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data-target="#auteur"><span class="picto-round picto-auteur"><img src='squelettes/img/picto-glossaire-auteur.svg?1619777159' alt='' width='20' height='19' /></span><span class="menu-glossaire-item-label">Author Definition</span></a></li> <li class='mav-item menu-glossaire-item menu-glossaire-item-institution'><a class="btn btn-link" href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#institution" data-target="#institution"><span class="picto-round picto-institution"><img src='squelettes/img/picto-glossaire-institution.svg?1619777159' alt='' width='18' height='16' /></span><span class="menu-glossaire-item-label">Institution Definition</span></a></li> <li class='mav-item menu-glossaire-item menu-glossaire-item-references'><a class="btn btn-link" href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#references" data-target="#references"><span class="picto-round picto-references"><img src='squelettes/img/picto-glossaire-references.svg?1619777159' alt='' width='15' height='18' /></span><span class="menu-glossaire-item-label">References</span></a></li> <li class='mav-item menu-glossaire-item menu-glossaire-item-index'><button class="btn btn-link collapsed" role="button" data-target="#index" aria-expanded="false" aria-controls="index"><span class="picto-round picto-index"><img src='squelettes/img/picto-glossaire-index.svg?1619777159' alt='' width='20' height='18' /></span><span class="menu-glossaire-item-label">Table of contents</span></button></li></ul></div> <header class="section section_primary section_cols section_cartouche"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="cartouche cartouche_glossaire"> <h1 class="cartouche__heading" id="start"> <span class="start-mire"></span> <span class="crayon article-titre-89109 ">Agent</span> </h1> </div> </div> </header> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="auteur"> <span>Author Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-apercu" class="definition-section-title">Definition</h3> <div class="crayon article-chapo-100327 apercu surlignable"><p>An agent is one who acts on behalf of another, the principal, either generally or in relation to a particular issue. An agency relationship exists where it is agreed that one person, the agent, may act behalf of another, the principal, either generally or in relation to a particular issue. In commerce, principals frequently engage agents to act on their behalf in return for a commission or other remuneration. In some agency relationships, agents have power to affect their principals’ legal relations. For example, a supplier of goods may engage a commercial agent to negotiate and/or conclude sales agreements on its behalf. An important issue in competition law is whether, and if so when, an agent forms an integral part of its principal’s business, so that arrangements between them fall outside of the scope of antitrust laws governing joint conduct between independent firms. This question has become increasingly significant as more suppliers sell online, via platforms following an agency model.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-texte" class="definition-section-title">Commentary</h3> <div class="crayon article-texte-100327 texte surlignable"><p>Competition law systems typically draw a sharp distinction between concerted and independent conduct, with the former being viewed as more fraught with antitrust risk than unilateral conduct. The US and EU systems thus contain broad prohibitions of agreements, or other collusive arrangements, between independent entities that restrain trade or restrict competition (Section 1 Sherman Act and Article 101 TFEU respectively). Neither provision extends, however, to wholly unilateral conduct, or the internal workings, of a single firm, for example arrangements between an employer and employee or other persons within a firm, or between a parent and its wholly-owned subsidiary. In the US, the Supreme Court has held that since parents and their wholly owned subsidiaries always have a unity of purpose, they are incapable of conspiring with one another in an antitrust sense (the activity is viewed as that of a single enterprise, see <i>Copperweld Corp v Independence Tube Corp</i> (1984)). In the EU, where a subsidiary has no economic independence or freedom to determine its course of action on the market, but carries out the instructions issued by its controlling parent, the entities are treated as part of a single ‘economic unit’ and agreements between them fall outside the scope of Article 101 (see <i>Viho Europe v Commission</i> (1996)).</p> <p>Similarly, it has been held that arrangements between a principal and agent may fall outside of Section 1 and Article 101. The US Supreme Court has held that a manufacturer that simply consigns its products through a genuine agent, disposing of its goods directly to customers and establishing the price at which it sells the product, acts unilaterally (see <i>United States v General Electric</i> (1926)). Consequently, the supplier is able to dictate the price at which the agent sells, and the territory into which and customers to whom it can sell, without creating a conspiracy. In this respect, the agent acts as its representative and an integral part of the principal’s business rather than as a conspirator. Although the doctrine has had less prominence and importance since <i>Sylvania</i> (1977) and <i>Leegin</i> (2007), and their reversal of the per se prohibition of <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/vertical-restraints-or-restrictions">vertical territorial and price restraints</a> (so requiring them to be appraised under a fuller rule of reason analysis), it still applies (<i>Valuepest</i> (4th Cir 2009)).</p> <p>In the EU, the close economic links existing in an agency relationship may also mean that an agent is so closely interrelated with its principal that the relationship is characterised by ‘economic unity’. Where an agent operates as an integral part of its principal’s undertaking, agreements between them relating to the market on which the agent offers the principal’s goods or services to potential customers, fall outside of Article 101(1) (see <i>Confederación Española de Empresarios de Estaciones de Servicio v Compañia Española de Petróleos (CEES)</i> (2006) and <i>CEPSA Estaciones de Servicio SA v LV Tobar e Hojos SL (CEPSA)</i> (2008)).</p> <p>In addition to impacting on the substantive reach of Section 1 and Article 101, the doctrine also enables liability and responsibility for an antitrust infringement by an agent to be attributed to its principal in certain circumstances; in the US where the agent(s) acts within the scope of apparent authority (US Supreme Court, <i>American Society of Mechanical Engineers Inc v Hydrolevel Corp</i> (1982)) and in the EU where the agent forms part of the same economic unit as the parent (EU General Court, <i>Minoan Lines v Commission</i> (2003)).</p> <p>Given the significant consequences that flow from the doctrine, a crucial issue is how to identify genuine agency agreements and to distinguish them from ones between independent entrepreneurs. It is clear in both the US and EU that it is not the parties’ characterisation of the arrangement (the form) which is determinative (so sham agency arrangements are not able to evade application of the antitrust rules). Rather, in the US, it is a question to be determined by the trier of fact taking account of a range of factors, including, whether the supplier retains title to, and control of, the products, whether the supplier retains risk of loss, who insures the products and whether consignment is used as a veneer for a vast anticompetitive scheme (see <i>Simpson v Union Oil Co</i> (1964)). Likewise, in the EU, it is the ‘economic reality’ that is decisive. Although some early cases suggest agents must act as ‘auxiliary organs’ of the principal (and constitute independent entities if acting for a number of principals, see <i>VZW Vereniging van Vlaamse Reisbureaus v VZW Sociale Dienst van de Plaatselijke en Gewestelijke Overheidsdiensten</i> (1987)), modern cases focus on the question of whether the agent bears more than a negligible proportion of the financial and commercial risks linked to sales of goods to third parties (CEES and CEPSA).