line between military funding and more spontaneous military-scientific collaboration during World War II. Well before the <a href="/wiki/Polish_September_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish September Campaign">Invasion of Poland</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nationalism" title="Nationalism">nationalism</a> was a powerful force in the German physics community (see <a href="/wiki/Deutsche_Physik" title="Deutsche Physik">Deutsche Physik</a>); the military mobilization of physicists was all but irresistible after the rise of <a href="/wiki/National_Socialism" class="mw-redirect" title="National Socialism">National Socialism</a>. German and Allied investigations of the possibility of a nuclear bomb began in 1939 at the initiative of civilian scientists, but by 1942 the respective militaries were heavily involved. The <a href="/wiki/German_nuclear_energy_project" class="mw-redirect" title="German nuclear energy project">German nuclear energy project</a> had two independent teams, a civilian-controlled team under <a href="/wiki/Werner_Heisenberg" title="Werner Heisenberg">Werner Heisenberg</a> and a military-controlled led by <a href="/wiki/Kurt_Diebner" title="Kurt Diebner">Kurt Diebner</a>; the latter was more explicitly aimed at producing a bomb (as opposed to a power reactor) and received much more funding from the Nazis, though neither was ultimately successful.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the U.S., the <a href="/wiki/Manhattan_Project" title="Manhattan Project">Manhattan Project</a> and other projects of the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Scientific_Research_and_Development" title="Office of Scientific Research and Development">Office of Scientific Research and Development</a> resulted in a much more extensive military-scientific venture, the scale of which dwarfed previous military-funded research projects. Theoretical work by a number of British and American scientists resulted in significant optimism about the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_chain_reaction" title="Nuclear chain reaction">nuclear chain reaction</a>. As the physicists convinced military leaders of the potential of nuclear weapons, funding for actual development was ratcheted up rapidly. A number of large laboratories were created across the United States for work on different aspects of the bomb, while many existing facilities were reoriented to bomb-related work; some were university-managed while others were government-run, but all were ultimately funded and directed by the military.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The May 1945 surrender of Germany, the original intended target for the bomb, did virtually nothing to slow the project's momentum. After Japan's surrender immediately following the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_bombings_of_Hiroshima_and_Nagasaki" title="Atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki">atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki</a>, many scientists returned to academia or industry, but the Manhattan Project infrastructure was too large—and too effective—to be dismantled wholesale; it became the model for future military-scientific work, in the U.S. and elsewhere.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other wartime physics research, particularly in <a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">rocketry</a> and radar technology, was less significant in popular culture but much more significant for the outcome of the war. German rocketry was driven by the pursuit of <i><a href="/wiki/Wunderwaffe" title="Wunderwaffe">Wunderwaffen</a></i>, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/V-2_rocket" title="V-2 rocket">V-2</a> <a href="/wiki/Ballistic_missile" title="Ballistic missile">ballistic missile</a>; the technology as well as the personal expertise of the German rocketry community was absorbed by the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. rocket programs after the war, forming the basis of long-term military funded rocketry, ballistic missile, and later space research. Rocket science was only beginning to make impact by the final years of the war. German rockets created fear and destruction in London, but had only modest military significance, while air-to-ground rockets enhanced the power of American air strikes; <a href="/wiki/Jet_aircraft" title="Jet aircraft">jet aircraft</a> also went into service by the end of the war.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Radar work before and during the war provided even more of an advantage for the Allies. British physicists pioneered <a href="/w/index.php?title=Long-wave_radar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Long-wave radar (page does not exist)">long-wave radar</a>, developing an effective system for detecting incoming German air forces. Work on potentially more precise <a href="/w/index.php?title=Short-wave_radar&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Short-wave radar (page does not exist)">short-wave radar</a> was turned over to the U.S.; several thousand academic physicists and engineers not participating the Manhattan Project did radar work, particularly at MIT and Stanford, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwave</a> radar systems that could resolve more detail in incoming flight formations. Further refinement of microwave technology led to proximity fuzes, which greatly enhanced the ability of the U.S. Navy to defend against Japanese bombers. Microwave production, detection and manipulation also formed the technical foundation to complement the institutional foundation of the Manhattan Project in much post-war defense research. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="American_Cold_War_science">American Cold War science</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: American Cold War science"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the years immediately following World War II, the military was by far the most significant patron of university science research in the U.S., and the national labs also continued to flourish.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After two years in political limbo (but with work on nuclear power and bomb manufacture continuing apace) the Manhattan Project became a permanent arm of the government as the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Atomic_Energy_Commission" title="United States Atomic Energy Commission">Atomic Energy Commission</a>. The Navy—inspired by the success of military-directed wartime research—created its own R&D organization, the <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Naval_Research" title="Office of Naval Research">Office of Naval Research</a>, which would preside over an expanded long-term research program at <a href="/wiki/Naval_Research_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Naval Research Laboratory">Naval Research Laboratory</a> as well as fund a variety of university-based research. Military money following up the wartime radar research led to explosive growth in both <a href="/wiki/Electronics" title="Electronics">electronics</a> research and electronics manufacturing.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force" title="United States Air Force">Air Force</a> became an independent service branch from the Army and established its own research and development system, and the Army followed suit (though it was less invested in academic science than the Navy or Air Force). Meanwhile, the perceived communist menace of the Soviet Union caused tensions—and military budgets—to escalate rapidly. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_Defense" title="United States Department of Defense">Department of Defense</a> primarily funded what has been broadly described as “physical research,” but to reduce this to merely chemistry and physics is misleading. Military patronage benefited a large number of fields, and in fact helped create a number of the modern <a href="/wiki/Scientific_discipline" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific discipline">scientific disciplines</a>. At <a href="/wiki/Stanford_University" title="Stanford University">Stanford</a> and <a href="/wiki/Massachusetts_Institute_of_Technology" title="Massachusetts Institute of Technology">MIT</a>, for example, electronics, <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_engineering" title="Aerospace engineering">aerospace engineering</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_physics" title="Nuclear physics">nuclear physics</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Materials_science" title="Materials science">materials science</a>—all physics, broadly speaking—each developed in different directions, becoming increasingly independent of parent disciplines as they grew and pursued defense-related research agendas. What began as interdepartmental laboratories became the centers for graduate teaching and research innovation thanks to the broad scope of defense funding. The need to keep up with corporate technology research (which was receiving the lion's share of defense contracts) also prompted many science labs to establish close relationships with industry.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Computing">Computing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Computing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The complex histories of <a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">computer science</a> and <a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_hardware" class="mw-redirect" title="History of computer hardware">computer engineering</a> were shaped, in the first decades of digital computing, almost entirely by military funding. Most of the basic component technologies for digital computing were developed through the course of the long-running <a href="/wiki/Whirlwind_(computer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Whirlwind (computer)">Whirlwind</a>-<a href="/wiki/Semi_Automatic_Ground_Environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi Automatic Ground Environment">SAGE</a> program to develop an automated radar shield. Virtually unlimited funds enabled two decades of research that only began producing useful technologies by the end of the 50s; even the final version of the SAGE command and control system had only marginal military utility. More so than with previously established disciplines receiving military funding, the culture of computer science was permeated with a <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a> military perspective. Indirectly, the ideas of computer science also had a profound effect on <a href="/wiki/Psychology" title="Psychology">psychology</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cognitive_science" title="Cognitive science">cognitive science</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neuroscience" title="Neuroscience">neuroscience</a> through the mind-computer analogy.