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from Proto-Indo-European subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Sound_changes_from_Proto-Indo-European-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Late_PIE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_PIE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Late PIE </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_PIE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Italo-Celtic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Italo-Celtic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1.1 Italo-Celtic </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Italo-Celtic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_PC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_PC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Early PC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_PC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_PC" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_PC"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Late PC </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_PC-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Examples </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phonological_reconstruction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phonological_reconstruction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Phonological reconstruction </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Phonological_reconstruction-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Phonological reconstruction subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Phonological_reconstruction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Consonants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Allophones_of_plosives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Allophones_of_plosives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Allophones of plosives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Allophones_of_plosives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolution_of_plosives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolution_of_plosives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Evolution of plosives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolution_of_plosives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Vowels </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Morphology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Morphology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Morphology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Morphology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Morphology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-*o-stem_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#*o-stem_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.1 *o-stem nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-*o-stem_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-*ā-stem_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#*ā-stem_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.2 *ā-stem nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-*ā-stem_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-*i-stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#*i-stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.3 *i-stems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-*i-stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-*u-stem_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#*u-stem_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.4 *u-stem nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-*u-stem_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Velar_and_dental_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Velar_and_dental_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.5 Velar and dental stems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Velar_and_dental_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nasal_stems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nasal_stems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.6 Nasal stems </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nasal_stems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-*s-stem_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#*s-stem_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.7 *s-stem nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-*s-stem_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-*r-stem_nouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#*r-stem_nouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1.8 *r-stem nouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-*r-stem_nouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pronouns" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pronouns"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Pronouns </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pronouns-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adjectives" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adjectives"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Adjectives </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adjectives-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Positive-degree_inflection_classes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Positive-degree_inflection_classes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.1 Positive-degree inflection classes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Positive-degree_inflection_classes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparative_degree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparative_degree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.2 Comparative degree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparative_degree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Superlative_degree" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Superlative_degree"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3.3 Superlative degree </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Superlative_degree-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Primary_endings" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Primary_endings"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.1 Primary endings </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Primary_endings-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Present-stem_formations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Present-stem_formations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.2 Present-stem formations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Present-stem_formations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Nasal-infix_presents" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nasal-infix_presents"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3 Nasal-infix presents </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nasal-infix_presents-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-To_aniṭ_roots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#To_aniṭ_roots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3.1 To aniṭ roots </div> </a> <ul id="toc-To_aniṭ_roots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-To_seṭ_roots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#To_seṭ_roots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.3.2 To seṭ roots </div> </a> <ul id="toc-To_seṭ_roots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Preterite_formations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Preterite_formations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.4 Preterite formations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Preterite_formations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-t-preterite" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#t-preterite"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.4.1 t-preterite </div> </a> <ul id="toc-t-preterite-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Suffixless_preterites" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Suffixless_preterites"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.4.2 Suffixless preterites </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Suffixless_preterites-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_formations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_formations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.5 Future formations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_formations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Subjunctive_formations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Subjunctive_formations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.6 Subjunctive formations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Subjunctive_formations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Imperative_formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Imperative_formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.7 Imperative formation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Imperative_formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Second-person_singular_imperative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second-person_singular_imperative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.7.1 Second-person singular imperative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Second-person_singular_imperative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Third-person_imperative" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Third-person_imperative"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.7.2 Third-person imperative </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Third-person_imperative-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Example_conjugations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Example_conjugations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.8 Example