CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html><html lang="en"><head><meta charSet="utf-8" data-next-head=""/><title data-next-head="">China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project</title><meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1, shrink-to-fit=no" data-next-head=""/><meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="ie=edge" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://googleads.g.doubleclick.net" rel="preconnect" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://www.googletagmanager.com" rel="preconnect" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://www.google-analytics.com" rel="preconnect" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://stats.g.doubleclick.net" rel="preconnect" crossorigin="anonymous" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://googleads.g.doubleclick.net" rel="preconnect" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://www.google.com" rel="preconnect" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://cdn.speedcurve.com" rel="preconnect" crossorigin="anonymous" data-next-head=""/><link href="https://lux.speedcurve.com" rel="preconnect" data-next-head=""/><link rel="preload" href="/static/fonts/lineto-circular-pro-bold.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" data-next-head=""/><link rel="preload" href="/static/fonts/lineto-circular-pro-book.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" data-next-head=""/><link rel="preload" href="/static/fonts/calibre-medium-full.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" data-next-head=""/><link rel="preload" href="/static/fonts/calibre-regular-full.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous" data-next-head=""/><link rel="alternate" hrefLang="en" href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/" data-next-head=""/><link rel="alternate" hrefLang="x-default" href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/" data-next-head=""/><meta name="description" content=" Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's tech and the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state." data-next-head=""/><meta property="og:description" content=" Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's tech and the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state." data-next-head=""/><meta property="og:image" content="https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2021/04/FB.jpg" data-next-head=""/><meta property="og:title" content="China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project" data-next-head=""/><meta property="og:type" content="website" data-next-head=""/><meta property="og:url" content="https://www.top10vpn.com/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/" data-next-head=""/><meta name="robots" content="index,follow" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:card" content="summary" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:site" content="@top10vpn" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:title" content="China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project" data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:description" content=" Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's tech and the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state." data-next-head=""/><meta name="twitter:image" content="https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2021/04/TW.jpg" data-next-head=""/><link rel="canonical" href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/" data-next-head=""/><link rel="preload" as="image" imageSrcSet="/_next/image/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.top10vpn.com%2Fimages%2F2019%2F11%2F191114-Author-Profile-Imgs-Samuel.jpg&w=32&q=75 1x, /_next/image/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.top10vpn.com%2Fimages%2F2019%2F11%2F191114-Author-Profile-Imgs-Samuel.jpg&w=64&q=75 2x" data-next-head=""/><link rel="icon" type="image/x-icon" href="/static/images/favicon/site-icon.png"/><link rel="icon" type="image/svg+xml" href="/static/images/favicon/favicon.svg"/><link rel="apple-touch-icon" sizes="180x180" href="/static/images/favicon/apple-touch-icon.png"/><link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="32x32" href="/static/images/favicon/favicon-32x32.png"/><link rel="icon" type="image/png" sizes="16x16" href="/static/images/favicon/favicon-16x16.png"/><link rel="manifest" href="/static/images/favicon/manifest.json?v072020"/><link rel="mask-icon" href="/static/images/favicon/safari-pinned-tab.svg" color="#5bbad5"/><meta name="msapplication-TileColor" content="#2b5797"/><meta name="theme-color" content="#ffffff"/><script src="https://cdn.speedcurve.com/js/lux.js?id=134942795" async="" defer="" crossorigin="anonymous"></script><script data-description="gtag-ref"></script><script id="lux-script" data-nscript="beforeInteractive">LUX=(function(){var a=("undefined"!==typeof(LUX)&&"undefined"!==typeof(LUX.gaMarks)?LUX.gaMarks:[]);var d=("undefined"!==typeof(LUX)&&"undefined"!==typeof(LUX.gaMeasures)?LUX.gaMeasures:[]);var j="LUX_start";var k=window.performance;var l=("undefined"!==typeof(LUX)&&LUX.ns?LUX.ns:(Date.now?Date.now():+(new Date())));if(k&&k.timing&&k.timing.navigationStart){l=k.timing.navigationStart}function f(){if(k&&k.now){return k.now()}var o=Date.now?Date.now():+(new Date());return o-l}function b(n){if(k){if(k.mark){return k.mark(n)}else{if(k.webkitMark){return k.webkitMark(n)}}}a.push({name:n,entryType:"mark",startTime:f(),duration:0});return}function m(p,t,n){if("undefined"===typeof(t)&&h(j)){t=j}if(k){if(k.measure){if(t){if(n){return k.measure(p,t,n)}else{return k.measure(p,t)}}else{return k.measure(p)}}else{if(k.webkitMeasure){return k.webkitMeasure(p,t,n)}}}var r=0,o=f();if(t){var s=h(t);if(s){r=s.startTime}else{if(k&&k.timing&&k.timing[t]){r=k.timing[t]-k.timing.navigationStart}else{return}}}if(n){var q=h(n);if(q){o=q.startTime}else{if(k&&k.timing&&k.timing[n]){o=k.timing[n]-k.timing.navigationStart}else{return}}}d.push({name:p,entryType:"measure",startTime:r,duration:(o-r)});return}function h(n){return c(n,g())}function c(p,o){for(i=o.length-1;i>=0;i--){var n=o[i];if(p===n.name){return n}}return undefined}function g(){if(k){if(k.getEntriesByType){return k.getEntriesByType("mark")}else{if(k.webkitGetEntriesByType){return k.webkitGetEntriesByType("mark")}}}return a}return{mark:b,measure:m,gaMarks:a,gaMeasures:d}})();LUX.ns=(Date.now?Date.now():+(new Date()));LUX.ac=[];LUX.cmd=function(a){LUX.ac.push(a)};LUX.init=function(){LUX.cmd(["init"])};LUX.send=function(){LUX.cmd(["send"])};LUX.addData=function(a,b){LUX.cmd(["addData", a, b])};LUX_ae=[];window.addEventListener("error",function(a){LUX_ae.push(a)});LUX_al=[];if("function"===typeof(PerformanceObserver)&&"function"===typeof(PerformanceLongTaskTiming)){var LongTaskObserver=new PerformanceObserver(function(c){var b=c.getEntries();for(var a=0;a<b.length;a++){var d=b[a];LUX_al.push(d)}});try{LongTaskObserver.observe({type:["longtask"]})}catch(e){}};</script><noscript data-n-css=""></noscript><script defer="" nomodule="" src="/_next/static/chunks/polyfills-42372ed130431b0a.js"></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/webpack-ecaafc99c2a6da81.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/framework-c2373564c69ff406.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/main-c8134978ba236240.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/pages/_app-cbf7120e6a7f7084.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/2922-b8598e76b68d9311.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/2984-e86789e4b5231e0a.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/4568-1effd60c4dbf17d9.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/515-01e47bc67e060d81.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/chunks/pages/research/%5Bslug%5D-1df1722325790036.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/b43b6a8122e8ecb68584fe40ff109161c100d796/_buildManifest.js" defer=""></script><script src="/_next/static/b43b6a8122e8ecb68584fe40ff109161c100d796/_ssgManifest.js" defer=""></script><style id="__jsx-3861640846">*{box-sizing:border-box;}html,body,div,span,object,iframe,h1,h2,h3,h4,h5,h6,p,blockquote,pre,a,address,code,del,em,img,small,strong,sub,sup,tt,var,b,u,i,center,dl,dt,dd,ol,ul,li,fieldset,form,label,legend,table,caption,tbody,tfoot,thead,tr,th,td,article,aside,canvas,details,embed,figure,figcaption,footer,header,menu,nav,output,section,summary,time,video{margin:0;padding:0;border:0;font:inherit;vertical-align:baseline;}article,aside,details,figcaption,figure,footer,header,menu,nav,section{display:block;}html{font-size:100%;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased;-moz-osx-font-smoothing:grayscale;}body{line-height:1;}ol,ul{list-style:none;}a{-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;}blockquote,q{quotes:none;}blockquote:before,blockquote:after,q:before,q:after{content:none;}table{border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0;}input,textarea{-webkit-appearance:none;}sup{vertical-align:super;font-size:smaller;}sub{vertical-align:sub;font-size:smaller;}</style><style id="__jsx-1508742310">:root{--spacing:10px;--spacing-xl:calc(var(--spacing) * 4);--spacing-lg:calc(var(--spacing) * 3.2);--spacing-md:calc(var(--spacing) * 2.4);--spacing-sm:calc(var(--spacing) * 1.6);--spacing-xs:calc(var(--spacing) * 0.8);--base-unit:4px;--blue-10:#ebf2fc;--blue-20:#d4dffc;--blue-30:#b8c6fc;--blue-40:#97aaf7;--blue-50:#7787f2;--blue-60:#5d66eb;--blue-70:#414bd9;--blue-80:#2c35bf;--blue-90:#1e2694;--blue-100:#1c2057;--green-10:#e4f5f4;--green-20:#b8e6e6;--green-30:#66d9d1;--green-40:#3ac2b9;--green-50:#1aa198;--green-60:#0d8078;--green-70:#096962;--green-80:#0b524d;--green-90:#083d3a;--green-100:#072b29;--orange-10:#faf0ed;--orange-20:#fad6cd;--orange-30:#fbb8a7;--orange-40:#fa9075;--orange-50:#eb603d;--orange-60:#d4360f;--orange-70:#ad2807;--orange-80:#85250d;--orange-90:#5e2314;--orange-100:#361f1a;--pink-10:#faf0f2;--pink-20:#fad4dc;--pink-30:#fab4c2;--pink-40:#f78ba0;--pink-50:#ed5a78;--pink-60:#d62b4d;--pink-70:#b31433;--pink-80:#8c0e27;--pink-90:#6b0e21;--pink-100:#4d0f1b;--yellow-10:#fcf2e3;--yellow-20:#fcd8a2;--yellow-30:#faba5a;--yellow-40:#ed9b1f;--yellow-50:#cc7c04;--yellow-60:#a36303;--yellow-70:#824f03;--yellow-80:#663f06;--yellow-90:#4a300a;--yellow-100:#33240e;--white:#fff;--grey-05:#f9f9f9;--grey-10:#f5f1f0;--grey-20:#e3dddc;--grey-30:#c7c4c3;--grey-40:#b0acab;--grey-50:#918e8d;--grey-60:#737378;--grey-70:#5b5b63;--grey-80:#474852;--grey-90:#353642;--grey-100:#232434;--black:#000;--font-circular:CircularPro, Arial CircularPro Fallback, sans-serif;--font-calibre:Calibre, Arial Calibre Fallback, sans-serif;--basefont:0.625rem;}</style><style id="__jsx-2356626725">@font-face{font-family:"CircularPro";src: url("/static/fonts/lineto-circular-pro-book.woff2") format("woff2"), url("/static/fonts/lineto-circular-pro-book.woff") format("woff");font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-display:swap;}@font-face{font-family:"Calibre";src: url("/static/fonts/calibre-medium-full.woff2") format("woff2"), url("/static/fonts/calibre-medium-full.woff") format("woff");font-weight:600;font-style:normal;font-display:swap;}@font-face{font-family:"Calibre";src: url("/static/fonts/calibre-regular-full.woff2") format("woff2"), url("/static/fonts/calibre-regular-full.woff") format("woff");font-weight:400;font-style:normal;font-display:swap;}@font-face{font-family:"Arial Calibre Fallback";src:local("Arial");size-adjust:86%;-webkit-descent-override:0%;descent-override:0%;}@font-face{font-family:"Arial CircularPro Fallback";src:local("Arial");size-adjust:102%;}@font-face{font-family:"CircularPro";src: url("/static/fonts/lineto-circular-pro-bold.woff2") format("woff2"), url("/static/fonts/lineto-circular-pro-bold.woff") format("woff");font-weight:600;font-style:normal;font-display:swap;}@font-face{font-family:"Calibre";src: url("/static/fonts/calibre-light-full.woff2") format("woff2"), url("/static/fonts/calibre-light-full.woff") format("woff");font-weight:200;font-style:normal;font-display:swap;}</style><style id="__jsx-433997633">.heading-1,.heading-2,.heading-3,.heading-4,.heading-5,.heading-6,.app .block-text h2,.app .block-text h3,.app .block-text h5,.app .block-text h4{font-family:var(--font-circular);line-height:1.25;font-weight:600;color:var(--grey-100);}.heading-1{font-size:2.16rem;}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.heading-1{font-size:2.592rem;}}.heading-2,.app .block-text h2:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.8rem;}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.heading-2,.app .block-text h2:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:2.16rem;}}.heading-3{font-size:1.5rem;}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.heading-3{font-size:1.8rem;}}.heading-4{font-size:1.25rem;}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.heading-4{font-size:1.5rem;}}.heading-5,.app .block-text h5:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.125rem;}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.heading-5,.app .block-text h5:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.25rem;}}.heading-6,.app .block-text h6:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.125rem;}p,main a,p a{font-family:var(--font-calibre);}p{font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1.5;color:var(--grey-100);margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);overflow-wrap:anywhere;}p.teaser{line-height:1.25;color:var(--grey-80);font-size:1.125rem;}a{color:var(--blue-80);border-radius:4px;outline-color:var(--orange-40);}a:hover{color:var(--blue-90);}main a:hover{-webkit-text-decoration:underline;text-decoration:underline;}p a:visited{color:var(--blue-90);}.subhead,.intro-text,.intro-text p{color:var(--grey-80);line-height:1.5;font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1.125rem;}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.intro-text,.intro-text p{font-size:1.25rem;}}.caption{font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-size:1rem;line-height:20px;}h1:not([class*="heading-"]),h2:not([class*="heading-"]),h3:not([class*="heading-"]),h4:not([class*="heading-"]){font-family:var(--font-circular);font-weight:600;color:var(--grey-100);}h1:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:2.125rem;line-height:1.2;}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){h1:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:2.375rem;line-height:1.4;}}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){h1:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:2.625rem;line-height:1.4;}}h2:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.875rem;line-height:1.2;}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){h2:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:2rem;line-height:1.4;}}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){h2:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:2.25rem;line-height:1.4;}}h3:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.5rem;line-height:1.3;}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){h3:not([class*="heading-"]){line-height:1.4;}}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){h3:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.75rem;line-height:1.4;}}h4:not([class*="heading-"]){font-family:var(--font-circular);font-weight:600;font-size:1.375rem;line-height:1.4;}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){h4:not([class*="heading-"]){font-size:1.5rem;}}</style><style id="__jsx-1443451971">.container{margin-right:auto;margin-left:auto;}.root{min-width:320px;width:100%;padding:0;}.container{display:block;margin:0 auto;padding-left:12px;padding-right:12px;width:100%;max-width:1024px;}@media (max-width:767px){.container.mobile-full-width{width:100%;padding:0;}}.row{box-sizing:border-box;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex:0 1 auto;-ms-flex:0 1 auto;flex:0 1 auto;-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;margin-right:-5px;margin-left:-5px;}.row--no-pad{margin-right:0;margin-left:0;}.col-xs-12{box-sizing:border-box;-webkit-flex:0 0 auto;-ms-flex:0 0 auto;flex:0 0 auto;padding-right:5px;padding-left:5px;-webkit-flex-basis:100%;-ms-flex-preferred-size:100%;flex-basis:100%;max-width:100%;}@media only screen and (min-width:460px){.container{width:460px;}}@media only screen and (min-width:768px){.container{width:748px;padding-left:18px;padding-right:18px;}}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.container{width:890px;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;}}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.container-mobile-only{margin:0 auto;padding-left:12px;padding-right:12px;width:100%;max-width:460px;}}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.container-tablet-desktop-only{margin:0 auto;width:748px;padding-left:18px;padding-right:18px;max-width:1024px;}}@media only screen and (min-width:1024px){.container-tablet-desktop-only{width:890px;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;}}.container-row{margin:0 auto;padding-right:12px;padding-left:12px;width:100%;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.container-row{padding-right:40px;padding-left:40px;max-width:calc(40px + 