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Geosciences_and_astrophysics">Geosciences and astrophysics</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Geosciences and astrophysics"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_earth_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Outline of earth science">history of earth science</a> and the <a href="/wiki/History_of_astrophysics" class="mw-redirect" title="History of astrophysics">history of astrophysics</a> were also closely tied to military purposes and funding throughout the Cold War. American <a href="/wiki/Geodesy" title="Geodesy">geodesy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oceanography" title="Oceanography">oceanography</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Seismology" title="Seismology">seismology</a> grew from small sub-disciplines in into full-fledged independent disciplines as for several decades, virtually all funding in these fields came from the Department of Defense. A central goal that tied these disciplines together (even while providing the means for intellectual independence) was the <a href="/wiki/Figure_of_the_Earth" title="Figure of the Earth">figure of the Earth</a>, the model of the earth's <a href="/wiki/Geography" title="Geography">geography</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gravitation" class="mw-redirect" title="Gravitation">gravitation</a> that was essential for accurate ballistic missiles. In the 1960s, geodesy was the superficial goal of the satellite program <a href="/wiki/Corona_(satellite)" class="mw-redirect" title="Corona (satellite)">CORONA</a>, while military <a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">reconnaissance</a> was in fact a driving force. Even for geodetic data, new secrecy guidelines worked to restrict collaboration in a field that had formerly been fundamentally international; the Figure of the Earth had geopolitical significance beyond questions of pure geoscience. Still, geodesists were able to retain enough autonomy and subvert secrecy limitations enough to make use of the findings of their military research to overturn some of the fundamental theories of geodesy.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like geodesy and satellite photography research, the advent of <a href="/wiki/Radio_astronomy" title="Radio astronomy">radio astronomy</a> had a military purpose hidden beneath official astrophysical research agenda. Quantum electronics permitted both revolutionary new methods of analyzing the universe and—using the same equipment and technology—the monitoring of Soviet electronic signals.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Military interest in (and funding of) seismology, meteorology and oceanography was in some ways a result of the defense-related payoffs of physics and geodesy. The immediate goal of funding in these fields was to detect clandestine <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_testing" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear testing">nuclear testing</a> and track <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_fallout" title="Nuclear fallout">fallout radiation</a>, a necessary precondition for treaties to limit the nuclear weapon technology earlier military research had created. In particular, the feasibility of monitoring underground nuclear explosions was crucial to the possibility of a <a href="/wiki/Comprehensive_Test_Ban_Treaty" class="mw-redirect" title="Comprehensive Test Ban Treaty">comprehensive</a> rather than <a href="/wiki/Partial_Nuclear_Test_Ban_Treaty" title="Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty">Partial Nuclear Test Ban Treaty</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the military-funded growth of these disciplines continued even when no pressing military goals were driving them; as with other natural sciences, the military also found value in having ‘scientists on tap' for unforeseen future R&D needs.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_sciences">Biological sciences</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Biological sciences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Biology" title="Biology">biological sciences</a> were also affected by military funding, but, with the exception of nuclear physics-related medical and genetic research, largely indirectly. The most significant funding sources for basic research before the rise of the military-industrial-academic complex were philanthropic organizations such as the <a href="/wiki/Rockefeller_Foundation" title="Rockefeller Foundation">Rockefeller Foundation</a>. After World War II (and to some extent before), the influx of new industrial and military funding opportunities for the physical sciences prompted philanthropies to divest from physics research—most early work in high-energy physics and biophysics had been the product of foundation grants—and refocus on biological and medical research. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Social_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Social sciences">social sciences</a> also found limited military support from the 1940s to the 1960s, but much defense-minded social science research could be—and was—pursued without extensive military funding. In the 1950s, social scientists tried to emulate the interdisciplinary organizational success of the physical sciences' Manhattan Project with the synthetic <a href="/w/index.php?title=Behavioral_science_movement&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Behavioral science movement (page does not exist)">behavioral science movement</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Social scientists actively sought to promote their usefulness to the military, researching topics related to <a href="/wiki/Propaganda" title="Propaganda">propaganda</a> (put to use in <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korea</a>), decision making, the psychological and sociological causes and effects of <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communism</a>, and a broad constellation of other topics of Cold War significance. By the 1960s, economists and political scientists offered up <a href="/wiki/Modernization_theory" title="Modernization theory">modernization theory</a> for the cause of Cold War <a href="/wiki/Nation-building" title="Nation-building">nation-building</a>; modernization theory found a home in the military in the form of <a href="/wiki/Project_Camelot" title="Project Camelot">Project Camelot</a>, a study of the process of revolution, as well as in the <a href="/wiki/John_F._Kennedy" title="John F. Kennedy">Kennedy administration</a>'s approach to the <a href="/wiki/Vietnam_War" title="Vietnam War">Vietnam War</a>. Project Camelot was ultimately canceled because of the concerns it raised about scientific <a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(science)" title="Objectivity (science)">objectivity</a> in the context of such a politicized research agenda; though natural sciences were not yet susceptible to implications of the corrupting influence of military and political factors, the social sciences were.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Historical_debate">Historical debate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Historical debate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Historian <a href="/wiki/Paul_Forman_(historian)" title="Paul Forman (historian)">Paul Forman</a>, in his seminal 1987 article, proposed that not only had military funding of science greatly expanded the scope and significance of American physics, it also initiated "a qualitative change in its purposes and character."<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Historians of science were beginning to turn to the Cold War relationship between science and the military for detailed study, and Forman's “distortionist critique” (as <a href="/wiki/Roger_Geiger" title="Roger Geiger">Roger Geiger</a> has described it) served to focus the ensuing debates.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Forman and others (e.g., <a href="/wiki/Robert_Seidel" title="Robert Seidel">Robert Seidel</a>, Stuart Leslie, and for the history of the social sciences, <a href="/wiki/Ron_Robin" title="Ron Robin">Ron Robin</a>) view the influx of military money and the focus on applied rather than basic research as having had, at least partially, a negative impact on the course of subsequent research. In turn, critics of the distortionist thesis, beginning with <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Kevles" title="Daniel Kevles">Daniel Kevles</a>, deny that the military "seduced American physicists from, so to speak, a 'true basic physics'."<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kevles, as well as Geiger, instead view the effects of military funding relative to such funding simply being absent—rather than put to alternate scientific use.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Most recent scholarship has moved toward a tempered version of Forman's thesis, in which scientists retained significant autonomy despite the radical changes brought about by military funding.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_weapons" title="History of weapons">History of weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Big_Science" class="mw-redirect" title="Big Science">Big Science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Funding_of_science" title="Funding of science">Funding of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_radar" title="History of radar">History of radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">History of science and technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military-industrial_complex" class="mw-redirect" title="Military-industrial complex">Military-industrial complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Military science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Military technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_medicine" title="Military medicine">Military medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_Wireless_Museum_in_the_Midlands" title="Military Wireless Museum in the Midlands">Military Wireless Museum in the Midlands</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:History_of_military_technology" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:History of military technology">History of military technology</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Notes and references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris, Robert and Jeremy Paxman. <i>A Higher Form of Killing: The Secret History of Chemical and Biological Warfare</i>. 