conjugations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Example_conjugations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Copula" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Copula"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4.9 Copula </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Copula-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Numerals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Numerals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Numerals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Numerals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vocabulary" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vocabulary"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Vocabulary </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vocabulary-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_morphology_derivation_from_PIE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_morphology_derivation_from_PIE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Examples of morphology derivation from PIE </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Examples_of_morphology_derivation_from_PIE-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Examples of morphology derivation from PIE subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_morphology_derivation_from_PIE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Two_examples_of_verbs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Two_examples_of_verbs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Two examples of verbs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Two_examples_of_verbs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Examples_of_noun_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Examples_of_noun_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Examples of noun declension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Examples_of_noun_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Masculine_noun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Masculine_noun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.1 Masculine noun </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Masculine_noun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Feminine_noun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feminine_noun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.2 Feminine noun </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feminine_noun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neuter_noun" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neuter_noun"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2.3 Neuter noun </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neuter_noun-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-An_example_of_adjectival_declension" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#An_example_of_adjectival_declension"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 An example of adjectival declension </div> </a> <ul id="toc-An_example_of_adjectival_declension-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Derivation_of_personal_pronouns_(nominative_case)_from_PIE" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Derivation_of_personal_pronouns_(nominative_case)_from_PIE"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.4 Derivation of personal pronouns (nominative case) from PIE </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Derivation_of_personal_pronouns_(nominative_case)_from_PIE-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Proto-Celtic language</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 35 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-35" aria-hidden="true" > 35 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%84%D8%BA%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%82%D9%84%D8%B7%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%A7%D9%84%D8%A8%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="اللغة القلطية البدائية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="اللغة القلطية البدائية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_protoc%C3%A9lticu" title="Idioma protocélticu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Idioma protocélticu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Пракельцкая мова – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Пракельцкая мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%8C%D1%86%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B0" title="Пракельцкая мова – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Пракельцкая мова" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D1%80%D0%BE%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BB%D1%82%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8_%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Протокелтски език – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Протокелтски език" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kentkeltieg" title="Kentkeltieg – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Kentkeltieg" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protocelta" title="Protocelta – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Protocelta" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Urkeltisch" title="Urkeltisch – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Urkeltisch" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Idioma_protoc%C3%A9ltico" title="Idioma protocéltico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Idioma protocéltico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kelta_pralingvo" title="Kelta pralingvo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kelta pralingvo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozelta" title="Protozelta – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Protozelta" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-celtique" title="Proto-celtique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Proto-celtique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Keltysk" title="Proto-Keltysk – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Proto-Keltysk" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/An_Phr%C3%B3ta-Cheiltis" title="An Phróta-Cheiltis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="An Phróta-Cheiltis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_protoc%C3%A9ltica" title="Lingua protocéltica – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Lingua protocéltica" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Proto-Keltik" title="Bahasa Proto-Keltik – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Bahasa Proto-Keltik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_protoceltica" title="Lingua protoceltica – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Lingua protoceltica" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%98%D7%95-%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%98%D7%99%D7%AA" title="פרוטו-קלטית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פרוטו-קלטית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lingua_Protoceltica" title="Lingua Protoceltica – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Lingua Protoceltica" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protuceltich" title="Protuceltich – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Protuceltich" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bahasa_Celtik_Purba" title="Bahasa Celtik Purba – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Bahasa Celtik Purba" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Proto-Keltisch" title="Proto-Keltisch – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Proto-Keltisch" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width:22em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background-color: #c9ffd9;">Proto-Celtic</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color: #c9ffd9;">PC, Common Celtic</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Reconstruction of</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Region</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Central_Europe" title="Central Europe">Central</a> or <a href="/wiki/Western_Europe" title="Western Europe">Western Europe</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Era</th><td class="infobox-data">ca. 1300–800 BC</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Reconstructed ancestor</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European</a> </div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.sidebar{width:100%!important;clear:both;float:none!important;margin-left:0!important;margin-right:0!important}}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .sidebar a>img{max-width:none!important}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">a series</a> on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="padding-top:0.2em;background:rgb(220,245,220);"><a href="/wiki/Category:Indo-European" title="Category:Indo-European">Indo-European topics</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Indo-European_migrations.gif" title="File:Indo-European migrations.gif"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/140px-Indo-European_migrations.gif" decoding="async" width="140" height="70" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/210px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Indo-European_migrations.gif/280px-Indo-European_migrations.gif 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="598" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Languages</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"><hr /> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indo-European_languages" title="List of Indo-European languages">List of Indo-European languages</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Extant</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanoid" title="Albanoid">Albanoid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Albanian_language" title="Albanian language">Albanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_language" title="Armenian language">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balto-Slavic_languages" title="Balto-Slavic