1160px + 40px);}}.ut-wrapper{position:relative;}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.ut-row{width:calc(554 * (100% + 40px + 40px) / 834);max-width:760px;}}</style><style id="__jsx-3647504613">.table__heading{font-family:var(--font-circular);font-weight:600;font-size:1.625rem;line-height:1.25;text-align:left;color:var(--grey-100);display:block;margin-bottom:24px;}table:not([class]),.table-default{width:100%;border-collapse:collapse;border-spacing:0;border:none;border-top:2px solid var(--blue-60);table-layout:fixed;}table:not([class]) th,.table-default th{font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-weight:600;font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1.25;color:var(--grey-80);min-height:52px;text-align:left;background-color:#f9f9f980;padding:14px 12px;}table:not([class]) td,.table-default td{padding:12px 12px 16px;background:white;font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1.25;color:var(--grey-100);}table:not([class]) tbody tr,.table-default tbody tr:not(.ppc__table-row){border-bottom:1px solid var(--grey-05);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){table:not([class]) tbody tr:hover td,.table-default tbody tr:hover td{background:var(--grey-05);}}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.table__heading{margin-bottom:16px;font-size:1.5rem;}table:not([class]) th,.table-default th{font-size:1.125rem;line-height:1.25;padding:10px 8px 12px 8px;}table:not([class]) th,.table-default td{font-size:1.125rem;line-height:1.25;padding:12px 8px 11px 8px;}table:not([class]) tbody tr:first-child td,.table-default tbody tr:first-child td{padding-top:16px;}}.table-not-stacked{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);display:block;overflow:auto;overflow-y:hidden;}.table-not-stacked td,.table-not-stacked th{min-width:100px;}.table-not-stacked th,.table-stacked th{font-family:var(--font-circular);font-weight:600;font-size:1rem;color:var(--grey-100);}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.table-stacked th{display:none;}.table-stacked tr{border-top:2px solid var(--blue-60);border-bottom:none;}.table-stacked td{display:block;}.table-stacked td:first-child{padding-top:16px;}.table-stacked td:last-of-type{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);}.table-stacked td:before{content:attr(data-header);display:block;font-family:var(--font-circular);font-weight:600;font-size:0.875rem;color:var(--grey-100);text-align:left;text-transform:uppercase;padding-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}}.table-default.table-all-centre td,.table-default.table-all-centre th{text-align:center;}.table-default.table-1col_left-rest_centre td:not(:first-of-type),.table-default.table-1col_left-rest_centre th:not(:first-of-type){text-align:center;}.table-default.table-2col_left-rest_centre td:nth-of-type(n + 3),.table-default.table-2col_left-rest_centre th:nth-of-type(n + 3){text-align:center;}.table-caption,.app .block-text .table-caption{font-size:1.125rem;color:var(--grey-60);line-height:1.25;margin-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 8);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.table-caption,.app .block-text .table-caption{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 12);}}table code,.app .block-text table code{font-family:monospace;font-size:0.875rem;background:none;padding:0;color:initial;}table:not([class])::-webkit-scrollbar,.table-default::-webkit-scrollbar{-webkit-appearance:none;width:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}table:not([class])::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb,.table-default::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb{border-radius:4px;background-color:rgba(0,0,0,0.25);}.table-default a{font-family:inherit;font-size:inherit;font-weight:inherit;}</style><style id="__jsx-2318686448">.button-primary{display:inline-block;text-align:center;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2) calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1.125rem;font-weight:normal;line-height:1;color:white;background-color:#5d66eb;border-radius:5px;border:none;outline-color:var(--orange-40);cursor:pointer;-webkit-tap-highlight-color:rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0 );background-position:center;-webkit-transition:background 800ms;transition:background 800ms;}.button-primary:hover{color:white;-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;background:var(--blue-90) radial-gradient(circle,transparent 2%,var(--blue-90) 2%) center/10000%;}.button-primary:active{-webkit-transition:background 0s;transition:background 0s;background-size:100%;background-color:var(--blue-80);}.button-primary.mod-dark-bg:hover{color:var(--grey-100);-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;background:var(--blue-40) radial-gradient(circle,transparent 2%,var(--blue-40) 2%) center/10000%;}.button-primary.mod-dark-b:active{-webkit-transition:background 0s;transition:background 0s;background-size:100%;background-color:var(--blue-80);}.button-secondary{display:inline-block;text-align:center;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2) calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1.125rem;font-weight:normal;line-height:1;color:var(--grey-100);background-color:white;border-radius:5px;border:1px solid var(--grey-30);outline-color:var(--orange-40);cursor:pointer;-webkit-tap-highlight-color:rgba( 0, 0, 0, 0 );background-position:center;-webkit-transition:background 800ms;transition:background 800ms;}.button-secondary:hover{color:var(--grey-100);-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;background:var(--grey-05) radial-gradient(circle,transparent 2%,white 2%) center/10000%;}.button-secondary:active{-webkit-transition:background 0s;transition:background 0s;background-size:100%;background-color:var(--grey-05);}.button-secondary:disabled,.button-primary:disabled{background:var(--grey-40);cursor:not-allowed;}.button-text{color:var(--blue-80);cursor:pointer;border:none;background-color:transparent;padding:0;font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1rem;font-weight:normal;line-height:1.25;}.button-text:hover{-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;color:var(--blue-90);}.mod-thick{font-size:1.25rem;line-height:1.2;}.mod-slim{font-size:0.875rem;line-height:1.2;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1) calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.mod-slim-tablet-up{font-size:0.875rem;line-height:1.2;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1) calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}}.mod-rounded{border-radius:30px;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2) calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}</style><style id="__jsx-490617698">.link-loading{cursor:progress;}.ellipsis{overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis;white-space:nowrap;}.flex{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;}.flex-align-items-center{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}.flex-pills{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.flex-pills{-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-box-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;justify-content:center;text-align:center;}}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.flex-pills *:first-child{-webkit-flex-basis:100%;-ms-flex-preferred-size:100%;flex-basis:100%;}}.visually-hidden{position:absolute;left:-9999px;top:-9999px;color:transparent;}.icon-chevron-left{-webkit-transform:rotate(180deg);-ms-transform:rotate(180deg);transform:rotate(180deg);}.icon-chevron-down{-webkit-transform:rotate(90deg);-ms-transform:rotate(90deg);transform:rotate(90deg);}.icon-chevron-up{-webkit-transform:rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:rotate(270deg);transform:rotate(270deg);}.ml-1{margin-left:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}.ml-2{margin-left:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}.mr-1{margin-right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}.mr-2{margin-right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}.custom-scrollbar::-webkit-scrollbar{background-color:#fff;width:16px;}.custom-scrollbar::-webkit-scrollbar-track{background-color:#fff;}.custom-scrollbar::-webkit-scrollbar-track:hover{background-color:#f4f4f4;}.custom-scrollbar::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb{background-color:#babac0;border-radius:16px;border:5px solid #fff;}.custom-scrollbar::-webkit-scrollbar-thumb:hover{background-color:#a0a0a5;border:4px solid #f4f4f4;}.custom-scrollbar::-webkit-scrollbar-button{display:none;}</style><style id="__jsx-3040803073">@media screen and (max-width:768px){html::-webkit-scrollbar{width:0;background:transparent;}}body{background-color:white;font-family:var(--font-calibre);overflow-x:hidden;}body.lock{overflow:hidden;}</style><style id="__jsx-1164853676">.skip-nav{position:absolute;top:-999px;}.skip-nav:focus{top:0;}.btn-search{background:none;border:none;width:44px;padding:0;position:absolute;right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2 + 44px);z-index:4;height:48px;font-size:1.5rem;margin-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);cursor:pointer;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.btn-search{margin-top:0;}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.btn-search{right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}}.btn-search svg{-webkit-transform:translateY(2px);-ms-transform:translateY(2px);transform:translateY(2px);}.hamburger{background:none;border:none;width:44px;padding:0;position:absolute;right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);z-index:100;height:48px;font-size:1.5rem;margin-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);cursor:pointer;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.hamburger{margin-top:0;}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.hamburger{display:none;}}@media screen and (max-width:1023px){.main-header__nav{background:white;position:fixed;z-index:5;right:-400px;top:0;height:100%;width:320px;-webkit-transition:all 0.3s ease-in-out;transition:all 0.3s ease-in-out;overflow-y:scroll;-webkit-overflow-scrolling:touch;}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.hidden-lg-menu,.main-header__nav>ul>li.submenuOpen>ul.hidden-lg-menu,.main-header__nav>ul>li:hover>ul.hidden-lg-menu{display:none;}.main-header__nav{display:inline-block;float:left;}.main-header__nav a{color:var(--grey-100);}.main-header__nav>ul{line-height:0.9;}.main-header__nav>ul>li{float:left;position:relative;height:48px;margin-top:-16px;padding-top:16px;margin-left:26px;}.main-header__nav>ul>li>a,.main-header__nav>ul>li>span.main-menu{cursor:pointer;display:inline-block;line-height:1;text-transform:uppercase;font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1rem;padding:16px 0;width:auto;}.main-header__nav>ul>li>ul{display:none;}.main-header__nav>ul>li.active>span.main-menu,.main-header__nav>ul>li.active>a{font-weight:bold;}}</style><style id="__jsx-1793027758">@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.main-header__nav>ul.ppc>li:first-child{margin-left:62px;}.main-header__nav>ul.ppc>li{margin-left:40px;}}@media screen and (max-width:1023px){.main-header__overlay{background-color:var(--blue-100);width:100%;position:fixed;overflow:hidden;height:0;left:0;top:-100px;z-index:-2;-webkit-transition:opacity 0.25s ease;transition:opacity 0.25s ease;opacity:0;}.main-header__wrapper.active .main-header__overlay{z-index:2;opacity:0.5;height:122%;}}</style><style id="__jsx-2034782048">.main-header{display:block;background:white;height:58px;padding:0 12px;position:relative;box-shadow:2px 2px 4px 0 rgba(114,114,157,0.15);z-index:2;}.main-header>.container{width:100%;}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.main-header>.container{max-width:none;padding-left:18px;padding-right:18px;}}.main-header__logo{height:20px;display:block;float:left;margin:18px 0;cursor:pointer;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.main-header{height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 12);padding:0 18px;}.main-header__logo{margin:14px 0;}}@media screen and (max-width:1023px){.main-header{padding:0;}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.main-header{padding:0;}.main-header__nav>ul>li:first-child{margin-left:48px;}}</style><style id="__jsx-912259115">.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115{padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3) 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 7);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115{padding-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115{padding-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 10);}}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 ol.jsx-912259115{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 li.jsx-912259115{font-size:1rem;line-height:20px;}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 li.jsx-912259115:last-of-type{-webkit-box-flex:1;-webkit-flex-grow:1;-ms-flex-positive:1;flex-grow:1;}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 li.jsx-912259115:last-of-type a,.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 li.jsx-912259115:last-of-type a:hover{-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:default;}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 .trigger.jsx-912259115{display:none;cursor:pointer;}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 .long.jsx-912259115 .trigger.jsx-912259115{display:block;}}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 .long.jsx-912259115 .inner-slice.jsx-912259115{display:block;width:0;height:0;opacity:0;overflow:hidden;}}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 li.jsx-912259115:not(:last-of-type):after{content:"/";padding:0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 li.jsx-912259115,.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 a{color:var(--grey-70);}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 a{font-family:var(--font-calibre);}.breadcrumbs.jsx-912259115 img{-webkit-transform:translateY(3px);-ms-transform:translateY(3px);transform:translateY(3px);}.bc-logo.jsx-912259115{display:inline-block;width:16px;height:16px;}</style><style id="__jsx-3130565390">.date-wtu-container.jsx-3130565390{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-direction:column;-ms-flex-direction:column;flex-direction:column;-webkit-align-items:flex-start;-webkit-box-align:flex-start;-ms-flex-align:flex-start;align-items:flex-start;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.date-wtu-container.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-flex-direction:row;-ms-flex-direction:row;flex-direction:row;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;-webkit-column-gap:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);column-gap:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 8);}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.date-wtu-container.jsx-3130565390{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 10);}}.author-updated.jsx-3130565390{display:-webkit-inline-box;display:-webkit-inline-flex;display:-ms-inline-flexbox;display:inline-flex;font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:0.875rem;color:var(--grey-100);-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);-webkit-flex:1 0 auto;-ms-flex:1 0 auto;flex:1 0 auto;}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.author-updated.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-box-flex:0;-webkit-flex-grow:0;-ms-flex-positive:0;flex-grow:0;margin-bottom:0;}}.icon-tick.jsx-3130565390{background-color:var(--grey-100);fill:white;display:inline-block;width:14px;height:14px;border-radius:50%;text-align:center;margin-right:4px;padding:1px;}.wtu-button.jsx-3130565390{display:-webkit-inline-box;display:-webkit-inline-flex;display:-ms-inline-flexbox;display:inline-flex;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1) calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);-webkit-align-items:flex-start;-webkit-box-align:flex-start;-ms-flex-align:flex-start;align-items:flex-start;gap:4px;border-radius:10px;background:var(--blue-20);border:none;cursor:pointer;pointer-events:none;}.wtu-button.jsx-3130565390 span.jsx-3130565390{color:var(--grey-100);font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:0.875rem;line-height:1rem;}.authors-grid.jsx-3130565390{padding-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);border-bottom:1px solid var(--grey-30);}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.authors-grid.jsx-3130565390{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;padding-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.authors-grid.jsx-3130565390{padding-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}}.main-author.jsx-3130565390{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.main-author.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-order:1;-ms-flex-order:1;order:1;margin-bottom:0;}}.amp.jsx-3130565390{margin:0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}.author-photo.