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Independence treaty</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-1936_Independence_treaty-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Separation_of_Hatay" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Separation_of_Hatay"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Separation of Hatay</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Separation_of_Hatay-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_founding_of_the_UN" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_the_founding_of_the_UN"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>World War II and the founding of the UN</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_the_founding_of_the_UN-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Republic_of_Syria_1946-1963" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic_of_Syria_1946-1963"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Republic of Syria 1946-1963</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Republic_of_Syria_1946-1963-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ba'athist_Arab_Republic_of_Syria_1963-today" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ba'athist_Arab_Republic_of_Syria_1963-today"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Ba'athist Arab Republic of Syria 1963-today</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ba'athist_Arab_Republic_of_Syria_1963-today-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Ba'athist Arab Republic of Syria 1963-today subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Ba'athist_Arab_Republic_of_Syria_1963-today-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-First_Ba'ath_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#First_Ba'ath_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>First Ba'ath government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-First_Ba'ath_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Ba'ath_government" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Ba'ath_government"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Second Ba'ath government</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second_Ba'ath_government-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ba'ath_Party_under_Hafez_al-Assad,_1970–2000" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ba'ath_Party_under_Hafez_al-Assad,_1970–2000"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Ba'ath Party under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ba'ath_Party_under_Hafez_al-Assad,_1970–2000-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Power_takeover" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Power_takeover"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Power takeover</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Power_takeover-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-October_War" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#October_War"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>October War</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-October_War-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intervention_in_Lebanon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intervention_in_Lebanon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.3</span> <span>Intervention in Lebanon</span> </div> 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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.6</span> <span>Internal power struggle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Internal_power_struggle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Drought_in_Syria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Drought_in_Syria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.7</span> <span>Drought in Syria</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Drought_in_Syria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Under_Bashar_al-Assad,_2000–present" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Under_Bashar_al-Assad,_2000–present"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Under Bashar al-Assad, 2000–present</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Under_Bashar_al-Assad,_2000–present-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-The_Damascus_Autumn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> 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id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header 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<h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Modern history of Syria</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><table class="sidebar nomobile vcard plainlist"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Syria" title="Category:History of Syria">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History of <span class="fn org label">Syria</span></a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:C952_map_of_ash-Sham_by_Ibrahim_ibn_Muhammad_Istakhri_(rotated_180%C2%B0).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Map of ash-Sham, by Istakhri"><img alt="Map of ash-Sham, by Istakhri" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/C952_map_of_ash-Sham_by_Ibrahim_ibn_Muhammad_Istakhri_%28rotated_180%C2%B0%29.jpg/150px-C952_map_of_ash-Sham_by_Ibrahim_ibn_Muhammad_Istakhri_%28rotated_180%C2%B0%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="203" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/C952_map_of_ash-Sham_by_Ibrahim_ibn_Muhammad_Istakhri_%28rotated_180%C2%B0%29.jpg/225px-C952_map_of_ash-Sham_by_Ibrahim_ibn_Muhammad_Istakhri_%28rotated_180%C2%B0%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/C952_map_of_ash-Sham_by_Ibrahim_ibn_Muhammad_Istakhri_%28rotated_180%C2%B0%29.jpg/300px-C952_map_of_ash-Sham_by_Ibrahim_ibn_Muhammad_Istakhri_%28rotated_180%C2%B0%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2224" data-file-height="3008" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Prehistory</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_corridor" title="Levantine corridor">Levantine corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Abu_Hureyra" title="Tell Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aswad" title="Tell Aswad">Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian culture</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Bronze Age</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Brak" title="Tell Brak">Nagar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emar" title="Emar">Emar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Late_Bronze_Age_collapse" title="Late Bronze Age collapse">Late Bronze Age collapse</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Antiquity</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Achaemenid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Syria">Seleucid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> <small>(636)</small></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Caliphal Syria <i>(Bilad al-Sham)</i></a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Umayyad Syria">Umayyad Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Abbasid Syria">Abbasid Syria</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tulunid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid dynasty">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zangid dynasty">Zangid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Syria">Fatimid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saljuqid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saljuqid Syria">Saljuqid Syria</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Syria">Ayyubid Syria</a> <small>(1174–1260)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Syria">Mamluk Syria</a> <small>(1260–1516)</small></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Early modern</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> <small>(1516–1918)</small></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab Kingdom of Syria</a> <small>(1920)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French Mandate</a></li></ul> <div class="hlist"> <ul><li><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a> <small>(1922–25)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> <small>(1925–30)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Republic</a> <small>(1930–46)</small></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">Independent First Syrian Republic</a> <small>(1946–50)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Syrian Republic</a> <small>(1950–58, 1961–63)</small> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> <small>(1958–61)</small></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27thist_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'thist Syria">Ba'thist Syria</a> <small>(1963–present)</small></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading"> Related articles</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_monarchs" title="List of Syrian monarchs">Monarchs</a> (<a href="/wiki/List_of_Palmyrene_monarchs" title="List of Palmyrene monarchs">Palmyrene</a>)</li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid;padding:0.2em;"> <b><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Syrian_history" title="Timeline of Syrian history">Timeline</a></b></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid;border-bottom:#aaa 1px solid;"> <p><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Asia_(orthographic_projection).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/16px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/24px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg/32px-Asia_%28orthographic_projection%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="541" data-file-height="541" /></a></span> </span><a href="/wiki/Portal:Asia" title="Portal:Asia">Asia portal</a> </p> <span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/16px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="14" class="mw-file-element" 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li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Syria" title="Template:History of Syria"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Syria" title="Template talk:History of Syria"><abbr title="Discuss this 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Aurignacian">Levantine Aurignacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kebaran" class="mw-redirect" title="Kebaran">Kebaran culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mushabian_culture" title="Mushabian culture">Mushabian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ghassulian" title="Ghassulian">Ghassulian culture</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef"> <a href="/wiki/History_of_the_ancient_Levant" title="History of the ancient Levant">Ancient history</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="font-size:95%; padding-left:0.25em; padding-right:0.25em;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Kish_civilization" title="Kish civilization">Kish</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armi_(Syria)" title="Armi (Syria)">Armi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Brak" title="Tell Brak">Nagar</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amurru_kingdom" title="Amurru kingdom">Amurru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urkesh" title="Urkesh">Urkesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mitanni" title="Mitanni">Mitanni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">New Kingdom of Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alasiya" class="mw-redirect" title="Alasiya">Alasiya</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Aram_(region)" title="Aram (region)">Aram</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zobah" title="Zobah">Aram-Zobah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paddan_Aram" title="Paddan Aram">Paddan Aram</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Rehob" class="mw-redirect" title="Aram-Rehob">Aram-Rehob</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hama,_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Hama, Syria">Hamath</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">Sea Peoples</a></li> <li><b><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></b> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pattin" title="Pattin">Unqi-Pattina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palistin" title="Palistin">Palistin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sam%27al" class="mw-redirect" title="Sam'al">Sam'al</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luhuti" title="Luhuti">Luhuti</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philistia" title="Philistia">Philistia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Israel_and_Judah" title="History of ancient Israel and Judah">Israel and Judah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Cilicia_(ancient)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kingdom of Cilicia (ancient)">Cilicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Eber-Nari</a></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef"> Classical antiquity</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="font-size:95%; padding-left:0.25em; padding-right:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wars_of_Alexander_the_Great" title="Wars of Alexander the Great">Wars of Alexander the Great</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antioch" title="Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osroene" title="Osroene">Osroene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commagene" title="Commagene">Commagene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parthian_Empire" title="Parthian Empire">Parthian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_Kingdom" title="Nabataean Kingdom">Nabatea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iturea" title="Iturea">Iturea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hasmonean_dynasty" title="Hasmonean dynasty">Hasmonean dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_kingdom" title="Herodian kingdom">Herodian kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herodian_Tetrarchy" class="mw-redirect" title="Herodian Tetrarchy">Herodian Tetrarchy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Empire" title="Roman Empire">Roman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judaea_(Roman_province)" title="Judaea (Roman province)">Judaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria-Palaestina" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Palaestina">Syria-Palaestina</a></li> <li>Diocese of the East in the <a href="/wiki/Later_Roman_Empire" title="Later Roman Empire">Later Roman</a>-<a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Early Byzantine</a> times</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Sassanid Empire</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef"> Middle Ages</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="font-size:95%; padding-left:0.25em; padding-right:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashiduns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Bilad al-Sham</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Filastin" title="Jund Filastin">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Hims" title="Jund Hims">Homs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_al-Urdunn" title="Jund al-Urdunn">al-Urdun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jund_Qinnasrin" title="Jund Qinnasrin">Qinnasrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Al-Awasim" title="Al-Awasim">Thughūr</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyads</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jarrahids" title="Jarrahids">Jarrahids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Munqidh" title="Banu Munqidh">Banu Munqidh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banu_Ammar" title="Banu Ammar">Banu Ammar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uqaylid_dynasty" title="Uqaylid dynasty">Uqaylids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Numayrid_dynasty" title="Numayrid dynasty">Numayrids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuks" class="mw-redirect" title="Seljuks">Seljuks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_dynasty" title="Ayyubid dynasty">Ayyubids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><th class="sidebar-heading" style="background:#efefef"> Modern history</th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content hlist" style="font-size:95%; padding-left:0.25em; padding-right:0.25em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Azm_family" title="Al-Azm family">Al-Azms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27an_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Ma'an dynasty">Ma'nids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harfush_dynasty" title="Harfush dynasty">Harfushs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Shihabs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutasarrifate_of_Jerusalem" title="Mutasarrifate of Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Emirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Lebanon Emirate">Mount Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jabal_Amel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabal Amel">Jabal Amel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripoli_Eyalet" title="Tripoli Eyalet">Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandatory Syria and Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Transjordan" title="Emirate of Transjordan">Transjordan</a></li></ul></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon#Modern_history" title="History of Lebanon">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan#Modern_history" title="History of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel_(1948%E2%80%93present)" title="History of Israel (1948–present)">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Palestine" title="History of Palestine">Palestine</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Gaza_Strip#History" title="Gaza Strip">Gaza Strip</a></span></li></ul></li></ul></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar" style="border-top:#aaa 1px solid; padding-right:0.25em;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_the_Levant" title="Template:History of the Levant"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_the_Levant" title="Template talk:History of the Levant"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_the_Levant" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of the Levant"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Syria_(1920-03-08_to_1920-07-24).