languages">Balto-Slavic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_languages" title="Baltic languages">Baltic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_languages" title="Slavic languages">Slavic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hellenic_languages" title="Hellenic languages">Hellenic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranian_languages" title="Indo-Iranian languages">Indo-Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_languages" title="Indo-Aryan languages">Indo-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_languages" title="Iranian languages">Iranian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuristani_languages" title="Nuristani languages">Nuristani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Romance_languages" title="Romance languages">Romance</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>Extinct</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_languages" title="Anatolian languages">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_languages" title="Tocharian languages">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dacian_language" title="Dacian language">Dacian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrian_language" title="Illyrian language">Illyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liburnian_language" title="Liburnian language">Liburnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language" title="Messapic language">Messapic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mysian_language" title="Mysian language">Mysian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paeonian_language" title="Paeonian language">Paeonian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thracian_language" title="Thracian language">Thracian</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Reconstructed</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">Proto-Indo-European language</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_phonology" title="Proto-Indo-European phonology">Phonology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_sound_laws" title="Indo-European sound laws">Sound laws</a>, <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_accent" title="Proto-Indo-European accent">Accent</a>, <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">Ablaut</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Hypothetical</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Balkanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Daco-Thracian" class="mw-redirect" title="Daco-Thracian">Daco-Thracian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Albanian" title="Graeco-Albanian">Graeco-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Armenian" title="Graeco-Armenian">Graeco-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Aryan" title="Graeco-Aryan">Graeco-Aryan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graeco-Phrygian" title="Graeco-Phrygian">Graeco-Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Hittite" title="Indo-Hittite">Indo-Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Illyrian" title="Thraco-Illyrian">Thraco-Illyrian</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Grammar</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_vocabulary" title="Indo-European vocabulary">Vocabulary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_root" title="Proto-Indo-European root">Root</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_verbs" title="Proto-Indo-European verbs">Verbs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_nominals" title="Proto-Indo-European nominals">Nouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_pronouns" title="Proto-Indo-European pronouns">Pronouns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_numerals" title="Proto-Indo-European numerals">Numerals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_particles" title="Proto-Indo-European particles">Particles</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Other</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Albanian_language" title="Proto-Albanian language">Proto-Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Anatolian_language" title="Proto-Anatolian language">Proto-Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Armenian_language" title="Proto-Armenian language">Proto-Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Proto-Germanic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Norse_language" title="Proto-Norse language">Proto-Norse</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Italo-Celtic_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Italo-Celtic language">Proto-Italo-Celtic</a> (<a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Celtic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Italic_language" title="Proto-Italic language">Proto-Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Greek_language" title="Proto-Greek language">Proto-Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Balto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Balto-Slavic language">Proto-Balto-Slavic</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Slavic_language" title="Proto-Slavic language">Proto-Slavic</a> · <a href="/wiki/Proto-Baltic_language" title="Proto-Baltic language">Proto-Baltic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian language">Proto-Indo-Iranian</a> (<a href="/wiki/Proto-Iranian_language" title="Proto-Iranian language">Proto-Iranian</a>)</li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Philology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_inscriptions" title="Hittite inscriptions">Hittite inscriptions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieroglyphic_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Hieroglyphic Luwian">Hieroglyphic Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rigveda" title="Rigveda">Rigveda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avesta" title="Avesta">Avesta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Homer" title="Homer">Homer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behistun_Inscription" title="Behistun Inscription">Behistun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_inscriptions" title="Greek inscriptions">Greek epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_language#Inscriptions" title="Phrygian language">Phrygian epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Messapic_language#Inscriptions" title="Messapic language">Messapic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Latin#Corpus" title="Old Latin">Latin epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish#Corpus" title="Gaulish">Gaulish epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic_inscriptions" title="Runic inscriptions">Runic epigraphy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_Bible" title="Gothic Bible">Gothic Bible</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bible_translations_into_Armenian" title="Bible translations into Armenian">Bible translations into Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish#Sources" title="Old Irish">Old Irish glosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanun_(Albania)" title="Kanun (Albania)">Albanian Kanun</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Origins</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Europeans" title="Proto-Indo-Europeans">Proto-Indo-Europeans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_society" title="Proto-Indo-European society">Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Mainstream </dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_hypothesis" title="Kurgan hypothesis">Kurgan hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_migrations" title="Indo-European migrations">Indo-European migrations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eurasian_nomads" title="Eurasian nomads">Eurasian nomads</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Alternative and fringe </dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hypothesis" title="Anatolian hypothesis">Anatolian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_hypothesis" title="Armenian hypothesis">Armenian hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beech_argument" title="Beech argument">Beech argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Aryanism" title="Indigenous Aryanism">Indigenous Aryanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_homeland#Baltic_homeland" title="Proto-Indo-European homeland">Baltic homeland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleolithic_continuity_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleolithic continuity theory">Paleolithic continuity theory</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Archaeology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Chalcolithic" title="Chalcolithic">Chalcolithic (Copper Age)</a> </dt></dl> Pontic Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Domestication_of_the_horse" title="Domestication of the horse">Domestication of the horse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan" title="Kurgan">Kurgan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_stelae" title="Kurgan stelae">Kurgan stelae</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurgan_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Kurgan culture">Kurgan culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">Steppe cultures</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bug%E2%80%93Dniester_culture" title="Bug–Dniester culture">Bug–Dniester</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sredny_Stog_culture" title="Sredny Stog culture">Sredny Stog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dnieper%E2%80%93Donets_culture" title="Dnieper–Donets culture">Dnieper–Donets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samara_culture" title="Samara culture">Samara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khvalynsk_culture" title="Khvalynsk culture">Khvalynsk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mikhaylovka_culture" title="Mikhaylovka