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-flex:0 0 auto;-ms-flex:0 0 auto;flex:0 0 auto;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;margin-right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}.author-photo.jsx-3130565390 img{background:white;border-radius:50%;width:32px;height:32px;overflow:hidden;}.author-photo.jsx-3130565390 :nth-child(n + 2){margin-left:-6px !important;}.author-name.jsx-3130565390 strong.jsx-3130565390,.amp.jsx-3130565390{font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:0.875rem;font-weight:bold;color:var(--grey-100);}.author-name.jsx-3130565390:hover strong.jsx-3130565390{cursor:pointer;}.author-toggle.jsx-3130565390{background:none;border:none;cursor:pointer;padding:0;margin:0;width:40px;height:40px;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.author-toggle.jsx-3130565390{width:32px;height:32px;}}.author-toggle.jsx-3130565390:focus{outline:none;}.author-toggle.jsx-3130565390:focus.jsx-3130565390:hover{color:var(--grey-100);}.author-toggle.jsx-3130565390 svg.jsx-3130565390{margin-top:4px;}.author-bio.jsx-3130565390:not(.opened){display:none;}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.author-bio.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-flex:1 0 100%;-ms-flex:1 0 100%;flex:1 0 100%;-webkit-order:3;-ms-flex-order:3;order:3;margin-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);}}.bio-authors.jsx-3130565390{font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-size:1rem;line-height:1.25rem;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.bio-authors.jsx-3130565390{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);}}.bio-authors.jsx-3130565390 a{font-weight:bold;}.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390{margin-bottom:0;}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-flex:1 1 auto;-ms-flex:1 1 auto;flex:1 1 auto;-webkit-order:2;-ms-flex-order:2;order:2;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-box-pack:end;-webkit-justify-content:flex-end;-ms-flex-pack:end;justify-content:flex-end;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;}}.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390 span.jsx-3130565390{display:block;}@media screen and (max-width:833px){.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390 span.jsx-3130565390:not(:last-child){margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390 span.jsx-3130565390+span.jsx-3130565390:before{content:"|";color:var(--grey-40);padding:0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}}.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390 span.jsx-3130565390,.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390 a{font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:0.875rem;line-height:1.25;}.supporting-authors.jsx-3130565390 a{color:var(--grey-100);font-weight:bold;position:relative;z-index:2;}.translated.jsx-3130565390{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;border-radius:10px;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3) 0 0;-webkit-column-gap:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);column-gap:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}.translated.jsx-3130565390:not(.opened){display:none;}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.translated.jsx-3130565390{width:auto;-webkit-order:4;-ms-flex-order:4;order:4;margin-top:0;}}.translated.jsx-3130565390 svg.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-flex:0 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 7);-ms-flex:0 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 7);flex:0 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 7);}.translated.jsx-3130565390 p.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-flex:1 1 auto;-ms-flex:1 1 auto;flex:1 1 auto;font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-size:1rem;line-height:1.25rem;margin:0;padding-right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.translated.jsx-3130565390 p.jsx-3130565390{-webkit-flex:1 0 auto;-ms-flex:1 0 auto;flex:1 0 auto;}}.blue .translated.jsx-3130565390{background-color:var(--blue-20);}.green .translated.jsx-3130565390{background-color:var(--green-20);}.orange .translated.jsx-3130565390{background-color:var(--orange-20);}</style><style id="__jsx-3296901116">.ut-header.jsx-3296901116:before{content:"";display:block;position:absolute;top:-80px;left:0;width:100%;height:567px;z-index:-1;}.ut-header.blue.jsx-3296901116:before{background-image:linear-gradient( 178deg, #e9ebfa 31.09%, rgba(235,242,252,0) 75.32% );}.ut-header.green.jsx-3296901116:before{background-image:linear-gradient( 178deg, #e4f5f5 12.27%, rgba(235,242,252,0) 76.71% );}.ut-header.orange.jsx-3296901116:before{background-image:linear-gradient( 178deg, #faf0ed 12.27%, rgba(235,242,252,0) 76.71% );}.ut-header.jsx-3296901116{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}.ut-header.jsx-3296901116 h1.jsx-3296901116{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}.ut-header.jsx-3296901116 p.jsx-3296901116{font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1.125rem;}.main-header{box-shadow:none;}.main-header{background-color:transparent;}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.ut-header.jsx-3296901116 .container-mobile-only{max-width:none;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;}}</style><style id="__jsx-2580530280">.app section.block-text{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 10);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app section.block-text{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 14);}}.app .block-text a{word-break:break-word;}.app .block-text .block-highlighted{border-radius:5px;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4) 0;background-color:var(--grey-10);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted.block-highlighted--light{background-color:var(--grey-05);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted.block-highlighted--blue{background-color:var(--blue-10);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted.block-highlighted--orange{background-color:var(--orange-10);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted.block-highlighted--green{background-color:var(--green-10);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted.block-highlighted--yellow{background-color:var(--yellow-10);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted.block-highlighted--pink{background-color:var(--pink-10);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted.flex>*:first-child{margin-right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.app .block-text .block-highlighted{padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}}.app .block-text .block-highlighted p>ol,.app .block-text .block-highlighted p>ul,.app .block-text .block-highlighted ul li>ol,.app .block-text .block-highlighted ul li>ul,.app .block-text .block-highlighted ol li>ol,.app .block-text .block-highlighted ol li>ul{margin-left:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}.app .block-text .block-highlighted *:first-child{margin-top:0;}.app .block-text .block-highlighted *:last-child li:last-of-type,.app .block-text .block-highlighted *:last-child{margin-bottom:0;}.app .block-text .iframe-wrapper{max-width:710px;margin:0 auto;}.app .block-text .iframe-wrapper div{position:relative;overflow:hidden;padding-top:56.25%;}.app .block-text .iframe-wrapper iframe{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%;border:0;}.app .block-text .wp-caption{max-width:100%;width:100% !important;text-align:center;margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 8) auto;}.app .block-text .wp-caption img{margin-bottom:0;}.app .block-text .wp-caption.aligncenter{margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;}.app .block-text .wp-caption .wp-caption-text{text-align:center;font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-size:calc(var(--basefont) * 1.6);line-height:1.12;-webkit-letter-spacing:0.3px;-moz-letter-spacing:0.3px;-ms-letter-spacing:0.3px;letter-spacing:0.3px;color:var(--grey-60);margin-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}.app .block-text h2{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text h2{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 8);}}.app .block-text.article-body--single-chapter h2{margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 10) 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text.article-body--single-chapter h2{margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 12) 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 8);}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.app .block-text.article-body--single-chapter h2{margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 14) 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 8);}}.app .block-text h3,.app .block-text h4{margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 8) auto calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text h3,.app .block-text h4{margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 10) auto calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);}}.app .block-text h5{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}.app .block-text .img-wrapper{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);display:block;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;text-align:center;}.app .block-text img{height:auto;max-width:100%;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);}.app .block-text img.aligncenter{display:block;margin-left:auto;margin-right:auto;}.app .block-text figure{margin-bottom:var(--spacing-md);}.app .block-text figure figcaption{font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-size:1rem;line-height:1.25;color:var(--grey-40);padding-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.app .block-text figure{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}}.app .block-text b,.app .block-text strong{font-weight:bold;}.app .block-text i,.app .block-text em{font-style:italic;}.app .block-text ul{list-style-type:disc;}.app .block-text ol{list-style-type:decimal;}.app .block-text ul,.app .block-text ol{list-style-position:outside;margin-left:19px;font-family:var(--font-calibre);padding:0;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text ul,.app .block-text ol{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 7);}}.app .block-text ul:not([class]),.app .block-text ol:not([class]){margin-left:28px;}.app .block-text ul.columns-2,.app .block-text ol.columns-2{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-flex-wrap:wrap;-ms-flex-wrap:wrap;flex-wrap:wrap;}.app .block-text ul.columns-2>li,.app .block-text ol.columns-2>li{width:100%;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text ul.columns-2>li,.app .block-text ol.columns-2>li{width:calc(50% - 10px);}}.app .block-text ul.columns-2>li,.app .block-text ol.columns-2>li{-webkit-flex:1 0 auto;-ms-flex:1 0 auto;flex:1 0 auto;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text ul.columns-2>li:nth-child(odd),.app .block-text ol.columns-2>li:nth-child(odd){margin-right:10px;}}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text ul.columns-2>li:nth-child(even),.app .block-text ol.columns-2>li:nth-child(even){margin-left:10px;}}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text ul.columns-two,.app .block-text ol.columns-two{-webkit-column-count:2;column-count:2;}}.app .block-text ul.alpha-lower,.app .block-text ol.alpha-lower{list-style:inside lower-latin;}.app .block-text ul ol,.app .block-text ol ol{list-style-type:decimal;}.app .block-text ul ul,.app .block-text ol ul{list-style-type:circle;}.app .block-text ul li,.app .block-text ol li{color:var(--grey-100);line-height:1.5;font-size:1.25rem;margin-bottom:var(--spacing-sm);}.app .block-text ul li>ul,.app .block-text ul li>ol,.app .block-text ol li>ul,.app .block-text ol li>ol{margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4) 0 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}.app .block-text ul li>ul.columns-2,.app .block-text ul li>ol.columns-2,.app .block-text ol li>ul.columns-2,.app .block-text ol li>ol.columns-2{padding:var(--spacing-md) 0 0 0;}@media screen and (max-width:1023px){.app .block-text ul li,.app .block-text ol li{margin-bottom:var(--spacing-sm);}}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.app .block-text ul li,.app .block-text ol li{margin-bottom:var(--spacing-sm);}}.app .block-text ul li img:last-child,.app .block-text ol li img:last-child{margin-top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);}.app .block-text iframe{max-width:100%;}.app .block-text .icon-list{list-style-type:none;margin-left:0;}.app .block-text .icon-list li{background-repeat:no-repeat;background-size:20px 20px;background-position:0 6px;padding-left:28px;}.app .block-text .icon-list-tick li{background-image:url("data:image/svg+xml,%0A%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' viewBox='0 0 24 24'%3E%3Cpath fill='none' d='M0 0h24v24H0z'/%3E%3Cpath fill='%230d8078' d='M9.2 16.2l-3.5-3.5a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4l4.2 4.2c.4.4 1 .4 1.4 0L20.5 7.7c.4-.4.4-1 0-1.4a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0l-9.9 9.9z'/%3E%3C/svg%3E");}.app .block-text .icon-list-cross li{background-image:url("data:image/svg+xml,%0A%3Csvg xmlns='http://www.w3.org/2000/svg' viewBox='0 0 24 24'%3E%3Cpath fill='%23d62b4d' fill-rule='evenodd' d='M18.3 5.7a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0L12 10.6 7.1 5.7a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4l4.9 4.9-4.9 4.9a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4c.4.4 1 .4 1.4 0l4.9-4.9 4.9 4.9c.4.4 1 .4 1.4 0 .4-.4.4-1 0-1.4L13.4 12l4.9-4.9c.4-.4.4-1 0-1.4z' clip-rule='evenodd'/%3E%3C/svg%3E");}.app .block-text span.circle{font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1.375rem;border:3px solid var(--grey-100);color:var(--grey-100);font-weight:bold;text-align:center;width:35px;height:35px;border-radius:50px;line-height:28px;float:left;margin:-1px 8px 0 0;-webkit-flex-shrink:0;-ms-flex-negative:0;flex-shrink:0;}.app .block-text blockquote{border-left:2px solid var(--green-40);margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 8) 0;}.app .block-text blockquote p{font-family:var(--font-circular);line-height:1.5;font-size:1.25rem;color:var(--grey-100);padding-left:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);-webkit-letter-spacing:unset;-moz-letter-spacing:unset;-ms-letter-spacing:unset;letter-spacing:unset;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.app .block-text blockquote p{font-size:1.375rem;}}.app .block-text blockquote a{font-family:var(--font-circular);}.app .block-text code{background:var(--grey-05);padding:var(--base-unit) calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);border-radius:3px;font-family:monospace;font-size:1rem;color:var(--grey-100);}.app .block-text .spacer{height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}.app .block-text .green-cta{background-color:var(--green-10);border-radius:5px;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;overflow:hidden;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);color:var(--green-100);padding:0;text-align:left;}.app .block-text .green-cta:hover{-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;background:var(--green-20) radial-gradient(circle,transparent 2%,var(--green-20) 2%) center/10000%;}.app .block-text .green-cta:hover svg{-webkit-transform:translateX(2px);-ms-transform:translateX(2px);transform:translateX(2px);}.app .block-text .green-cta:active{background-size:100%;background-color:var(--green-30);}.app .block-text .green-cta .green-cta--contents{-webkit-flex:1 1 auto;-ms-flex:1 1 auto;flex:1 1 auto;margin:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);line-height:1.25;font-weight:bold;font-family:var(--font-calibre);font-size:1.25rem;}.app .block-text .green-cta .green-cta--icon-area{background-color:var(--green-50);min-width:30px;min-height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 13);display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;-webkit-box-pack:center;-webkit-justify-content:center;-ms-flex-pack:center;justify-content:center;}.app .block-text .green-cta .green-cta--icon-area:before{-webkit-box-flex:1;-webkit-flex-grow:1;-ms-flex-positive:1;flex-grow:1;}.app .block-text .green-cta svg{fill:white;}</style><style id="__jsx-2362454086">.toc-mobile-placeholder.jsx-2362454086{height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 13);}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.toc-mobile-placeholder.jsx-2362454086{display:none;}}.toc-mobile.jsx-2362454086{display:none;}@media screen and (max-width:833px){.toc-mobile.jsx-2362454086{display:block;background-color:var(--grey-90);padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}}.toc-mobile.sticky.jsx-2362454086{margin:0;width:100vw;position:fixed;top:0;left:0;z-index:100;}.toc-mobile.jsx-2362454086 button.jsx-2362454086{background:white;border:none;border-radius:5px;color:var(--grey-100);font-family:var(--font-circular);font-weight:bold;font-size:1rem;line-height:1.25;text-transform:uppercase;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);text-align:left;width:100%;outline:none;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;}.toc-mobile.jsx-2362454086 span.jsx-2362454086{-webkit-flex:1 1 auto;-ms-flex:1 1 auto;flex:1 1 auto;white-space:nowrap;overflow:hidden;text-overflow:ellipsis;}.toc-mobile.jsx-2362454086 