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Syria_%281920-03-08_to_1920-07-24%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Syria_%281920-03-08_to_1920-07-24%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Syria_%281920-03-08_to_1920-07-24%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Syria_%281920-03-08_to_1920-07-24%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Syria_%281920-03-08_to_1920-07-24%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_Kingdom_of_Syria_%281920-03-08_to_1920-07-24%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab Kingdom of Syria</a> (1920)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_French_Mandate_of_Syria_(1920).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_French_Mandate_of_Syria_%281920%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_French_Mandate_of_Syria_%281920%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_French_Mandate_of_Syria_%281920%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_French_Mandate_of_Syria_%281920%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Flag_of_the_French_Mandate_of_Syria_%281920%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_French_Mandate_of_Syria_%281920%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of Syria under French mandate (1920-1922)</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Syria_French_mandate.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Syria_French_mandate.svg/220px-Flag_of_Syria_French_mandate.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Syria_French_mandate.svg/330px-Flag_of_Syria_French_mandate.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Flag_of_Syria_French_mandate.svg/440px-Flag_of_Syria_French_mandate.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a>, later <a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1924%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Syria (1924–30)">State of Syria</a> under French mandate (1922-1925 and 1925-1930)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Syria_(1930%E2%80%931958,_1961%E2%80%931963).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b8/Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_Syria_%281930%E2%80%931958%2C_1961%E2%80%931963%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the Syrian Republic (1932-1958), and again from 1961 to 1963</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_(1958%E2%80%931971).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_the_United_Arab_Republic_%281958%E2%80%931971%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a> (1958-1961) and again of the Arab Republic of Syria since 1980</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Iraq_(1963%E2%80%931991).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b4/Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_Iraq_%281963%E2%80%931991%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the Syrian Arab Republic 1963-1972</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_Syria_(1972%E2%80%931980).svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Flag_of_Syria_%281972%E2%80%931980%29.svg/220px-Flag_of_Syria_%281972%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Flag_of_Syria_%281972%E2%80%931980%29.svg/330px-Flag_of_Syria_%281972%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Flag_of_Syria_%281972%E2%80%931980%29.svg/440px-Flag_of_Syria_%281972%E2%80%931980%29.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Flag of the Syrian Arab Republic, 1972-1980</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>modern history of Syria</b> begins with the termination of <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman control of Syria</a> by French forces and the establishment of the <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Occupied Enemy Territory Administration</a> during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The short-lived <a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab Kingdom of Syria</a> emerged in 1920, which was however soon committed under the <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate of Syria">French Mandate</a>, which produced the short-lived autonomous <a href="/wiki/State_of_Aleppo" title="State of Aleppo">State of Aleppo</a>, <a href="/wiki/State_of_Damascus" title="State of Damascus">State of Damascus</a> (later <a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1924%E2%80%9330)" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Syria (1924–30)">State of Syria</a>), <a href="/wiki/Alawite_State" title="Alawite State">Alawite State</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jabal_al-Druze_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabal al-Druze (state)">Jabal al-Druze (state)</a>; the autonomies were transformed into the <a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Syrian Republic</a> in 1930. <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Republic_(1946%E2%80%9363)" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Republic (1946–63)">Syrian Republic</a> gained independence in April 1946. The Republic took part in the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab-Israeli_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1948 Arab-Israeli War">Arab-Israeli War</a> and remained in a state of political instability during the 1950s and 1960s. </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">8 March 1963 coup</a> resulted in the installation of the <a href="/wiki/National_Council_for_the_Revolutionary_Command" title="National Council for the Revolutionary Command">National Council for the Revolutionary Command</a> (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a> and <a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a>. He was overthrown in early 1966 by <a href="/wiki/Marxism-Leninism" class="mw-redirect" title="Marxism-Leninism">Marxist-Leninist</a> military dissidents of the party led by General <a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a>. Since the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> of 2011, <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>'s government has been involved in the ongoing <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Syria_under_the_Mandate">Syria under the Mandate</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Syria under the Mandate"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="OETA">OETA</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: OETA"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Occupied Enemy Territory Administration</a> (<i>OETA</i>) was a <a href="/wiki/Condominium_(international_law)" title="Condominium (international law)">joint</a> British and French military administration over Levantine and Mesopotamian provinces of the former Ottoman Empire between 1918 and 1920, set up following the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_and_Palestine_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Sinai and Palestine Campaign">Sinai and Palestine Campaign</a> of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. The administration ended following the assignment of the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" title="Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Palestine" title="Mandate for Palestine">British Mandate for Palestine</a> at the 19–26 April 1920 <a href="/wiki/San_Remo_conference" title="San Remo conference">San Remo conference</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Initial_civil_administration">Initial civil administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Initial civil administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Following the <a href="/wiki/San_Remo_conference" title="San Remo conference">San Remo conference</a> in April 1920 and the defeat of <a href="/wiki/Faisal_I_of_Iraq" title="Faisal I of Iraq">King Faisal</a>'s short-lived monarchy in Syria at the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Maysalun" title="Battle of Maysalun">Battle of Maysalun</a> on 24 July 1920, the French general <a href="/wiki/Henri_Gouraud_(French_Army_officer)" class="mw-redirect" title="Henri Gouraud (French Army officer)">Henri Gouraud</a> established civil administration in the territory. The mandate region was subdivided into six states. They were the states of <a href="/wiki/State_of_Damascus" title="State of Damascus">Damascus</a> (1920), <a href="/wiki/State_of_Aleppo" title="State of Aleppo">Aleppo</a> (1920), <a href="/wiki/Alawite_State" title="Alawite State">Alawites</a> (1920), <a href="/wiki/Jabal_ad-Druze_(state)" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabal ad-Druze (state)">Jabal Druze</a> (1921), the autonomous <a href="/wiki/State_of_Hatay" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Hatay">Sanjak of Alexandretta</a> (1921) (modern-day <a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province" title="Hatay Province">Hatay</a>), and the <a href="/wiki/State_of_Greater_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Greater Lebanon">State of Greater Lebanon</a> (1920), which later became the modern country of <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a>. </p><p>The drawing of those states was based in part on the sectarian make-up on the ground in Syria. However, nearly all the Syrian sects were hostile to the French mandate and to the division it created. This was best demonstrated by the numerous revolts that the French encountered in all of the Syrian states. Maronite Christians of Mount Lebanon, on the other hand, were a community with a dream of independence that was being realized under the French; therefore, Greater Lebanon was the exception to the newly formed states. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syrian_Federation_(1922-24)"><span id="Syrian_Federation_.281922-24.29"></span>Syrian Federation (1922-24)</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Syrian Federation (1922-24)"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1924%E2%80%931930)" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Syria (1924–1930)">State of Syria (1924–1930)</a></div> <p>In July 1922, France established a loose federation between three of the states: Damascus, Aleppo, and the Alawite state under the name of the Syrian Federation (Fédération syrienne). Jabal Druze, Sanjak of Alexandretta, and Greater Lebanon were not parts of this federation, which adopted a new federal flag (green-white-green with French canton). On 1 December 1924, the Alawite state seceded from the federation when the states of Aleppo and Damascus were united into the State of Syria. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Great_Syrian_Revolt">The Great Syrian Revolt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: The Great Syrian Revolt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1925, a <a href="/wiki/Great_Syrian_Revolt" title="Great Syrian Revolt">revolt</a> in Jabal Druze led by <a href="/wiki/Sultan_Pasha_el_Atrash" class="mw-redirect" title="Sultan Pasha el Atrash">Sultan Pasha el Atrash</a> spread to other Syrian states and became a general rebellion in Syria. France tried to retaliate by having the parliament of Aleppo declare secession from the union with Damascus, but the voting was foiled by Syrian patriots. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Syrian_Republic">First Syrian Republic</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: First Syrian Republic"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/First_Syrian_Republic" title="First Syrian Republic">First Syrian Republic</a></div> <p>The red stars that represented the three districts of the republic (Damascus, Aleppo, and <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez_Zor" class="mw-redirect" title="Deir ez Zor">Deir ez Zor</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="1936_Independence_treaty">1936 Independence treaty</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: 1936 Independence treaty"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In 1936, the <a href="/wiki/Franco-Syrian_Treaty_of_Independence" title="Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence">Franco-Syrian Treaty of Independence</a> was signed, a treaty that would not be ratified by the French legislature. However, the treaty allowed Jabal Druze, the Alawite (now called <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a>), and Alexandretta to be incorporated into the Syrian republic within the following two years. Greater Lebanon (now the Lebanese Republic) was the only state that did not join the Syrian Republic. <a href="/wiki/Hashim_al-Atassi" title="Hashim al-Atassi">Hashim al-Atassi</a>, who was Prime Minister under King Faisal's brief reign (1918–1920), was the first president to be elected under a new constitution adopted after the independence treaty. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Separation_of_Hatay">Separation of Hatay</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Separation of Hatay"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hatay_State" title="Hatay State">Hatay State</a></div> <p>In September 1938, France again separated the Syrian district of Alexandretta and transformed it into the <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Hatay" class="mw-redirect" title="Republic of Hatay">Republic of Hatay</a>. The Republic of Hatay joined Turkey in the following year, in June 1939. Syria did not recognize the incorporation of Hatay into Turkey and the issue is still disputed until the present time. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II_and_the_founding_of_the_UN">World War II and the founding of the UN</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: World War II and the founding of the UN"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria–Lebanon Campaign">Syria–Lebanon Campaign</a></div> <p>With the fall of France in 1940 during World War II, Syria came under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_Government" class="mw-redirect" title="Vichy Government">Vichy Government</a> until the British and <a href="/wiki/Free_French" class="mw-redirect" title="Free French">Free French</a> <a href="/wiki/Syria-Lebanon_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria-Lebanon Campaign">invaded and occupied</a> the country in July 1941. Syria proclaimed its independence again in 1941 but it was not until 1 January 1944 that it was recognized as an independent republic. </p><p>On 27 September 1941, France proclaimed, by virtue of, and within the framework of the Mandate, the independence and sovereignty of the Syrian State. The proclamation said "the independence and sovereignty of Syria and Lebanon will not affect the juridical situation as it results from the Mandate Act. Indeed, this situation could be changed only with the agreement of the Council of the League of Nations, with the consent of the Government of the United States, a signatory of the Franco-American Convention of 4 April 1924, and only after the conclusion between the French Government and the Syrian and Lebanese Governments of treaties duly ratified in accordance with the laws of the French Republic.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Benqt Broms said that it was important to note that there were several founding members of the United Nations whose statehood was doubtful at the time of the San Francisco Conference and that the Government of France still considered Syria and Lebanon to be mandates.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Duncan Hall said "Thus, the Syrian mandate may be said to have been terminated without any formal action on the part of the League or its successor. The mandate was terminated by the declaration of the mandatory power, and of the new states themselves, of their independence, followed by a process of piecemeal unconditional recognition by other powers, culminating in formal admission to the United Nations. Article 78 of the Charter ended the status of tutelage for any member state: 'The trusteeship system shall not apply to territories which have become Members of the United Nations, relationship among which shall be based on respect for the principle of sovereign equality.'"