2002. Chapter 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevles, Daniel J. <i>The Physicists: The History of a Scientific Community in Modern America</i>. New York: Alfred K. Knopf, 1971. pp 137-138.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forman, Paul. "Behind quantum electronics: National security as basis for physical research in the United States, 1940-1960," <i>Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences</i>, Vol. 18, Pt. 1, pp 149-229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hacker, Barton C. "The Machines of War: Western Military Technology 1850-2000." <i>History and Technology</i>, Vol. 21, No. 3, September 2005, pp 255-300. p 255.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">von Baeyer, Hans Christian. <i>Warmth Disperses and Time Passes: The History of Heat</i>. New York: The Modern Library, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hacker, "The Machines of War," footnote 1.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Biagioli, Mario. <i>Galileo, Courtier: The Practice of Science in the Culture of Absolutism</i>. Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1993.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hacker, "The Machines of War," p 256.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Gillispie, Charles Coulston. "Science and secret weapons development in Revolutionary France, 1792–1804." <i>Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences</i>, Vol. 23, No. 1, pp 35–152. Quote from excerpt of <a href="/wiki/Georges_Cuvier" title="Georges Cuvier">Georges Cuvier</a>'s eulogy of <a href="/wiki/Claude-Louis_Berthollet" class="mw-redirect" title="Claude-Louis Berthollet">Claude-Louis Berthollet</a>, p 35.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Sobel,_Dava" class="mw-redirect" title="Sobel, Dava">Sobel, Dava</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Longitude:_The_True_Story_of_a_Lone_Genius_Who_Solved_the_Greatest_Scientific_Problem_of_His_Time" class="mw-redirect" title="Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time">Longitude: The True Story of a Lone Genius Who Solved the Greatest Scientific Problem of His Time</a></i>. Penguin, 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hacker, “The Machines of War,” pp 256-257.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevles, <i>The Physicists</i>, pp 103-104.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Harris and Paxman, <i>A Higher Form of Killing</i>, pp 11-12.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevles, <i>The Physicists</i>, pp 102-154</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pyenson, Lewis and Susan Sheets-Pyenson. <i>Servants of Nature: A History of Scientific Institutions, Enterprises, and Sensibilities</i>. New York: HarperCollins Publishers, 1999. pp 309-311.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The extent to which Heisenberg's team was devoted to aiding the Nazi's by producing an atomic bomb is a matter of some historical dispute. However, most recent scholarship suggests that the stagnation of the German project stemmed from Heisenberg's doubts about the feasibility rather than the desirability of a Nazi bomb. See: Rose, Paul Lawrence. <i>Heisenberg and the Nazi Atomic Bomb Project: A Study in German Culture</i>. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1998.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Los_Alamos_National_Laboratory" title="Los Alamos National Laboratory">Los Alamos National Laboratory</a>, the University of Chicago's <a href="/wiki/Metallurgical_Laboratory" title="Metallurgical Laboratory">Metallurgical Laboratory</a> (now <a href="/wiki/Argonne_National_Laboratory" title="Argonne National Laboratory">Argonne National Laboratory</a>), <a href="/wiki/Hanford_Site" title="Hanford Site">Hanford Site</a> (now defunct), and <a href="/wiki/Oak_Ridge_National_Laboratory" title="Oak Ridge National Laboratory">Oak Ridge National Laboratory</a> were all created during the Manhattan Project, while Berkeley's <a href="/wiki/Radiation_Laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiation Laboratory">Radiation Laboratory</a> and smaller labs across the country became part of the project as well. Among others, see: Smyth, Henry DeWolf. <a href="/wiki/Smyth_Report" title="Smyth Report"><i>Atomic Energy for Military Purposes: The Official Report on the Development of the Atomic Bomb under the Auspices of the United States Government, 1940-1945</i></a>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1945. Rhodes, Richard. <i>The Making of the Atomic Bomb</i>. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1986.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevles, <i>The Physicists</i>, pp. 324-348.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hacker, <i>The Machines of War,</i> p. 263.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geiger, Roger. "Science, Universities, and National Defense, 1945-1970," <i>Osiris</i> (2nd series), Vol. 7, 1992, <i>Science after '40</i>, pp 26-48. p 26.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forman, "Behind quantum electronics," pp 159-160.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Leslie, Stuart. <i>The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford</i>. New York: Columbia University Press, 1993.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Edwards, Paul <i>The Closed World: Computers and the Politics of Discourse in Cold War America</i>. Cambridge: MIT Press, 1996.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Cloud, John. "Crossing the Olentangy River: The Figure of the Earth and the Military-Industrial-Academic-Complex, 1947-1972," <i>Studies in History and Philosophy of Modern Physics</i>, Vol. 31, No. 3, pp 371-404. 2000 Cloud, John. "Imaging the World in a Barrel: CORONA and the Clandestine Convergence of the Earth Sciences," <i>Social Studies of Science</i>, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp 231-251. April 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">van Keuren, David K. "Cold War Science in Black and White: US Intelligence Gathering and Its Scientific Cover at the Naval Research Laboratory, 1948-62," <i>Social Studies of Science</i>, Vol. 31, No. 2, pp 207-229. April 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Barth, Kai-Henrik. "The Politics of Seismology: Nuclear Testing, Arms Control, and the Transformation of a Discipline," <i>Social Studies of Science</i>, Vol. 33, No. 5, pp 743-781. October 2003.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mukerji, Chandra. <i>A Fragile Power: Scientists and the State</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Though somewhat related, "behavioral science" in this context should not be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_sciences" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavioral sciences">behavioral sciences</a> or <a href="/wiki/Radical_behaviorism" title="Radical behaviorism">behaviorism</a>, the strictly mechanistic approach to psychology promoted by B. F. Skinner. See: Robin, Ron. <i>The Making of the Cold War Enemy: Culture and Politics in the Military-Intellectual Complex</i>. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2001.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">For modernization theory, and its role in the Vietnam War, see: Latham, Michael E. <i>Modernization as Ideology: American Social Science and "Nation-Building" in the Kennedy Era</i>. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2000. For Project Camelot, see: Solovey, Mark. "Project Camelot and the 1960s Epistemological Revolution: Rethinking the Politics-Patronage-Social Science Nexus," <i>Social Studies of Science</i>, Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2001, pp 171-206.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Forman, "Behind quantum electronics," p 150.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geiger, Roger. "Review of <i>The Cold War and American Science: The Military-Industrial-Academic Complex at MIT and Stanford</i>," <i>Technology and Culture</i>, Vol. 34 pp 629-631. 1994.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kevles, Daniel J. "Cold war and hot physics: Science, security, and the American state, 1945-56," <i>Historical Studies in the Physical and Biological Sciences</i>, Vol. 20, No. 2, pp 239-264. 1990.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Geiger, “Science, Universities, and National Defense, 1945-1970.” See also: Geiger, Roger. <i>Knowledge & Money: Research Universities and the Paradox of the Marketplace</i>. Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2004. In Geiger's broad analysis of the relationship between political economy and academic research, the character and purpose of funding sources play little role, and there is no discussion of the distinctiveness of military funding. Rather, such funding is significant only in the context of ‘<a href="/wiki/Crowding_out_(economics)" title="Crowding out (economics)">crowding out</a>' other economic forces.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Hounshell, David A. "Epilogue: Rethinking the Cold War; Rethinking Science and Technology in the Cold War; Rethinking the Social Study of Science and Technology," <i>Social Studies of Science</i>, Vol. 31, No. 2, April 2001, pp 289-297.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Andrade, Tonio. <i>The gunpowder age: China, military innovation, and the rise of the West in world history</i> (Princeton University Press, 2017).</li> <li>Barrett, Ann H., and Armand Vincent Cardello. <i>Military food engineering and ration technology</i> (DEStech Publications, 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Rz80lOKY49EC&dq=History+of+military+technology&pg=PR11">online</a></li> <li>Bolia, Robert, et al. "A history lesson on the use of technology to support military decision making and command and control." in <i>Decision making in complex environments</i> (CRC Press, 2017) pp. 191–200. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.taylorfrancis.com/chapters/edit/10.1201/9781315576138-18/history-lesson-use-technology-support-military-decision-making-command-control-robert-bolia-michael-vidulich-todd-nelson-malcolm-cook">online</a></li> <li>Bousquet, Antoine. "A revolution in military affairs?: Changing technologies and changing practices of warfare." in <i> Technology and World Politics</i> (Routledge, 2017) pp. 165–181. <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://eprints.bbk.ac.uk/id/eprint/19662/1/Bousquet%20-%20A%20Revolution%20in%20Military%20Affairs.pdfonline">[1]</a></li> <li>Burmaoglu, Serhat, and Ozcan Sarıtas. "Changing characteristics of warfare and the future of Military R&D." <i>Technological Forecasting and Social Change</i> 116 (2017): 151–161. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isidl.com/wp-content/uploads/2017/08/E4600-ISIDL.pdf">online</a></li> <li>Chin, Warren. "Technology, war and the state: past, present and future." <i>International Affairs</i> 95.4 (2019): 765–783. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/ia/article-pdf/95/4/765/28882284/iiz106.pdf">online</a></li> <li>DeVries, Kelly Robert, Kelly DeVries, and Robert Douglas Smith. <i>Medieval military technology</i> ( University of Toronto Press, 2012) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=KO6Xxn7tsl4C&dq=History+of+military+technology&pg=PR11">online</a>.</li> <li>Evangelista, Matthew. <i>Innovation and the arms race: How the United States and the Soviet Union develop new military technologies</i> (Cornell University Press, 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.7591/9781501734304/html">online</a></li> <li>Gabriel, Richard A. <i>Between flesh and steel: A history of military medicine from the middle ages to the war in Afghanistan</i> (Potomac Books, 2013) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=5151KaKlmhcC&dq=History+of+military+technology&pg=PP2">online</a>.</li> <li>Horowitz, Michael C., and Shira Pindyck. "What is a military innovation and why it matters." <i>Journal of Strategic Studies</i> (2022): 1-30. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/abs/10.1080/01402390.2022.2038572">online</a></li> <li>Kuo, Kendrick. "Military Innovation and Technological Determinism: British and US Ways of Carrier Warfare, 1919–1945." <i>Journal of Global Security Studies</i> 6.3 (2021): ogaa046.</li> <li>McNeill, William H. <i>The pursuit of power: Technology, armed force, and society since AD 1000</i> (University of Chicago Press, 1982), a major scholarly survey <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/pursuitofpowerte00mcne">online</a></li> <li>Nicholson, Helen J. <i>Medieval warfare: theory and practice of war in Europe, 300-1500</i> (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2017) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UhpHEAAAQBAJ&pg=PP1">online</a>.</li> <li>Piehler, G. Kurt, ed. <i>Encyclopedia of military science</i> (Sage Publications, 2013).</li> <li>Purton, Peter Fraser. <i>The Medieval Military Engineer: From the Roman Empire to the Sixteenth Century</i> (Boydell & Brewer, 2018).</li> <li>Turchin, Peter, et al. "Rise of the war machines: Charting the evolution of military technologies from the Neolithic to the Industrial Revolution." <i>PloS one</i> 16.10 (2021): e0258161. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0258161">online</a></li> <li>Van Creveld, Martin. <i>Transformation of war</i> (Simon and Schuster, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/transformationof00vanc">online</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_science" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_science" title="Template:History of science"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_science" class="mw-redirect" title="Template talk:History of science"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_science" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Background</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Theories and sociology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historiography_of_science" title="Historiography of science">Historiography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pseudoscience" title="History of pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/80px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg" decoding="async" width="80" height="118" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/120px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg/160px-Johannes-kepler-tabulae-rudolphinae-google-arts-culture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3992" data-file-height="5880" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By era</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_ancient_world" title="Science in the ancient world">Ancient world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_classical_antiquity" title="Science in classical antiquity">Classical Antiquity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_science_in_the_Middle_Ages" title="European science in the Middle Ages">Medieval European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_in_the_Renaissance" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science in the Renaissance">Renaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_Age_of_Enlightenment" title="Science in the Age of Enlightenment">Age of Enlightenment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romanticism_in_science" title="Romanticism in science">Romanticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/19th_century_in_science" title="19th century in science">19th century in science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/20th_century_in_science" title="20th century in science">20th century in science</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Africa" title="History of science and technology in Africa">African</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Argentina" title="History of science and technology in Argentina">Argentine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Brazil" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Brazil">Brazilian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_science" title="Byzantine science">Byzantine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_France" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in France">French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_China" title="History of science and technology in China">Chinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_the_Indian_subcontinent" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in the Indian subcontinent">Indian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_in_the_medieval_Islamic_world" title="Science in the medieval Islamic world">Medieval Islamic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Japan" title="History of science and technology in Japan">Japanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Korea" title="History of science and technology in Korea">Korean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Mexico" title="History of science and technology in Mexico">Mexican</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Russia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of science and technology in Russia">Russian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology_in_Spain" title="History of science and technology in Spain">Spanish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_natural_science" class="mw-redirect" title="History of natural science">Natural sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_astronomy" title="History of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_biology" title="History of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_chemistry" title="History of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Earth_sciences#History_of_Earth_science" title="Outline of Earth sciences">Earth science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_physics" title="History of physics">Physics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_mathematics" title="History of mathematics">Mathematics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_algebra" title="History of algebra">Algebra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_calculus" title="History of calculus">Calculus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_combinatorics" title="History of combinatorics">Combinatorics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_geometry" title="History of geometry">Geometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_logic" title="History of logic">Logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_probability" title="History of probability">Probability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_statistics" title="History of statistics">Statistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_trigonometry" title="History of trigonometry">Trigonometry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_social_sciences" title="History of the social sciences">Social sciences</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anthropology" title="History of anthropology">Anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_archaeology" title="History of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_economic_thought" title="History of economic thought">Economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_political_science" title="History of political science">Political science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_psychology" title="History of psychology">Psychology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_sociology" title="History of sociology">Sociology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_agricultural_science" title="History of agricultural science">Agricultural science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_computer_science" title="History of computer science">Computer science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_materials_science" title="History of materials science">Materials science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_engineering" title="History of engineering">Engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">Human medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_veterinary_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="History of veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_anatomy" title="History of