</p> <p>The question of how broadly the agency concept extends is important to the question of whether arrangements in digital markets between suppliers and platforms (such as Amazon, or e-Bay,) are caught by Section 1 or Article 101. Although several publishers agreed in settlement arrangements to terminate their<a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/distribution-agreement">distribution agreements</a> for electronic books using an agency, as opposed to a wholesale or reseller, model, with Apple (and other retailers) following European Commission and DOJ investigations (see <i>e-books </i> (2013) and<i> United States v Apple</i> (2d Cir, 2015), there is no explicit ruling in either the US or EU on how such distribution agreements are to be treated. The core question arising in each of these cases was whether the publishers engaged with Apple, in a horizontal concerted practice or conspiracy to raise retail prices for e-books. The question of whether the <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/Vertical-agreement">vertical agreements</a> relating to sales on online platforms would fall within the scope of Article 101 or Section 1 did not therefore arise. Nonetheless, applying the principles set out in the cases, it seems possible that an arrangement between a supplier and a platform could constitute a ‘genuine’ agency one falling outside the reach of Section 1 or Article 101 where, for example, ownership of the products/services is not passed to the platform (the platform does not buy products from suppliers for resale), where contracts concluded are formed between the supplier and customer, and where the platform does not bear any of the risks related to the sale or provision of the goods or services, but receives a commission or remuneration for concluded contracts. If this is the case, some have argued that the antitrust laws may have a ‘platform gap’, immunising potentially restrictive distribution arrangements from scrutiny under these provisions. This has led some to call of a modification or reinterpretation of agency rules.</p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-jurisprudence" class="definition-section-title">Case references</h3> <div class="crayon article-reference-100327 reference"><p><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2007/chroniques/Agent-The-European-Court-of" class="spip_in">Case C-217/05, Confederación Española de Empresarios de Estaciones de Servicio (CEES) v Compañia Española de Petróleos SA, EU:C:2006:784</a></p> <p><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/december-2003/the-eu-court-of-first-instance-finds-that-the-commission-did-not-exceed-its" class="spip_in">Case T-66/99, Minoan Lines v Commission, EU:T:2003:337</a></p> <p><a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/bulletin/news-issues/november-1987/the-eu-court-of-justice-holds-that-several-agreements-between-tour-operators">Case 311/85, VZW Vereniging van Vlaamse Reisbureaus v VZW Sociale Dienst van de Plaatselijke en Gewestelijke Overheidsdiensten, EU:C:1987:418</a></p> <p><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/1964/The-US-Supreme-Court-finds-agency-52920" class="spip_in">Simpson v Union Oil Co, 377 US 13 (1964)</a></p> <p><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/1926/the-us-supreme-court-finds-a-genuine-agency-relationship-between-a-manufacturer" class="spip_in">United States v General Elec, 272 US 476, (1926)</a></p></div> </div> <div class="definition-section"> <h3 id="part-biblio" class="definition-section-title">Bibliography</h3> <div class="crayon article-ps-100327 jurisprudence"><p>A. H. Zhang, ‘Toward an Economic Approach to Agency Agreements’ (2013) 9 Journal of Competition Law and Economics 553.</p> <p>A. Jones, B Sufrin and N Dunne, <i>Jones and Sufrin’s EU Competition Law: Text, Cases, and Materials</i> (Oxford University Press, 7th edn, 2019), Chapters 4 and 11 ;</p> <p>P. Akman, ‘Online Platforms, Agency, and Competition Law: Mind the Gap’ (2020) 43(2) Fordham International Law Journal 209;</p></div> </div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_definition sticky-top" id="definition-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#part-apercu" data-target="#part-apercu">Definition</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#part-texte" data-target="#part-texte">Commentary</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#part-jurisprudence" data-target="#part-jurisprudence">Case references</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#part-biblio" data-target="#part-biblio">Bibliography</a></li> </ul> </div> <h2>Author</h2> <div class="auteurs"> <ul class="liste-items liste-items-well"> <li class="item"><div class="entry auteur" itemscope itemtype="http://schema.org/Person"> <strong class="entry-title"> <a href="en/authors/alison-jones" itemprop="url"> <span class='logo-img-wrapper spip_logo' style="width:50px;"><span class="img" style="display:block;position:relative;height:0;width:100%;padding-bottom:100%;overflow:hidden;background:url(local/cache-vignettes/L100xH99/auton20-461e7.jpg?1711359187) no-repeat center;background-size:100%;"> </span></span> <span itemprop="name" class="nom">Alison Jones</span></a> </strong> <div class="entry-content"> <span class='organisation' itemprop="worksFor" itemtype="http://schema.org/Organization">King’s College (London)</span> </div> <div class="entry-meta"> <span class="pays">United Kingdom</span> <span class="articles"><em>21</em> contributions</span> <span class="visites"><em>84963</em> visits</span> </div> </div></li> </ul> </div> <div class="well citation"> <h2>Quotation</h2> <article class="entry article article-dictionary hentry"> <span class="authors">Alison Jones, </span> <span class="entry-title">Agent</span><span class="rubrique"><span class="sep">, </span> Global Dictionary of Competition Law, Concurrences, Art. N° 89109</span> </article> </div> <div class="well stats"> <p><i class="picto picto-eye"></i> <b>Visits</b> <em class="number">3004</em></p> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_author scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="institution"> <span>Institution Definition</span> </h2> <div class="section__content"> <div class="crayon article-texte-89109 texte surlignable"><p>One who represents and acts for another under the contract or relation of agency, q. v. Classification. Agents are either general or special. A general agent is one employed in his capacity as a professional man or master of an art or trade, or one to whom the principal confides his whole business or all transactions or functions of a designated class; or he is a person who is authorized by his principal to execute all deeds, sign all contracts, or purchase all goods, required in a particular trade, business, or employment. <abbr class="spip_out" rel="external" title='Dead link'>Black’s Law Dictionary Free Online Legal Dictionary 2nd Ed.