svg.jsx-2362454086{margin-left:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);-webkit-flex:0 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);-ms-flex:0 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);flex:0 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}@media (min-width:834px){aside.jsx-2362454086{position:-webkit-sticky;position:sticky;z-index:10;top:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}}.main-list.jsx-2362454086{list-style:none;}@media screen and (max-width:833px){.main-list.jsx-2362454086{display:none;}}.main-list.jsx-2362454086 li.jsx-2362454086{color:var(--grey-70);margin:1px 0;}.main-list.jsx-2362454086 li.jsx-2362454086 ol.jsx-2362454086 li.jsx-2362454086 a.jsx-2362454086{margin-left:calc(var(--base-unit) * 5);}.main-list.jsx-2362454086 li.jsx-2362454086 .inner-list-wrapper.jsx-2362454086{display:grid;grid-template-rows:0fr;-webkit-transition:250ms grid-template-rows ease;transition:250ms grid-template-rows ease;}.main-list.jsx-2362454086 li.open.jsx-2362454086 .inner-list-wrapper.jsx-2362454086{grid-template-rows:1fr;}.main-list.jsx-2362454086 li.jsx-2362454086 .inner-list-wrapper.jsx-2362454086 ol.jsx-2362454086{overflow:hidden;}li.jsx-2362454086 a.jsx-2362454086{-webkit-user-select:none;-moz-user-select:none;-ms-user-select:none;user-select:none;display:block;font-family:var(--font-circular);font-size:1rem;line-height:1.125rem;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);background-color:transparent;border-radius:5px;-webkit-transition:background-color 250ms;transition:background-color 250ms;}@media screen and (min-width:834px){li.jsx-2362454086 a.jsx-2362454086{font-size:0.875rem;}}li.jsx-2362454086 a.active.jsx-2362454086,li.jsx-2362454086 a.jsx-2362454086:hover{-webkit-text-decoration:none;text-decoration:none;}@media screen and (min-width:834px){li.jsx-2362454086 a.active.jsx-2362454086,li.jsx-2362454086 a.jsx-2362454086:hover{background-color:var(--grey-10);}}li.jsx-2362454086 a.active.jsx-2362454086{font-weight:bold;color:var(--grey-100);}li.jsx-2362454086 a.jsx-2362454086:not(.active):link,li.jsx-2362454086 a.jsx-2362454086:not(.active):visited{color:var(--grey-100);}li.jsx-2362454086 a.has-list.jsx-2362454086{display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-box-pack:justify;-webkit-justify-content:space-between;-ms-flex-pack:justify;justify-content:space-between;padding-right:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);}@media screen and (min-width:834px){.has-list.jsx-2362454086 svg.jsx-2362454086{display:none;}}li.open.jsx-2362454086 a.has-list.jsx-2362454086 svg.jsx-2362454086{-webkit-transform:rotate(270deg);-ms-transform:rotate(270deg);transform:rotate(270deg);}body[data-overlays*="mobile-jumplinks"]{overflow:hidden;}@media (max-width:833px){.jumplinks.fullscreen.jsx-2362454086{overflow-y:scroll;height:100vh;height:100dvh;width:100vw;background:rgba(28,32,87,0.7);margin:0;position:fixed;top:0;left:0;z-index:100;}}@media (max-width:833px){.jumplinks.fullscreen.jsx-2362454086 .main-list.jsx-2362454086{display:block;height:auto;margin:0;width:100%;border:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1) solid var(--grey-90);border-top:none;padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);background:white;border-radius:0 0 10px 10px;}}@media (max-width:833px){.jumplinks.fullscreen.jsx-2362454086 .inner-list-wrapper.jsx-2362454086 ol.jsx-2362454086{margin-left:calc(var(--base-unit) * -2);background:var(--grey-10);width:calc(100% + var(--base-unit) * 4);}}@media (max-width:833px){.jumplinks.fullscreen.jsx-2362454086 .inner-list-wrapper.jsx-2362454086 li.jsx-2362454086:hover{background:inherit;}}@media (max-width:833px){body[data-overlays*="mobile-jumplinks"] #footer #back-to-top-btn,body[data-overlays*="mobile-jumplinks"] .main-header{z-index:-1;}}</style><style id="__jsx-216598542">.skel.jsx-216598542{max-width:890px;margin:0 auto calc(var(--base-unit) * 8);}.skel-head.jsx-216598542{height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 9);width:100%;background-color:var(--grey-20);}.skel-row.jsx-216598542{background-color:var(--grey-05);height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 9);padding:0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 1);display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;-webkit-align-items:center;-webkit-box-align:center;-ms-flex-align:center;align-items:center;-webkit-box-pack:justify;-webkit-justify-content:space-between;-ms-flex-pack:justify;justify-content:space-between;}.skel-cell.jsx-216598542{height:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);max-width:calc((100% - (16px * 5)) / 4);}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.skel-cell.jsx-216598542:nth-of-type(2n){display:none;}}@media screen and (max-width:767px){.skel-cell.jsx-216598542:not(:nth-of-type(2n)){max-width:calc((100% - (16px * 1)) / 2);}}.waveyBG.jsx-216598542{width:100%;background-image:linear-gradient( 110deg, transparent 20%, rgba(0,0,0,0.05) 50%, transparent 80% );background-position-x:0%;background-size:200%;background-color:var(--grey-10);-webkit-animation:waves-jsx-216598542 1s infinite;animation:waves-jsx-216598542 1s infinite;}@-webkit-keyframes waves-jsx-216598542{from{background-position-x:0;}to{background-position-x:200%;}}@keyframes waves-jsx-216598542{from{background-position-x:0;}to{background-position-x:200%;}}</style><style id="__jsx-3067576299">.hero-container{aspect-ratio:16 / 9;overflow:hidden;position:relative;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 10);}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.hero-container{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 14);}}.hero-container img{width:100%;height:100%;object-fit:cover;}.content-wrapper-jumplinks{position:relative;margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 30);}.ut-jumplink{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 3);}@media (min-width:834px){.ut-jumplink{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 6);position:absolute;z-index:10;top:0;right:40px;width:calc(160 * 100% / 834);max-width:260px;height:100%;}}@media (min-width:994px){.ut-jumplink{width:calc(214 * 100% / 994);}}@media screen and (min-width:1240px){.ut-jumplink{right:calc(((100vw - 1240px) / 2) + (1280px - 100vw));}}@media screen and (min-width:1280px){.ut-jumplink{right:calc(((100vw - 1240px) / 2));}}.highlighted-chapter{background-color:var(--grey-05);padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 12) 0;}.ut-row .container{width:unset;padding:unset;}</style><style id="__jsx-4062602538">.footer{height:1170.5px;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.footer{height:779px;}}@media screen and (min-width:1024px){.footer{height:761.5px;}}#footer{overflow:hidden;background:linear-gradient(164deg,#fff 17.85%,#d4dffc 68.02%);padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 43) 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 25);}@media screen and (min-width:768px){#footer{background:linear-gradient(180deg,#fff 25.87%,#d4dffc 100%);padding:calc(var(--base-unit) * 70) 0 calc(var(--base-unit) * 25);}}.footer li{font-size:1.125rem;line-height:1.25;}.footer-about ul li{margin-bottom:calc(var(--base-unit) * 4);}.footer-social svg{max-width:40px;max-height:40px;}.language-selector-toggle{min-width:50%;padding:calc((var(--base-unit) * 2) - 2px) calc(var(--base-unit) * 2);color:var(--grey-100);}.language-popup{display:none;}.footer-small-print>div{font-size:1.125rem;display:-webkit-box;display:-webkit-flex;display:-ms-flexbox;display:flex;}@media screen and (min-width:768px){.footer-small-print>div a:not(:last-of-type):after{content:"|";display:inline-block;}}</style><style id="__jsx-4097244431">.app{z-index:1;position:relative;}</style></head><body><svg style="display:none"><defs><symbol id="svg-chevron"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path d="M15 11.6L10.4 7A1 1 0 0 0 9 7a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4l3.9 3.9L9 16.2a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4c.4.4 1 .4 1.4 0L15 13c.4-.4.4-1 0-1.4z"></path></svg></symbol><symbol id="svg-tick"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill="none" d="M0 0h24v24H0z"></path><path d="M9.2 16.2l-3.5-3.5a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4l4.2 4.2c.4.4 1 .4 1.4 0L20.5 7.7c.4-.4.4-1 0-1.4a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0l-9.9 9.9z"></path></svg></symbol><symbol id="svg-cross"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24"><path fill-rule="evenodd" d="M18.3 5.7a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0L12 10.6 7.1 5.7a1 1 0 0 0-1.4 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4l4.9 4.9-4.9 4.9a1 1 0 0 0 0 1.4c.4.4 1 .4 1.4 0l4.9-4.9 4.9 4.9c.4.4 1 .4 1.4 0 .4-.4.4-1 0-1.4L13.4 12l4.9-4.9c.4-.4.4-1 0-1.4z" clip-rule="evenodd"></path></svg></symbol><symbol id="svg-question"><svg width="18" height="18" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M.667 9C.667 4.4 4.4.667 9 .667S17.333 4.4 17.333 9 13.6 17.333 9 17.333A8.336 8.336 0 01.667 9zm1.666 0A6.676 6.676 0 009 15.667 6.676 6.676 0 0015.666 9 6.676 6.676 0 009 2.333 6.676 6.676 0 002.333 9zm7.5 3.333V14H8.166v-1.667h1.667zM5.816 6.358a3.335 3.335 0 013.692-2.325c1.45.217 2.592 1.442 2.792 2.892.19 1.345-.554 1.993-1.272 2.62-.131.115-.262.229-.386.347-.1.091-.192.183-.275.283-.005.004-.009.01-.013.017l-.012.016a2.3 2.3 0 00-.234.325c-.008.013-.014.025-.02.038a1.77 1.77 0 00-.254.93H8.165c0-.418.067-.76.167-1.043.004-.01.006-.02.008-.028a.122.122 0 01.009-.03c.004-.013.01-.023.017-.033.006-.01.012-.021.016-.034.059-.15.134-.291.209-.416l.012-.021.013-.021c0-.004.002-.006.004-.008s.004-.005.004-.009c.284-.427.664-.72 1.02-.994.512-.393.972-.747 1.021-1.406.067-.808-.516-1.583-1.308-1.75a1.668 1.668 0 00-1.917 1.067c-.116.317-.391.558-.733.558h-.167a.756.756 0 01-.725-.975z"></path></svg></symbol></defs></svg><div id="__next"><div class="jsx-4097244431 root"><header id="top" data-swiftype-index="false" class="jsx-2034782048 main-header"><div class="jsx-2034782048 container"><a href="/"><img src="/static/images/logo.svg" alt="Top10VPN" width="135" height="20" class="jsx-2034782048 main-header__logo"/></a><div class="jsx-3798940715 main-header__wrapper"><a href="#maincontent" class="jsx-3798940715 skip-nav">Skip to main content</a><div class="jsx-3798940715 main-header__overlay"></div><nav class="jsx-3798940715 main-header__nav"><ul class="jsx-3798940715"><li class="jsx-3798940715 megamenu"><a href="/best-vpn/" class="jsx-3798940715 main-menu">BEST VPN</a></li><li class="jsx-3798940715 megamenu megamenu-reviews"><a href="/reviews/" class="jsx-3798940715 main-menu">VPN REVIEWS</a></li><li class="jsx-3798940715 megamenu-tools"><a href="/vpn-explained/#seeallguides" class="jsx-3798940715 main-menu"><span class="jsx-3798940715 attr"></span> WHAT IS A VPN</a></li><li class="jsx-3798940715 megamenu-tools"><a href="/tools/" class="jsx-3798940715 main-menu"><span class="jsx-3798940715 attr"></span> TOOLS</a></li><li class="jsx-3798940715 megamenu-tools"><a href="/guides/" class="jsx-3798940715 main-menu">GUIDES</a></li><li class="jsx-3798940715 active megamenu-tools"><a href="/research/" class="jsx-3798940715 main-menu">RESEARCH</a></li><li class="jsx-3798940715 megamenu-tools megamenu-right-edge"><a href="/about/" class="jsx-3798940715 main-menu">ABOUT</a></li></ul></nav><button type="button" aria-label="Search" class="jsx-3798940715 btn-search"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" class="jsx-3798940715"><path d="M15.5 14h-.79l-.28-.27a6.5 6.5 0 001.48-5.34c-.47-2.78-2.79-5-5.59-5.34a6.505 6.505 0 00-7.27 7.27c.34 2.8 2.56 5.12 5.34 5.59a6.5 6.5 0 005.34-1.48l.27.28v.79l4.25 4.25c.41.41 1.08.41 1.49 0 .41-.41.41-1.08 0-1.49L15.5 14zm-6 0C7.01 14 5 11.99 5 9.5S7.01 5 9.5 5 14 7.01 14 9.5 11.99 14 9.5 14z" class="jsx-3798940715"></path></svg></button><button type="button" aria-label="Menu" class="jsx-3798940715 hamburger icon-hamburger"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="24" class="jsx-3798940715"><path d="M4 18h16c.5 0 1-.5 1-1s-.5-1-1-1H4a1 1 0 0 0-1 1c0 .5.5 1 1 1zm0-5h16c.5 0 1-.4 1-1s-.5-1-1-1H4a1 1 0 0 0-1 1c0 .6.5 1 1 1zM3 7c0 .6.5 1 1 1h16c.5 0 1-.4 1-1s-.5-1-1-1H4a1 1 0 0 0-1 1z" class="jsx-3798940715"></path></svg></button></div></div></header><main id="maincontent" class="jsx-4097244431 app"><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><div class="jsx-912259115 breadcrumbs"><ol itemscope="" itemType="https://schema.org/BreadcrumbList" class="jsx-912259115 long"><li itemProp="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemType="https://schema.org/ListItem" class="jsx-912259115"><meta itemProp="position" content="1" class="jsx-912259115"/><a itemProp="item" class="bc-logo" href="https://www.top10vpn.com/"><meta itemProp="name" content="Home" class="jsx-912259115"/><img src="/static/images/logo-simplified-dark-1x1_ratio.svg" width="16" height="16" alt="Top10VPN" class="jsx-912259115"/></a></li><li aria-hidden="true" class="jsx-912259115 trigger">...</li><li itemProp="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemType="https://schema.org/ListItem" class="jsx-912259115 inner-slice"><meta itemProp="position" content="2" class="jsx-912259115"/><a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research/free-vpn-investigations/" itemProp="item" class="jsx-912259115"><span itemProp="name" class="jsx-912259115">Free VPN Investigations</span></a></li><li itemProp="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemType="https://schema.org/ListItem" class="jsx-912259115 inner-slice"><meta itemProp="position" content="3" class="jsx-912259115"/><a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research/" itemProp="item" class="jsx-912259115"><span itemProp="name" class="jsx-912259115">Research</span></a></li><li itemProp="itemListElement" itemscope="" itemType="https://schema.org/ListItem" class="jsx-912259115"><a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/" itemProp="item" class="jsx-912259115"><span itemProp="name" class="jsx-912259115">China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project</span></a><meta itemProp="position" content="4" class="jsx-912259115"/></li></ol></div></div><div class="jsx-3296901116 ut-header blue"><div class="jsx-3296901116 container-row"><h1 class="jsx-3296901116 heading-1">China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project</h1><p class="jsx-3296901116">Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's surveillance tools and uncover the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state. </p><div class="jsx-3130565390 author-header"><div class="jsx-3130565390 date-wtu-container"><time dateTime="2021-08-03T14:00:00.000Z" class="jsx-3130565390 author-updated"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" class="jsx-3130565390 icon-tick"><use xlink:href="#svg-tick" class="jsx-3130565390"></use></svg><span class="jsx-3130565390">Updated Aug 3, 2021</span></time></div><div class="jsx-3130565390 authors-grid"><div class="jsx-3130565390 main-author"><div class="jsx-3130565390 author-photo"><img alt="" data-slug="samuel" width="32" height="32" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" style="color:transparent" srcSet="/_next/image/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.top10vpn.com%2Fimages%2F2019%2F11%2F191114-Author-Profile-Imgs-Samuel.jpg&w=32&q=75 1x, /_next/image/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.top10vpn.com%2Fimages%2F2019%2F11%2F191114-Author-Profile-Imgs-Samuel.jpg&w=64&q=75 2x" src="/_next/image/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.top10vpn.com%2Fimages%2F2019%2F11%2F191114-Author-Profile-Imgs-Samuel.jpg&w=64&q=75"/></div><div class="jsx-3130565390 author-name"><strong class="jsx-3130565390">Samuel Woodhams</strong></div><button aria-label="About authors" class="jsx-3130565390 author-toggle"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" class="jsx-3130565390 icon-chevron-down"><use xlink:href="#svg-chevron" class="jsx-3130565390"></use></svg></button></div><div class="jsx-3130565390 author-bio"><p class="jsx-3130565390 bio-authors">Samuel Woodhams was our Digital Rights Lead. His research has been featured in the BBC, Reuters, Financial Times, The Guardian, and Business Insider. <a href="/about/vpn-experts/samuel/">Read full bio</a></p></div></div></div></div></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><div class="jsx-3067576299 hero-container"><picture class="jsx-3067576299"><source srcSet="https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2021/04/Minority-Detection-Hero-Image.jpg" media="(min-width: 500px)" width="1180" height="800" class="jsx-3067576299"/><source srcSet="/_next/image/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.top10vpn.com%2Fimages%2F2021%2F04%2FMinority-Detection-Hero-Image.jpg&w=768&q=60 1x, /_next/image/?url=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.top10vpn.com%2Fimages%2F2021%2F04%2FMinority-Detection-Hero-Image.jpg&w=1024&q=60 2x" media="(max-width: 499px)" width="667" height="376" class="jsx-3067576299"/><img src="https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2021/04/Minority-Detection-Hero-Image.jpg" alt="China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project header image, a photo of a Chinese flag in front of a minaret and a sign showing surveillance cameras" loading="eager" class="jsx-3067576299 hero-image"/></picture></div></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 content-wrapper-jumplinks"><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row ut-wrapper"><div class="jsx-3067576299 ut-row"><section class="jsx-2580530280 block-text"><div><p><em>About the Authors</em></p> <p><a href="https://valentinweber.com/about.html" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Valentin Weber</a> is a DPhil Candidate in Cyber Security and International Relations at the Centre for Doctoral Training in Cyber Security, University of Oxford. Previously, he was an Open Technology Fund Senior Fellow in Information Controls at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet & Society, Harvard University.