anatomy">Anatomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neuroscience" title="History of neuroscience">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_neurology_and_neurosurgery" title="History of neurology and neurosurgery">Neurology and neurosurgery </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_nutrition" class="mw-redirect" title="History of nutrition">Nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pathology" title="History of pathology">Pathology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_pharmacy" title="History of pharmacy">Pharmacy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3" style="margin-right:0.5em; padding:0.1em 0 0.4em;line-height:1.7em;"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="List-Class article"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/16px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/23px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/db/Symbol_list_class.svg/31px-Symbol_list_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/List_of_timelines#Science" title="List of timelines">Timelines</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:History_of_science" title="Portal:History of science">Portal</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_science" title="Category:History of science">Category</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Military_and_war" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Military_and_war" title="Template:Military and war"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Military_and_war" title="Template talk:Military and war"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Military_and_war" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Military and war"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Military_and_war" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a> and <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">war</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_service" title="Military service">Service</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_history" title="Military history">History</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_specialism" title="Military specialism">Occupational roles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruitment" title="Military recruitment">Recruitment</a></li> <li><i>Roles:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soldier" title="Soldier">Soldier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sailor" title="Sailor">Sailor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airman" title="Airman">Airman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enlisted_rank" title="Enlisted rank">Enlisted rank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Officer_(armed_forces)" title="Officer (armed forces)">Officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commanding_officer" title="Commanding officer">Commanding officer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Executive_officer" title="Executive officer">Executive officer</a></li></ul> <ul><li><i>Protocols and structure:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_rank" title="Military rank">Ranks</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_comparative_military_ranks" title="List of comparative military ranks">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_uniform" title="Military uniform">Uniforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_awards_and_decorations" title="Military awards and decorations">Awards and decorations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_decorations" title="List of military decorations">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_highest_military_decorations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of highest military decorations">Highest</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Categories:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_ranks" title="Category:Military ranks">Ranks</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forces</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Command_and_control" title="Command and control">Command and control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ministry_of_defence" title="Ministry of defence">Defense ministry</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Military" title="Military">Armed Forces</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army" title="Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navy" title="Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_force" title="Air force">Air force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marines" title="Marines">Marines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_forces" title="Special forces">Special forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commando" title="Commando">Commando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frogman" title="Frogman">Frogman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militia" title="Militia">Militia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_reserve_force" title="Military reserve force">Reserves</a></li> <li><i>Functional specialties:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_communications" title="Military communications">Communications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_engineer" title="Combat engineer">Engineers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_intelligence" title="Military intelligence">Intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance" title="Reconnaissance">Reconnaissance</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_reconnaissance_units" title="List of reconnaissance units">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_corps" title="Medical corps">Medical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_police" title="Military police">Military police</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gendarmerie" title="Gendarmerie">Gendarmerie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Security_forces" title="Security forces">Security forces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Border_guard" title="Border guard">Border guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast_guard" title="Coast guard">Coast guard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_logistics" title="Military logistics">Logistics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_logistics_units_and_formations" title="Category:Military logistics units and formations">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Categories:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Combat_occupations" title="Category:Combat occupations">Combat occupations</a></li> <li><i>Development:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_recruit_training" title="Military recruit training">Basic training</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_exercise" title="Military exercise">Military maneuvers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">Combat training</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_branch" title="Military branch">Branches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Land units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_arms" title="Combat arms">Combat arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Special_reconnaissance" title="Special reconnaissance">Special reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Signal_corps" title="Signal corps">Signal corps</a></li> <li><i>Naval units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warship" title="Warship">Warships</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Surface_combatant" title="Surface combatant">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_combat_ship" title="Littoral combat ship">Littoral</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patrol_boat" title="Patrol boat">Patrol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine" title="Submarine">Submarines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aircraft_carrier" title="Aircraft carrier">Aircraft carriers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landing_craft" title="Landing craft">Landing craft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Auxiliary_ship" title="Auxiliary ship">Auxiliary ship</a></li> <li><i>Air units:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fighter_aircraft" title="Fighter aircraft">Fighters</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bomber" title="Bomber">Bombers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_early_warning_and_control" title="Airborne early warning and control">Command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close_air_support" title="Close air support">Close air support</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic-warfare_aircraft" title="Electronic-warfare aircraft">Electronic-warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_aircraft" title="Reconnaissance aircraft">Reconnaissance</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Structure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_organization" title="Military organization">Organization</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Structure_of_contemporary_armed_forces" title="Category:Structure of contemporary armed forces">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Structure_of_contemporary_armies" title="Category:Structure of contemporary armies">Armies by country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Command_hierarchy" title="Command hierarchy">Chain of command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_combatant_command" title="Unified combatant command">Unified combatant command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staff_(military)" title="Staff (military)">General staff</a></li> <li><i>Land:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Army_group" title="Army group">Army group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_army" title="Field army">Field army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corps" title="Corps">Corps</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_corps" title="List of military corps">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_(military)" title="Division (military)">Division</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_divisions" title="List of military divisions">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brigade" title="Brigade">Brigade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Brigades_by_type" title="Category:Brigades