<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 29 May 1945, France bombed <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and tried to arrest its democratically elected leaders. While French planes were bombing <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a>, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Faris_al-Khoury" class="mw-redirect" title="Faris al-Khoury">Faris al-Khoury</a> was at the founding conference of the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a> in San Francisco, presenting <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>'s claim for independence from the <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate">French Mandate</a>. Continuing pressure from Syrian nationalist groups and British pressure forced the French to evacuate their last troops on 17 April 1946. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Republic_of_Syria_1946-1963">Republic of Syria 1946-1963</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Republic of Syria 1946-1963"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Syrian Republic</a></div> <p>Syrian independence was acquired in 1946. Although rapid economic development followed the declaration of independence, Syrian politics from independence through the late 1960s was marked by upheaval. The early years of independence were marked by political instability. </p><p>In 1948, Syria was involved in the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab-Israeli_War" class="mw-redirect" title="1948 Arab-Israeli War">Arab-Israeli War</a> with the newly created <a href="/wiki/State_of_Israel" class="mw-redirect" title="State of Israel">State of Israel</a>. The Syrian army was pressed out of the <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israeli</a> areas, but fortified their strongholds on the <a href="/wiki/Golan" title="Golan">Golan</a> and managed to keep their old borders and occupy some additional territory.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (February 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> In July 1949, Syria was the last Arab country to sign an armistice agreement with Israel. </p><p>In March 1949, Syria's national government was overthrown by a <a href="/wiki/March_1949_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="March 1949 Syrian coup d'état">military coup d'état</a> led by <a href="/wiki/Husni_al-Za%27im" title="Husni al-Za'im">Husni al-Zaim</a> in a coup. Some authors claim involvement by the United States <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Later that year Zaim was overthrown by his colleague <a href="/wiki/Sami_al-Hinnawi" title="Sami al-Hinnawi">Sami al-Hinnawi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adib_al-Shishakli" class="mw-redirect" title="Adib al-Shishakli">Adib al-Shishakli</a>. The latter undermined civilian rule and led to Shishakli's complete seizure of power in 1951. Shishakli continued to rule the country until 1955, when <a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">growing public opposition forced him to resign</a> and leave the country. The national government was restored, but again to face instability, this time from abroad. After the overthrow of President Shishakli in a <a href="/wiki/1954_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1954 Syrian coup d'état">1954 coup</a>, continued political maneuvering supported by competing factions in the military eventually brought Arab nationalist and socialist elements to power. Between 1946 and 1956, Syria had 20 different cabinets and drafted four separate constitutions. </p><p>During the <a href="/wiki/Suez_Crisis" title="Suez Crisis">Suez Crisis</a> of 1956, after the invasion of the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai Peninsula</a> by <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israeli</a> troops, and the intervention of British and French troops, <a href="/wiki/Martial_law" title="Martial law">martial law</a> was declared in Syria. Later Syrian and Iraqi troops were brought into <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> to prevent a possible Israeli invasion. The November 1956 attacks on Iraqi pipelines were in retaliation for Iraq's acceptance into the <a href="/wiki/Baghdad_Pact" class="mw-redirect" title="Baghdad Pact">Baghdad Pact</a>. In early 1957 <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> advised Egypt and Syria against a conceivable takeover of Jordan. </p><p>In November 1956 Syria signed a pact with the Soviet Union, providing a foothold for <a href="/wiki/Communism" title="Communism">communist</a> influence within the government in exchange for planes, tanks, and other military equipment being sent to Syria. This increase in the strength of Syrian military technology worried <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>, as it seemed feasible that Syria might attempt to retake <a href="/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun" title="İskenderun">Iskenderon</a>, a formerly Syrian city now in Turkey. On the other hand, Syria and the <a href="/wiki/USSR" class="mw-redirect" title="USSR">USSR</a> accused Turkey of amassing its troops at the Syrian border. During this standoff, communists gained more control over the Syrian government and military. Only heated debates in the United Nations (of which Syria was an original member) lessened the threat of war. </p><p>Syria's political instability during the years after the 1954 coup, the parallelism of Syrian and <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egyptian</a> policies, and the appeal of Egyptian President <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdal_Nasser" class="mw-redirect" title="Gamal Abdal Nasser">Gamal Abdal Nasser</a>'s leadership in the wake of the Suez crisis created support in Syria for union with Egypt. On 1 February 1958, Syrian president <a href="/wiki/Shukri_al-Kuwatli" class="mw-redirect" title="Shukri al-Kuwatli">Shukri al-Kuwatli</a> and Nasser announced the merging of the two countries, creating the <a href="/wiki/United_Arab_Republic" title="United Arab Republic">United Arab Republic</a>, and all Syrian political parties, as well as the Communists therein, ceased overt activities. </p><p>The union was not a success, however. Following a military coup on 28 September 1961, Syria seceded, reestablishing itself as the Syrian Arab Republic. Instability characterised the next 18 months, with various coups culminating on <a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">8 March 1963, in the installation by leftist Syrian Army officers</a> of the National Council of the Revolutionary Command (NCRC), a group of military and civilian officials who assumed control of all executive and legislative authority. The takeover was engineered by members of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Resurrection_Party" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab Socialist Resurrection Party">Arab Socialist Resurrection Party</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a>), which had been active in Syria and other Arab countries since the late 1940s. The new cabinet was dominated by Ba'ath members. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ba'athist_Arab_Republic_of_Syria_1963-today"><span id="Ba.27athist_Arab_Republic_of_Syria_1963-today"></span>Ba'athist Arab Republic of Syria 1963-today</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Ba'athist Arab Republic of Syria 1963-today"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="First_Ba'ath_government"><span id="First_Ba.27ath_government"></span>First Ba'ath government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: First Ba'ath government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/8th_of_March_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="8th of March Revolution">8th of March Revolution</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/8th_of_March_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="8th of March Revolution">Ba'ath takeover in Syria</a> followed a <a href="/wiki/February_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" class="mw-redirect" title="February 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">Ba'ath coup in Iraq</a>, the previous month. The new Syrian Government explored the possibility of <a href="/wiki/Federation" title="Federation">federation</a> with Egypt and with Ba'ath-controlled Iraq. An agreement was concluded in <a href="/wiki/Cairo" title="Cairo">Cairo</a> on 17 April 1963, for a referendum on unity to be held in September 1963. However, serious disagreements among the parties soon developed, and the tripartite federation failed to materialize. Thereafter, the Ba'ath governments in Syria and Iraq began to work for bilateral unity. These plans foundered in November 1963, when the Ba'ath government in Iraq was <a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">overthrown</a>. </p><p>In May 1964, President <a href="/wiki/Amin_al-Hafiz" title="Amin al-Hafiz">Amin al-Hafiz</a> of the NCRC promulgated a provisional constitution providing for a National Council of the Revolution (NCR), an appointed legislature composed of representatives of mass organisations—labour, peasant, and professional unions—a presidential council, in which executive power was vested, and a cabinet. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Second_Ba'ath_government"><span id="Second_Ba.27ath_government"></span>Second Ba'ath government</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Second Ba'ath government"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 Syrian coup d'état</a></div> <p>On 23 February 1966, a group of army officers carried out a successful, <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">intra-party coup</a>, imprisoned President Hafiz, dissolved the cabinet and the NCR, abrogated the provisional constitution, and designated a regionalist, civilian Ba'ath government on 1 March. The coup leaders described it as a "rectification" of Ba'ath Party principles. In <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">June 1967</a> Israel captured and occupied the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a>. The Six Day War had significantly weakened the radical socialist government established by the <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 coup</a>. </p><p>On 18 September 1970, during the events of <a href="/wiki/Black_September_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Black September in Jordan">Black September in Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> tried to intervene on behalf of the Palestinian guerrillas. <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> sent in armored forces equivalent to a <a href="/wiki/Brigade" title="Brigade">brigade</a>, with tanks, some of them allegedly hastily rebranded from the regular Syrian army for the purpose. Other Syrian units were the 5th Infantry Division and Commandos. On 21 September, the Syrian 5th Division broke through the defenses of the Jordanian 40th Armoured Brigade, and pushed it back off the ar-Ramtha crossroads. On 22 September, the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Jordanian_Air_Force" title="Royal Jordanian Air Force">Royal Jordanian Air Force</a> began attacking Syrian forces, which were badly battered as a result. The constant airstrikes broke the Syrian force, and on the late afternoon of 22 September the 5th Division began to retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The swift Syrian withdrawal was a severe blow to Palestinian guerillas. Jordanian armored forces steadily pounded their headquarters in Amman, and threatened to break them in other regions of the Kingdom as well. Eventually, the Palestinian factions agreed to a cease-fire. <a href="/wiki/King_Hussein" class="mw-redirect" title="King Hussein">King Hussein</a> and <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a> attended the <a href="/wiki/1970_Arab_League_summit" title="1970 Arab League summit">meeting</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> in Cairo, where the hostilities briefly ended. The <a href="/wiki/Black_September_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Black September in Jordan">Jordanian-Palestinian Civil War</a> shortly resumed, but without Syrian intervention. </p><p>By 1970 a conflict had developed between an extremist military wing and a more moderate civilian wing of the <a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syria)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ba'ath Party (Syria)">Ba'ath Party</a>. The 1970 retreat of Syrian forces sent to aid the <a href="/wiki/PLO" class="mw-redirect" title="PLO">PLO</a> during the "<a href="/wiki/Black_September_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Black September in Jordan">Black September</a>" hostilities with <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a> reflected this political disagreement within the ruling Ba'ath leadership. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ba'ath_Party_under_Hafez_al-Assad,_1970–2000"><span id="Ba.27ath_Party_under_Hafez_al-Assad.2C_1970.E2.80.932000"></span>Ba'ath Party under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Ba'ath Party under Hafez al-Assad, 1970–2000"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks plainlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Ba%27athism" title="Category:Ba'athism">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-bottom: 0; font-size: 175%;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><span class="mw-image-border" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Flag of the Ba'ath Party"><img alt="Flag of the Ba'ath Party" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/150px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/225px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg/300px-Flag_of_the_Ba%27ath_Party.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="800" /></a></span></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Major_groups" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Organisations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath" title="Arab Ba'ath">Arab Ba'ath</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1940–1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Arab Ba'ath Movement">Arab Ba'ath Movement</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1940–1947</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1947–1966</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">Baath Party (pro-Iraqi)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1968–2003</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">Baath Party (pro-Syrian)</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1966–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">People</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">Zaki al-Arsuzi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_Aflaq" title="Michel Aflaq">Michel Aflaq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_al-Din_al-Bitar" title="Salah al-Din al-Bitar">Salah al-Din al-Bitar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abdullah_Rimawi" title="Abdullah Rimawi">Abdullah Rimawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wahib_al-Ghanim" title="Wahib al-Ghanim">Wahib al-Ghanim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuad_al-Rikabi" title="Fuad al-Rikabi">Fuad al-Rikabi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salah_Jadid" title="Salah Jadid">Salah Jadid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ahmed_Hassan_al-Bakr" title="Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr">Ahmed Hassan al-Bakr</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddam_Hussein" title="Saddam Hussein">Saddam Hussein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Izzat_Ibrahim_al-Douri" title="Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri">Izzat Ibrahim al-Douri</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Literature</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;;font-style:italic;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/On_the_Way_of_Resurrection" title="On the Way of Resurrection">On the Way of Resurrection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Battle_for_One_Destiny" title="The Battle for One Destiny">The Battle for One Destiny</a></li> <li><div style="display:inline-block; padding:0.2em 0.4em; line-height:1.2em;"><a href="/wiki/Zaki_al-Arsuzi" title="Zaki al-Arsuzi">The Genius of Arabic in Its Tongue</a></div></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"> <ul><li><b><a href="/wiki/Ba%27athist_Iraq" title="Ba'athist Iraq">Ba'athist Iraq</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Ramadan_Revolution" title="Ramadan Revolution">Ramadan Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/November_1963_Iraqi_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="November 1963 Iraqi coup d'état">November 1963 coup d'état</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/17_July_Revolution" title="17 July Revolution">17 July Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf_War" title="Gulf War">Gulf War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sanctions_against_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Sanctions against Iraq">UN sanctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iraq_War" title="Iraq War">Iraq War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/De-Ba%27athification" title="De-Ba'athification">De-Ba'athification</a></li> <li><b><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Baathist Syria</a></b><br /><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Committee_to_Help_Iraq" title="Syrian Committee to Help Iraq">Syrian Committee to Help Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1963_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1963 Syrian coup d'état">1963</a> / <a href="/wiki/1966_Syrian_coup_d%27%C3%A9tat" title="1966 Syrian coup d'état">1966 coup d'états</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrective_Movement_(Syria)" title="Corrective Movement (Syria)">Corrective Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_intervention_in_the_Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Syrian intervention in the Lebanese Civil War">Intervention in Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">Syrian occupation of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assadist-Saddamist_conflict" class="mw-redirect" title="Assadist-Saddamist conflict">Assadist-Saddamist conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Regional_branches" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Regional organisations</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none;text-align:center;"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Algeria</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_of_Algeria" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party of Algeria">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Algeria" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Bahrain</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nationalist_Democratic_Assembly" title="Nationalist Democratic Assembly">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Bahrain" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Egypt</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Egypt_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Egypt Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Egypt" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Iraq</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Iraq_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Iraq Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Iraq" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Jordan</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jordanian_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Jordanian Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Ba%27ath_Progressive_Party" title="Arab Ba'ath Progressive Party">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Kuwait</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)#Kuwait" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">pro-Iraq</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Lebanon</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Arab_Lebanon_Vanguard_Party" title="Socialist Arab Lebanon Vanguard Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Lebanon_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Lebanon Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Libya</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Libyan_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Libyan Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party">pro-Iraq</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Mauritania</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Vanguard_Party" title="National Vanguard Party">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Democratic_Unionist_Party" title="Socialist Democratic Unionist Party">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Palestine</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Liberation_Front" title="Arab Liberation Front">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/As-Sa%27iqa" title="As-Sa'iqa">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Sudan</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Region_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Region of Sudan">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Organization_of_Sudan" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Organization of Sudan">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Syria</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Iraqi-dominated_faction)#Syria" title="Ba'ath Party (Iraqi-dominated faction)">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Tunisia</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tunisian_Ba%27ath_Movement" title="Tunisian Ba'ath Movement">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)#Tunisia" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;">Yemen</th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;"><div class="hlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="National Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">pro-Iraq</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Yemen_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Yemen Region">pro-Syria</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Ba%27athist_movements#Splinter-groups" title="List of Ba'athist movements">Splinter groups</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><table class="infobox" style="background-color: transparent; color: var( --color-base ); border-collapse:collapse; border-spacing:0px; border:none; width:100%; margin:0px; font-size:100%; clear:none; float:none"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Revolutionary_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Revolutionary Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1960–1962/63</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Socialist_Lebanon" title="Socialist Lebanon">Socialist Lebanon</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1965–1970</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Arab_Revolutionary_Workers_Party" title="Arab Revolutionary Workers Party">Arab Revolutionary Workers Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1966–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Democratic_Socialist_Arab_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party">Democratic Socialist Arab Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">1970–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Sudanese_Ba%27ath_Party" title="Sudanese Ba'ath Party">Sudanese Ba'ath Party</a></th><td class="infobox-data" style="text-align:right;white-space:nowrap;">2002–<span style="font-size:85%;">present</span></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)">Related topics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content" style="padding-top:0;"><div class="hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nasserism" title="Nasserism">Nasserism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Arabism" title="Pan-Arabism">Pan-Arabism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saddamism" title="Saddamism">Saddamism</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <div class="hlist"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Politics" title="Portal:Politics">Politics portal</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Socialism" title="Portal:Socialism">Socialism portal</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Template:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Template talk:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Ba%27athism_sidebar" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Ba'athism sidebar"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Presidency_of_Hafez_al-Assad" title="Presidency of Hafez al-Assad">Presidency of Hafez al-Assad</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Power_takeover">Power takeover</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Power takeover"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> and <a href="/wiki/1970_Syrian_Corrective_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution">1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution</a></div> <p>On 13 November 1970, Minister of Defense <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> effected a bloodless military coup, ousting the civilian party leadership and assuming the role of <a href="/wiki/President_(government_title)" title="President (government title)">President</a>. Upon <a href="/wiki/1970_Syrian_Corrective_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="1970 Syrian Corrective Revolution">assuming power</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> moved quickly to create an organizational infrastructure for his government and to consolidate control. The Provisional Regional Command of Assad's <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a> nominated a 173-member legislature, the People's Council, in which the Ba'ath Party took 87 seats. The remaining seats were divided among "popular organizations" and other minor parties. </p><p>In March 1971, the party held its regional congress and elected a new 21-member Regional Command headed by Assad. In the same month, a national referendum was held to confirm Assad as president for a 7-year term. In March 1972, to broaden the base of his government, Assad formed the National Progressive Front, a coalition of parties led by the Ba'ath Party, and elections were held to establish local councils in each of Syria's 14 governorates. In March 1973, a new Syrian constitution went into effect followed shortly thereafter by parliamentary elections for the People's Council, the first such elections since 1962. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="October_War">October War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: October War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 6 October 1973, Syria and Egypt began the <a href="/wiki/Yom_Kippur_War" title="Yom Kippur War">Yom Kippur War</a> (also called the "Ramadan War" or "October War" because Syria and Egypt attacked during Muslim <a href="/wiki/Ramadan" title="Ramadan">Ramadan</a> holiday) by staging a surprise attack against <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. Despite the element of surprise, <a href="/wiki/Egypt" title="Egypt">Egypt</a> and Syria lost their initial gains in a three-week-long warfare,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (March 2011)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> continued to occupy the <a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Sinai_Peninsula" title="Sinai Peninsula">Sinai</a> peninsula. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Intervention_in_Lebanon">Intervention in Lebanon</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Intervention in Lebanon"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In early 1976, the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> was going poorly for the <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christians" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christians">Maronite Christians</a>, so the Lebanese President Elias Sarkis officially requested Syria intervene militarily. After receiving their first mandate from the Lebanese President, Syria was given a second mandate by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> to intervene militarily in Lebanon. Syria sent 40,000 troops into the country to prevent the Christians from being overrun, but soon became embroiled in this war, beginning the 30 year Syrian presence in Lebanon. Over the following 15 years of civil war, Syria fought both for control over Lebanon, and as an attempt to undermine Israel in southern Lebanon, through extensive use of Lebanese allies as proxy fighters. Many saw the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Syria">Syrian Army's</a> presence in Lebanon as an <a href="/wiki/Military_occupation" title="Military occupation">occupation</a>, especially following the end of the civil war in 1990, after the Syrian-sponsored <a href="/wiki/Taif_Agreement" title="Taif Agreement">Taif Agreement</a>. Syria then remained in Lebanon until 2005, exerting a heavy-handed influence over Lebanese politics, that was deeply resented by many. </p><p>About one million Syrian workers came into Lebanon after the war ended to find jobs in the reconstruction of the country. Syrian workers were preferred over <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian people">Palestinian Arabs</a> and Lebanese workers because they could be paid lower wages, but some have argued that the Syrian government's encouragement of citizens entering its small and militarily dominated neighbor in search of work, was in fact an attempt at Syrian <a href="/wiki/Colonization" title="Colonization">colonization</a> of Lebanon. In 1994, under pressure from Damascus, the Lebanese government controversially granted citizenship to over 200,000 Syrians resident in the country. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Muslim_Brotherhood_uprising_and_Hama_Massacre">Muslim Brotherhood uprising and Hama Massacre</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Muslim Brotherhood uprising and Hama Massacre"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Islamist_uprising_in_Syria" title="Islamist uprising in Syria">Islamist uprising in Syria</a></div> <p>On 31 January 1973, Assad implemented the new Constitution which led to a national crisis. Unlike previous constitutions, this one did not require that the president of Syria must be a Muslim, leading to fierce demonstrations in <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a>, <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> and Aleppo organized by the Muslim Brotherhood and the <i>ulama</i>. They labeled Assad as the "enemy of Allah" and called for a <i>jihad</i> against his rule.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_D._Kaplan" title="Robert D. Kaplan">Robert D. Kaplan</a> has compared Assad's coming to power to "an untouchable becoming maharajah in India or a Jew becoming tsar in Russia—an unprecedented development shocking to the Sunni majority population which had monopolized power for so many centuries."<sup id="cite_ref-Kaplan_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kaplan-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The authoritarian government was not without its critics, a serious challenge arose in the late 1970s from fundamentalist Sunni Muslims, who reject the basic values of the secular Ba'ath program and object to rule by the Alawis whom they consider heretical. From 1976 until its suppression in 1982, the arch-conservative <a href="/wiki/Muslim_Brotherhood" title="Muslim Brotherhood">Muslim Brotherhood</a> led an armed insurgency against the government. In response to an attempted uprising by the brotherhood in February 1982, the government <a href="/wiki/1982_Hama_massacre" title="1982 Hama massacre">crushed the fundamentalist opposition</a> centered in the city of <a href="/wiki/Hama" title="Hama">Hama</a>, leveling parts of the city with artillery fire and causing many thousands of dead and wounded. During the rest of Hafez al-Assad's reign, public manifestations of anti-government activity were very limited. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="During_Gulf_War">During Gulf War</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: During Gulf War"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Syria's 1990 participation in the U.S.-led multinational coalition aligned against Saddam Hussein marked a dramatic watershed in Syria's relations both with other <a href="/wiki/Arab_states" class="mw-redirect" title="Arab states">Arab states</a> and with the <a href="/wiki/Western_world" title="Western world">Western world</a>. Syria participated in the multilateral <a href="/wiki/Madrid_Conference_of_1991" title="Madrid Conference of 1991">Middle East Peace Conference</a> in <a href="/wiki/Madrid" title="Madrid">Madrid</a> in October 1991, and during the 1990s engaged in direct, face-to-face negotiations with <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. These negotiations failed, and there have been no further Syrian-Israeli talks since President <a href="/wiki/Hafiz_al-Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Hafiz al-Assad">Hafiz al-Assad</a>'s meeting with President <a href="/wiki/Bill_Clinton" title="Bill Clinton">Bill Clinton</a> in <a href="/wiki/Geneva" title="Geneva">Geneva</a> in March 2000. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Internal_power_struggle">Internal power struggle</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Internal power struggle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In what has become known as the <a href="/wiki/1999_Latakia_protests" title="1999 Latakia protests">1999 Latakia incident</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-alan_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alan-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> violent protests and armed clashes erupted following the 1998 People's Assembly's Elections. The violent events were an explosion of a long-running feud between <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafez al-Assad</a> and his younger brother <a href="/wiki/Rifaat_al-Assad" title="Rifaat al-Assad">Rifaat</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-alan_11-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-alan-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who previously attempted to initiate a coup against Hafez in 1984, but was eventually expelled from Syria. Two people were killed in fire exchanges of Syrian police and Rifaat's supporters during police crack-down on Rifaat's port compound in <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a>. According to opposition sources, denied by the government, the <a href="/wiki/1999_Latakia_protests" title="1999 Latakia protests">clashes in Latakia</a> resulted in hundreds of dead and injured.<sup id="cite_ref-taylor4056_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-taylor4056-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Drought_in_Syria">Drought in Syria</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Drought in Syria"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>From 2006 to 2010, Syria experienced its worst drought in modern history.