</p> <p>Vasilis Ververis is a PhD candidate at the Humboldt University of Berlin, researching the technical <a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/guides/internet-censorship/">implementations of internet censorship</a> and surveillance. His latest project is the <a href="https://magma.lavafeld.org/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">magma guide</a>, an open-licensed, collaborative guide on information controls and internet censorship.</p> <h2>Key Findings</h2> <div class="block-highlighted block-highlighted--blue block-highlighted--dot"> <p><b>Huawei’s Global Reach</b> </p> <ul> <li>1,799 surveillance devices are active in 69 countries, including in Xinjiang, China.</li> <li>Their technology is being used to block websites in at least 17 countries.</li> <li>13 controversial ‘Safe Cities’ are in operation, including in Lahore, Islamabad, and Nairobi.</li> </ul> <p><b>Chinese Tech Firms Abroad</b></p> <ul> <li>14 Chinese companies with links to China’s state surveillance project, the Golden Shield, continue to operate internationally.</li> <li>10 companies continue to have commercial relationships with U.S. firms</li> </ul> <p><b>U.S. Companies in China</b></p> <ul> <li>Technology made by seven American companies, including IBM, Microsoft and Oracle, continues to facilitate China’s surveillance state.</li> <li>Intel core processors are “likely being used for surveillance purposes” in Xinjiang.</li> </ul></div> </div></section></div></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 ut-jumplink"><aside class="jsx-2362454086"><div class="jsx-2362454086 jumplinks"><div class="jsx-2362454086 toc-mobile"><button class="jsx-2362454086"><span class="jsx-2362454086">Table of Contents</span><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="20" height="20" class="jsx-2362454086 icon-chevron-down"><use xlink:href="#svg-chevron" class="jsx-2362454086"></use></svg></button></div><ol class="jsx-2362454086 main-list"><li class="jsx-2362454086 "><a href="#introduction" class="jsx-2362454086 ">Introduction</a></li><li class="jsx-2362454086 "><a href="#huaweis-global-reach" class="jsx-2362454086 ">Huawei</a></li><li class="jsx-2362454086 "><a href="#chinas-tech-firms-abroad" class="jsx-2362454086 ">China's Tech Firms</a></li><li class="jsx-2362454086 "><a href="#u.s.-companies-&-chinas-surveillance-state" class="jsx-2362454086 ">U.S. Companies</a></li></ol></div></aside></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 ut-wrapper"><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><section id="introduction" class="jsx-2580530280 block-text ut-row"><h2 class="heading-2">Introduction</h2><div><p>A new report supported by Top10VPN’s <a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research-grant/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Digital Rights Research Grant</a> reveals the global proliferation of Huawei’s surveillance technology and the U.S. companies whose products continue to be used by Chinese police departments. </p> <p>The findings show that despite efforts to decouple the two countries’ tech sectors, American products continue to play a vital role in China’s digital surveillance program, the Golden Shield.</p> <p>The report also demonstrates that despite increased international pressure, Chinese companies, including Huawei, continue to enjoy lucrative international commercial opportunities. </p> <p>The researchers identified almost 2,000 Huawei middleboxes in 69 countries via network measurement analysis. The products are capable of monitoring people’s internet activity and blocking access to certain websites. </p> <p>In 17 countries, Huawei middleboxes were found to be blocking content, including an LGBTQI+ website in Oman and a domestic radio station in Burundi. </p> <p>Products made by at least seven U.S. companies continue to be used by Chinese state actors, including Intel core processors which are “likely being used for surveillance purposes” in Xinjiang. </p> <p>Meanwhile, at least 14 Chinese companies involved in China’s Golden Shield Project continue to operate internationally. Beijing Zhongke Fuxing Information Technology Co Ltd., for example, has completed several surveillance-related projects in Xinjiang. Despite this, Microsoft, IBM, Intel, HP, and Oracle are still listed as their commercial partners.<sup><a id="fn-1" href="#footnote-1">[1]</a></sup> </p> <p>The researchers note that unless the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has secretly ordered companies to remove the backdoors that must be built into their software domestically, some of these exports could be used to access and monitor the data of people internationally. </p> <p>As pressure on the CCP continues to rise, this research sheds light on the companies that continue to play a role in the construction of China’s surveillance state. It also shows that despite this pressure, Chinese tech firms implicated in domestic surveillance continue to enjoy lucrative commercial partnerships abroad.</p> <p>Download the full report, <em><a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/assets/2021/07/Chinas-Surveillance-State.pdf" rel="noopener" target="_blank">China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project</a></em></p> </div></section></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><section id="huaweis-global-reach" class="jsx-2580530280 block-text ut-row"><h2 class="heading-2">Huawei's Global Reach</h2><div><p>Middleboxes can be used for a variety of purposes, from network security to traffic optimization. They also allow ISPs and businesses to monitor web traffic, block websites, and even distribute malware. </p> <p>As the researchers note: “Middleboxes can be found in most networks across the world since they are deployed by most ISPs. Their worldwide dissemination and access to sensitive information means that they are crucial to the national security of any country.” </p> <p>Our <a href="/research/internet-shutdown-tech-allot/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">previous research</a> has shown how surveillance middleboxes equipped with deep packet inspection may have facilitated social media shutdowns around the world. </p> <p>A huge amount of sensitive information passes through middleboxes. As such, UK intelligence agencies recently warned that Chinese-made middleboxes and other ‘safe city’ technologies could pose a risk to national security.<sup><a id="fn-2" href="#footnote-2">[2]</a></sup> </p> <p>Despite this, 1,799 Huawei-made surveillance middleboxes were identified in 69 countries.</p> <p>This includes two middleboxes in central Urumqi and one in Turpan, both areas of Xinjiang where mass surveillance is said to have supported the ongoing repression of Uyghurs. </p> <p>In the following 17 countries, the technology is being used to censor content:</p> <ul class="columns-2"> <li>Afghanistan</li> <li>Bangladesh</li> <li>Burundi</li> <li>Colombia</li> <li>Cuba</li> <li>Egypt</li> <li>Germany</li> <li>Italy</li> <li>Mexico</li> <li>Nigeria</li> <li>Oman</li> <li>Pakistan</li> <li>Paraguay</li> <li>Senegal</li> <li>South Africa</li> <li>Spain</li> <li>Turkey</li> </ul> <p>The type of content blocked by Huawei’s technology varies by country. </p> <p>In six countries, news and media websites are blocked, including in Afghanistan, Cuba and Egypt. In Pakistan, Paraguay, Turkey, Oman, and Spain, LGBTQIA+ websites are currently being blocked. In Nigeria, Cuba, and Afghanistan, Huawei’s technology is being used to restrict access to political and social advocacy websites.</p> <p>The findings demonstrate that Huawei’s technology continues to be used to censor content internationally and may represent growing international acceptance of the CCP’s highly restrictive approach to information controls. </p> <p>While this content is blocked on specific AS networks — a network of connected devices normally operated by a single organizations such as as an ISP or large business — the findings do not show with absolute certainty that those websites are subject to country-wide blocking. </p> <p>To access content blocked on a specific AS network, <a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/guides/bypass-internet-censorship/">censorship circumvention technologies</a>, such as <a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/vpn-explained/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">personal VPN apps</a>, can be used. </p> <p><a href="/assets/2021/08/Figure-1_updated.png" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank"></a></p><div id="attachment_210640" style="width: 810px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="/assets/2021/08/Figure-1_updated.png" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-210640" loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-210640 size-full" src="/assets/2021/08/Figure-1_updated_opt.png" alt="Preview of heatmap showing type of censorship by country" width="800" height="569"><p id="caption-attachment-210640" class="wp-caption-text">Heatmap showing type of censorship by country. Click to see the full-size image.</p></a></div><p></p> <p>Huawei’s middleboxes are not only being used to restrict access to certain content. Through cross-referencing the location of middleboxes and known safe city projects, the report identifies at least 13 safe cities that are, at the very least, semi-operational. </p> <ul class="columns-2"> <li>Accra, Ghana</li> <li>Budapest, Hungary</li> <li>Caracas, Venezuela</li> <li>Cochabamba, Bolivia</li> <li>Dushanbe, Tajikistan</li> <li>Islamabad, Pakistan</li> <li>Johannesburg, South Africa</li> <li>Kampala, Uganda</li> <li>Kuwait City, Kuwait</li> <li>Manila, Philippines</li> <li>Nairobi, Kenya</li> <li>Prague, Czechia</li> <li>Singapore</li> </ul> <p>Safe cities are one of Huawei’s main public safety solutions and use a network of Internet of Things (IoT) devices to help advance policing efforts. They also represent a central aspect of the current phase of China’s Golden Shield Project. </p> <p>However, digital privacy activists have long warned of their potential to spur an increase in surveillance in ways that may harm human rights. </p> <blockquote><p>“Huawei’s Safe City initiative undoubtedly threatens human rights in Uganda, including the right to peaceful assembly and association” – Dorothy Mukasa, Unwanted Witness<sup><a id="fn-3" href="#footnote-3">[3]</a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Information regarding safe cities is scarce. While there is an abundance of marketing material about the projects, there are rarely detailed updates from government agencies regarding their development. </p> <p>These findings show that these projects are at least semi-operational and that Huawei’s technology is already active. </p> <p><a href="/assets/2021/08/Huawei-Map_updated_full-size.png" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank"></a></p><div id="attachment_210655" style="width: 810px" class="wp-caption alignleft"><a href="/assets/2021/08/Huawei-Map_updated_full-size.png" rel="noopener nofollow" target="_blank"><img aria-describedby="caption-attachment-210655" loading="lazy" decoding="async" class="wp-image-210655 size-full" src="/assets/2021/08/Huawei_map_updated_opt.png" alt="Huawei Global Map" width="800" height="569"><p id="caption-attachment-210655" class="wp-caption-text">Global Map of Huawei Middleboxes. Click to view full size with additional information.</p></a></div><p></p> </div></section></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><section id="chinas-tech-firms-abroad" class="jsx-2580530280 block-text ut-row"><h2 class="heading-2">China's Tech Firms Abroad</h2><div><div class="container container--custom"> <p>The report also reveals that Chinese companies that play a part in the Golden Shield Project continue to enjoy potentially lucrative international commercial opportunities. </p> <p>Neusoft’s population management product processes fingerprint, facial recognition and household registration data. It has been deployed in Xinjiang.<sup><a id="fn-4" href="#footnote-4">[4]</a></sup> PwC has listed Neusoft as one of the ‘Global 100 Software Leaders’ four times and the company continues to collaborate with Intel on network technology.<sup><a id="fn-5" href="#footnote-5">[5]</a></sup> </p> <p>Like many of the companies referenced in the report, Neusoft not only benefits from relationships with U.S. companies. They also have shareholders based in Japan and Europe.<sup><a id="fn-6" href="#footnote-6">[6]</a></sup></p> <p>Feitian creates two-factor authentication and smart-card-based products and is based in Beijing. It has supplied the national police and potentially the People’s Liberation Army (PLA) with USB keys.<sup><a id="fn-7" href="#footnote-7">[7]</a></sup> It has also supplied Google with security keys for the U.S. company’s Advanced Protection Program. <sup><a id="fn-8" href="#footnote-8">[8]</a></sup></p> <p>Dragon Information Technology is a prominent manufacturer of public security intelligence platforms. In 2017, it signed an agreement with the Tibet Autonomous Region Public Security Department to establish a big data and cloud computing product that would encourage a “safe Tibet” and create a “stable social atmosphere”.<sup><a id="fn-9" href="#footnote-9">[9]</a></sup> Its international partners include Microsoft, Oracle, Dell, IBM and Cisco.<sup><a id="fn-10" href="#footnote-10">[10]</a></sup> </p> <p class="spacer"> </p><p><i>The following table shows full details of the Chinese companies referenced in the report and their involvement with international companies.</i> </p></div> </div><div data-sheet-id="13cLY7QLAva67pam63BfVnMkQIXm0XOdPZAm22yuxAhk|1766787191"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-head"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div></div></div><div></div></section></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><section id="u.s.-companies-&-chinas-surveillance-state" class="jsx-2580530280 block-text ut-row"><h2 class="heading-2">U.S. Companies & China's Surveillance State</h2><div><div class="container container--custom"> <p>The report shows that American companies including Microsoft, Oracle, Dell, and Cisco “supply vital equipment to Chinese police departments across the country”.</p> <p>While some of the deals may have been completed via subsidiaries and third parties, the findings reveal that U.S. products are still being used to facilitate China’s surveillance state. </p> <p>Intel core processors are included in a 2020 procurement document published by the Government Procurement of Xinjiang.<sup><a id="fn-11" href="#footnote-11">[11]</a></sup> It shows the Diwopu International Airport Branch of the Public Security Bureau of Urumqi City, Xinjiang, purchased electronic equipment in 2020 for ¥205,000 (around $1,800). According to the authors of the report: “The Diwopu airport police is crucial to control in Xinjiang. It monitors one of the few international routes into and out of Xinjiang.” </p> <p>In Fujian Province, a procurement document shows the use of Oracle, Microsoft and IBM products to power the Fuzhou Public Security Bureau and Zhongshan Public Security’s Public Security Cloud Platform Project.<sup><a id="fn-12" href="#footnote-12">[12]</a></sup> The document shows that American products will be used to support a platform that handles facial recognition, big data policing, and license plate recognition data. </p> <p>In Beijing, a bidding document reveals that the Beijing Municpal Public Security Bureau uses IBM servers, Oracle Database 10g, and Cisco Netflow cards.<sup><a id="fn-13" href="#footnote-13">[13]</a></sup> While it is likely the products are being used to improve network security, the Beijing police department has previously been accused of detaining a human rights lawyer and arresting citizens for archiving digital content relating to COVID-19.<sup><a id="fn-14" href="#footnote-14">[14]</a></sup><sup><a id="fn-15" href="#footnote-15">[15]</a></sup></p> <p class="spacer"> </p><p><i>The following table shows full details of U.S. companies referenced in the report and their links to China’s surveillance project, the Golden Shield.