by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regiment" title="Regiment">Regiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regiments_by_country" title="Category:Regiments by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Regiments_by_type" title="Category:Regiments by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battalion" title="Battalion">Battalion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battalions_by_country" title="Category:Battalions by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Battalions_by_type" title="Category:Battalions by type">By type</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Platoon" title="Platoon">Platoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squad" title="Squad">Squad</a></li> <li><i>Naval:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_fleet" title="Naval fleet">Naval fleet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Task_force#Naval" title="Task force">Task force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_strike_group" title="Carrier strike group">Carrier strike group</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Division_(naval)" title="Division (naval)">Division</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flotilla" title="Flotilla">Flotilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squadron_(naval)" title="Squadron (naval)">Squadron</a></li> <li><i>Air:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_box" title="Combat box">Combat box</a></li> <li><i>Special units by nation:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_Fleet" title="Battle Fleet">Battle Fleet; U.S. Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Front_(military_formation)" title="Front (military formation)">Front; Russian land forces</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Vehicles</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Ground:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle" title="Military vehicle">Ground</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_vehicles" title="List of military vehicles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_vehicle" title="Combat vehicle">Combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Tracked_military_vehicles" title="Category:Tracked military vehicles">Tracked vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wheeled_military_vehicles" title="Category:Wheeled military vehicles">Wheeled vehicles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_fighting_vehicle" title="Armoured fighting vehicle">Armor</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tank" title="Tank">Tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry_fighting_vehicle" title="Infantry fighting vehicle">Infantry fighting vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles" title="Lists of armoured fighting vehicles">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_armoured_fighting_vehicles_by_country" title="List of armoured fighting vehicles by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armored_car_(military)" title="Armored car (military)">Armored car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scout_car" title="Scout car">Scout car</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_vehicle#Military_trucks" title="Military vehicle">Truck</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_trucks" title="Category:Military trucks">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_truck" title="Gun truck">Gun truck</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_artillery" title="Self-propelled artillery">Self-propelled artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_howitzers#Self-propelled_howitzers" title="List of howitzers">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-propelled_anti-aircraft_weapon" title="Self-propelled anti-aircraft weapon">Anti-aircraft</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_railways" title="Military railways">Rail</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Weapons</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Land</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Weapon" title="Weapon">Weapons</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Artillery:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_artillery" title="Field artillery">Artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artillery" title="List of artillery">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_artillery_by_country" title="List of artillery by country">By country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery_battery" title="Artillery battery">Battery</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_gun" title="Field gun">Field gun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_field_guns" title="List of field guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Howitzer" title="Howitzer">Howitzer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_howitzers" title="List of howitzers">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_artillery" title="Rocket artillery">Rocket</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rocket_artillery" title="List of rocket artillery">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Small_Arms_and_Light_Weapons" class="mw-redirect" title="Small Arms and Light Weapons">Infantry guns</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_pistol" title="Service pistol">Pistols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machine_gun" title="Machine gun">Machine guns</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_machine_guns" title="List of machine guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Service_rifle" title="Service rifle">Service rifles</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_rifle" title="Battle rifle">Battle rifles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_battle_rifles" title="List of battle rifles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assault_rifle" title="Assault rifle">Assault rifle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_assault_rifles" title="List of assault rifles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sniper_rifle" title="Sniper rifle">Sniper rifle</a></li> <li><i>Other infantry weapons:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bazooka" title="Bazooka">Bazooka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_gun" title="Anti-tank gun">Anti-tank gun</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_anti-tank_guns" title="List of anti-tank guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grenade" title="Grenade">Grenade</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Grenades" title="Category:Grenades">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flamethrower" title="Flamethrower">Flamethrower</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bayonet" title="Bayonet">Bayonet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_knife" title="Combat knife">Combat knife</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_knives" title="Category:Military knives">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">Missiles</a>:</i> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shoulder-fired_missile" title="Shoulder-fired missile">Shoulder-fired</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-tank_guided_missile" title="Anti-tank guided missile">Anti-tank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles" title="List of missiles">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles_by_country" title="List of missiles by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mortar_(weapon)" title="Mortar (weapon)">Mortar</a> <ul><li><i>Lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_infantry_mortars" title="List of infantry mortars">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_heavy_mortars" title="List of heavy mortars">Heavy</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>Other:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_mine" title="Land mine">Land mine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shell_(projectile)" title="Shell (projectile)">Shells</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Sea/Air:</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Missile" title="Missile">Guided missiles</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_missiles" title="List of missiles">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Naval</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_artillery" title="Naval artillery">Naval artillery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_naval_guns" title="List of naval guns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-ship_missile" title="Anti-ship missile">Anti-ship missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo" title="Torpedo">Torpedoes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depth_charge" title="Depth charge">Depth charges</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Close-in_weapon_system" title="Close-in weapon system">Close-in weapons</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Aerial</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Aircraft_guns" title="Category:Aircraft guns">Guns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Air-launched_missiles" title="Category:Air-launched missiles">Missiles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_bomb" title="Aerial bomb">Bombs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Equipment</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_technology" title="Military technology">Military equipment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_equipment" title="Lists of military equipment">Lists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_equipment_by_country" title="Category:Military equipment by country">By country</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_helmet" title="Combat helmet">Helmet</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_combat_helmets" title="List of combat helmets">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_clothing_camouflage_patterns" title="List of military clothing camouflage patterns">List</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Body_armor" title="Body armor">Body armor</a></li> <li><i>Facilities:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_base" title="Military base">Military base</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_military_installations" title="Lists of military installations">Lists</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Field_hospital" title="Field