</abbr></p> <p>See also : <a href="https://www.concurrences.com/en/dictionary/absolute-territorial-protection">Absolute territorial protection</a></p></div> </div> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"></aside> </div> </section> <section class="section section_primary section_cols section_references scrollable-anchor"> <div class="section__container"> <div class="section__main"> <section class="subsection subsection_jurisprudence related-section related-jurisprudence scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-jurisprudence"> <span id="references">Case Comments</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXnRhW9pyjRwD9eldoFT71eoi1O7yzb6g8KNlk66zVYCCVFsOrBgj2L/MgGQ3rpsbN7QR1lCAuOyr5sKGHWA86Mfp2DV54/4KfCXMfRtwIsK9lk6NiEYofxsx469VfJVVU6fCIa47nO/X0RF2TDwQq5IxZQzG+uhYK27hqnYD1RX2FXzvvEOdhgvK8kCQ3EoGPI1zqgx/ALUu0cHLuMi0YI9ALoQRH6QS9exdG0LANe7GbiROcNx/nh0z9M2quR+RVVw2BWCTEcgP6T5cYYxh2jMqpZonNVIPVQ0NHhflqJJBIJTO94LD1ccpP/vSTwmJZf2bSi/qB3L0b5cQKPNAG5RYboIRkxeNxJ' data-origin="//en/dictionary/agent-en"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/kyriakos-fountoukakos">Kyriakos Fountoukakos</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/lode-van-den-hende">Lode Van Den Hende</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/morris-schonberg">Morris Schonberg</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/kristien-geeurickx">Kristien Geeurickx</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/peter-rowland">Peter Rowland</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/july-2024/the-eu-parliament-re-elects-ursula-von-der-leyen-as-president-of-the-commission" rel="bookmark">The EU Parliament re-elects Ursula von der Leyen as President of the Commission for a second term</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-07-17T22:00:00Z">18 July 2024</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-119899 introduction entry-content"> <p>On 18 July 2024 Ursula von der Leyen was re-elected as president of the EU Commission for a second five-year term, having received the backing of 401 members of the European Parliament (41 more than required). In her role as president of the EU Commission she will set the agenda for the EU’s (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/latvian-competition-authority">Latvian Competition Authority</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/bulletin/news-issues/january-2022/the-latvian-government-approves-competition-law-amendments-that-strengthen-the" rel="bookmark">The Latvian Government approves competition law amendments that strengthen the Competition Authority’s independence and enforcement powers</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2022-01-13T23:00:00Z">14 January 2022</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-105753 introduction entry-content"> <p>The independence of the Competition Council will be strengthened* <br class='autobr' /> At its meeting on 14 December 2021, the Cabinet of Ministers approved amendments to the Competition Law (hereinafter - the draft law) with the aim of strengthening the Competition Council (hereinafter - the CC), providing the (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/karine-biancone">Karine Biancone</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2019/alertes/general-conditions-of-sales-by-client-category-the-paris-court-of-appeal" rel="bookmark"><strong>General conditions of sale:</strong> The Paris Court of Appeal reviews the legality of the general conditions of sales by client categories’ criteria and their implementation (<em>Pyxis Pharma / Cooper</em>)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2019-07-03T22:00:00Z">4 July 2019</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-92217 introduction entry-content"> <p>The Cooper Company (hereinafter "Cooper") markets pharmaceutical specialties. It had constructed a categorical pricing policy that was more advantageous for dispensing pharmacies and their groupings than for wholesalers. Pyxis Pharma (’Pyxis’), which has the status of a purchasing grouping (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-louis-fourgoux">Jean-Louis Fourgoux</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2019/chroniques/buying-agent-the-paris-court-of-appeal-requires-a-laboratory-to-communicate-its" rel="bookmark"><strong>Buying agent:</strong> The Paris Court of Appeal requires a laboratory to communicate its general terms and conditions of sales corresponding to the category of pharmacists to a purchasing group company (SRA) set up by pharmacists (<em>Pyxis Pharma / Cooper</em>)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2019-07-03T22:00:00Z">4 July 2019</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-92385 introduction entry-content"> <p>It is a long battle that seems to be turning to the advantage of dispensing pharmacists who had opted for the SRA pursuant to Article D. 5125-24-1 of the CSP. The SRA is unique in that it is made up of dispensing pharmacists and acts on behalf of member pharmacies. In the present case Pixis (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteurs/stephane-brena">Stéphane Brena</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2019/alertes/commissioner-the-french-commercial-practices-review-board-considers-that-the" rel="bookmark"><strong>Significant imbalance:</strong> The French Commission on the examination of unfair practices considers that the clause of non-renewal of contract indemnity, stipulated to the benefit of the commissioner, can contravene the article L. 442-6, I, 2° of the French Commercial Code (<em>Commission contract</em>)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2019-05-05T22:00:00Z">6 May 2019</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-91061 introduction entry-content"> <p>The CEPC was seized of the question whether "the clause in a sales commission contract requiring the principal alone to pay its commission agent, in the event of non-renewal of the contract, whoever the non-renewer and whatever the cause of such non-renewal, an indemnity of an amount equivalent (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/valerie-durand">Valérie Durand</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2019/chroniques/compensation-for-termination-the-french-commission-for-examination-of-unfair" rel="bookmark"><strong>Compensation for termination:</strong> The French Commission for Examination of Unfair Commercial Practices examines the compliance with the former Article L. 442-6, I, 2 of the French Commercial Code of a compensation due in the event of non-renewal of a commission contract (<em>Commission contract in the pharmaceutical sector</em>)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2019-04-17T22:00:00Z">18 April 2019</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-91563 introduction entry-content"> <p>The Commission d’examen des pratiques commerciales (CEPC) was asked to examine a clause contained in a commission contract in the light of the former Article L. 442-6, I, 2° C. com. (which, with Order no. 2019-359 of 24 April 2019, became Article L. 442-1, I, 2° C. com.). The disputed clause (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-louis-fourgoux">Jean-Louis Fourgoux</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2018/chroniques/invoicing-the-french-supreme-court-decides-pursuant-to-article-l-441-3-of-the" rel="bookmark"><strong>Invoicing:</strong> The French Supreme Court decides pursuant to Article L 441-3 of the Commercial Code that the invoice of a commissionaire does not necessarily have to show the margin on its subcontractors (<em>CAFOM Distribution / Somatrans</em>)</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2017-09-19T22:00:00Z">20 September 2017</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-86178 introduction entry-content"> <p>Several companies of the Cafom Group, which operates furniture distribution stores under various trade names, have entrusted the transport of goods for more than 20 years to a freight forwarder (the Somatrans company). When they discovered that Somatrans had invoiced its subcontractors for (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-michel-vertut">Jean-Michel Vertut</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2017/alertes/general-terms-and-conditions-of-sale-by-category-the-french-supreme-court" rel="bookmark"><strong>General terms and conditions of sale by category :</strong> The French Supreme Court recalls the need for suppliers to