<sup id="cite_ref-Fountain_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fountain-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The drought resulted in a mass migration from the Syrian countryside into urban centers, which notably strained existing infrastructure already burdened by the influx of some 1.5 million refugees from Iraq.<sup id="cite_ref-Fountain_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fountain-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The drought itself has been linked to human caused global climate change.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It has also been directly linked as a contributing factor to the socieoeconomic conditions that led to initial protests and uprising.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Adequate water supply continues to be an issue in the ongoing civil war and the supply is frequently the target of military action.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Under_Bashar_al-Assad,_2000–present"><span id="Under_Bashar_al-Assad.2C_2000.E2.80.93present"></span>Under Bashar al-Assad, 2000–present</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Under Bashar al-Assad, 2000–present"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="The_Damascus_Autumn">The Damascus Autumn</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: The Damascus Autumn"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bashar_al-Assad_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Bashar_al-Assad_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Bashar_al-Assad_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="365" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Bashar_al-Assad_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Bashar_al-Assad_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7d/Bashar_al-Assad_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Bashar_al-Assad_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="995" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a></figcaption></figure><p>Hafiz al-Assad died on 10 June 2000, after 30 years in power. Immediately following al-Assad's death, the Parliament amended the constitution, reducing the mandatory minimum age of the President from 40 to 34, which allowed his son, <a href="/wiki/Bashar_al-Assad" title="Bashar al-Assad">Bashar al-Assad</a>, to become legally eligible for nomination by the ruling Ba'ath party. On 10 July 2000, Bashar al-Assad was elected president by referendum in which he ran unopposed, garnering 97.29% of the vote, according to Syrian government statistics.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Bashar, who speaks French and English and has a <a href="/wiki/Asma_Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Asma Assad">British-born wife</a>, was said to have "inspired hopes" for reform, and a "<a href="/wiki/Damascus_Spring" title="Damascus Spring">Damascus Spring</a>" of intense political and social debate took place from July 2000 to August 2001.<sup id="cite_ref-HRW2007_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HRW2007-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The period was characterized by the emergence of numerous political forums or <a href="/wiki/Salon_(gathering)" title="Salon (gathering)">salons</a> where groups of like minded people met in private houses to debate political and social issues. The phenomenon of salons spread rapidly in <a href="/wiki/Damascus" title="Damascus">Damascus</a> and to a lesser extent in other cities. Political activists, such as, <a href="/wiki/Riad_Seif" title="Riad Seif">Riad Seif</a>, <a href="/wiki/Haitham_al-Maleh" title="Haitham al-Maleh">Haitham al-Maleh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kamal_al-Labwani" title="Kamal al-Labwani">Kamal al-Labwani</a>, <a href="/wiki/Riyad_al-Turk" class="mw-redirect" title="Riyad al-Turk">Riyad al-Turk</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Aref_Dalila" title="Aref Dalila">Aref Dalila</a> were important in mobilizing the movement.<sup id="cite_ref-AISyria_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AISyria-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The most famous of the forums were the <a href="/wiki/Riad_Seif_Forum" title="Riad Seif Forum">Riad Seif Forum</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Jamal_al-Atassi" title="Jamal al-Atassi">Jamal al-Atassi Forum</a>. The Damascus Spring ended in August 2001 with the arrest and imprisonment of ten leading activists who had called for democratic elections and a campaign of civil disobedience.<sup id="cite_ref-Alan_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alan-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="International_and_internal_tensions">International and internal tensions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: International and internal tensions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>On 5 October 2003, Israel <a href="/wiki/Ain_es_Saheb_airstrike" title="Ain es Saheb airstrike">bombed a site near Damascus</a>, claiming it was a <a href="/wiki/Terrorism" title="Terrorism">terrorist</a> training facility for members of <a href="/wiki/Egyptian_Islamic_Jihad" title="Egyptian Islamic Jihad">Islamic Jihad</a>. Islamic Jihad said the camp was not in use; Syria said the attack was on a civilian area. The Israeli action was condemned by European governments. The German Chancellor said it "cannot be accepted" and the French Foreign Ministry said "The Israeli operation… constituted an unacceptable violation of international law and sovereignty rules." The Spanish UN Ambassador <a href="/wiki/Inocencio_Arias" title="Inocencio Arias">Inocencio Arias</a> called it an attack of "extreme gravity" and "a clear violation of international law." <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2007)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The United States Congress passed the <a href="/wiki/Syria_Accountability_Act" title="Syria Accountability Act">Syria Accountability Act</a> in December 2003, with the goal of ending what the U.S. sees as Syrian involvement in Lebanon, Iraq, terrorism, and <a href="/wiki/Weapons_of_mass_destruction" class="mw-redirect" title="Weapons of mass destruction">weapons of mass destruction</a> through <a href="/wiki/International_sanctions" title="International sanctions">international sanctions</a>. </p><p>Ethnic tensions increased in Syria, following an <a href="/wiki/Qamishli_massacre_(2004)" class="mw-redirect" title="Qamishli massacre (2004)">incident in a football stadium</a> in <a href="/wiki/Al_Qamishli" class="mw-redirect" title="Al Qamishli">Al Qamishli</a>, 30 people were killed and more than 160 were injured in days of clashes starting from 12 March. <a href="/wiki/Kurdish_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurdish people">Kurdish</a> sources indicated that Syrian security forces used live ammunition against civilians after clashes broke out at a football match between Kurdish fans of the local team and <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Arab</a> supporters of a visiting team from the city of <a href="/wiki/Deir_al-Zor" class="mw-redirect" title="Deir al-Zor">Deir al-Zor</a>. The international press reported that nine people were killed on 12 March. According to Amnesty International hundreds of people, mostly <a href="/wiki/Kurds" title="Kurds">Kurds</a>, were arrested after the riots. Kurdish detainees were reportedly tortured and ill-treated. Some Kurdish students were expelled from their universities, reportedly for participating in peaceful protests.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2005, thousands of Kurds demonstrated in <a href="/wiki/Qamishli" title="Qamishli">Qamishli</a> to protest the assassination of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sheikh_Khaznawi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sheikh Khaznawi (page does not exist)">Sheikh Khaznawi</a>, a Kurdish cleric in Syria, resulting in the death of one policeman and injury to four Kurds.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Renewed opposition activity occurred in October 2005 when activist <a href="/wiki/Michel_Kilo" title="Michel Kilo">Michel Kilo</a> launched with leading opposition figures the <a href="/wiki/Damascus_Declaration" title="Damascus Declaration">Damascus Declaration</a>, which criticized the Syrian government as "authoritarian, totalitarian and cliquish" and called for democratic reform.<sup id="cite_ref-Declaration_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Declaration-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>On 6 September 2007 a <a href="/wiki/Operation_Orchard" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Orchard">Syrian facility was bombed</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Deir_ez-Zor_Governorate" title="Deir ez-Zor Governorate">Deir ez-Zor region</a>. While no one claimed responsibility for this act, Syria accused Israel, which in turn declared that the indicated site was a nuclear facility with a military purpose. Syria denied the claim. </p><p>On 26 October 2008 helicopter-borne <a href="/wiki/Central_Intelligence_Agency" title="Central Intelligence Agency">CIA</a> paramilitary officers<sup id="cite_ref-Mcclatchy_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mcclatchy-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_Special_Operations_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Special Operations Forces">United States Special Operations Forces</a><sup id="cite_ref-AP_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> carried out a <a href="/wiki/2008_Abu_Kamal_raid" title="2008 Abu Kamal raid">raid to the Syrian territory</a> from <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a><sup id="cite_ref-bbc_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-bbc-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Syrian government called the event a "criminal and terrorist" attack on its sovereignty, alleging all of the reported eight fatalities were civilians.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An unnamed U.S. military source, however, alleged that the target was a network of foreign fighters who travel through Syria to join the <a href="/wiki/Iraqi_insurgency_(Iraq_War)" class="mw-redirect" title="Iraqi insurgency (Iraq War)">Iraqi insurgency</a> against the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>-led <a href="/wiki/Multinational_force_in_Iraq" class="mw-redirect" title="Multinational force in Iraq">Coalition</a> in <a href="/wiki/Iraq" title="Iraq">Iraq</a> and the Iraqi government.<sup id="cite_ref-AP_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-AP-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Syrian_civil_war">Syrian civil war</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Syrian civil war"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a></div><p>The ongoing Syrian civil war has its roots in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_revolution" title="Syrian revolution">Syrian revolution</a>, which was influenced by the <a href="/wiki/Arab_Spring" title="Arab Spring">Arab Spring</a> revolutions. It began in 2011 as a chain of peaceful protests, which was suppressed through a deadly crackdown by the Syrian security apparatus.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2011, Army defectors declared the formation of the <a href="/wiki/Free_Syrian_Army" title="Free Syrian Army">Free Syrian Army</a> and began forming fighting units. The opposition is dominated by <a href="/wiki/Sunni" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni">Sunni</a> Muslims, whereas the leading government figures are generally associated with <a href="/wiki/Alawites" title="Alawites">Alawites</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The war also involves rebel groups (<a href="/wiki/Islamic_State_of_Iraq_and_the_Levant" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant">IS</a> and <a href="/wiki/Al-Nusra" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Nusra">al-Nusra</a>) and various <a href="/wiki/Foreign_involvement_in_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Foreign involvement in the Syrian Civil War">foreign countries</a>, leading to claims of a <a href="/wiki/Proxy_war" title="Proxy war">proxy war</a> in Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to various sources, including the United Nations, up to 100,000 people had been killed by June 2013,<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-extremetorture_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-extremetorture-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> including 11,000 children.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> To escape the violence, 4.9 million<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Refugees of the Syrian civil war">Syrian refugees</a> have fled to neighboring countries of Jordan,<sup id="cite_ref-news24_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-news24-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Iraq,<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lebanon, and Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Gregory Laham, then-head of Melkite Greek Catholic Church asserted that approximately 450,000 <a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Syria" title="Christianity in Syria">Syrian Christians</a> had fled their homes by 2013.<sup id="cite_ref-war_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-war-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Dates_and_numbers#Chronological_items" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Dates and numbers"><span title="The date of the event predicted near this tag has passed. (February 2018)">needs update</span></a></i>]</sup> By October 2017, an estimated 400,000 people had been killed in the war according to the UN.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In September 2022, a new UN report stated that the Syrian Civil War was in danger of flaring up again. The UN also said it had been totally unable to deliver any supplies during the first half of 2022.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2022, the main external military threat and conflict are firstly, an ongoing conflict with ISIS; and secondly, ongoing concerns of possible invasion of the northeast regions of Syria by Turkish forces, in order to strike Kurdish groups in general, and <a href="/wiki/Rojava" class="mw-redirect" title="Rojava">Rojava</a> in particular.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An official report by the Rojava government noted Turkey-backed militias as the main threat to the region of Rojava and its government.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2021, more than 600,000 people have been killed in the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Syrian civil war</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with pro-Assad forces perpetrating more than 90% of the <a href="/wiki/Casualties_of_the_Syrian_civil_war" title="Casualties of the Syrian civil war">total civilian casualties</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85.jpg/220px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="332" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85.jpg/330px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f4/%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85.jpg/440px-%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3020" data-file-height="4560" /></a><figcaption>Aleppo in 2021</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg/220px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="153" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg/330px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg/440px-Pro-government_Syrians_demonstration_in_Damascus_after_US_missile_strike_10.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="557" /></a><figcaption>Pro-Assad demonstration in the capital Damascus after <a href="/wiki/April_2018_missile_strikes_against_Syria" title="April 2018 missile strikes against Syria">US-led missile strikes</a> in April 2018</figcaption></figure> <p>As of 2023, Turkey was continuing its support for various militias within Syria, which periodically attempted some operations against Kurdish groups consisting mostly of the YPG/YPJ.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> One stated goal was to create 30-kilometer (18.6-mile) wide "safe zones" along Turkey's border with Syria, according to a statement by Turkish President Erdoğan.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The operations were generally aimed at the <a href="/wiki/Tal_Rifaat" class="mw-redirect" title="Tal Rifaat">Tal Rifaat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Manbij" title="Manbij">Manbij</a> regions west of the <a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a> and other areas further east. President Erdoğan openly stated his support for the operations, in talks with Moscow in mid-2022.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2022, the leader of the Syrian Democratic Forces (SDF), Mazloum Abdi, said that Kurdish forces were willing to work with Syrian government forces to defend against Turkey, saying “Damascus should use its air defense systems against Turkish planes." Abdi said that Kurdish groups would be able to cooperate with the Syrian government, and still retain their autonomy.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-66" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In July 2022, the SDF and the official Syrian military forged active plans to coordinate actively together to create defense plans to guard against invasion by Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The SDF said that they felt that the main threat to Kurdish groups was an invasion by Turkey.