hospital">Field hospital</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Combat systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_system" title="Fire-control system">Fire-control system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fire-control_radar" title="Fire-control radar">Fire-control radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Director_(military)" title="Director (military)">Director (military)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat_information_center" title="Combat information center">Combat information center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sonar" title="Sonar">Sonar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">Radar</a></li> <li><i>Historical:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ship_gun_fire-control_system" title="Ship gun fire-control system">Ship gun fire-control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gun_data_computer" title="Gun data computer">Gun data computer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torpedo_Data_Computer" title="Torpedo Data Computer">Torpedo Data Computer</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">Warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/War" title="War">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategy" title="Strategy">Strategy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combat" title="Combat">Combat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_science" title="Military science">Military science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_law" title="International law">International law</a></li> <li><i>By era:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prehistoric_warfare" title="Prehistoric warfare">Prehistoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_warfare" title="Ancient warfare">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_warfare" title="Medieval warfare">Post-classical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_modern_warfare" title="Early modern warfare">Early modern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_warfare" title="Modern warfare">Late modern</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_warfare" title="Industrial warfare">industrial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fourth-generation_warfare" title="Fourth-generation warfare">fourth-gen</a></li></ul></li> <li><i>By type:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armoured_warfare" title="Armoured warfare">Armoured warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artillery" title="Artillery">Artillery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrage_(artillery)" title="Barrage (artillery)">Barrage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_warfare" title="Biological warfare">Biological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_camouflage" title="Military camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry" title="Cavalry">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemical_warfare" title="Chemical warfare">Chemical</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Class_conflict" title="Class conflict">Class</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Combined_arms" title="Combined arms">Combined arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventional_warfare" title="Conventional warfare">Conventional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberweapon" title="Cyberweapon">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Area_denial_weapon" title="Area denial weapon">Denial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disinformation" title="Disinformation">Disinformation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drone_warfare" title="Drone warfare">Drone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Electronic_warfare" title="Electronic warfare">Electronic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Infantry" title="Infantry">Infantry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lawfare" title="Lawfare">Lawfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loitering_munition" title="Loitering munition">Loitering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Martial_music" title="Martial music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_warfare" title="Nuclear warfare">Nuclear</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_warfare" title="Psychological warfare">Psychological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiological_warfare" title="Radiological warfare">Radiological</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unconventional_warfare" title="Unconventional warfare">Unconventional</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Battlespace" title="Battlespace">Battlespace</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li>Aerospace <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerial_warfare" title="Aerial warfare">Air</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airborne_forces" title="Airborne forces">Airborne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_warfare" title="Land warfare">Land</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold-weather_warfare" title="Cold-weather warfare">Cold-region</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Desert_warfare" title="Desert warfare">Desert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jungle_warfare" title="Jungle warfare">Jungle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mountain_warfare" title="Mountain warfare">Mountain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_warfare" title="Urban warfare">Urban</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_warfare" title="Naval warfare">Sea</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amphibious_warfare" title="Amphibious warfare">Amphibious</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue-water_navy" title="Blue-water navy">Blue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brown-water_navy" title="Brown-water navy">Brown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green-water_navy" title="Green-water navy">Green</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_warfare" title="Surface warfare">Surface</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_warfare" title="Underwater warfare">Underwater</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subterranean_warfare" title="Subterranean warfare">Subterranean</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunnel_warfare" title="Tunnel warfare">Tunnel</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyberwarfare" title="Cyberwarfare">Cyber</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Information_warfare" title="Information warfare">Information</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_tactics" title="Military tactics">Tactics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">List of military tactics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Air_combat_manoeuvring" title="Air combat manoeuvring">Aerial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airlift" title="Airlift">Airlift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Airbridge_(logistics)" title="Airbridge (logistics)">Airbridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Airdrop" title="Airdrop">Airdrop</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle" title="Battle">Battle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cavalry_tactics" title="Cavalry tactics">Cavalry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charge_(warfare)" title="Charge (warfare)">Charge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterattack" title="Counterattack">Counterattack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counterinsurgency" title="Counterinsurgency">Counterinsurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defeat_in_detail" title="Defeat in detail">Defeat in detail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defensive_fighting_position" title="Defensive fighting position">Foxhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Envelopment" title="Envelopment">Envelopment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guerrilla_warfare" title="Guerrilla warfare">Guerrilla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morale" title="Morale">Morale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shock_and_awe" title="Shock and awe">Rapid dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siege" title="Siege">Siege</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swarming_(military)" title="Swarming (military)">Swarming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_objective" title="Tactical objective">Tactical objective</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_attack" title="Saturation attack">Target saturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trench_warfare" title="Trench warfare">Trench</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Withdrawal_(military)" title="Withdrawal (military)">Withdrawal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Operational_level_of_war" title="Operational level of war">Operational</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Military_operation" title="Military operation">Military operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operations_research" title="Operations research">Operations research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blitzkrieg" title="Blitzkrieg">Blitzkrieg</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expeditionary_warfare" title="Expeditionary warfare">Expeditionary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deep_operation" title="Deep operation">Deep operation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maneuver_warfare" title="Maneuver warfare">Maneuver</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Operational_manoeuvre_group" title="Operational manoeuvre group">Operational manoeuvre group</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Military_strategy" title="Military strategy">Strategy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_strategies_and_concepts" title="List of military strategies and concepts">List of military strategies and concepts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_campaign" title="Military campaign">Military campaign</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attrition_warfare" title="Attrition warfare">Attrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Counter-offensive" class="mw-redirect" title="Counter-offensive">Counter-offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culminating_point" title="Culminating