culture">Mikhaylovka culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novotitarovskaya_culture" title="Novotitarovskaya culture">Novotitarovskaya culture</a></li></ul></li></ul></li></ul> Caucasus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maykop_culture" title="Maykop culture">Maykop</a></li></ul> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afanasievo_culture" title="Afanasievo culture">Afanasievo</a></li></ul> Eastern Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Usatovo_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Usatovo culture">Usatovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cernavod%C4%83_culture" title="Cernavodă culture">Cernavodă</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cucuteni%E2%80%93Trypillia_culture" title="Cucuteni–Trypillia culture">Cucuteni</a></li></ul> Northern Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Baden_culture" title="Baden culture">Baden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Dnieper_culture" title="Middle Dnieper culture">Middle Dnieper</a></li></ul></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a> </dt></dl> Pontic Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chariot" title="Chariot">Chariot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamnaya_culture" title="Yamnaya culture">Yamnaya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Catacomb_culture" title="Catacomb culture">Catacomb</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multi-cordoned_ware_culture" title="Multi-cordoned ware culture">Multi-cordoned ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poltavka_culture" title="Poltavka culture">Poltavka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Srubnaya_culture" title="Srubnaya culture">Srubnaya</a></li></ul> Northern/Eastern Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abashevo_culture" title="Abashevo culture">Abashevo culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Andronovo_culture" title="Andronovo culture">Andronovo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sintashta_culture" title="Sintashta culture">Sintashta</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Globular_Amphora_culture" title="Globular Amphora culture">Globular Amphora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corded_Ware_culture" title="Corded Ware culture">Corded ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bell_Beaker_culture" title="Bell Beaker culture">Bell Beaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9An%C4%9Btice_culture" title="Únětice culture">Únětice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trzciniec_culture" title="Trzciniec culture">Trzciniec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nordic_Bronze_Age" title="Nordic Bronze Age">Nordic Bronze Age</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Terramare_culture" title="Terramare culture">Terramare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tumulus_culture" title="Tumulus culture">Tumulus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusatian_culture" title="Lusatian culture">Lusatian</a></li></ul> South Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bactria%E2%80%93Margiana_Archaeological_Complex" title="Bactria–Margiana Archaeological Complex">BMAC</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaz_culture" title="Yaz culture">Yaz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gandhara_grave_culture" title="Gandhara grave culture">Gandhara grave</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> Steppe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chernoles_culture" title="Chernoles culture">Chernoles</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thraco-Cimmerian" title="Thraco-Cimmerian">Thraco-Cimmerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jastorf_culture" title="Jastorf culture">Jastorf</a></li></ul> Caucasus <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Colchian_culture" title="Colchian culture">Colchian</a></li></ul> India <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Grey_Ware_culture" title="Painted Grey Ware culture">Painted Grey Ware</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northern_Black_Polished_Ware" title="Northern Black Polished Ware">Northern Black Polished Ware</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Peoples and societies</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age" title="Bronze Age">Bronze Age</a></dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_peoples" title="Anatolian peoples">Anatolian peoples</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittites</a>) </li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenians" title="Armenians">Armenians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycenaean_Greece" title="Mycenaean Greece">Mycenaean Greeks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Iranians" title="Indo-Iranians">Indo-Iranians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Iron_Age" title="Iron Age">Iron Age</a></dt></dl> Indo-Aryans <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indo-Aryan_peoples" title="Indo-Aryan peoples">Indo-Aryans</a></li></ul> Iranians <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Iranian_peoples" title="Iranian peoples">Iranians</a></li></ul> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Wusun" title="Wusun">Wusun</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuezhi" title="Yuezhi">Yuezhi</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celts" title="Insular Celts">Insular Celts</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cimmerians" title="Cimmerians">Cimmerians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greeks" title="Greeks">Hellenic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italic_peoples" title="Italic peoples">Italic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_peoples" title="Germanic peoples">Germanic peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_languages" title="Paleo-Balkan languages">Paleo-Balkan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Iron_Age_Anatolia" class="mw-redirect" title="Iron Age Anatolia">Anatolia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Thracians" title="Thracians">Thracians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacians" title="Dacians">Dacians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illyrians" title="Illyrians">Illyrians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paeonians" title="Paeonians">Paeonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygians" title="Phrygians">Phrygians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythians" title="Scythians">Scythians</a></li></ul> <dl><dt><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></dt></dl> East Asia <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tocharians" title="Tocharians">Tocharians</a></li></ul> Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_the_Albanians" title="Origin of the Albanians">Albanians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balts" title="Balts">Balts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Slavs" title="Early Slavs">Slavs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norsemen" title="Norsemen">Norsemen</a>/<a href="/wiki/North_Germanic_peoples" title="North Germanic peoples">Medieval Scandinavians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a></li></ul> Indo-Aryan <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_India" title="Medieval India">Medieval India</a></li></ul> Iranian <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Iran" title="Greater Iran">Greater Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)">Religion and mythology</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt>Reconstructed</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_mythology" title="Proto-Indo-European mythology">Proto-Indo-European mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-Iranian_paganism" title="Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism">Proto-Indo-Iranian paganism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Historical Vedic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Iranian_religion" title="Ancient Iranian religion">Ancient Iranian religion</a></li></ul> <hr /> <dl><dt>Historical</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_mythology_and_religion" title="Hittite mythology and religion">Hittite</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Indian_religions" title="Indian religions">Indo-Aryan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Historical_Vedic_religion" title="Historical Vedic religion">Vedic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hinduism" title="Hinduism">Hinduism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buddhism" title="Buddhism">Buddhism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jainism" title="Jainism">Jainism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sikhism" title="Sikhism">Sikhism</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Iranian_religions" title="Iranian religions">Iranian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Persian_mythology" title="Persian mythology">Persian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Zoroastrianism" title="Zoroastrianism">Zoroastrianism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_mythology" title="Kurdish mythology">Kurdish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Yazidis" title="Yazidis">Yazidism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yarsanism" title="Yarsanism">Yarsanism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scythian_religion" title="Scythian religion">Scythian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ossetian_mythology" title="Ossetian mythology">Ossetian</a></li></ul></li></ul> Others <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_mythology" title="Armenian mythology">Armenian</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/European_paganism" class="mw-redirect" title="European paganism">European</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Balkan_mythology" title="Paleo-Balkan