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 2023, active fighting in the conflict between the Syrian government and rebel groups had mostly subsided, but there were occasional flareups in Northwestern Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In early 2023, reports indicated that the forces of ISIS in Syria had mostly been defeated, with only a few cells remaining in various remote locations.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On 10 June 2020, hundreds of protesters returned to the streets of Sweida for the fourth consecutive day, rallying against the collapse of the <a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">country's economy</a>, as the Syrian pound plummeted to 3,000 to the dollar within the previous week.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Imad_Khamis" title="Imad Khamis">Imad Khamis</a> was dismissed by President Bashar al-Assad, amid anti-government protests over deteriorating economic conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The new lows for the Syrian currency, and the dramatic increase in sanctions, began to appear to raise new concerns about the survival of the Assad government.<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Analysts noted that a resolution to the current <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_liquidity_crisis" title="Lebanese liquidity crisis">banking crisis in Lebanon</a> might be crucial to restoring stability in Syria.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some analysts began to raise concerns that Assad might be on the verge of losing power; but that any such collapse in the regime might cause conditions to worsen, as the result might be mass chaos, rather than an improvement in political or economic conditions.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Russia continued to expand its influence and military role in the areas of Syria where the main military conflict was occurring.<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Analysts noted that the upcoming implementation of new heavy sanctions under the US <a href="/wiki/Caesar_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Caesar Act">Caesar Act</a> could devastate the Syrian economy, ruin any chances of recovery, destroy regional stability, and do nothing but destabilize the entire region.<sup id="cite_ref-Guardian_6-12-2020_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Guardian_6-12-2020-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The first new sanctions took effect on 17 June. There will be additional sanctions implemented in August, in three different groups. There are increasing reports that food is becoming difficult to find, the country's economy is under severe pressure, and the whole regime could collapse due to the sanctions.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of early 2022, Syria was still facing a major economic crisis due to sanctions and other economic pressures. there was some doubt of the Syrian government's ability to pay for subsidies for the population and for basic services and programs.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-89" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The UN reported there were massive problems looming for Syria's ability to feed its population in the near future.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one possibly positive sign for the well-being of Syria's population, several Arab countries began an effort to normalize relations with Syria, and to conclude a deal to provide energy supplies to Syria. This effort was led by Jordan, and included several other Arab countries.<sup id="cite_ref-92" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Politics of Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations of Syria</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Sources:<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_history_of_Syria&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See Foreign relations of the United States diplomatic papers, 1941. The British Commonwealth; the Near East and Africa Volume III (1941), pages 809-810; and Statement of General de Gaulle of 29 November 1941, concerning the Mandate for Syria and Lebanon, Marjorie M. Whiteman, Digest of International Law, vol. 1 (Washington, D.C.: U. S. Government Printing Office, 1963) 680-681</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See International law: achievements and prospects, by Mohammed Bedjaoui, UNESCO, Martinus Nijhoff; 1991, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/92-3-102716-6" title="Special:BookSources/92-3-102716-6">92-3-102716-6</a>, page 46 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jrTsNTzcY7EC&pg=PA46">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Mandates, Dependencies and Trusteeship, by H. Duncan Hall, Carnegie Endowment, 1948, pages 265-266</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/11/2011111555722772798.html">"The struggle for Syria The Syrian people are being sacrificed at the altar of US imperialism, says author"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190714110947/https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/opinion/2011/11/2011111555722772798.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-07-14<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-02-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+struggle+for+Syria+The+Syrian+people+are+being+sacrificed+at+the+altar+of+US+imperialism%2C+says+author.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Findepth%2Fopinion%2F2011%2F11%2F2011111555722772798.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouglas_Little1990" class="citation journal cs1">Douglas Little (1990). "Cold War and Covert Action: The United States and Syria, 1945-1958". <i>Middle East Journal</i>. <b>44</b> (1): 51–75. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4328056">4328056</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Journal&rft.atitle=Cold+War+and+Covert+Action%3A+The+United+States+and+Syria%2C+1945-1958&rft.volume=44&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=51-75&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4328056%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Douglas+Little&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue51/articles/51_12-13.pdf">"1949-1958, Syria: Early Experiments in Cover Action, Douglas Little, Professor, Department of History, Clark University"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190908040517/http://coat.ncf.ca/our_magazine/links/issue51/articles/51_12-13.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on 2019-09-08<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2012-02-12</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1949-1958%2C+Syria%3A+Early+Experiments+in+Cover+Action%2C+Douglas+Little%2C+Professor%2C+Department+of+History%2C+Clark+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcoat.ncf.ca%2Four_magazine%2Flinks%2Fissue51%2Farticles%2F51_12-13.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGendzier1997" class="citation book cs1">Gendzier, Irene L. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XlxgFtCZF9cC"><i>Notes from the Minefield: United States Intervention in Lebanon and the Middle East, 1945–1958</i></a>. Columbia University Press. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231140119" title="Special:BookSources/9780231140119"><bdi>9780231140119</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Notes+from+the+Minefield%3A+United+States+Intervention+in+Lebanon+and+the+Middle+East%2C+1945%E2%80%931958&rft.pages=98&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=9780231140119&rft.aulast=Gendzier&rft.aufirst=Irene+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXlxgFtCZF9cC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Pollack, Arabs at War, 2002, p. 339–340</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlianak2007" class="citation book cs1">Alianak, Sonia (2007). <i>Middle Eastern Leaders and Islam: A Precarious Equilibrium</i>. Peter Lang. p. 55. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6924-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8204-6924-9"><bdi>978-0-8204-6924-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Middle+Eastern+Leaders+and+Islam%3A+A+Precarious+Equilibrium&rft.pages=55&rft.pub=Peter+Lang&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8204-6924-9&rft.aulast=Alianak&rft.aufirst=Sonia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kaplan-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kaplan_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKaplan1993" class="citation web cs1">Kaplan, Robert (February 1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199302/kaplan">"Syria: Identity Crisis"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100104051305/http://www.theatlantic.com/doc/199302/kaplan">Archived</a> from the original on 2010-01-04<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2017-03-10</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=Syria%3A+Identity+Crisis&rft.date=1993-02&rft.aulast=Kaplan&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Fdoc%2F199302%2Fkaplan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-alan-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-alan_11-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-alan_11-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">George, Alan. <i>Syria: neither bread nor freedom.</i> 2003. p.115.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-taylor4056-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-taylor4056_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Taylor & Francis Group. <i>Europea World Year Book 2004</i>. Europa Publications, 2004. Volume 2, p.4056</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Fountain-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Fountain_13-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Fountain_13-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFountain2015" class="citation news cs1">Fountain, Henry (2015-03-02). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/03/science/earth/study-links-syria-conflict-to-drought-caused-by-climate-change.html">"Researchers Link Syrian Conflict to a Drought Made Worse by Climate Change"</a>. <i>The New York Times</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0362-4331">0362-4331</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170425175902/https://www.nytimes.com/2015/03/03/science/earth/study-links-syria-conflict-to-drought-caused-by-climate-change.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2017-04-25<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2008-10-26</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=%27US+troops%27+strike+inside+Syria&rft.date=2008-10-26&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F2%2Fhi%2Fmiddle_east%2F7692153.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7693583.stm">"Syria hits out at 'terrorist' US"</a>. <a href="/wiki/BBC" title="BBC">BBC</a>. 2008-10-27. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081028004117/http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/middle_east/7693583.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 2008-10-28<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">18 May</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Syrian+army+tanks+%27moving+towards+Hama%27&rft.date=2011-05-10&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-13343540&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSengupta2012" class="citation news cs1">Sengupta, Kim (20 February 2012). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrias-sectarian-war-goes-international-as-foreign-fighters-and-arms-pour-into-country-7216665.html">"Syria's sectarian war goes international as foreign fighters and arms pour into country"</a></span>. <i>The Independent</i>. Antakya. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220526/https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/middle-east/syrias-sectarian-war-goes-international-as-foreign-fighters-and-arms-pour-into-country-7216665.html">Archived</a> from the original on 26 May 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">22 February</span> 2012</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Independent&rft.atitle=Syria%27s+sectarian+war+goes+international+as+foreign+fighters+and+arms+pour+into+country&rft.date=2012-02-20&rft.aulast=Sengupta&rft.aufirst=Kim&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.independent.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fmiddle-east%2Fsyrias-sectarian-war-goes-international-as-foreign-fighters-and-arms-pour-into-country-7216665.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGermany2016" class="citation news cs1">Germany, SPIEGEL ONLINE, Hamburg (11 October 2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-war-became-conflict-between-usa-and-russia-and-iran-a-1115681.html">"Battle for Aleppo: How Syria Became the New Global War"</a>. <i>Der Spiegel</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405173520/http://www.spiegel.de/international/world/syria-war-became-conflict-between-usa-and-russia-and-iran-a-1115681.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2017</span>. <q>Syria has become a proxy war between the US and Russia</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Der+Spiegel&rft.atitle=Battle+for+Aleppo%3A+How+Syria+Became+the+New+Global+War&rft.date=2016-10-11&rft.aulast=Germany&rft.aufirst=SPIEGEL+ONLINE%2C+Hamburg&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.spiegel.de%2Finternational%2Fworld%2Fsyria-war-became-conflict-between-usa-and-russia-and-iran-a-1115681.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_news" title="Template:Cite news">cite news</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_multiple_names:_authors_list" title="Category:CS1 maint: multiple names: authors list">link</a>)</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Connor2017" class="citation news cs1">O'Connor, Tom (31 March 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newsweek.com/iran-military-us-get-out-persian-gulf-577231">"Iran's military leader tells U.S. to get out of Persian Gulf"</a>. <i>Newsweek</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170405074950/http://www.newsweek.com/iran-military-us-get-out-persian-gulf-577231">Archived</a> from the original on 5 April 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 April</span> 2017</span>. <q>The Gulf Arab faction, especially Saudi Arabia, has been engaged in a proxy war of regional influence with Iran</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Newsweek&rft.atitle=Iran%27s+military+leader+tells+U.S.+to+get+out+of+Persian+Gulf&rft.date=2017-03-31&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newsweek.com%2Firan-military-us-get-out-persian-gulf-577231&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/13/death-toll-syrian-conflict-93000">"Syria deaths near 100,000, says U.N. – and 6,000 are children"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 13 June 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130922110031/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/13/death-toll-syrian-conflict-93000">Archived</a> from the original on 22 September 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">13 December</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=Syria+deaths+near+100%2C000%2C+says+U.N.+%E2%80%93+and+6%2C000+are+children&rft.date=2013-06-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2013%2Fjun%2F13%2Fdeath-toll-syrian-conflict-93000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-extremetorture-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-extremetorture_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarsten2012" class="citation web cs1">Carsten, Paul (15 March 2012). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9145744/Syria-Bodies-of-23-extreme-torture-victims-found-in-Idlib-as-thousands-rally-for-Assad.html">"Syria: Bodies of 23 'extreme torture' victims found in Idlib as thousands rally for Assad"</a></span>. <i>The Daily Telegraph</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20220110/https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/worldnews/middleeast/syria/9145744/Syria-Bodies-of-23-extreme-torture-victims-found-in-Idlib-as-thousands-rally-for-Assad.html">Archived</a> from the original on 10 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Daily+Telegraph&rft.atitle=Syria%3A+Bodies+of+23+%27extreme+torture%27+victims+found+in+Idlib+as+thousands+rally+for+Assad&rft.date=2012-03-15&rft.aulast=Carsten&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.telegraph.co.uk%2Fnews%2Fworldnews%2Fmiddleeast%2Fsyria%2F9145744%2FSyria-Bodies-of-23-extreme-torture-victims-found-in-Idlib-as-thousands-rally-for-Assad.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-12-22/syria-arab-league/52159302/1">"Arab League delegates head to Syria over 'bloodbath'. <i>USA Today</i>. (22 December 2011). Retrieved 26 June 2012"</a>. <i>USA Today</i>. 22 December 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111222173623/https://www.usatoday.com/news/world/story/2011-12-22/syria-arab-league/52159302/1">Archived</a> from the original on 22 December 2011<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=USA+Today&rft.atitle=Arab+League+delegates+head+to+Syria+over+%27bloodbath%27.+USA+Today.+%2822+December+2011%29.+Retrieved+26+June+2012&rft.date=2011-12-22&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.usatoday.com%2Fnews%2Fworld%2Fstory%2F2011-12-22%2Fsyria-arab-league%2F52159302%2F1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-25055956">"Syria conflict: Children 'targeted by snipers'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span>"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 2013-11-24. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119094916/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-25055956">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Syria+conflict%3A+Children+%27targeted+by+snipers%27&rft.date=2013-11-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fworld-middle-east-25055956&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/global-trends-2015.html">"United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR)"</a>. <i>UNHCR Global Trends 2015</i>. United Nations. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160620143418/http://www.unhcr.org/en-us/global-trends-2015.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">15 September</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=UNHCR+Global+Trends+2015&rft.atitle=United+Nations+High+Commissioner+for+Refugees+%28UNHCR%29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.unhcr.org%2Fen-us%2Fglobal-trends-2015.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-news24-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-news24_37-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.news24.com/World/News/Syria-Refugees-brace-for-more-bloodshed-20120312">"Syria: Refugees brace for more bloodshed"</a>. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">25 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syria%3A+Refugees+brace+for+more+bloodshed&rft.pub=News24.com&rft.date=2012-03-12&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.news24.com%2FWorld%2FNews%2FSyria-Refugees-brace-for-more-bloodshed-20120312&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLara_Jakes_And_Yahya_Barzanji2012" class="citation web cs1">Lara Jakes And Yahya Barzanji (14 March 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.yahoo.com/syrian-kurds-cold-reception-iraqi-kurds-202627548.html">"Syrian Kurds get cold reception from Iraqi Kurds"</a>. Yahoo! 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">30 January</span> 2013</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Syrian+Kurds+get+cold+reception+from+Iraqi+Kurds&rft.pub=Yahoo%21+News&rft.date=2012-03-14&rft.au=Lara+Jakes+And+Yahya+Barzanji&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.yahoo.com%2Fsyrian-kurds-cold-reception-iraqi-kurds-202627548.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/16/syria-crisis-refugees-million-un">"Syria crisis: number of refugees tops 1.5 million, says UN"</a>. <i>The Guardian</i>. 16 May 2013. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230119094943/https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/may/16/syria-crisis-refugees-million-un">Archived</a> from the original on 19 January 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">5 January</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Council+for+Arab-British+Understanding&rft.atitle=The+Regional+War+in+Syria%3A+Summary+of+Caabu+event+with+Christopher+Phillips&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.caabu.org%2Fnews%2Fnews%2Fregional-war-syria-summary-caabu-event-christopher-phillips&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://newlinesinstitute.org/syria/operation-claw-sword-exposes-blind-spots-in-the-us-ne-syria-strategy/">Operation Claw-Sword Exposes Blind Spots in the US NE Syria Strategy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230321133209/https://newlinesinstitute.org/syria/operation-claw-sword-exposes-blind-spots-in-the-us-ne-syria-strategy/">Archived</a> 21 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> by Caroline Rose, Aram Shabanian, Calvin Wilder, March 7, 2023, website of new Lines Institute.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal/">"Turkey planned Syria military operation after Russia withdrawal, sources reveal"</a>. <i>Middle East Monitor</i>. 2022-06-05. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220605082611/https://www.middleeastmonitor.com/20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Monitor&rft.atitle=Turkey+planned+Syria+military+operation+after+Russia+withdrawal%2C+sources+reveal&rft.date=2022-06-05&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeastmonitor.com%2F20220605-turkey-planned-syria-military-operation-after-russia-withdrawal-sources-reveal%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion">"Syria: US-backed SDF 'open' to working with Syrian troops to fight off Turkey invasion"</a>. <i>Middle East Eye</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220605135451/http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion">Archived</a> from the original on 5 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Eye&rft.atitle=Syria%3A+US-backed+SDF+%27open%27+to+working+with+Syrian+troops+to+fight+off+Turkey+invasion&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeasteye.net%2Fnews%2Fsyria-sdf-open-working-syrian-troops-fight-turkey-invasion&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAgencies2022" class="citation web cs1">Agencies (2022-06-07). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation">"Russian, regime forces boosted after Turkey signals Syria operation"</a>. <i>Daily Sabah</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220607153400/https://www.dailysabah.com/politics/diplomacy/russian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation">Archived</a> from the original on 7 June 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-06-08</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Daily+Sabah&rft.atitle=Russian%2C+regime+forces+boosted+after+Turkey+signals+Syria+operation&rft.date=2022-06-07&rft.au=Agencies&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.dailysabah.com%2Fpolitics%2Fdiplomacy%2Frussian-regime-forces-boosted-after-turkey-signals-syria-operation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/president-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967">"President Erdoğan reiterates determination for Syria operation – Türkiye News"</a>. <i>Hürriyet Daily News</i>. 8 August 2022. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220808160100/https://www.hurriyetdailynews.com/president-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967">Archived</a> from the original on 8 August 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-09</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=H%C3%BCrriyet+Daily+News&rft.atitle=President+Erdo%C4%9Fan+reiterates+determination+for+Syria+operation+%E2%80%93+T%C3%BCrkiye+News&rft.date=2022-08-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.hurriyetdailynews.com%2Fpresident-erdogan-reiterates-determination-for-syria-operation-175967&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/us-backed-kurdish-led-forces-say-ready-to-coordinate-with-syrian-army-against-turkey/6606769.html">US-Backed Kurdish-Led Forces Say Ready to Coordinate With Syrian Army Against Turkey</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230720154601/https://www.voanews.com/a/us-backed-kurdish-led-forces-say-ready-to-coordinate-with-syrian-army-against-turkey/6606769.html">Archived</a> 20 July 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Reuters, via VOA website, By Maya Gebeily, June 5, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/syria/2022/06/06/syria-should-use-air-defences-against-turkish-invasion/">Syria 'should use air defences' against Turkish invasion</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230601033047/https://www.thenationalnews.com/mena/syria/2022/06/06/syria-should-use-air-defences-against-turkish-invasion/">Archived</a> 1 June 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, The National, June 6, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-66">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2022/06/20/these-kurdish-led-forces-cannot-count-on-syrian-air-defenses-to-protect-them-against-the-turkish-air-force/">These Kurdish-Led Forces Cannot Count On Syrian Air Defenses To Protect Them Against The Turkish Air Force</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20221020044555/https://www.forbes.com/sites/pauliddon/2022/06/20/these-kurdish-led-forces-cannot-count-on-syrian-air-defenses-to-protect-them-against-the-turkish-air-force/">Archived</a> 20 October 2022 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Paul Iddon, Jun 20, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/06/kurdish-syrian-iranian-forces-coordinate-ahead-turkish-operation">Kurdish, Syrian, Iranian forces coordinate ahead of Turkish operation:Kurdish units and Iranian-affiliated factions in Syria have formed a joint operations room under Russian supervision to counter a possible Turkish military operation in northern Syria.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230131173617/https://www.al-monitor.com/originals/2022/06/kurdish-syrian-iranian-forces-coordinate-ahead-turkish-operation">Archived</a> 31 January 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Mohammed Hardan, June 17, 2022. al-monitor.com</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://abcnews.go.com/International/wireStory/us-backed-syrian-kurds-turn-damascus-turkey-attacks-85231755">US-backed Syrian Kurds to turn to Damascus if Turkey attacks. The U.S.-backed and Kurdish-led forces in northern Syria say they will turn to the government in Damascus for support should Turkey go ahead with its threat to launch a new incursion into the war-torn country.</a> By BASSEM MROUE Associated Press, June 7, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3743096/sdf-syrian-regime-agree-defense-plan-repel-turkish-attack">SDF, Syrian Regime Agree on Defense Plan to Repel Turkish Attack</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607133225/https://english.aawsat.com/home/article/3743096/sdf-syrian-regime-agree-defense-plan-repel-turkish-attack">Archived</a> 7 June 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Wednesday, by Qamishli – Kamal Sheikho, 6 July 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.coffeeordie.com/syria-turkey-invasion">DISPATCH FROM SYRIA: DEMOCRATIC FORCES PREPARE FOR TURKISH INVASION:The regional government in north and east Syria declares a state of emergency as Turkey threatens invasion. Troops on the front say theyre ready for war.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230401040600/https://coffeeordie.com/syria-turkey-invasion">Archived</a> 1 April 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, by Michael R. Shea, July 8, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/15/twelve-years-on-from-the-beginning-of-syrias-war">Twelve years on from the beginning of Syrias war</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230607031459/https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2023/3/15/twelve-years-on-from-the-beginning-of-syrias-war">Archived</a> 7 June 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> By Al Jazeera Staff ,15 Mar 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-72">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/01/1132837">"Security Council: 12 years of war, leaves 70 per cent of Syrians needing aid"</a>. <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. 25 January 2023. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230320183655/https://news.un.org/en/story/2023/01/1132837">Archived</a> from the original on 20 March 2023<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 March</span> 2023</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.atitle=Security+Council%3A+12+years+of+war%2C+leaves+70+per+cent+of+Syrians+needing+aid&rft.date=2023-01-25&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fnews.un.org%2Fen%2Fstory%2F2023%2F01%2F1132837&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://iraq.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/S202376%20EN.pdf">Sixteenth report of the Secretary-General on the threat posed by ISIL (Da’esh) to international peace and security and the range of United Nations efforts in support of Member States in countering the threat</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230320194115/https://iraq.un.org/sites/default/files/2023-02/S202376%20EN.pdf">Archived</a> 20 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, UN official website, February 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3255908/centcom-year-in-review-2022-the-fight-against-isis/">CENTCOM – YEAR IN REVIEW 2022: THE FIGHT AGAINST ISIS</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230321164516/https://www.centcom.mil/MEDIA/PRESS-RELEASES/Press-Release-View/Article/3255908/centcom-year-in-review-2022-the-fight-against-isis/">Archived</a> 21 March 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, USCENTCOM, official website of US Army Central Command, Dec. 29, 2022.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/01/ex-islamic-state-fighters-still-pose-a-risk-in-turkey-finds-report">Ex-Islamic State fighters still pose a risk in Turkey, finds report</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230608124159/https://www.euronews.com/2023/03/01/ex-islamic-state-fighters-still-pose-a-risk-in-turkey-finds-report">Archived</a> 8 June 2023 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, By Joshua Askew, March 1, 2023.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAl-Khalidi2020" class="citation news cs1">Al-Khalidi, Suleiman (10 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-sweida-protests/protests-hit-druze-city-in-syria-for-fourth-day-idUSKBN23H3LR">"Protests hit Druze city in Syria for fourth day"</a>. <i>Reuters</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200718040248/https://www.reuters.com/article/us-syria-security-sweida-protests/protests-hit-druze-city-in-syria-for-fourth-day-idUSKBN23H3LR">Archived</a> from the original on 18 July 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Protests+hit+Druze+city+in+Syria+for+fourth+day.&rft.date=2020-06-10&rft.aulast=Al-Khalidi&rft.aufirst=Suleiman&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Farticle%2Fus-syria-security-sweida-protests%2Fprotests-hit-druze-city-in-syria-for-fourth-day-idUSKBN23H3LR&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53006408">"Syria war: Assad sacks PM as economic crisis sparks protests"</a>. <i>BBC News</i>. 11 June 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200617074057/https://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-53006408">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Jerusalem+Post+%7C+JPost.com&rft.atitle=Syrian+currency+collapse+throws+country+into+uncertainty&rft.date=2020-06-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jpost.com%2Fmiddle-east%2Fsyrian-currency-collapse-throws-country-into-uncertainty-630719&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/11062020">"Syrian currency loses more value as sanctions hit"</a>. <i>www.rudaw.net</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200612023328/https://www.rudaw.net/english/middleeast/syria/11062020">Archived</a> from the original on 12 June 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Russia%27s+expanding+military+footprint+in+the+Middle+East&rft.date=2020-06-09&rft.aulast=Iddon&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.newarab.com%2Fanalysis%2Frussias-expanding-military-footprint-middle-east&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian_6-12-2020-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Guardian_6-12-2020_86-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChulov2020" class="citation news cs1">Chulov, Martin (12 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/jun/12/us-caesar-act-sanctions-and-could-devastate-syrias-flatlining-economy">"US 'Caesar Act' sanctions could devastate Syria's flatlining economy. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 June</span> 2020</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=US+%27Caesar+Act%27+sanctions+could+devastate+Syria%27s+flatlining+economy.+Critics+say+legislation+is+being+used+for+US+strategy+and+could+cause+further+problems+for+country+and+wider+region&rft.date=2020-06-12&rft.aulast=Chulov&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Fworld%2F2020%2Fjun%2F12%2Fus-caesar-act-sanctions-and-could-devastate-syrias-flatlining-economy&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.voanews.com/a/middle-east_syria-economic-meltdown-presents-new-challenge-assad/6190999.html">"Syria Economic Meltdown Presents New Challenge for Assad"</a>. <i>VOA</i>. 12 June 2020. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220925081452/https://www.voanews.com/a/middle-east_syria-economic-meltdown-presents-new-challenge-assad/6190999.html">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=VOA&rft.atitle=Syria+Economic+Meltdown+Presents+New+Challenge+for+Assad&rft.date=2020-06-12&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.voanews.com%2Fa%2Fmiddle-east_syria-economic-meltdown-presents-new-challenge-assad%2F6190999.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-approves-53-bn-budget-2022-economic-crisis-hits-finances">"Syria approves $5.3bn budget for 2022 as economic crisis hits finances"</a>. <i>Middle East Eye</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211215122826/http://www.middleeasteye.net/news/syria-approves-53-bn-budget-2022-economic-crisis-hits-finances">Archived</a> from the original on 15 December 2021<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Middle+East+Eye&rft.atitle=Syria+approves+%245.3bn+budget+for+2022+as+economic+crisis+hits+finances&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.middleeasteye.net%2Fnews%2Fsyria-approves-53-bn-budget-2022-economic-crisis-hits-finances&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arab.news/nchz6">"2022 Look Ahead: No end to suffering in sight for war-weary Syrians"</a>. <i>Arab News</i>. 