</i></p> </div> </div><div data-sheet-id="13cLY7QLAva67pam63BfVnMkQIXm0XOdPZAm22yuxAhk|737902213"><div style="height:508px" class="jsx-216598542 skel"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-head"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-row"><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div><div class="jsx-216598542 skel-cell waveyBG"></div></div></div></div><div></div></section></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><section id="about-top10vpns-digital-rights-research-grant" class="jsx-2580530280 block-text ut-row"><h2 class="heading-2">About Top10VPN's Digital Rights Research Grant</h2><div><p>Top10VPN’s <a href="https://www.top10vpn.com/research-grant/" rel="noopener" target="_blank">Digital Rights Research Grant programme</a> provides a platform for researchers, postgraduate students and civil society organizations to conduct primary research on a wide range of critical digital rights issues. It will culminate in a research paper initially hosted on our website.</p> <hr> <p class="table-caption"><i>Main image: Chinese flags next to security warning posted in square of Grand Bazaar with minarets of mosque against blue skies in Urumchi, Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China. Credit: karenfoleyphotography / Alamy</i></p> <p class="table-caption"><i>Updated Aug 17 to adjust Huawei middlebox findings throughout to remove Bulgaria after a small number of geolocation measurement errors in underlying OONI data were identified. These amendments were also applied to the full report, along with correction of minor typos in the “List of blocked websites section” and the addition of a clarifying note in the “OONI data” section.</i></p> <p class="table-caption"><i>Updated Aug 12 to correct a minor typo in the Heatmap image in the section titled Huawei’s Global Reach. The same correction was also made to the full report.</i></p> </div></section></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row"><section id="references" class="jsx-2580530280 block-text ut-row"><h2 class="heading-2">References</h2><div><p id="footnote-1"><sup>[1] https://web.archive.org/web/20210522081045/http:/sinobeststar.com/page/7.html<a href="#fn-1">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-2"><sup>[2] https://www.ft.com/content/47c9b28b-8247-4984-9398-dc78ff62b424<a href="#fn-2">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-3"><sup>[3] https://qz.com/africa/1822312/huaweis-surveillance-tech-in-africa-worries-activists/<a href="#fn-3">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-4"><sup>[4] https://www.neusoft.com/cn/industries/2126/<a href="#fn-4">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-5"><sup>[5] https://web.archive.org/web/20210518145603/https:/networkbuilders.intel.com/ecosystem/neusoft/ <a href="#fn-5">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-6"><sup>[6] https://web.archive.org/web/20210310073924/https:/www.neusoft.com/Investor/2407/<a href="#fn-6">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-7"><sup>[7] https://web.archive.org/web/20210520131352/http:/oa.zycg.cn/article/wsjj_show/202028?newdays=5&title=北京国富安电子商务安全认证有限公司USB-Key采购项目（GDC-20131104155902028）需求公告<a href="#fn-7">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-8"><sup>[8] https://www.ftsafe.com/article/621.html<a href="#fn-8">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-9"><sup>[9] https://web.archive.org/web/20210524073951/http:/dragoninfo.com.cn/article_detail.php?id=1505<a href="#fn-9">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-10"><sup>[10] https://archive.fo/cZOj9<a href="#fn-10">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-11"><sup>[11] https://web.archive.org/web/20210430092108/http:/www.ccgp-xinjiang.gov.cn/ZcyAnnouncement/ZcyAnnouncement4/ZcyAnnouncement3004/UsRwZaKmXQXxl/+QSbkPTw==.html<a href="#fn-11">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-12"><sup>[12] https://web.archive.org/web/20210429093321/http:/www.ccgp-fujian.gov.cn/3500/notice/d03180adb4de41acbb063875889f9af1/A4F22F272A835983E053C454A8C07986/<a href="#fn-12">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-13"><sup>[13] https://web.archive.org/web/20210511130818/http:/103.83.45.82/api/placardPreview?bidId=098e06ff2700499d93f80c1147f39420<a href="#fn-13">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-14"><sup>[14] https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/china-and-tibet<a href="#fn-14">↩</a></sup></p> <p id="footnote-15"><sup>[15] https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/china-and-tibet<a href="#fn-15">↩</a></sup></p> </div></section></div></div></div><div class="jsx-3067576299 container-row ut-wrapper"><div class="feedback-wrapper ut-row"><div style="height:27.5px;margin:0 auto calc(var(--base-unit) * 30)"></div></div></div></main><footer id="footer" data-swiftype-index="false" class="jsx-4062602538 footer"><div class="jsx-4062602538 container-row footer-trio"><div class="jsx-4062602538 footer-company"><div class="jsx-4062602538 logo"><img alt="Top10VPN" loading="lazy" width="184" height="26" decoding="async" data-nimg="1" style="color:transparent" src="/static/images/logo.svg"/></div><p class="jsx-4062602538">We've been testing and reviewing VPN services since 2016. We also publish VPN research and advice to help protect your internet privacy and security.</p></div><div class="jsx-4062602538 footer-about"><p class="jsx-4062602538 heading-5">About</p><ul class="jsx-4062602538"><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/about/">About Us</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/about/vpn-experts/">Our VPN Experts</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/about/how-we-review-vpns/">Our Review Process</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/about/how-we-make-money/">Our Business Model</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/research-grant/">Research Opportunities</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/about/press/">Press</a></li></ul></div><div class="jsx-4062602538 footer-contact"><p class="jsx-4062602538 heading-5">Contact</p><ul class="jsx-4062602538 footer-contacts"><li class="jsx-4062602538"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewBox="0 0 32 32" class="jsx-4062602538 icon-mail"><path fill="#000" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M24 8H7.3a2 2 0 00-2 2v12.5c0 1.1.9 2 2 2h16.5c1.2 0 2.1-.9 2.1-2V10C26 8.9 25 8 24 8zM7.3 12.1l8.3 5.2 8.2-5.2v10.4H7.4V12zm0-2l8.3 5.1 8.2-5.1H7.4z" clip-rule="evenodd" class="jsx-4062602538"></path></svg>hello@top10vpn.com</li></ul><ul class="jsx-4062602538 footer-social"><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="https://twitter.com/top10vpn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="jsx-4062602538"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="24" class="jsx-4062602538 icon-twitter"><path fill="#000" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12 24a12 12 0 1 0 0-24 12 12 0 0 0 0 24Zm5.6-18-4 4.8 4.4 6.5h-3.3l-3-4.4L8 17.3H7l4.3-5L7 6h3.3l2.8 4.2L16.7 6h1Zm-5.8 5.7.4.6 3 4.3h1.5L13 11.4l-.4-.7-2.8-4H8.3l3.5 5Z" clip-rule="evenodd" class="jsx-4062602538"></path></svg><span class="jsx-4062602538 visually-hidden">Twitter</span></a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="https://www.linkedin.com/company/top10vpn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="jsx-4062602538"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="24" class="jsx-4062602538 icon-linkedin"><path fill="#000" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12 24a12 12 0 1 0 0-24 12 12 0 0 0 0 24Zm3.7-7H18v-4c0-2-.4-3.6-2.8-3.6-1 0-1.8.7-2.1 1.2v-1h-2.2V17h2.3v-3.7c0-1 .1-1.9 1.3-1.9s1.2 1.1 1.2 2V17ZM7 7.3a1.3 1.3 0 1 0 2.6 0 1.3 1.3 0 0 0-2.6 0ZM9.4 17H7.2V9.6h2.2V17Z" clip-rule="evenodd" class="jsx-4062602538"></path></svg><span class="jsx-4062602538 visually-hidden">LinkedIn</span></a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="https://www.youtube.com/@top10vpn" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="jsx-4062602538"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="24" class="jsx-4062602538 icon-youtube"><path fill="#000" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12 24a12 12 0 1 0 0-24 12 12 0 0 0 0 24Zm6.7-15c-.2-.7-.6-1.1-1.2-1.3-1.1-.3-5.5-.3-5.5-.3s-4.4 0-5.5.3c-.6.2-1 .6-1.2 1.2C5 10 5 12.3 5 12.3s0 2.3.3 3.4A2 2 0 0 0 6.5 17c1.1.3 5.5.3 5.5.3s4.4 0 5.5-.3a2 2 0 0 0 1.2-1.3c.3-1 .3-3.4.3-3.4s0-2.3-.3-3.4Zm-8.1 5.4 3.6-2-3.6-2.1v4.1Z" clip-rule="evenodd" class="jsx-4062602538"></path></svg><span class="jsx-4062602538 visually-hidden">YouTube</span></a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="https://top10vpn.substack.com/" target="_blank" rel="noopener noreferrer" class="jsx-4062602538"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewBox="0 0 24 24" width="24" class="jsx-4062602538 icon-substack"><path fill="#000" fill-rule="evenodd" d="M12 24a12 12 0 1 0 0-24 12 12 0 0 0 0 24Zm5-17.3H7v1.4h10V6.7Zm0 5.1H7v6.3l5-2.8 5 2.8v-6.3Zm0-2.5H7v1.4h10V9.3Z" clip-rule="evenodd" class="jsx-4062602538"></path></svg><span class="jsx-4062602538 visually-hidden">Substack</span></a></li></ul></div></div><div class="jsx-4062602538 footer-small-print container-row"><div class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/privacy-policy/">Privacy Policy</a><a href="/cookie-policy/">Cookie Policy</a><a href="/terms-conditions/">Terms of Use</a><a href="/code-of-conduct/">Code of Conduct</a><a href="/responsible-disclosure-policy/">Responsible Disclosure</a><div class="jsx-4062602538 language-selector"><button class="jsx-4062602538 language-selector-toggle"><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="14" height="14" fill="none" viewBox="0 0 14 14" class="jsx-4062602538"><path fill="#000" d="M7 0a7 7 0 1 1 0 14A7 7 0 0 1 7 0Zm.3.6v3h2.3a8 8 0 0 0-.5-1.2C8.6 1.4 8 .7 7.3.6Zm-.6 0C6 .7 5.4 1.3 5 2.4a8 8 0 0 0-.5 1.2h2.3v-3Zm2 .2c.4.3.7.8 1 1.3l.5 1.5h2.3A6.5 6.5 0 0 0 8.7.8ZM5.3.8c-1.6.4-3 1.5-3.8 2.8h2.3l.6-1.5c.2-.5.5-1 .9-1.3Zm7.5 3.4h-2.5c.2.8.3 1.6.3 2.5h2.8c0-.9-.2-1.7-.6-2.5Zm-3 0H7.3v2.5H10c0-.9-.2-1.7-.3-2.5Zm-3 0H4.1C4.1 5 4 5.8 4 6.7h2.8V4.2Zm-3.1 0H1.2C.8 5 .6 5.8.6 6.7h2.8c0-.9 0-1.7.3-2.5Zm9.7 3h-2.8c0 1 0 1.8-.3 2.6h2.5c.4-.8.6-1.6.6-2.5Zm-3.3 0H7.3v2.6h2.5c.1-.8.3-1.6.3-2.5Zm-3.4 0H4c0 1 .2 1.8.3 2.6h2.5V7.3Zm-3.3 0H.6c0 1 .2 1.8.6 2.6h2.5c-.2-.8-.3-1.6-.3-2.5Zm9.1 3.2h-2.3l-.6 1.5c-.2.5-.6 1-.9 1.3 1.6-.4 3-1.5 3.8-2.8Zm-2.9 0H7.3v3c.7-.1 1.3-.8 1.8-1.8l.5-1.2Zm-2.9 0H4.4l.5 1.2c.5 1 1.1 1.7 1.8 1.8v-3Zm-2.9 0H1.5a6.5 6.5 0 0 0 3.8 2.8c-.4-.3-.7-.8-1-1.3l-.5-1.5Z" class="jsx-4062602538"></path></svg><span class="jsx-4062602538">English</span><svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="18" height="18" class="jsx-4062602538 icon-chevron-down"><use xlink:href="#svg-chevron" class="jsx-4062602538"></use></svg></button><ul class="jsx-4062602538 language-popup"><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/" class="jsx-4062602538">English</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/es/" class="jsx-4062602538">Español</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/it/" class="jsx-4062602538">Italiano</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/pl/" class="jsx-4062602538">Polski</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/pt/" class="jsx-4062602538">Português</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/sv/" class="jsx-4062602538">Svenska</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/fr/" class="jsx-4062602538">Français</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/nl/" class="jsx-4062602538">Nederlands</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/de/" class="jsx-4062602538">Deutsch</a></li><li class="jsx-4062602538"><a href="/ko/" class="jsx-4062602538">한국어</a></li></ul></div></div><p class="jsx-4062602538">Top10VPN.com is operated by PrivacyCo Ltd. | © 2016-2024. All rights reserved.</p></div></footer></div></div><script id="__NEXT_DATA__" type="application/json">{"props":{"pageProps":{"pageProps":{},"data":{"ui":{"marginals":{"header":{"other":{"skip_to_main_content":"Skip to main content"},"best_vpn":{"heading":"BEST VPN","popular":{"subheading":"Popular","items":[{"name":"Best VPN Services","uri":"/best-vpn/"},{"name":"Best Free VPNs","uri":"/best-vpn/free/"},{"name":"Best VPN Free Trials","uri":"/best-vpn/free-trials/"},{"name":"Best Cheap VPNs","uri":"/best-vpn/cheap-vpns/"},{"name":"Fastest VPNs","uri":"/best-vpn/speed/"}]},"by_location":{"subheading":"By Location","items":[{"name":"USA","uri":"/best-vpn/usa/"},{"name":"UK","uri":"/best-vpn/uk/"},{"name":"Australia","uri":"/best-vpn/australia/"},{"name":"Canada","uri":"/best-vpn/canada/"}]},"by_device_os":{"subheading":"By Device/OS","items":[{"name":"Windows","uri":"/best-vpn/windows/"},{"name":"Mac","uri":"/best-vpn/mac/"},{"name":"iPhone \u0026 iPad","uri":"/best-vpn/iphone/"},{"name":"Android","uri":"/best-vpn/android/"}]},"btn_text":"See all categories","btn_url":"/best-vpn/#hub-cards"},"vpn_reviews":{"heading":"VPN REVIEWS","popular":{"subheading":"Popular \u003cspan class=\"attr\"\u003eReviews\u003c/span\u003e","items":[{"name":"ExpressVPN","uri":"/reviews/expressvpn/"},{"name":"NordVPN","uri":"/reviews/nordvpn/"},{"name":"Private Internet Access","uri":"/reviews/private-internet-access/"},{"name":"Surfshark","uri":"/reviews/surfshark/"},{"name":"IPVanish","uri":"/reviews/ipvanish/"},{"name":"CyberGhost","uri":"/reviews/cyberghost/"},{"name":"PrivateVPN","uri":"/reviews/privatevpn/"}]},"free_vpns":{"subheading":"Free VPN\u003cspan class=\"hidden-xs\"\u003es\u003c/span\u003e \u003cspan class=\"attr\"\u003eReviews\u003c/span\u003e","items":[{"name":"Proton VPN","uri":"/reviews/protonvpn/"},{"name":"Windscribe","uri":"/reviews/windscribe/"},{"name":"PrivadoVPN","uri":"/reviews/privadovpn/"},{"name":"Hotspot Shield","uri":"/reviews/hotspot-shield/"},{"name":"TunnelBear","uri":"/reviews/tunnelbear/"},{"name":"ZoogVPN","uri":"/reviews/zoogvpn/"},{"name":"Hide.me","uri":"/reviews/hide-me/"}]},"btn_text":"See all VPN reviews","btn_url":"/reviews/"},"what_is_a_vpn":{"show":true,"heading":"WHAT IS A VPN","items":[{"name":"What Is a VPN?","uri":"/vpn-explained/"},{"name":"How Does a VPN Work?","uri":"/what-is-a-vpn/how-does-a-vpn-work/"},{"name":"What Is a VPN Used For?","uri":"/what-is-a-vpn/what-are-vpns-used-for/"},{"name":"Are VPNs Really Worth It?","uri":"/what-is-a-vpn/are-vpns-worth-it/"},{"name":"Types of VPN","uri":"/what-is-a-vpn/vpn-types/"}],"btn_text":"See all guides","btn_url":"/vpn-explained/#seeallguides"},"tools":{"show":true,"heading":"TOOLS","items":[{"name":"VPN Comparison Tool","uri":"/tools/vpn-comparison/"},{"name":"IP Leak Test","uri":"/tools/do-i-leak/"},{"name":"VPN Speed Comparison","uri":"/best-vpn/speed/#vpn-speed-comparison-tool"},{"name":"What's My IP Location?","uri":"/tools/what-is-my-ip/"},{"name":"What's My DNS Server?","uri":"/tools/what-is-my-dns-server/"}],"btn_text":"See all tools","btn_url":"/tools/"},"learn":{"show":true,"heading":"GUIDES","items":[{"name":"How to Hide Your IP Address","uri":"/guides/hide-your-ip-address/"},{"name":"How to Stay Safe on Public WiFi","uri":"/guides/public-wifi-security-tips/"},{"name":"How to Setup \u0026 Use a VPN","uri":"/vpn-setup/"},{"name":"How to Change Your VPN Location","uri":"/guides/change-vpn-location/"},{"name":"How to Check Your VPN Is Working","uri":"/guides/is-my-vpn-working/"}],"btn_text":"See all guides","btn_url":"/guides/"},"research":{"show":true,"heading":"RESEARCH","read_our_investigations":"Read our investigations","items":[{"name":"VPN Demand Statistics","uri":"/research/vpn-demand-statistics/"},{"name":"The Cost of Internet Shutdowns","uri":"/research/cost-of-internet-shutdowns/"},{"name":"The Dangers of Free VPNs","uri":"/research/free-vpn-investigations/"}]},"about":{"show":true,"show_bottom_button":false,"heading":"ABOUT","items":[{"uri":"/about/","name":"About Us"},{"uri":"/about/how-we-review-vpns/","name":"How We Review"},{"uri":"/about/vpn-experts/","name":"Our VPN Experts"},{"uri":"/about/how-we-make-money/","name":"How We Make Money"},{"uri":"/about/press/","name":"Press"}],"btn_text":"","btn_url":"/about/"}},"footer":{"mid":{"lhs_text":"We've been testing and reviewing VPN services since 2016. We also publish VPN research and advice to help protect your internet privacy and security.","contact":{"email":"hello@top10vpn.com","heading":"Contact","youtube":{"title":"YouTube","url":"https://www.youtube.com/@top10vpn"}},"about_header":"About","about":[{"name":"About Us","uri":"/about/"},{"name":"Our VPN Experts","uri":"/about/vpn-experts/"},{"name":"Our Review Process","uri":"/about/how-we-review-vpns/"},{"name":"Our Business Model","uri":"/about/how-we-make-money/"},{"name":"Research Opportunities","uri":"/research-grant/"},{"name":"Press","uri":"/about/press/"}]},"lower":{"legal":[{"name":"Privacy Policy","uri":"/privacy-policy/"},{"name":"Cookie Policy","uri":"/cookie-policy/"},{"name":"Terms of Use","uri":"/terms-conditions/"},{"name":"Code of Conduct","uri":"/code-of-conduct/"},{"name":"Responsible Disclosure","uri":"/responsible-disclosure-policy/"}],"company_info":"Top10VPN.com is operated by PrivacyCo Ltd. | © 2016-{{fe_year}}. All rights reserved."},"back_to_top":{"back_to_top":"Back to top"},"cookie_bar":{"uses_cookies":"By using our website you give consent to the use of cookies. \u003ca href=\"/cookie-policy/\"\u003eDetails\u003c/a\u003e.","btn_txt":"OK"}}},"breadcrumbs":{"about_us":"About Us","best_vpn":"Best VPN","guides":"Guides","home_logo":"Home","research":"Research","tools":"Tools","vpn_reviews":"VPN Reviews","vpn_setup":"VPN Setup","what_is_a_vpn":"What Is a VPN?"