mythology">Paleo-Balkan</a> (<a href="/wiki/Albanian_paganism" title="Albanian paganism">Albanian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Illyrian_religion" title="Illyrian religion">Illyrian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Thracian_religion" title="Thracian religion">Thracian</a> · <a href="/wiki/Dacian_religion" class="mw-redirect" title="Dacian religion">Dacian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_religion" title="Ancient Greek religion">Greek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_ancient_Rome" title="Religion in ancient Rome">Roman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Germanic_paganism" title="Germanic paganism">Germanic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_paganism" title="Anglo-Saxon paganism">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_Germanic_mythology" title="Continental Germanic mythology">Continental</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Norse_religion" title="Old Norse religion">Norse</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baltic_mythology" title="Baltic mythology">Baltic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latvian_mythology" title="Latvian mythology">Latvian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_mythology" title="Lithuanian mythology">Lithuanian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavic_paganism" title="Slavic paganism">Slavic</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Practices</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fire_worship#Indo-European_religions" title="Fire worship">Fire rituals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horse_sacrifice" title="Horse sacrifice">Horse sacrifice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sati_(practice)" title="Sati (practice)">Sati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winter_solstice" title="Winter solstice">Winter solstice</a>/<a href="/wiki/Yule" title="Yule">Yule</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:rgb(220,245,220);padding-left:0.4em;text-align:left;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_studies" title="Indo-European studies">Indo-European studies</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content hlist"> <dl><dt>Scholars</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marija_Gimbutas" title="Marija Gimbutas">Marija Gimbutas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._P._Mallory" title="J. P. Mallory">J. P. Mallory</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Institutes</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Copenhagen_Studies_in_Indo-European" title="Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European">Copenhagen Studies in Indo-European</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Publications</dt></dl> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Encyclopedia_of_Indo-European_Culture" title="Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture">Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Horse,_the_Wheel,_and_Language" title="The Horse, the Wheel, and Language">The Horse, the Wheel, and Language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Indo-European_Studies" title="Journal of Indo-European Studies">Journal of Indo-European Studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indogermanisches_etymologisches_W%C3%B6rterbuch" title="Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch">Indogermanisches etymologisches Wörterbuch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Indo-European Etymological Dictionary</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Indo-European_topics" title="Template talk:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Indo-European topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> Proto-Celtic, or Common Celtic, is the hypothetical ancestral <a href="/wiki/Proto-language" title="Proto-language">proto-language</a> of all known <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a>, and a descendant of <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a>. It is not attested in writing but has been partly <a href="/wiki/Linguistic_reconstruction" title="Linguistic reconstruction">reconstructed</a> through the <a href="/wiki/Comparative_method" title="Comparative method">comparative method</a>. Proto-Celtic is generally thought to have been spoken between 1300 and 800 BC, after which it began to split into different languages. Proto-Celtic is often associated with the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> and particularly with the <a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a>. Celtic languages share common features with <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a> that are not found in other branches of Indo-European, suggesting the possibility of an earlier <a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a> linguistic unity. Proto-Celtic is currently being reconstructed through the comparative method by relying on later Celtic languages. Though <a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental Celtic">Continental Celtic</a> presents much substantiation for Proto-Celtic <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonology</a>, and some for its <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphology</a>, recorded material is too scanty to allow a secure reconstruction of <a href="/wiki/Syntax" title="Syntax">syntax</a>, though some complete sentences are recorded in the Continental <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a>. So, the main sources for reconstruction come from <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic languages</a> with the oldest <a href="/wiki/Literature" title="Literature">literature</a> found in <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Middle_Welsh" title="Middle Welsh">Middle Welsh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> dating back to authors flourishing in the 6th century AD. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Dating">Dating</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Dating">edit</a>]</div> Proto-Celtic is usually dated to the <a href="/wiki/Bronze_Age_Europe" title="Bronze Age Europe">Late Bronze Age</a>, ca. 1200–900 BC.<a href="#cite_note-koch131-3">[3]</a> The fact that it is possible to reconstruct a Proto-Celtic word for 'iron' (traditionally reconstructed as <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/%C4%ABsarnom" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/īsarnom">*īsarnom</a>) has long been taken as an indication that the divergence into individual Celtic languages did not start until the Iron Age (8th century BC to 1st century BC); otherwise, descendant languages would have developed their own, unrelated words for their metal. However, Schumacher<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> and Schrijver<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> suggest a date for Proto-Celtic as early as the 13th century BC, the time of the <a href="/wiki/Canegrate_culture" title="Canegrate culture">Canegrate culture</a>, in northwest Italy, and the <a href="/wiki/Urnfield_culture" title="Urnfield culture">Urnfield culture</a> in Central Europe, implying that the divergence may have already started in the Bronze Age.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">why?</a>] <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sound_changes_from_Proto-Indo-European">Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Sound changes from Proto-Indo-European">edit</a>]</div> The phonological changes from <a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a> (PIE) to Proto-Celtic (PC) may be summarized as follows.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatasović2009-6">[6]</a> The changes are roughly in chronological order, with changes that operate on the outcome of earlier ones appearing later in the list. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_PIE">Late PIE</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Late PIE">edit</a>]</div> These changes are shared by several other Indo-European branches. <ul><li>*e is colored by an adjacent <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeal</a> consonant: <ul><li>eh₂, h₂e > ah₂, h₂a</li> <li>eh₃, h₃e > oh₃, h₃o</li></ul></li> <li>Palatovelars merge into the plain velars: <ul><li>ḱ > k</li> <li>ǵ > g</li> <li>ǵʰ > gʰ</li></ul></li> <li>Epenthetic *a is inserted after a syllabic <a href="/wiki/Sonorant" title="Sonorant">sonorant</a> if a laryngeal and another sonorant follow (R̥HR > RaHR)</li> <li>Laryngeals are lost: <ul><li>before a following vowel (HV > V)</li> <li>following a vowel in syllables before the accent (VHC´ > VC´)</li> <li>following a vowel before a consonant, or word finally, resulting in <a href="/wiki/Compensatory_lengthening" title="Compensatory lengthening">compensatory lengthening</a>, thus (VHC > V̄C, VH# > V̄#)</li> <li>between plosives in non-initial syllables (CHC > CC)</li></ul></li> <li>Two adjacent dentals become two adjacent sibilants (TT > TsT > ss)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Italo-Celtic">edit</a>]</div> The following sound changes are shared with the <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic languages</a> in particular, and are cited in support of the <a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a> hypothesis.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrijver2015196–197-7">[7]</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Dybo%27s_rule&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dybo's rule (page does not exist)">Dybo's rule</a>: long close vowels are shortened (or a laryngeal is lost) before resonant + stressed vowel. Note that something like Dybo's rule seems to have also operated in Germanic (Old English wer < *wiHró-).