2022-01-01. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220101185538/https://arab.news/nchz6">Archived</a> from the original on 1 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2023-01-19</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Arab+News&rft.atitle=2022+Look+Ahead%3A+No+end+to+suffering+in+sight+for+war-weary+Syrians&rft.date=2022-01-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farab.news%2Fnchz6&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AModern+history+of+Syria" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arab.news/bywab">"The future looks grim for beleaguered Syrians"</a>. <i>Arab News</i>. 2022-01-04. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20220104203629/https://arab.news/bywab">Archived</a> from the original on 4 January 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Syrian_history" title="Timeline of Syrian history">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_years_in_Syria" title="List of years in Syria">Years in Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Prehistorical Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Levantine_corridor" title="Levantine corridor">Levantine corridor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natufian_culture" title="Natufian culture">Natufian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Halaf_culture" title="Halaf culture">Halaf culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uruk_period" title="Uruk period">Uruk period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abu_Hureyra" class="mw-redirect" title="Abu Hureyra">Abu Hureyra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tell_Aswad" title="Tell Aswad">Aswad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarmukian_culture" title="Yarmukian culture">Yarmukian culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Syria">Ancient Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amorites" title="Amorites">Amorites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_Empire" title="Akkadian Empire">Akkadian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arameans" title="Arameans">Arameans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaanites" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanites">Canaanites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Assyrian_Empire" title="Middle Assyrian Empire">Middle Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebla" title="Ebla">Ebla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamhad" title="Yamhad">Yamhad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qatna" title="Qatna">Qatna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mari,_Syria" title="Mari, Syria">Mari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugarit" title="Ugarit">Ugarit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aram-Damascus" title="Aram-Damascus">Aram-Damascus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syro-Hittite_states" title="Syro-Hittite states">Syro-Hittite states</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">Neo-Assyrian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">Neo-Babylonian Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eber-Nari" title="Eber-Nari">Achaemenid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Seleucid Syria">Seleucid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_Syria" title="Roman Syria">Roman Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_Empire" title="Palmyrene Empire">Palmyrene Empire</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Byzantine Syria">Byzantine Syria</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Medieval_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Medieval Syria">Medieval Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest</a> (636)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Caliphal Syria <i><span style="font-size:85%;">(Bilad al-Sham)</span></i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tulunid dynasty">Tulunid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zangid_dynasty" class="mw-redirect" title="Zangid dynasty">Zangid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatimid Syria">Fatimid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saljuqid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Saljuqid Syria">Saljuqid Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Edessa" title="County of Edessa">County of Edessa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Principality_of_Antioch" title="Principality of Antioch">Principality of Antioch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayyubid_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Ayyubid Syria">Ayyubid Syria</a> (1174–1260)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Syria">Mamluk Syria</a> (1260–1516)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Early modern Syria</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a> (1516–1918)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Modern Syria</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arab_Kingdom_of_Syria" title="Arab Kingdom of Syria">Arab kingdom</a> (1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haj_Fadel_Government" title="Haj Fadel Government">Haj Fadel Government</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandate_for_Syria_and_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate for Syria and Lebanon">French Mandate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Federation" title="Syrian Federation">Syrian Federation</a> (1922–25)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/State_of_Syria_(1925%E2%80%931930)" title="State of Syria (1925–1930)">State of Syria</a> (1925–30)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandatory_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandatory Syrian Republic">Mandatory Republic</a> (1930–46)</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Independent_First_Syrian_Republic" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent First Syrian Republic">independent First Republic</a> (1946–50)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Second_Syrian_Republic" title="Second Syrian Republic">Second Republic</a> (1950–1963)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war" title="Syrian civil war">Civil war</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria"><img alt="Syria" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/80px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="107" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/120px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Insigne_Syriae.svg/160px-Insigne_Syriae.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="302" data-file-height="403" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Syria" title="Geography of Syria">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Syria" title="Template:Borders of Syria">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_in_Syria" title="List of cities in Syria">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Syria" title="Districts of Syria">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Syria" title="Governorates of Syria">Governorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_rivers_of_Syria" title="List of rivers of Syria">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_volcanoes_in_Syria" title="List of volcanoes in Syria">Volcanoes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Features</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Al-Jazira,_Mesopotamia" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Jazira, Mesopotamia">Al-Jazira</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Euphrates" title="Euphrates">Euphrates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hauran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Hermon" title="Mount Hermon">Hermon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orontes_River" title="Orontes River">Orontes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Desert" title="Syrian Desert">Syrian Desert</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Syria" title="Southern Syria">Southern Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fertile_Crescent" title="Fertile Crescent">Fertile Crescent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Syria" title="Politics of Syria">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Syria" title="Constitution of Syria">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Syria" title="Corruption in Syria">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Syria" title="President of Syria">President</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_presidents_of_Syria" title="List of presidents of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vice_President_of_Syria" title="Vice President of Syria">Vice President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Council_of_Ministers_(Syria)" title="Council of Ministers (Syria)">Council of Ministers</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Syria" title="Prime Minister of Syria">Prime Minister</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Syria">list</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elections_in_Syria" title="Elections in Syria">Elections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Syria" title="Foreign relations of Syria">Foreign relations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Golan_Heights#Territorial_claims" title="Golan Heights">Golan Heights claim</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hatay_Province#Turkish–Syrian_dispute" title="Hatay Province">Iskandaron</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Government_ministries_of_Syria" title="Government ministries of Syria">Government ministries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Syria" title="Human rights in Syria">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Syria">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Judiciary_of_Syria" title="Judiciary of Syria">Judiciary</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/High_Judicial_Council" title="High Judicial Council">High council</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supreme_Constitutional_Court_of_Syria" title="Supreme Constitutional Court of Syria">Supreme Constitutional Court</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="People's Council of Syria">Parliament</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Speaker_of_the_People%27s_Council_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Speaker of the People's Council of Syria">Speakers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Syria" title="List of political parties in Syria">Political parties</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party" title="Ba'ath Party">Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party</a></span> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Ba%27ath_Party_(Syrian-dominated_faction)" title="Ba'ath Party (Syrian-dominated faction)">national</a> / <a href="/wiki/Arab_Socialist_Ba%27ath_Party_%E2%80%93_Syria_Region" title="Arab Socialist Ba'ath Party – Syria Region">regional command</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/National_Progressive_Front_(Syria)" title="National Progressive Front (Syria)">National Progressive Front</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_Change_and_Liberation" title="Popular Front for Change and Liberation">Popular Front for Change and Liberation</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Golan_Heights" class="mw-redirect" title="Status of the Golan Heights">Political status of the Golan Heights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_nationalism" title="Syrian nationalism">Nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria (region)</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terrorism_in_Syria" title="Terrorism in Syria">Terrorism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Military_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Syria">Military</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Army" title="Syrian Army">Army</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Force" title="Syrian Air Force">Air force</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Air_Defense_Force" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Air Defense Force">air defense</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Navy" title="Syrian Navy">Navy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_General_Staff_(Syria)" title="Chief of the General Staff (Syria)">Chief of the General Staff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syria_and_weapons_of_mass_destruction" title="Syria and weapons of mass destruction">Weapons of mass destruction</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria" title="Economy of Syria">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Syria" title="Agriculture in Syria">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_Bank_of_Syria" title="Central Bank of Syria">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_companies_of_Syria" title="List of companies of Syria">Companies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industry_in_Syria" title="Industry in Syria">Industry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Syria" title="International rankings of Syria">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_pound" title="Syrian pound">Pound <span style="font-size:85%;">(currency)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Damascus_Securities_Exchange" title="Damascus Securities Exchange">Securities Exchange <span style="font-size:85%;">(stock exchange)</span></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;">Infrastructure</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Syria#Energy_and_mineral_resources" title="Economy of Syria">Energy and mineral resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Petroleum_industry_in_Syria" title="Petroleum industry in Syria">Petroleum industry</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Syria" title="Telecommunications in Syria">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Syria" title="Transport in Syria">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply_and_sanitation_in_Syria" title="Water supply and sanitation in Syria">Water supply and sanitation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:Society_of_Syria" title="Category:Society of Syria">Society</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Censorship_in_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Censorship in Syria">Censorship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Syria" title="Demographics of Syria">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Syria" title="Education in Syria">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_in_Syria" title="Health in Syria">Health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunger_in_Syria" title="Hunger in Syria">Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrians" title="Syrians">People</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_diaspora" title="Syrian diaspora">diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Refugees_of_the_Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Refugees of the Syrian Civil War">refugees <span style="font-size:85%;">(2011–present)</span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Syria" title="Women in Syria">women</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Syria" title="Public holidays in Syria">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scouts_of_Syria" title="Scouts of Syria">Scouting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Squatting_in_Syria" title="Squatting in Syria">Squatting</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;padding-left:0.5em;padding-right:0.5em;font-weight:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Syria" title="Culture of Syria">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_anthem_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="National anthem of Syria">Anthem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Syria" title="Coat of arms of Syria">Coat of arms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_cuisine" title="Syrian cuisine">Cuisine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Syrian_wine" title="Syrian wine">wine</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Syrian_films" title="List of Syrian films">Films</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Syria" title="Flag of Syria">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mass_media_in_Syria" title="Mass media in Syria">Media</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/General_Organization_of_Radio_and_TV_(Syria)" title="General Organization of Radio and TV (Syria)">State</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Syria" title="Television in Syria">television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Syria" title="Music of Syria">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Syria" title="Religion in Syria">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smoking_in_Syria" title="Smoking in Syria">Smoking</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Syria" title="Outline of Syria">Outline</a></span></li><li><span class="nobold"><a href="/wiki/Index_of_Syria-related_articles" title="Index of Syria-related articles">Index</a></span></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Syria" 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