establish their categorical sales conditions on objective criteria and to justify them in case of refusal of communication (<em>Pyxis /Cooper</em>) </a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2017-03-28T22:00:00Z">29 March 2017</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-104018 introduction entry-content"> <p>Terms and conditions, pricing structure and buyer categories: requirement for precision* <br class='autobr' /> Two pharmacists from pharmaceutical pharmacies had created a Purchasing Grouping Structure (SRA) called "Pyxis Pharma", in order to negotiate on behalf of members with suppliers the conditions of purchase (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/frederic-buy">Frédéric Buy</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-2-2016/case-comments/Sudden-termination-The-Paris-Court-79252" rel="bookmark"><strong>Sudden termination:</strong> The Paris Court of Appeal considers that successful conversion has to be taken in account to appreciate the proper notice of termination <em>(Cargo Lines / Carotrans international)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2016-01-28T12:28:00Z">28 January 2016</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-79252 introduction entry-content"> <p>Practitioners familiar with the litigation of abrupt terminations will not fail to appreciate the originality of this decision of the Paris Court of Appeal "discovered" by our colleague Cyril Grimaldi (JCP G 2016, 288), which runs counter to the current case law of the Court of Cassation on a (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/anne-cecile-martin">Anne-Cécile Martin</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2014/case-comments/Branch-managers-The-Bordeaux-Court" rel="bookmark"><strong>Branch managers</strong>: The Bordeaux Court of Appeals specifies that if the criteria of Article L. 7321-2 of the French Labour Code are necessary to apply a number of social law provisions to non-employees, they cannot set aside a reclassification to employment contracts in the event of legal subordination <em>(Bambou et compagnie / Les Ateliers des cotonniers)</em> </a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2014-04-30T10:01:00Z">30 April 2014</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-68075 introduction entry-content"> <p>CA Bordeaux, April 30, 2014, RG n° 12/06406, Bambou et compagnie c/ Les Ateliers des cotonniers <br class='autobr' /> The commission-affiliation contract seemed to be protected from being reclassified as a commercial agency contract (cf. Cass. com., 29 June 2010, No. 09-66.773, aff. Chattawak, supra, note 2, at p. (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/anne-cecile-martin">Anne-Cécile Martin</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2013/case-comments/selective-distribution-the-aix-en-provence-court-of-appeal-condemns-call-en" rel="bookmark"><strong>Selective distribution</strong>: The Aix-en-Provence Court of Appeal condemns call forwarding an authorized distributor selling products on the internet <em>(Pierre Fabre)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2012-10-10T22:00:00Z">11 October 2012</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-61697 introduction entry-content"> <p>CA Aix-en-Provence, 11 October 2012, Pierre Fabre Dermo Cosmetics, RG n° 11/12322 <br class='autobr' /> A company operating a selective distribution network had obtained in summary proceedings the cessation of Internet sales of its products by the agent of one of its selected distributors. A court of appeal (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/didier-ferrier">Didier Ferrier</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-3-2011/case-comments/Affiliated-commissionnaire-The" rel="bookmark"><strong>Affiliated commissionnaire</strong>: The Versailles Court of Appeal identifies criteria in order to distinguisch between affiliated commissionnaire and commercial agent <em>(Business XX/Mexx Boutiques)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2011-06-09T09:51:00Z">9 June 2011</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-37431 introduction entry-content"> <p>A distributor who marketed a supplier’s products on the supplier’s behalf claimed compensation for the non-renewal of the distribution contract, which he presented as the termination of a commercial agency agreement. <br class='autobr' /> For its part, the supplier invoked the classification of the contract as a (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/alain-ronzano">Alain Ronzano</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2010/alerts/Effect-on-trade-The-Court-of" rel="bookmark"><strong>Effect on trade</strong>: The Court of Appeal of Paris adopts a strict interpretation of the conditions of the application of EU competition law by the Competition Authority <em>(Orange Caraïbe e.a.)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2010-09-22T22:00:00Z">23 September 2010</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-60097 introduction entry-content"> <p>On September 23, 2010, the Paris Court of Appeal (Pôle 5 -Chambre 5-7) overturned decision no. 09-D-36 concerning practices implemented by Orange Caraïbe and France Télécom on various electronic communications services markets in the departments of Martinique, Guadeloupe and Guyane, ruling on (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/laurent-roberval">Laurent Roberval</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2010/case-comments/Tariff-Transparency-Agriculture" rel="bookmark"><strong>Tariff Transparency - Agriculture</strong>: The Legislator modifies again the "Title IV" in order to favour farmers</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2010-07-27T07:59:00Z">27 July 2010</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-33058 introduction entry-content"> <p>Law n° 2010-874 of 27 July 2010 on the modernisation of agriculture and fisheries, JORF n° 172 of 27 July 2010, p. 13925 <br class='autobr' /> Is the French legislator captive to certain interest groups? The question deserves to be asked in the light of the most recent legislative reforms of Title IV. After a law (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/dominique-ferre">Dominique Ferré</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2010/case-comments/Sales-agent-status-The-Cour-de" rel="bookmark"><strong>Sales agent status</strong> : The French Supreme Court censures the Paris Court of Appeal for applying the sales agent status to an “affiliated commissionaire” <em>(Chattawak/Chantal Pieri)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2010-06-29T09:23:00Z">29 June 2010</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-33049 introduction entry-content"> <p>Cass. com, June 29, 2010, Chattawak v. Chantal Pieri, No. 09-66773 <br class='autobr' /> A new step in a case that was thought to be over, the decision of the Commercial Chamber of the Court of Cassation of 29 June 2010 shows how difficult it can be for the courts to grasp the affiliation commission formula. These (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="pagination more"><a id='pagination_articles_related' class='pagination_ancre'></a> <ul class="pager"> <li class="next"><a href='//en/dictionary/agent-en?debut_articles_related=15#pagination_articles_related' class='lien_pagination more' rel='next'>More…</a></li> </ul></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection subsection_articles related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-articles"> <span>Articles</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXTRhKtp6jRgLdd98oats+kFuv0ycyWIYET9UtQjidrP5+TyhDGoiP2HaVlgQUggfuQpqfLdZwMbGNplVrtzcYz1eWuZg1qg7M8XumsF42qItlHS9iBjquxRWy9+zmOU/E+OiqoWbdIfXMQB2JLYAy4JxduKvdzrtGWEBOHAIVMLcCWh/50bTZ0kIb6ZCDIhT7erM+NCijG35mPfiRpihi8mcA05HWpjQ5QTNT7OCuKpXW65bfSxNze/9z0mqWG/fUbkQ0jAPnBfv74BF38C+Qy+diojVjv5nOX5NHh/1qBPFAgzc8qJTcfHDElw3x9Oe8NFUTkGP3vrSQfCgqamW6vQFDV' data-origin="//en/dictionary/agent-en"> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/auteur/Regis-Pihery">Régis