},"paths":{"about":"about","best_vpn":"best-vpn","guides":"guides","feedback":"feedback","research":"research","reviews":"reviews","tools":"tools","ip_leak_test":"do-i-leak","vpn_comparison":"vpn-comparison","vpn_experts":"vpn-experts","vpn_setup":"vpn-setup","vpn_speed_test":"vpn-speed-test","what_is_a_vpn":"what-is-a-vpn","what_is_my_dns_server":"what-is-my-dns-server","what_is_my_ip":"what-is-my-ip","who_is_my_isp":"who-is-my-isp","how_we_review_vpns":"how-we-review-vpns"},"tableSheets":{"expand":"Expand Table","close_fullscreen":"Close Fullscreen"},"header":{"updated":"Updated {{date}}","about_authors":"About authors","additional_research":"Additional Research by {{fe_authorname}}","additional_testing":null,"fact_checked":null,"disclaimer":null,"localised_message":null,"read_full_bio":"Read full bio","wtu_label":null},"table_of_contents":"Table of Contents","thumbs_feedback":{"main_prompt":"Was this content helpful?","feedback_reason":"What is the reason for your feedback?","textarea_placeholder":"Please tell us what you like or dislike on this page","btn_cancel":"Cancel","btn_submit":"Submit feedback","success_message":"Thanks for your feedback!","leave_trustpilot_review":"Leave us a review on \u003ca href=\"https://uk.trustpilot.com/review/www.top10vpn.com?b=MTQ1NTcyNzU1NDczN3w1NmM0YTNjMjAwMDBmZjAwMDkzYzVmMDc\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eTrustpilot\u003c/a\u003e"}},"article":{"tableSheets":[{"id":"13cLY7QLAva67pam63BfVnMkQIXm0XOdPZAm22yuxAhk|1766787191","dataset":{"name":null,"description":null,"keywords":null,"spacial_coverage":null,"temporal_coverage":null}},{"id":"13cLY7QLAva67pam63BfVnMkQIXm0XOdPZAm22yuxAhk|737902213","dataset":{"name":null,"description":null,"keywords":null,"spacial_coverage":null,"temporal_coverage":null}}],"header":{"authors":[{"first_name":"Samuel","last_name":"Woodhams","position":"Former Digital Rights Lead","display_format":"{{fe_forename}} {{fe_surname}}","slug":"samuel","photo":{"alt":"","url":"https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2019/11/191114-Author-Profile-Imgs-Samuel.jpg","sizes":[{"details":{"url":"https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2019/11/191114-Author-Profile-Imgs-Samuel.jpg"}}]},"twitter":{"url":"Samuel_Woodhams"},"website":"https://muckrack.com/samuel-woodhams","linkedin":{"url":"https://www.linkedin.com/in/samuel-woodhams-69943497/"},"ext_ref":[{"url":"https://scholar.google.co.uk/citations?user=Q-r5mFQAAAAJ\u0026hl=en\u0026oi=ao"}],"expert":{"snippet":"Samuel Woodhams was our Digital Rights Lead. His research has been featured in the BBC, Reuters, Financial Times, The Guardian, and Business Insider.","is_expert":true,"snippet_clean":"Samuel Woodhams was our Digital Rights Lead. His research has been featured in the BBC, Reuters, Financial Times, The Guardian, and Business Insider.","summary_clean":"Samuel Woodhams, who recently left Top10VPN, lead our research on censorship, surveillance, and internet freedom to help defend internet freedoms around the world. His research has been featured by the BBC, Washington Post, Financial Times, and The Guardian. "},"schema":{"knows_about":"VPN services, internet privacy, internet security, internet censorship, geo-blocking"}}],"additional_authors":[],"default_image":{"url":"https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2021/04/Minority-Detection-Hero-Image.jpg","alt":"China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project header image, a photo of a Chinese flag in front of a minaret and a sign showing surveillance cameras","width":1180,"height":800},"published_date":"2021-08-03T14:00:00.000Z"},"title":"China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project","slug":"huawei-china-surveillance-state","summary_text":"\u003cp\u003e\u003cem\u003eAbout the Authors\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://valentinweber.com/about.html\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eValentin Weber\u003c/a\u003e is a DPhil Candidate in Cyber Security and International Relations at the Centre for Doctoral Training in Cyber Security, University of Oxford. Previously, he was an Open Technology Fund Senior Fellow in Information Controls at the Berkman Klein Center for Internet \u0026#038; Society, Harvard University.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eVasilis Ververis is a PhD candidate at the Humboldt University of Berlin, researching the technical \u003ca href=\"https://www.top10vpn.com/guides/internet-censorship/\"\u003eimplementations of internet censorship\u003c/a\u003e and surveillance. His latest project is the \u003ca href=\"https://magma.lavafeld.org/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"\u003emagma guide\u003c/a\u003e, an open-licensed, collaborative guide on information controls and internet censorship.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003ch2\u003eKey Findings\u003c/h2\u003e\n\u003cdiv class=\"block-highlighted block-highlighted--blue block-highlighted--dot\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eHuawei\u0026#8217;s Global Reach\u003c/b\u003e\t\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e1,799 surveillance devices are active in 69 countries, including in Xinjiang, China.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTheir technology is being used to block websites in at least 17 countries.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e13 controversial \u0026#8216;Safe Cities\u0026#8217; are in operation, including in Lahore, Islamabad, and Nairobi.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eChinese Tech Firms Abroad\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e14 Chinese companies with links to China\u0026#8217;s state surveillance project, the Golden Shield, continue to operate internationally.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003e10 companies continue to have commercial relationships with U.S. firms\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003cb\u003eU.S. Companies in China\u003c/b\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTechnology made by seven American companies, including IBM, Microsoft and Oracle, continues to facilitate China\u0026#8217;s surveillance state.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIntel core processors are \u0026#8220;likely being used for surveillance purposes\u0026#8221; in Xinjiang.\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n","topicHub":{"slug":"internet-censorship","name":"Internet Censorship"},"meta":{"gbotnews_noindex":false},"teaser_text":{"article":"Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's surveillance tools and uncover the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state. "},"article_body":{"chapters":[{"heading":"Introduction","content":"\u003cp\u003eA new report supported by Top10VPN\u0026#8217;s \u003ca href=\"https://www.top10vpn.com/research-grant/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eDigital Rights Research Grant\u003c/a\u003e reveals the global proliferation of Huawei\u0026#8217;s surveillance technology and the U.S. companies whose products continue to be used by Chinese police departments. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings show that despite efforts to decouple the two countries\u0026#8217; tech sectors, American products continue to play a vital role in China\u0026#8217;s digital surveillance program, the Golden Shield.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe report also demonstrates that despite increased international pressure, Chinese companies, including Huawei, continue to enjoy lucrative international commercial opportunities. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe researchers identified almost 2,000 Huawei middleboxes in 69 countries via network measurement analysis. The products are capable of monitoring people\u0026#8217;s internet activity and blocking access to certain websites. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn 17 countries, Huawei middleboxes were found to be blocking content, including an LGBTQI+ website in Oman and a domestic radio station in Burundi. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eProducts made by at least seven U.S. companies continue to be used by Chinese state actors, including Intel core processors which are \u0026#8220;likely being used for surveillance purposes\u0026#8221; in Xinjiang. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eMeanwhile, at least 14 Chinese companies involved in China\u0026#8217;s Golden Shield Project continue to operate internationally. Beijing Zhongke Fuxing Information Technology Co Ltd., for example, has completed several surveillance-related projects in Xinjiang. Despite this, Microsoft, IBM, Intel, HP, and Oracle are still listed as their commercial partners.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-1\" href=\"#footnote-1\"\u003e[1]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe researchers note that unless the Chinese Communist Party (CCP) has secretly ordered companies to remove the backdoors that must be built into their software domestically, some of these exports could be used to access and monitor the data of people internationally. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs pressure on the CCP continues to rise, this research sheds light on the companies that continue to play a role in the construction of China\u0026#8217;s surveillance state. It also shows that despite this pressure, Chinese tech firms implicated in domestic surveillance continue to enjoy lucrative commercial partnerships abroad.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDownload the full report, \u003cem\u003e\u003ca href=\"https://www.top10vpn.com/assets/2021/07/Chinas-Surveillance-State.pdf\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eChina\u0026#8217;s Surveillance State: A Global Project\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/em\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n","highlight_chapter":false,"jumplinks":{"nav_label":"Introduction","include_in_nav":true}},{"heading":"Huawei's Global Reach","content":"\u003cp\u003eMiddleboxes can be used for a variety of purposes, from network security to traffic optimization. They also allow ISPs and businesses to monitor web traffic, block websites, and even distribute malware. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eAs the researchers note: \u0026#8220;Middleboxes can be found in most networks across the world since they are deployed by most ISPs. Their worldwide dissemination and access to sensitive information means that they are crucial to the national security of any country.\u0026#8221; \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eOur \u003ca href=\"/research/internet-shutdown-tech-allot/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eprevious research\u003c/a\u003e has shown how surveillance middleboxes equipped with deep packet inspection may have facilitated social media shutdowns around the world. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eA huge amount of sensitive information passes through middleboxes. As such, UK intelligence agencies recently warned that Chinese-made middleboxes and other \u0026#8216;safe city\u0026#8217; technologies could pose a risk to national security.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-2\" href=\"#footnote-2\"\u003e[2]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDespite this, 1,799 Huawei-made surveillance middleboxes were identified in 69 countries.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThis includes two middleboxes in central Urumqi and one in Turpan, both areas of Xinjiang where mass surveillance is said to have supported the ongoing repression of Uyghurs. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn the following 17 countries, the technology is being used to censor content:\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"columns-2\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAfghanistan\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBangladesh\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBurundi\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eColombia\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCuba\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eEgypt\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eGermany\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eItaly\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eMexico\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNigeria\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eOman\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePakistan\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eParaguay\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSenegal\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSouth Africa\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSpain\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eTurkey\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe type of content blocked by Huawei\u0026#8217;s technology varies by country. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn six countries, news and media websites are blocked, including in Afghanistan, Cuba and Egypt. In Pakistan, Paraguay, Turkey, Oman, and Spain, LGBTQIA+ websites are currently being blocked. In Nigeria, Cuba, and Afghanistan, Huawei\u0026#8217;s technology is being used to restrict access to political and social advocacy websites.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe findings demonstrate that Huawei\u0026#8217;s technology continues to be used to censor content internationally and may represent growing international acceptance of the CCP\u0026#8217;s highly restrictive approach to information controls. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile this content is blocked on specific AS networks — a network of connected devices normally operated by a single organizations such as as an ISP or large business — the findings do not show with absolute certainty that those websites are subject to country-wide blocking. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eTo access content blocked on a specific AS network, \u003ca href=\"https://www.top10vpn.com/guides/bypass-internet-censorship/\"\u003ecensorship circumvention technologies\u003c/a\u003e, such as \u003ca href=\"https://www.top10vpn.com/vpn-explained/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"\u003epersonal VPN apps\u003c/a\u003e, can be used. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/assets/2021/08/Figure-1_updated.png\" rel=\"noopener nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"attachment_210640\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"\u003e\u003cimg aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-210640\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-210640 size-full\" src=\"/assets/2021/08/Figure-1_updated_opt.png\" alt=\"Preview of heatmap showing type of censorship by country\" width=\"800\" height=\"569\" /\u003e\u003cp id=\"caption-attachment-210640\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"\u003eHeatmap showing type of censorship by country. Click to see the full-size image.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHuawei\u0026#8217;s middleboxes are not only being used to restrict access to certain content. Through cross-referencing the location of middleboxes and known safe city projects, the report identifies at least 13 safe cities that are, at the very least, semi-operational. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cul class=\"columns-2\"\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eAccra, Ghana\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eBudapest, Hungary\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCaracas, Venezuela\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eCochabamba, Bolivia\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eDushanbe, Tajikistan\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eIslamabad, Pakistan\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eJohannesburg, South Africa\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKampala, Uganda\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eKuwait City, Kuwait\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eManila, Philippines\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eNairobi, Kenya\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003ePrague, Czechia\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003cli\u003eSingapore\u003c/li\u003e\n\u003c/ul\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eSafe cities are one of Huawei\u0026#8217;s main public safety solutions and use a network of Internet of Things (IoT) devices to help advance policing efforts. They also represent a central aspect of the current phase of China\u0026#8217;s Golden Shield Project. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eHowever, digital privacy activists have long warned of their potential to spur an increase in surveillance in ways that may harm human rights. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cblockquote\u003e\u003cp\u003e“Huawei’s Safe City initiative undoubtedly threatens human rights in Uganda, including the right to peaceful assembly and association\u0026#8221; \u0026#8211; Dorothy Mukasa, Unwanted Witness\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-3\" href=\"#footnote-3\"\u003e[3]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/blockquote\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eInformation regarding safe cities is scarce. While there is an abundance of marketing material about the projects, there are rarely detailed updates from government agencies regarding their development. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThese findings show that these projects are at least semi-operational and that Huawei\u0026#8217;s technology is already active. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ca href=\"/assets/2021/08/Huawei-Map_updated_full-size.png\" rel=\"noopener nofollow\" target=\"_blank\"\u003e\u003cdiv id=\"attachment_210655\" style=\"width: 810px\" class=\"wp-caption alignleft\"\u003e\u003cimg aria-describedby=\"caption-attachment-210655\" loading=\"lazy\" decoding=\"async\" class=\"wp-image-210655 size-full\" src=\"/assets/2021/08/Huawei_map_updated_opt.png\" alt=\"Huawei Global Map\" width=\"800\" height=\"569\" /\u003e\u003cp id=\"caption-attachment-210655\" class=\"wp-caption-text\"\u003eGlobal Map of Huawei Middleboxes. Click to view full size with additional information.\u003c/p\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n","highlight_chapter":false,"jumplinks":{"nav_label":"Huawei","include_in_nav":true}},{"heading":"China's Tech Firms Abroad","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"container container--custom\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe report also reveals that Chinese companies that play a part in the Golden Shield Project continue to enjoy potentially lucrative international commercial opportunities. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eNeusoft\u0026#8217;s population management product processes fingerprint, facial recognition and household registration data. It has been deployed in Xinjiang.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-4\" href=\"#footnote-4\"\u003e[4]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e PwC has listed Neusoft as one of the \u0026#8216;Global 100 Software Leaders\u0026#8217; four times and the company continues to collaborate with Intel on network technology.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-5\" href=\"#footnote-5\"\u003e[5]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eLike many of the companies referenced in the report, Neusoft not only benefits from relationships with U.S. companies. They also have shareholders based in Japan and Europe.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-6\" href=\"#footnote-6\"\u003e[6]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eFeitian creates two-factor authentication and smart-card-based products and is based in Beijing. It has supplied the national police and potentially the People\u0026#8217;s Liberation Army (PLA) with USB keys.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-7\" href=\"#footnote-7\"\u003e[7]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e It has also supplied Google with security keys for the U.S. company\u0026#8217;s Advanced Protection Program. \u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-8\" href=\"#footnote-8\"\u003e[8]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eDragon Information Technology is a prominent manufacturer of public security intelligence platforms. In 2017, it signed an agreement with the Tibet Autonomous Region Public Security Department to establish a big data and cloud computing product that would encourage a \u0026#8220;safe Tibet\u0026#8221; and create a \u0026#8220;stable social atmosphere\u0026#8221;.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-9\" href=\"#footnote-9\"\u003e[9]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e Its international partners include Microsoft, Oracle, Dell, IBM and Cisco.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-10\" href=\"#footnote-10\"\u003e[10]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp class=\"spacer\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ci\u003eThe following table shows full details of the Chinese companies referenced in the report and their involvement with international companies.\u003c/i\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv style=\"display: none;\" data-table=\"13cLY7QLAva67pam63BfVnMkQIXm0XOdPZAm22yuxAhk|1766787191\" data-table-height=\"0\" data-jeffrey=\"google\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n","highlight_chapter":false,"jumplinks":{"nav_label":"China's Tech Firms","include_in_nav":true}},{"heading":"U.S. Companies \u0026 China's Surveillance State","content":"\u003cdiv class=\"container container--custom\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eThe report shows that American companies including Microsoft, Oracle, Dell, and Cisco \u0026#8220;supply vital equipment to Chinese police departments across the country\u0026#8221;.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eWhile some of the deals may have been completed via subsidiaries and third parties, the findings reveal that U.S. products are still being used to facilitate China\u0026#8217;s surveillance state. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIntel core processors are included in a 2020 procurement document published by the Government Procurement of Xinjiang.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-11\" href=\"#footnote-11\"\u003e[11]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e It shows the Diwopu International Airport Branch of the Public Security Bureau of Urumqi City, Xinjiang, purchased electronic equipment in 2020 for ¥205,000 (around $1,800). According to the authors of the report: \u0026#8220;The Diwopu airport police is crucial to control in Xinjiang. It monitors one of the few international routes into and out of Xinjiang.\u0026#8221; \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Fujian Province, a procurement document shows the use of Oracle, Microsoft and IBM products to power the Fuzhou Public Security Bureau and Zhongshan Public Security\u0026#8217;s Public Security Cloud Platform Project.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-12\" href=\"#footnote-12\"\u003e[12]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e The document shows that American products will be used to support a platform that handles facial recognition, big data policing, and license plate recognition data. \u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp\u003eIn Beijing, a bidding document reveals that the Beijing Municpal Public Security Bureau uses IBM servers, Oracle Database 10g, and Cisco Netflow cards.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-13\" href=\"#footnote-13\"\u003e[13]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e While it is likely the products are being used to improve network security, the Beijing police department has previously been accused of detaining a human rights lawyer and arresting citizens for archiving digital content relating to COVID-19.\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-14\" href=\"#footnote-14\"\u003e[14]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003csup\u003e\u003ca id=\"fn-15\" href=\"#footnote-15\"\u003e[15]\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp class=\"spacer\"\u003e\n\u003cp\u003e\u003ci\u003eThe following table shows full details of U.S. companies referenced in the report and their links to China\u0026#8217;s surveillance project, the Golden Shield.\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003c/div\u003e\n\u003cdiv style=\"display: none;\" data-table=\"13cLY7QLAva67pam63BfVnMkQIXm0XOdPZAm22yuxAhk|737902213\" data-table-height=\"508\" data-jeffrey=\"google\"\u003e\u003c/div\u003e\n","highlight_chapter":false,"jumplinks":{"nav_label":"U.S. Companies","include_in_nav":true}},{"heading":"About Top10VPN's Digital Rights Research Grant","content":"\u003cp\u003eTop10VPN\u0026#8217;s \u003ca href=\"https://www.top10vpn.com/research-grant/\" rel=\"noopener\" target=\"_blank\"\u003eDigital Rights Research Grant programme\u003c/a\u003e provides a platform for researchers, postgraduate students and civil society organizations to conduct primary research on a wide range of critical digital rights issues. It will culminate in a research paper initially hosted on our website.\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003chr\u003e\n\u003cp class=\"table-caption\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eMain image: Chinese flags next to security warning posted in square of Grand Bazaar with minarets of mosque against blue skies in Urumchi, Xinjiang Autonomous Region, China. Credit: karenfoleyphotography / Alamy\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp class=\"table-caption\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eUpdated Aug 17 to adjust Huawei middlebox findings throughout to remove Bulgaria after a small number of geolocation measurement errors in underlying OONI data were identified. These amendments were also applied to the full report, along with correction of minor typos in the \u0026#8220;List of blocked websites section\u0026#8221; and the addition of a clarifying note in the \u0026#8220;OONI data\u0026#8221; section.\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp class=\"table-caption\"\u003e\u003ci\u003eUpdated Aug 12 to correct a minor typo in the Heatmap image in the section titled Huawei\u0026#8217;s Global Reach. The same correction was also made to the full report.\u003c/i\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n","highlight_chapter":false,"jumplinks":{"nav_label":"About the Authors","include_in_nav":false}},{"heading":"References","content":"\u003cp id=\"footnote-1\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[1] https://web.archive.org/web/20210522081045/http:/sinobeststar.com/page/7.html\u003ca href=\"#fn-1\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-2\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[2] https://www.ft.com/content/47c9b28b-8247-4984-9398-dc78ff62b424\u003ca href=\"#fn-2\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-3\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[3] https://qz.com/africa/1822312/huaweis-surveillance-tech-in-africa-worries-activists/\u003ca href=\"#fn-3\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-4\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[4] https://www.neusoft.com/cn/industries/2126/\u003ca href=\"#fn-4\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-5\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[5] https://web.archive.org/web/20210518145603/https:/networkbuilders.intel.com/ecosystem/neusoft/ \u003ca href=\"#fn-5\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-6\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[6] https://web.archive.org/web/20210310073924/https:/www.neusoft.com/Investor/2407/\u003ca href=\"#fn-6\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-7\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[7] https://web.archive.org/web/20210520131352/http:/oa.zycg.cn/article/wsjj_show/202028?newdays=5\u0026#038;title=北京国富安电子商务安全认证有限公司USB-Key采购项目（GDC-20131104155902028）需求公告\u003ca href=\"#fn-7\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-8\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[8] https://www.ftsafe.com/article/621.html\u003ca href=\"#fn-8\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-9\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[9] https://web.archive.org/web/20210524073951/http:/dragoninfo.com.cn/article_detail.php?id=1505\u003ca href=\"#fn-9\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-10\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[10] https://archive.fo/cZOj9\u003ca href=\"#fn-10\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-11\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[11] https://web.archive.org/web/20210430092108/http:/www.ccgp-xinjiang.gov.cn/ZcyAnnouncement/ZcyAnnouncement4/ZcyAnnouncement3004/UsRwZaKmXQXxl/+QSbkPTw==.html\u003ca href=\"#fn-11\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-12\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[12] https://web.archive.org/web/20210429093321/http:/www.ccgp-fujian.gov.cn/3500/notice/d03180adb4de41acbb063875889f9af1/A4F22F272A835983E053C454A8C07986/\u003ca href=\"#fn-12\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-13\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[13] https://web.archive.org/web/20210511130818/http:/103.83.45.82/api/placardPreview?bidId=098e06ff2700499d93f80c1147f39420\u003ca href=\"#fn-13\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-14\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[14] https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2019/country-chapters/china-and-tibet\u003ca href=\"#fn-14\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n\u003cp id=\"footnote-15\"\u003e\u003csup\u003e[15] https://www.hrw.org/world-report/2021/country-chapters/china-and-tibet\u003ca href=\"#fn-15\"\u003e↩\u003c/a\u003e\u003c/sup\u003e\u003c/p\u003e\n","highlight_chapter":false,"jumplinks":{"nav_label":null,"include_in_nav":false}}]},"visibility":{"view_password":null}},"placeholders":{"totalProductCount":{"value":61,"format":"number"},"totalProviderCount":{"value":61,"format":"number"},"totalUserReviews":{"value":4749,"format":"number"},"totalUserReviewsCount":{"value":4749,"format":"number"},"globalProviderCount":{"value":49,"format":"number"},"globalProductCount":{"value":61,"format":"number"},"androidtvvpncount":{"value":35,"format":"number"}},"breadcrumbs":{"path":[],"page_name":null},"seo":{"title":"China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project","metadesc":" Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's tech and the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state.","canonical":"https://www.top10vpn.com/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/","twitter":{"title":"China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project","image":"https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2021/04/TW.jpg","description":" Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's tech and the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state."},"opengraph":{"title":"China’s Surveillance State: A Global Project","image":"https://www.top10vpn.com/images/2021/04/FB.jpg","description":" Researchers Valentin Weber and Vasilis Ververis reveal the global reach of Huawei's tech and the U.S. companies that facilitate China's surveillance state."},"robots":{"noindex":false,"nofollow":false},"hreflang":[{"lang":"en","href":"/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/"},{"lang":"x-default","href":"/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/"}]},"researchBoxCT":[],"videoPH":[],"slug":"huawei-china-surveillance-state","recaptchaSiteKeyV3":"6Ld6xwAVAAAAAJFsy3_JH2x9-p2xrLHhrVsepqTW"}},"url":{"route":"/research/[slug]","pathname":"/research/[slug]","query":{"slug":"huawei-china-surveillance-state"},"asPath":"/research/huawei-china-surveillance-state/","isFallback":false,"basePath":"","locale":"en","locales":["en","es","it","pl","pt","sv","fr","nl","de","ko"],"defaultLocale":"en","isReady":true,"isPreview":false,"isLocaleDomain":false},"showBanner":false,"vFlag":false,"variant":false,"GA4":"G-4F248Z2SQ6","fpTestsPercentage":"0","__N_SSP":true},"page":"/research/[slug]","query":{"slug":"huawei-china-surveillance-state"},"buildId":"b43b6a8122e8ecb68584fe40ff109161c100d796","isFallback":false,"isExperimentalCompile":false,"gssp":true,"appGip":true,"locale":"en","locales":["en","es","it","pl","pt","sv","fr","nl","de","ko"],"defaultLocale":"en","scriptLoader":[]}</script><script defer="" src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-4F248Z2SQ6"></script><script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); gtag('set', 'url_passthrough', true); gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'granted', 'ad_user_data': 'granted', 'ad_personalization': 'granted', 'analytics_storage': 'granted', 'security_storage': 'granted', }); gtag('config','AW-951368176'); gtag('config','G-J4RT6V6VSW'); gtag('config','G-4F248Z2SQ6'); // TEMP: Collecting data on dark mode preference if (window.matchMedia && window.matchMedia('(prefers-color-scheme: dark)').matches) { window.gtag("event", "dark_mode_preference", { value: "dark", send_to: "G-4F248Z2SQ6", }); } else if (window.matchMedia && window.matchMedia('(prefers-color-scheme: light)').matches) { window.gtag("event", "dark_mode_preference", { value: "light", send_to: "G-4F248Z2SQ6", }); } else { window.gtag("event", "dark_mode_preference", { value: "no-preference", send_to: "G-4F248Z2SQ6", }); } // End TEMP </script><noscript><div style="display:inline"><img height="1" width="1" style="display:none" alt="" src="//googleads.g.doubleclick.net/pagead/viewthroughconversion/951368176/?guid=ON&script=0"/></div></noscript></body></html>