point">Culminating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Defence_in_depth" title="Defence in depth">Defence in depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fabian_strategy" title="Fabian strategy">Fabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mosaic_Warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Mosaic Warfare">Mosaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_deception" title="Military deception">Deception</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_defence" title="Strategic defence">Defensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_depth" title="Strategic depth">Depth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strategic_goal_(military)" title="Strategic goal (military)">Goal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naval_strategy" title="Naval strategy">Naval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Offensive_(military)" title="Offensive (military)">Offensive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scorched_earth" title="Scorched earth">Scorched earth</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Diplomacy" title="Diplomacy">Diplomacy</a>:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alliance" title="Alliance">Alliances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_treaty" title="Peace treaty">Peace treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cooperation" title="Cooperation">Cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mediation" title="Mediation">Mediation</a></li> <li><i>Public policy:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscription" title="Conscription">Conscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_budget" title="Military budget">Defense budget</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Military_policy" title="Military policy">Defense policy</a></li> <li><i>Related:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government" title="Government">Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nation" title="Nation">Nation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_lists" title="Category:Military lists">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i>Military lists</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_war#Wars" title="Outline of war">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_weapons" title="Lists of weapons">Weapons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_tactics" title="List of military tactics">Military tactics</a></li> <li><i>History lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_wars" title="Lists of wars">Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_battles" title="Lists of battles">Battles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_occupations" title="List of military occupations">Military occupations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_operations" title="List of military operations">Operations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_sieges" title="List of sieges">Sieges</a></li> <li><i>Related lists:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_war_crimes" title="List of war crimes">War crimes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_military_writers" title="List of military writers">Writers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other namespace</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Templates</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:War" title="Template:War">War</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons" title="Template:Weapons">Weapons</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Military_ranks_by_country" title="Template:Military ranks by country">Ranks</a>}}</span></li> <li><i>Vehicles and weapons</i> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Tanks" title="Template:Tanks">Tanks</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Weapons" title="Template:Weapons">Weapons</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Modern_IFV_and_APC" title="Template:Modern IFV and APC">Infantry fighting vehicles</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Warship_types_of_the_19th_%26_20th_centuries" title="Template:Warship types of the 19th & 20th centuries">Modern warships</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Military_aircraft_types_(roles)" title="Template:Military aircraft types (roles)">Aircraft</a>}}</span></li></ul></li> <li><i>Specific modern wars</i> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Napoleonic_Wars" title="Template:Napoleonic Wars">Napoleonic Wars</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_I" title="Template:World War I">World War I</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:World_War_II" title="Template:World War II">World War II</a>}}</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cold_War" title="Template:Cold War">Cold War</a>}}</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Categories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lists_of_wars_by_country_involved" title="Category:Lists of wars by country involved">Lists of wars by country</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Conflicts_by_time" title="Category:Conflicts by time">Conflicts by time</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peace" title="Peace">Peace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_and_conflict_studies" title="Peace and conflict studies">Peace and conflict studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_movement" title="Peace movement">Peace movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peace_process" title="Peace process">Peace process</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disarmament" title="Disarmament">Disarmament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pacifism" title="Pacifism">Pacifism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9tente" title="Détente">Détente</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_studies" title="Global studies">Global studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conscientious_objector" title="Conscientious objector">Conscientious objector</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-war_movement" title="Anti-war movement">Anti-war movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idealism_in_international_relations" title="Idealism in international relations">Idealism in international relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humanitarianism" title="Humanitarianism">Humanitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multilateralism" title="Multilateralism">International cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crimes_against_humanity" title="Crimes against humanity">Crimes against humanity</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:International_relations" title="Template:International relations">International relations</a>}}</span></li> <li><i>Categories:</i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Peace_organizations" title="Category:Peace organizations">Peace organizations</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span><b><a href="/wiki/Category:War" title="Category:War">Category</a></b>  <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span><b><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/CategoryWar" class="extiw" title="commons:CategoryWar">Commons</a></b></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&oldid=1245768222">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&oldid=1245768222</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_technology" title="Category:History of technology">History of technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_science" title="Category:Military science">Military science</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_technology" title="Category:Military technology">Military technology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_economics" title="Category:Military economics">Military economics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military%E2%80%93industrial_complex" title="Category:Military–industrial complex">Military–industrial complex</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Military_history_by_topic" title="Category:Military history by topic">Military history by topic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Politics_of_science" title="Category:Politics of science">Politics of science</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_category_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons category link is on Wikidata">Commons category link is on Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 15 September 2024, at 00:05<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History_of_military_technology&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-6b8d669998-6js57","wgBackendResponseTime":190,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.317","walltime":"0.443","ppvisitednodes":{"value":1451,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":67845,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":994,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":13,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":2,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":36238,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 287.665 1 -total"," 32.27% 92.822 1 Template:History_of_science"," 30.43% 87.531 1 Template:Navbox"," 24.81% 71.367 1 Template:Short_description"," 14.03% 40.356 1 Template:Commons_category"," 13.31% 38.293 2 Template:Pagetype"," 13.27% 38.173 1 Template:Sister_project"," 12.62% 36.310 1 Template:Side_box"," 9.87% 28.387 1 Template:Military_and_war"," 7.44% 21.408 2 Template:See_also"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.136","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":3662603,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.eqiad.main-67876799fc-jswrv","timestamp":"20241127190951","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"History of military technology","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/History_of_military_technology","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q15427277","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q15427277","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2006-05-03T22:27:20Z","dateModified":"2024-09-15T00:05:04Z","headline":"Overview of applications of scientific knowledge to armed conflict"}</script> </body> </html>