Pihéry</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2013/Commission-Affiliation-The-Paris" rel="bookmark"><strong>Commission-Affiliation</strong>: The Paris Court of Appeal condemns a franchisor, become a principal, for breach of contract of affiliation <em>(Du pareil au même)</em> </a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2013-11-30T23:00:00Z">December 2013</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-60862 introduction entry-content"> <p>CA Paris, 27.06.2013, Du pareil au même, RG n° 11-03644 <br class='autobr' /> Due to the lack of profitability of a franchise, one franchisor had proposed to a franchisee, in order to regain profitability, the transformation of the franchise agreement into a commission-affiliation agreement. The difficulties having (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jean-bernard-blaise">Jean-Bernard Blaise</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/joseph-vogel">Joseph Vogel</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/louis-vogel">Louis Vogel</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2012/conferences/recent-case-law-in-competition-law-and-distribution-law-paris-december-14th" rel="bookmark">Recent case law in competition law and distribution law<em> (Paris, December 14th, 2011)</em></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2012-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2012</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-41917 introduction entry-content"> <p>This set of three contributions are derived from the conference on "competition law and distribution" organized in Paris the December 14, 2011 by Concurrences Review and Vogel & Vogel. For Louis Vogel, author of the first contribution, the Court of Justice states in the Pierre Fabre case (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/didier-ferrier">Didier Ferrier</a></span>, <span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/dominique-ferre">Dominique Ferré</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-4-2007/pratiques/resale-pricing-policies-under-french-and-ec-law-a-synthesis" rel="bookmark">Resale pricing policies under French and EC law : A synthesis</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2007-11-30T23:00:00Z">December 2007</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-28100 introduction entry-content"> <p>Article L 410-2 of the French Commercial Code states that "except in cases where the law provides otherwise, the prices of goods, products and services (...) are freely determined by competition". <br class='autobr' /> Consequently, competition law provides a framework for this freedom within distribution networks: (…)</p> </div> </article></div> <div class="item short"> <article class="entry article hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/didier-ferrier">Didier Ferrier</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/review/issues/no-1-2009/distributor-agent-the-court-of-cassation-rules-in-favor-of-protecting-the" rel="bookmark"><strong>Distributor-agent</strong> : The Court of Cassation rules in favor of protecting the distributor-agent in several decisions</a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2009-01-31T23:00:00Z">February 2009</time></p> <div class="crayon article-intro-29635 introduction entry-content"> <p>Suppliers wishing to control the distributors’ commercial policy on assortment and, above all, resale prices use the mandate formula, which protects them from resale price claims since the products are not resold but sold on their behalf. <br class='autobr' /> Several recent court decisions call for vigilance with (…)</p> </div> </article></div> </div> </div> </div> </section> <section class="subsection subsections_books related-section related-articles scrollable-anchor"> <h2 class="section__heading" id="related-books"> <span>Books</span> </h2> <div class="liste articles articles-related"> <div class="liste-items"> <div class='ajaxbloc' data-ajax-env='1yXvQhWtuyjR679l0HybjCGDh7VrCx1cC627mMKC6zMBQHP2DRSMC73CGQuY4rYgL0+kHEbDtnDijV3Y7VsHx5tPUaV7HqnSd3tFv5/VJvqROokHtDJBO8ESYP4EmStNKsw/LMJcKAZ6x7Czu4V6F68sgaxtEC58fLy47iS574Zf+hbmMUtqkqOkERkHosm2Bx6T0N/9vUxLFhwS/F2psOkk1ALt9LlgiydUKswvoSvhxlJ4EWu7s7Q5XGgORL0eqCCOmqFm0o83TjlQVsUdozQZXlH4burD+d3J5+OJ8k29mKoYkJHUH7x79xdGgzEL/qcF5lilbeYjANM80u2wkAaq8911A8I3Xw==' data-origin="//en/dictionary/agent-en"> <div class='item short'>  <article class="entry article article-doc-livre hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/wouter-wils">Wouter Wils</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/livre/eu-antitrust-enforcement-law-economics-history-policy-practice-1463#id=121310" rel="bookmark">EU Antitrust Enforcement - Law, Economics, History, Policy & Practice <small>Chapter 11 - The Role of the Hearing Officer in Antitrust Proceedings before the European Commission</small></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2024-02-13T23:00:00Z"><span class="dm"><span class="d">14 </span><span class="m">Feb</span></span><span class="y"> 2024</span></time></p> <div class="introduction entry-content">EU Antitrust Enforcement – Law, Economics, History, Policy & Practice203 XI. 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You held this position for 10 (…)</div> </article> </div> <div class='item short'>  <article class="entry article article-doc-livre hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/jacques-steenbergen">Jacques Steenbergen</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/livre/great-antitrust-enforcers-lessons-from-regulators#id=114769" rel="bookmark">Great Antitrust Enforcers - Lessons from Regulators <small><strong>JACQUES STEENBERGEN</strong></br>Belgian Competition Authority</small></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-10-24T22:00:00Z"><span class="dm"><span class="d">25 </span><span class="m">Oct</span></span><span class="y"> 2023</span></time></p> <div class="introduction entry-content">341 Jacques Steenbergen * Belgian Competition Authority, President (2013‑2023) As the President of the Belgian Competition Authority, you have a variety of experiences that you draw on in formulating law and policy. 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You are now a partner at Latham & Watkins but have served for over 25 years before that with the European Commission in a number of (…)</div> </article> </div> <div class='item short'>  <article class="entry article article-doc-livre hentry"> <span class="authors"><span class="vcard author"><a class="url fn spip_in" href="en/authors/allan-fels">Allan Fels</a></span></span> <strong class="h6-like entry-title"><a href="en/livre/great-antitrust-enforcers-lessons-from-regulators#id=114752" rel="bookmark">Great Antitrust Enforcers - Lessons from Regulators <small><strong>ALLAN FELS</strong></br>Australia’s Competition and Consumer Commission</small></a></strong> <p class="publication"><time pubdate="pubdate" datetime="2023-10-24T22:00:00Z"><span class="dm"><span class="d">25 </span><span class="m">Oct</span></span><span class="y"> 2023</span></time></p> <div class="introduction entry-content">85 Allan Fels * Australia Competition and Consumer Commission, Chairman (1989‑2003) You served for many years as the Chair of Australia's Competition and Consumer Commission (ACCC). You have had a broad range of experiences outside of competition law and policy, and it's no accident that you (…)</div> </article> </div> </div> </div> </div> </section> </div> <aside class="section__aside side-col"> <div class="miniplan miniplan_related sticky-top" id="related-index"> <ul class="nav nav-list"> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#related-jurisprudence" data-target="#related-jurisprudence">Case Comments</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#related-articles" data-target="#related-articles">Articles</a></li> <li><a href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#related-books" data-target="#related-books">Books</a></li> </ul> </div> </aside> </div> </section> <div class="index-overlay collapse" id="index"> <span class="arrow-top"></span> <button class="close">×</button> <div class="glossaire-index"> <div class="main"> <div class="index"> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#a" data-anchor="#a">a</a> <a class="lettre" href="//en/dictionary/agent-en#b" 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col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">c</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/cartel">Cartel </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/clearance-phase-ii-merger">Clearance phase II (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collecting-society">Collecting society </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-dominance">Collective dominance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/collective-redress-class-action">Collective redress (class action)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/comity">Comity </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/commission-communication">Commission communication</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competence">Competence </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/competition-policy-89181">Competition policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/complaint">Complaint </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Compliance-programme">Compliance programme </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/compulsory-license">Compulsory license</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concentration-indexes-en">Concentration indexes</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concerted-practices-en">Concerted practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concession-86056">Concession</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/concurrent-jurisdiction">Concurrent jurisdiction</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Consortium-12192">Consortium </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumer-protection">Consumer protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/consumers-associations-en">Consumers’ associations</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-change">Control (change)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/control-notion">Control (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cooperation-between-competition-authorities-en">Cooperation between competition authorities</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/coordinated-effects">Coordinated effects</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/copyright">Copyright</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corruption">Corruption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cost-based-access">Cost-based access</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cournot-nash-equilibrium">Cournot (Nash) equilibrium</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/criminal-sanctions">Criminal sanctions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/cross-subsidisation">Cross subsidisation </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="d"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">d</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/damages">Damages</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/de-minimis-notice">De minimis notice</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/digital-markets-act">Digital Markets Act</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/direct-effect">Direct effect</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/discriminatory-practices">Discriminatory practices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/distribution-agreement">Distribution agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/divestiture">Divestiture</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/dominance-notion">Dominance (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/downstream-market-117440">Downstream market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="e"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">e</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/echr">ECHR</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-analysis">Economic analysis</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economic-efficiency">Economic efficiency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/economies-of-scale">Economies of scale </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/ecosystem-failures">Ecosystem Failures</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effect-on-trade-between-member-states">Effect on trade between Member States</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effective-judicial-protection">Effective judicial protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/effects-doctrine-118100">Effects doctrine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/efta-surveillance-authority-esa-court">EFTA Surveillance Authority (ESA) & Court </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/environmental-protection-en">Environmental protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/error-costs-108946">Error costs</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/essential-facility">Essential facility</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/european-competition-network-ecn-en">European Competition Network (ECN)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/excessive-prices-en">Excessive prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exchange-of-information">Exchanges of information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusionary-practice">Exclusionary practice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exclusive-distribution-12218">Exclusive distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-purchasing-en">Exclusive purchasing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusive-right-art-106-tfeu">Exclusive right (Art. 106 TFEU)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/exclusivity-clause">Exclusivity clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Exhaustion">Exhaustion </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Extra-territoriality">Extra-territoriality</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="f"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">f</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Failing-firm-defence">Failing firm defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fidelity-rebates">Fidelity rebates</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Fine">Fine</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/fintech">Fintech</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreclosure-117887">Foreclosure</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-direct-investment-fdi">Foreign direct investment (FDI)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/foreign-subsidies">Foreign Subsidies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/form-co">Form CO (EU) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/frand">FRAND</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Free-riding">Free riding </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="g"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">g</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/geographic-market">Geographic market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/corporate-group">Group of undertakings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/group-purchasing-organization">Group purchasing organization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/guidelines-119080">Guidelines</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/gun-jumping">Gun jumping</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="h"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">h</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/hard-core-restrictions">Hard core restrictions</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Hearing-officer">Hearing officer </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/horizontal-agreement">Horizontal cooperation agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/hsr-filing-us-108854">HSR Filing (US)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="i"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">i</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/independence-and-impartiality">Independence and impartiality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/individual-exemption-86377">Individual exemption</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/industrial-policy">Industrial policy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/intellectual-property-right-en">Intellectual property right</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/inter-brand-competition">Inter-brand competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Interim-measures">Interim measures </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-co-operation">International co-operation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/international-competition-network-icn">International competition network (ICN) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/investigations-inquiries-en">Investigations / inquiries</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="j"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">j</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/judicial-review">Judicial review</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="k"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">k</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/Know-how">Know-how </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="l"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">l</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/legal-privilege">Legal privilege</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Leniency-programme">Leniency</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/lerner-index">Lerner index</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/letter-of-formal-notice-118055">Letter of formal notice </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/licensing">Licensing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/limitation-period-119083">Limitation Period </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="m"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">m</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/margin-squeeze">Margin squeeze</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/marginal-costs">Marginal costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-economy-investor">Market economy investor</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-power">Market power</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/market-share">Market share </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/media-pluralism">Media pluralism</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-notion-12318-en">Merger (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-prohibition">Merger (prohibition)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-withdrawal-118046">Merger (withdrawal)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Merger-control-procedure">Merger control procedure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-remedies-100323">Merger remedies</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/minority-shareholdings-89176">Minority shareholdings</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/misinformation">Misinformation</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/mobility-barriers-117741">Mobility Barriers</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Monopoly">Monopoly </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="n"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">n</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/ne-bis-in-idem-86490">Ne bis in idem</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/negative-clearance-118047">Negative clearance</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Network-effect">Network effect </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-compete-obligation-12156-en">Non-compete obligation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/non-horizontal-mergers">Non-Horizontal Mergers </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/notification-12310">Notification</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/nullity">Nullity </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="o"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">o</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/oligopoly">Oligopoly </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/online-platforms">Online Platforms</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="p"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">p</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/parallel-imports-parallel-trade-en">Parallel imports (parallel trade)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/passing-on-en">Passing-on</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Passive-sales">Passive sales </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/patents">Patents</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/pay-for-delay">Pay-for-delay</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/periodic-penalty-payment">Periodic penalty payment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/potential-competition">Potential competition </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/predatory-pricing">Predatory pricing</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/preliminary-rulings-art-267-tfue">Preliminary ruling (Art. 267 TFUE) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-discrimination-en">Price discrimination </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-leadership">Price leadership</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-signaling">Price signalling</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/price-fixing-agreement">Price-fixing agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/prices-en">Prices</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equal-treatment">Principle of equal treatment</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-equivalence">Principle of equivalence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/principle-of-proportionality">Principle of proportionality</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privacy-and-data-protection">Privacy and data protection</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/private-enforcement">Private enforcement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/privatization-en">Privatization</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/procedural-autonomy">Procedural autonomy</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/professional-association-86373-en">Professional association</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/public-procurement">Public procurement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Public-undertaking">Public undertaking</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="r"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">r</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/r-d-agreement">R&D agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/case-referral-system-mergers">Referral (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/refusal-to-deal">Refusal to deal</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/the-registry-of-the-general-court-of-the-european-union">Registry of the General Court of the European Union</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Relevant-market">Relevant market</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/remedies-antitrust-en">Remedies (antitrust)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/request-for-information">Request for information</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-below-cost-en">Resale below cost </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/resale-price-maintenance-rpm">Resale price maintenance (RPM)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/restriction-on-exportation">Restriction on exportation </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/rule-of-reason">Rule of reason</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="s"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">s</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/sunk-costs-117836"> Sunk Costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sector-inquiry">Sector inquiry</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/selective-distribution">Selective distribution </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/self-preference-111802">Self-Preference</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Services-of-general-economic">Services of general economic interest </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Single-branding">Single branding </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sole-control">Sole control</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/specialization-agreements">Specialization agreements </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Spill-over-effects">Spill-over effects </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/standard-essential-patent-sep">Standard-Essential Patent (SEP)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-action-defense">State action defence</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-compatibility">State aid (compatibility)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-existing-aid">State aid (existing aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-notification-en">State aid (notification)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid">State aid (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-recovery">State aid (recovery) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/state-aid-unlawful-aid">State aid (unlawful aid) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/State-measure">State measure </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Statement-of-objections-SO">Statement of objections (SO) </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Substitutability">Substitutability </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/sustainability">Sustainability</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/switching-costs">Switching Costs</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="t"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">t</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/technology-transfer">Technology transfer</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/test-siec-merger-en">Test SIEC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/merger-slc-src-sdc-tests">Test SLC (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/tipping">Tipping</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/business-secrets">Trade Secrets</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trademark">Trademark</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/trustee-mergers-en">Trustee (mergers)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/turnover-threshold-merger">Turnover threshold (merger)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/two-sided-market">Two-sided market</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="u"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">u</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/undertaking-notion">Undertaking (notion)</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/unfair-competition">Unfair competition</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/universal-service-118054">Universal Service</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/upstream-market">Upstream market </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="v"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">v</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/variable-costs">Variable costs </a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/Vertical-agreement">Vertical agreement</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/vertical-restraints-or-restrictions">Vertical restraints (or restrictions)</a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="row entree" id="w"> <div class="col-xs-2 col-sm-1"> <h2 class="lettre">w</h2> </div> <div class="col-xs-10 col-sm-11"> <div class="articles"> <a href="en/dictionary/White-clause">White clause</a> <span class="sep">•</span> <a href="en/dictionary/withdrawal-of-the-benefit-of-a-block-exemption">Withdrawal (of the benefit of a block exemption)</a> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </article> <script type="text/javascript"> jQuery(function(){ // hack on appelle 1 scrollspy sur body et 1 sur window pour pas les melanger jQuery(window).scrollspy({ target: 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srcset="local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732269721 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732270930 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266627 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266747 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266189 3000w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/webp"> <img src='local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629' alt='Présentation Filigranes Les 5 Travaux d'Europe' width='3000' height='160' class='adapt-img' srcset='local/adapt-img/320/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732272327 320w, local/adapt-img/640/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266627 640w, local/adapt-img/960/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732274538 960w, local/adapt-img/1440/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732269360 1440w, local/adapt-img/3000/10x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732266629 3000w' sizes='(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw' /></picture></a> </div> <div class="item "> <a 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(min-resolution: 1.5dppx)" srcset="local/adapt-img/320/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732277529 480w, local/adapt-img/640/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266627 960w, local/adapt-img/960/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732270976 1440w, local/adapt-img/1440/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732266622 2160w, local/adapt-img/3000/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png@.webp?1732268300 4500w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/webp"><source media="(-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1.5), (min-resolution: 1.5dppx)" srcset="local/adapt-img/320/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732277558 480w, local/adapt-img/640/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732277174 960w, local/adapt-img/960/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732277555 1440w, local/adapt-img/1440/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732272968 2160w, local/adapt-img/3000/15x/IMG/png/home-7.png?1732274035 4500w" sizes="(min-width: 3000px) 3000px, 100vw" type="image/png"><source media="(-webkit-min-device-pixel-ratio: 1), (min-resolution: 1dppx)" 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