<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <ul><li>īR´ / ? *iHR´ > iR´</li> <li>ūR´ / ? *uHR´ > uR´</li></ul></li> <li>Possibly, post-consonantal laryngeals are lost when before pre-tonic close vowels: <ul><li>CHiC´ > CiC´</li> <li>CHuC´ > CuC´</li></ul></li> <li>Development of initial <a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">stress</a>, following the previous two changes. But note that this seems to have been an areal feature, shared, for example with the Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Germanic_languages" title="Germanic languages">Germanic languages</a> and the non-Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Etruscan_language" title="Etruscan language">Etruscan language</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a></li> <li>Possibly, vocalization of laryngeals to *ī between a *CR cluster and consonantal *j (CRHjV > CRījV)</li> <li>Syllabic laryngeals become *a (CHC > CaC)</li> <li>Syllabic resonants before a voiced unaspirated stop become *Ra (R̩D > RaD)</li> <li>*m is assimilated or lost before a glide: <ul><li>mj > nj</li> <li>mw > w</li></ul></li> <li>*p assimilates to *kʷ when another *kʷ follows later in the word (p...kʷ > kʷ...kʷ). But Matasovic points out that: A) this change may have occurred late in Celtic; B) it seems not to have operated on some words in Irish; and C) a very similar assimilation (though in reverse) also occurred in Germanic.<a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a></li></ul> One change shows non-exact parallels in Italic: vocalization of syllabic resonants next to laryngeals depending on the environment. Similar developments appear in Italic, but for the syllabic nasals *m̩, *n̩, the result is Proto-Italic *əm, *ən (> Latin em ~ im, en ~ in). <ul><li>Word-initially, HR̩C > aRC</li> <li>Before voiceless stops, CR̩HT > CRaT</li> <li>CR̩HV > CaRHV</li> <li>CR̩HC > CRāC</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_PC">Early PC</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Early PC">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Sequences of velar and *w merge into the labiovelars (it is uncertain if this preceded or followed the next change; that is, whether gw > b or gw > gʷ, but Schumacher 2004 argues on p. 372 that this change came first; moreover, it is also found in Proto-Italic, and thus arguably belongs to the previous section): <ul><li>kw > kʷ</li> <li>gw > gʷ</li> <li>gʰw > gʷʰ</li></ul></li> <li>*gʷ merges into *b.</li> <li>Aspirated stops lose their aspiration and merge with the voiced stops (except that this <a href="/wiki/Feeding_order" title="Feeding order">counterfeeds</a> the previous change, so *gʷʰ > *gʷ doesn't result in a merger; that is, the change *gʷʰ > *gʷ must crucially happen after the sound change gʷ > b has been completed):<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a> <ul><li>bʰ > b</li> <li>dʰ > d</li> <li>gʰ > g</li> <li>gʷʰ > gʷ</li></ul></li> <li>*e before a resonant and *a (but not *ā) becomes *a as well (eRa > aRa): *ǵʰelH-ro > *gelaro > *galaro / *gérH-no > *gerano > *garano (Joseph's rule).</li> <li>Epenthetic *i is inserted after syllabic liquids when followed by a plosive: <ul><li>l̩T > liT</li> <li>r̩T > riT</li></ul></li> <li>Epenthetic *a is inserted before the remaining syllabic resonants: <ul><li>m̩ > am</li> <li>n̩ > an</li> <li>l̩ > al</li> <li>r̩ > ar</li></ul></li> <li>All remaining nonsyllabic laryngeals are lost.</li> <li>ē > ī</li> <li>ō > ū in final syllables</li> <li>Long vowels are shortened before a syllable-final resonant (V:RC > VRC); this also shortens long diphthongs. (<a href="/wiki/Osthoff%27s_law" title="Osthoff's law">Osthoff's law</a>)</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_PC">Late PC</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Late PC">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>Plosives become *x before a different plosive or *s (C₁C₂ > xC₂, Cs > xs)</li> <li>p > b before liquids (pL > bL)</li> <li>p > w before nasals (pN > wN)</li> <li>p > ɸ (except possibly after *s)</li> <li>ō > ā</li> <li>ey > ē (but not in Celtiberian or Lepontic)</li> <li>ew > ow</li> <li>uwa > owa</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples">Examples</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Examples">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">PIE </th> <th rowspan="2">PC </th> <th colspan="7">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th>PIE </th> <th colspan="2">Proto-Celtic </th> <th colspan="2">Old Irish </th> <th colspan="2">Welsh </th></tr> <tr> <td>*p </td> <td>*ɸ </td> <td>*ph₂tḗr </td> <td>*ɸatīr </td> <td>father </td> <td colspan="2">athir </td> <td>edrydd </td> <td>cf. home (< *ɸatrijo-) </td></tr> <tr> <td>*t </td> <td>*t </td> <td>*tréyes </td> <td>*trīs </td> <td>three </td> <td colspan="2">trí </td> <td colspan="2">tri </td></tr> <tr> <td>*k, ḱ </td> <td>*k </td> <td>*kh₂n̥-e- *ḱm̥tom </td> <td>*kan-o- *kantom </td> <td>sing hundred </td> <td colspan="2">canaid cét /kʲeːd/ </td> <td colspan="2">canu cant </td></tr> <tr> <td>*kʷ </td> <td>*kʷ </td> <td>*kʷetwores </td> <td>*kʷetwares </td> <td>four </td> <td colspan="2">ceth(a)ir </td> <td colspan="2">pedwar </td></tr> <tr> <td>*b </td> <td>*b </td> <td>*h₂ébōl </td> <td>*abalom </td> <td>apple </td> <td colspan="2">uball </td> <td colspan="2">afal </td></tr> <tr> <td>*d </td> <td>*d </td> <td>*derḱ- </td> <td>*derk- </td> <td>see </td> <td>derc </td> <td>eye </td> <td>drych </td> <td>sight </td></tr> <tr> <td>*g, ǵ </td> <td>*g </td> <td>*gleh₁i- *ǵen-u- </td> <td>*gli-na- *genu- </td> <td>to glue jaw </td> <td>glen(a)id giun, gin </td> <td>(he) sticks fast mouth </td> <td>glynu gên </td> <td>adhere jaw </td></tr> <tr> <td>*gʷ </td> <td>*b </td> <td>*gʷenh₂ </td> <td>*bena </td> <td>woman </td> <td colspan="2">ben </td> <td colspan="2">O.W. ben </td></tr> <tr> <td>*bʰ </td> <td>*b </td> <td>*bʰére- </td> <td>*ber-o- </td> <td>carry </td> <td>berid </td> <td>(he) carries </td> <td>adfer cymeryd<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> </td> <td>to restore to take </td></tr> <tr> <td>*dʰ </td> <td>*d </td> <td>*dʰeh₁i- </td> <td>*di-na- </td> <td>suck </td> <td>denait </td> <td>they suck </td> <td colspan="2">dynu, denu </td></tr> <tr> <td>*gʰ, ǵʰ </td> <td>*g </td> <td>*gʰh₁bʰ-(e)y- *ǵʰelH-ro- </td> <td>*gab-i- *galaro- </td> <td>take sickness </td> <td>ga(i)bid galar </td> <td>(he) takes sickness </td> <td>gafael galar </td> <td>hold grief </td></tr> <tr> <td>*gʷʰ </td> <td>*gʷ </td> <td>*gʷʰn̥- </td> <td>*gʷan-o- </td> <td>kill, wound </td> <td>gonaid </td> <td>(he) wounds, slays </td> <td>gwanu </td> <td>stab </td></tr> <tr> <td>*s </td> <td>*s </td> <td>*sen-o- </td> <td>*senos </td> <td>old </td> <td colspan="2">sen </td> <td colspan="2">hen </td></tr> <tr> <td>*m </td> <td>*m </td> <td>*méh₂tēr </td> <td>*mātīr </td> <td>mother </td> <td colspan="2">máthir </td> <td>modryb </td> <td>cf. aunt </td></tr> <tr> <td>*n </td> <td>*n </td> <td>*h₂nép-ōt- </td> <td>*neɸūts </td> <td>nephew </td> <td colspan="2">niad </td> <td colspan="2">nai </td></tr> <tr> <td>*l </td> <td>*l </td> <td>*leyǵʰ- </td> <td>*lig-e/o- </td> <td>lick </td> <td>ligid </td> <td>(he) licks </td> <td colspan="2">llyo, llyfu </td></tr> <tr> <td>*r </td> <td>*r </td> <td>*h₃rēǵ-s </td> <td>*rīgs </td> <td>king </td> <td colspan="2">rí (gen. ríg) </td> <td colspan="2">rhi </td></tr> <tr> <td>*j </td> <td>*j </td> <td>*h₂yuh₁n-ḱós </td> <td>*juwankos </td> <td>young </td> <td colspan="2">óac </td> <td colspan="2">ieuanc </td></tr> <tr> <td>*w </td> <td>*w </td> <td>*h₂wl̥h₁tí- </td> <td>*wlatis </td> <td>rulership </td> <td colspan="2">flaith </td> <td>gwlad </td> <td>country </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th colspan="2" rowspan="2">PIE </th> <th rowspan="2">PC </th> <th colspan="7">Example </th></tr> <tr> <th>PIE </th> <th colspan="2">PC </th> <th colspan="2">Old Irish </th> <th colspan="2">Welsh </th></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*a, *h₂e </td> <td>*a </td> <td>*h₂ep-h₃ōn- </td> <td>*abū acc. *abonen </td> <td>river </td> <td colspan="2">aub </td> <td colspan="2">afon </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*ā, *eh₂ </td> <td>*ā </td> <td>*bʰréh₂tēr </td> <td>*brātīr </td> <td>brother </td> <td colspan="2">bráthir </td> <td colspan="2">brawd </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*e, h₁e </td> <td>*e </td> <td>*sen-o- </td> <td>*senos </td> <td>old </td> <td colspan="2">sen </td> <td colspan="2">hen </td></tr> <tr> <td>*H </td> <td>between consonants<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> </td> <td>*a </td> <td>*ph₂tḗr </td> <td>*ɸatīr </td> <td>father </td> <td colspan="2">athir </td> <td>edrydd </td> <td>cf. home </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*ē, eh₁ </td> <td>*ī </td> <td>*weh₁-ro- </td> <td>*wīros </td> <td>true </td> <td colspan="2">fír </td> <td colspan="2">gwir </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*o, Ho, h₃e </td> <td>*o </td> <td>*Hroth₂o- </td> <td>*rotos </td> <td>wheel </td> <td colspan="2">roth </td> <td colspan="2">rhod </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*ō, eh₃ </td> <td>in final syllable </td> <td>*ū </td> <td>*h₂nép-ōt- </td> <td>*neɸūts </td> <td>nephew </td> <td colspan="2">niæ </td> <td colspan="2">nai </td></tr> <tr> <td>elsewhere </td> <td>*ā </td> <td>*deh₃no- </td> <td>*dāno- </td> <td>gift </td> <td colspan="2">dán </td> <td colspan="2">dawn </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*i </td> <td>*i </td> <td>*gʷih₃-tu- </td> <td>*bitus </td> <td>world </td> <td colspan="2">bith </td> <td colspan="2">byd </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*ī, iH </td> <td>*ī </td> <td>*rīmeh₂ </td> <td>*rīmā </td> <td>number </td> <td colspan="2">rím </td> <td colspan="2">rhif </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*ai, h₂ei, eh₂i </td> <td>*ai </td> <td>*kaikos *seh₂itlo- </td> <td>*kaikos *saitlo- </td> <td>blind age </td> <td>cáech — </td> <td>one-eyed — </td> <td>coeg hoedl </td> <td>empty, one-eyed age </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*(h₁)ei, ēi, eh₁i </td> <td>*ei </td> <td>*deywos </td> <td>*deiwos </td> <td>god </td> <td colspan="2">día </td> <td colspan="2">duw </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*oi, ōi, h₃ei, eh₃i </td> <td>*oi </td> <td>*oynos </td> <td>*oinos </td> <td>one </td> <td colspan="2">óen oín; áen aín </td> <td colspan="2">un </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*u </td> <td>before wa </td> <td>o </td> <td>*h₂yuh₁n-ḱós </td> <td>*juwankos > *jowankos </td> <td>young </td> <td colspan="2">óac </td> <td colspan="2">ieuanc </td></tr> <tr> <td>elsewhere </td> <td>*u </td> <td>*srutos </td> <td>*srutos </td> <td>stream </td> <td colspan="2">sruth </td> <td colspan="2">ffrwd </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*ū, uH </td> <td>*ū </td> <td>*ruHneh₂ </td> <td>*rūnā </td> <td>mystery </td> <td colspan="2">rún </td> <td colspan="2">rhin </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*au, h₂eu, eh₂u </td> <td>*au </td> <td>*tausos </td> <td>*tausos </td> <td>silent </td> <td>táue </td> <td>silence (*tausijā) </td> <td colspan="2">taw </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*(h₁)eu, ēu, eh₁u; *ou, ōu, h₃eu, eh₃u </td> <td>*ou </td> <td>*tewteh₂ *gʷeh₃-u-s </td> <td>*toutā *bows </td> <td>people cow </td> <td colspan="2">túath bó </td> <td colspan="2">tud M.W. bu, biw </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*l̥ </td> <td>before stops </td> <td>*li </td> <td>*pl̥th₂nós </td> <td>*ɸlitanos </td> <td>wide </td> <td colspan="2">lethan </td> <td colspan="2">llydan </td></tr> <tr> <td>before other consonants </td> <td>*al </td> <td>*kl̥h₁- </td> <td>*kaljākos </td> <td>rooster </td> <td colspan="2">cailech (Ogham gen. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style>caliaci) </td> <td colspan="2">ceiliog </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*r̩ </td> <td>before stops </td> <td>*ri </td> <td>*bʰr̩ti- </td> <td>*briti- </td> <td>act of bearing; mind </td> <td colspan="2">breth, brith </td> <td colspan="2">bryd </td></tr> <tr> <td>before other consonants </td> <td>*ar </td> <td>*mr̩wos </td> <td>*marwos </td> <td>dead </td> <td colspan="2">marb </td> <td colspan="2">marw </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*m̩ </td> <td>*am </td> <td>*dm̩-nh₂- </td> <td>*damna- </td> <td>subdue </td> <td>M.Ir. damnaid </td> <td>he ties, fastens, binds </td> <td colspan="2">— </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="2">*n̩ </td> <td>*an </td> <td>*h₃dn̥t- </td> <td>*dant </td> <td>tooth </td> <td colspan="2">dét /dʲeːd/ </td> <td colspan="2">dant </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*l̩H </td> <td>before <a href="/wiki/Obstruent_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Obstruent consonant">obstruents</a> </td> <td>*la </td> <td>*h₂wlh₁tí- </td> <td>*wlatis </td> <td>lordship </td> <td colspan="2">flaith </td> <td>gwlad </td> <td>country </td></tr> <tr> <td>before <a href="/wiki/Sonorant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Sonorant consonant">sonorants</a> </td> <td>*lā </td> <td>*pl̩Hmeh₂ </td> <td>*ɸlāmā </td> <td>hand </td> <td colspan="2">lám </td> <td colspan="2">llaw </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="2">*r̩H </td> <td>before obstruents </td> <td>*ra </td> <td>*mr̩Htom </td> <td>*mratom </td> <td>betrayal </td> <td colspan="2">mrath </td> <td colspan="2">brad </td></tr> <tr> <td>before sonorants </td> <td>*rā </td> <td>*ǵr̩Hnom </td> <td>*grānom </td> <td>grain </td> <td colspan="2">grán </td> <td colspan="2">grawn </td></tr> <tr> <td>*m̩H </td> <td rowspan="2">(presumably with same distribution as above) </td> <td>*am/mā </td> <td>*dm̩h₂-ye/o- </td> <td>*damje/o- </td> <td>to tame </td> <td>daimid fodam- </td> <td>daimid - </td> <td>goddef </td> <td>endure, suffer </td></tr> <tr> <td>*n̩H </td> <td>*an/nā </td> <td>*ǵn̩h₃to- ? </td> <td>*gnātos </td> <td>known </td> <td colspan="2">gnáth </td> <td>gnawd </td> <td>customary </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Phonological_reconstruction">Phonological reconstruction</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Phonological reconstruction">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consonants">Consonants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Consonants">edit</a>]</div> The following consonants have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic (PC): <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Manner </th> <th rowspan="2">Voicing </th> <th rowspan="2"> <a href="/wiki/Bilabial_consonant" title="Bilabial consonant">Bilabial</a>  </th> <th rowspan="2"> <a href="/wiki/Alveolar_consonant" title="Alveolar consonant">Alveolar</a>  </th> <th rowspan="2"> <a href="/wiki/Palatal_consonant" title="Palatal consonant">Palatal</a>  </th> <th colspan="2"> <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">Velar</a>  </th></tr> <tr> <th>plain </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Labialization" title="Labialization">labialized</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Plosive_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Plosive consonant">Plosive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">voiceless</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>t </td> <td> </td> <td>k </td> <td>kʷ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Voiced" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced">voiced</a> </th> <td>b </td> <td>d </td> <td> </td> <td>ɡ </td> <td>ɡʷ </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">Fricative</a> </th> <td>ɸ </td> <td>s </td> <td> </td> <td>x </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Nasal_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Nasal stop">Nasal</a> </th> <td>m </td> <td>n </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Approximant_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Approximant consonant">Approximant</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>l </td> <td>j </td> <td> </td> <td>w </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Trill_consonant" title="Trill consonant">Trill</a> </th> <td> </td> <td>r </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Allophones_of_plosives">Allophones of plosives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Allophones of plosives">edit</a>]</div> Eska has recently proposed that PC stops allophonically manifest <a href="/wiki/English_phonology#Obstruents" title="English phonology">similarly to those in English</a>. Voiceless stop phonemes /t k/ were aspirated word-initially except when preceded by /s/, hence aspirate allophones [tʰ kʰ]. And unaspirated voiced stops /b d ɡ/ were devoiced to [p t k] word-initially.<a href="#cite_note-Eska_prehist-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eska_orth-15">[15]</a> This allophony may be reconstructed to PC from the following evidence:<a href="#cite_note-Eska_prehist-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-Eska_orth-15">[15]</a> <ul><li>Modern Celtic languages like <a href="/wiki/Welsh_phonology" title="Welsh phonology">Welsh</a>, Breton, and all modern <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic languages</a> have such plosive aspiration and voice allophony already attested. (But there is no trace of this in Gaulish.)</li> <li>Several old Celtic languages (such as <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a>) used letters for voiceless stop phonemes to write both voiceless stop phonemes and their voiced counterparts, especially non-word-initially. (But in the case of Lepontic, this is because the alphabet was derived from Etruscan, which has no voice contrasts in plosives.)</li> <li>The Celtiberian <a href="/wiki/Luzaga%27s_Bronze" title="Luzaga's Bronze">Luzaga's Bronze</a> has the curious spelling of an accusative determiner sdam, where the d is clearly meant to spell [t]. This implies that Celtiberian /d/ had a voiceless allophone [t].</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Evolution_of_plosives">Evolution of plosives</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Evolution of plosives">edit</a>]</div> Proto-Indo-European (PIE) <a href="/wiki/Voiced_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced consonant">voiced</a> aspirate stops *bʰ, *dʰ, *gʰ/ǵʰ, merge with *b, *d, *g/ǵ in PC. The voiced aspirate <a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labiovelar</a> *gʷʰ did not merge with *gʷ, though: plain *gʷ became PC *b, while aspirated *gʷʰ became *gʷ. Thus, PIE *gʷen- 'woman' became Old Irish and Old Welsh ben, but PIE *gʷʰn̥- 'to kill, wound' became Old Irish gonaid and Welsh gwanu. PIE *p is lost in PC, apparently going through the stages *ɸ (possibly a stage *[pʰ])<a href="#cite_note-Eska_prehist-14">[14]</a> and *h (perhaps seen in the name <a href="/wiki/Hercynian_Forest" title="Hercynian Forest">Hercynia</a> if this is of Celtic origin) before being completely lost word-initially and between vowels. Next to consonants, PC *ɸ underwent different changes: the <a href="/wiki/Consonant_cluster" title="Consonant cluster">clusters</a> *ɸs and *ɸt became *xs and *xt respectively already in PC. PIE *sp- became Old Irish s (f- when lenited, exactly as for PIE *sw-) and Brythonic f; while <a href="#CITEREFSchrijver1995">Schrijver 1995</a>, p. 348 argues there was an intermediate stage *sɸ- (in which *ɸ remained an independent phoneme until after Proto-Insular Celtic had diverged into Goidelic and Brythonic), <a href="#CITEREFMcCone1996">McCone 1996</a>, pp. 44–45 finds it more economical to believe that *sp- remained unchanged in PC, that is, the change *p to *ɸ did not happen when *s preceded. (Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Grimm%27s_law" title="Grimm's law">Grimm's law</a> did not apply to *p, t, k after *s in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Germanic_language" title="Proto-Germanic language">Germanic</a>, and the same exception occurred again in the <a href="/wiki/High_German_consonant_shift" title="High German consonant shift">High German consonant shift</a>.) <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Proto-Celtic </th> <th>Old Irish </th> <th>Welsh </th></tr> <tr> <td>*laɸs- > *laxs- 'shine' </td> <td>las-aid </td> <td>llach-ar </td></tr> <tr> <td>*seɸtam > *sextam 'seven' </td> <td>secht </td> <td>saith </td></tr> <tr> <td>*sɸeret- or *speret- 'heel' </td> <td>seir </td> <td>ffêr </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> In <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic languages</a>, the Proto-Indo-European *kʷ phoneme becomes a new *p sound. Thus, Gaulish petuar[ios], <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> pedwar "four", but <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> cethair and <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> quattuor. Insofar as this new /p/ fills the gap in the phoneme inventory which was left by the disappearance of the equivalent stop in PIE, we may think of this as a <a href="/wiki/Chain_shift" title="Chain shift">chain shift</a>. The terms P-Celtic and Q-Celtic are useful for grouping Celtic languages based on the way they handle this one phoneme. But a simple division into P- / Q-Celtic may be untenable, as it does not do justice to the evidence of the ancient <a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Continental Celtic languages</a>. The many unusual shared innovations among the <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic languages</a> are often also presented as evidence against a P- vs Q-Celtic division, but they may instead reflect a common <a href="/wiki/Substrata_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Substrata (linguistics)">substratum</a> influence from the pre-Celtic languages of Britain and Ireland,<a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.sciencemag.org/cgi/content/full/288/5469/1158">[1]</a>, or simply continuing contact between the insular languages; in either case they would be irrelevant to the genetic classification of Celtic languages. Q-Celtic languages may also have /p/ in loan words, though in early borrowings from Welsh into Primitive Irish, /kʷ/ was used by sound substitution due to a lack of a /p/ phoneme at the time: <ul><li>Latin Patricius "<a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Saint Patrick</a>"' > Welsh > Primitive Irish <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">Qatricias > Old Irish Cothrige, later <a href="/wiki/Saint_Patrick" title="Saint Patrick">Pádraig</a>;</li> <li>Latin <a href="/wiki/Presbyter" title="Presbyter">presbyter</a> "priest" > early form of word seen in <a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a> premter primter > Primitive Irish <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791">qrimitir > Old Irish cruimther.</li></ul> Gaelic póg "kiss" was a later borrowing (from the second word of the Latin phrase osculum pacis "kiss of peace") at a stage where p was borrowed directly as p, without substituting c. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vowels">Vowels</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Vowels">edit</a>]</div> The PC vowel system is highly comparable to that reconstructed for PIE by <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Meillet" title="Antoine Meillet">Antoine Meillet</a>. The following <a href="/wiki/Monophthong" title="Monophthong">monophthongs</a> are reconstructed: <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Type </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Front_vowel" title="Front vowel">Front</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">Central</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Back_vowel" title="Back vowel">Back</a> </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th> long  </th> <th> short  </th> <th> long  </th> <th> short  </th> <th> long  </th> <th> short  </th></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Close_vowel" title="Close vowel">Close</a> </th> <td>iː </td> <td>i </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td>uː </td> <td>u </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Mid_vowel" title="Mid vowel">Mid</a> </th> <td>eː </td> <td>e </td> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td> </td> <td>o </td></tr> <tr style="text-align:center;"> <th><a href="/wiki/Open_vowel" title="Open vowel">Open</a> </th> <td colspan="2">  </td> <td>aː </td> <td>a </td> <td colspan="2">  </td></tr></tbody></table></dd></dl> The following <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a> have also been reconstructed: <dl><dd><table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Type </th> <th>With -i </th> <th>With -u </th></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>With a- </th> <td>ai</td> <td>au </td></tr> <tr align="center"> <th>With o- </th> <td>oi</td> <td>ou </td></tr> </tbody></table></dd></dl> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Morphology">Morphology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Morphology">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Nouns">Nouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Nouns">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Morphology_(linguistics)" title="Morphology (linguistics)">morphological</a> (structure) of <a href="/wiki/Noun" title="Noun">nouns</a> and <a href="/wiki/Adjective" title="Adjective">adjectives</a> demonstrates no arresting alterations from the parent language. Proto-Celtic is believed to have had nouns in three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_gender" title="Grammatical gender">genders</a>, three <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_number" title="Grammatical number">numbers</a> and five to eight cases. The genders were masculine, feminine and neuter; the numbers were singular, plural and dual. The number of cases is a subject of contention:<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> while Old Irish may have only five, the evidence from Continental Celtic is considered[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Manual_of_Style/Words_to_watch#Unsupported_attributions" title="Wikipedia:Manual of Style/Words to watch">by whom?</a>] rather unambiguous despite appeals to archaic retentions or <a href="/wiki/Morphological_leveling" title="Morphological leveling">morphological leveling</a>. These cases were <a href="/wiki/Nominative" class="mw-redirect" title="Nominative">nominative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Vocative" class="mw-redirect" title="Vocative">vocative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Accusative" class="mw-redirect" title="Accusative">accusative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dative" class="mw-redirect" title="Dative">dative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Genitive" class="mw-redirect" title="Genitive">genitive</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ablative" class="mw-redirect" title="Ablative">ablative</a>, <a href="/wiki/Locative" class="mw-redirect" title="Locative">locative</a> and <a href="/wiki/Instrumental_case" title="Instrumental case">instrumental</a>. Nouns fall into nine or so declensions, depending on stem. There are *o-stems, *ā-stems, *i-stems, *u-stems, dental stems, velar stems, nasal stems, *r-stems and *s-stems. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="*o-stem_nouns">*o-stem nouns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: *o-stem nouns">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>makkʷos 'son' (masculine) (<a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> mac ~ <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> mab)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*makkʷos </td> <td>*makkʷou </td> <td>*makkʷoi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*makkʷe </td> <td>*makkʷou </td> <td>*makkʷūs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*makkʷom </td> <td>*makkʷou </td> <td>*makkʷūs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*makkʷī </td> <td>*makkʷūs </td> <td>*makkʷom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*makkʷūi </td> <td>*makkʷobom </td> <td>*makkʷobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*makkʷū </td> <td>*makkʷobim </td> <td>*makkʷobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*makkʷū </td> <td>*makkʷobim </td> <td>*makkʷūs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*makkʷei </td> <td>*makkʷou </td> <td>*makkʷobis </td></tr></tbody></table> However, Celtiberian shows -o- stem genitives ending in -o rather than -ī: aualo "[son] of Avalos".<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Also note that the genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's -osyo, which would have yielded -osjo. <ul><li>dūnom 'stronghold' (neuter)</li></ul> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*dūnom </td> <td>*dūnou </td> <td>*dūnā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*dūnom </td> <td>*dūnou </td> <td>*dūnā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*dūnom </td> <td>*dūnou </td> <td>*dūnā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*dūnī </td> <td>*dūnūs </td> <td>*dūnom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*dūnūi </td> <td>*dūnobom </td> <td>*dūnobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*dūnū </td> <td>*dūnobim </td> <td>*dūnobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*dūnū </td> <td>*dūnobim </td> <td>*dūnūs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*dūnei </td> <td>*dūnou </td> <td>*dūnobis </td></tr></tbody></table> As in the masculine paradigm, the genitive singular does not match Proto-Indo-European's -osyo, which would have yielded -osjo. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="*ā-stem_nouns">*ā-stem nouns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: *ā-stem nouns">edit</a>]</div> E.g. *ɸlāmā 'hand' (feminine) (<a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> lám; <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> llaw, <a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a> leuv, <a href="/wiki/Old_Breton" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Breton">Old Breton</a> lom) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*ɸlāmā </td> <td>*ɸlāmai </td> <td>*ɸlāmās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*ɸlāmā </td> <td>*ɸlāmai </td> <td>*ɸlāmās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*ɸlāmām </td> <td>*ɸlāmai </td> <td>*ɸlāmās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*ɸlāmās </td> <td>*ɸlāmajous </td> <td>*ɸlāmom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*ɸlāmāi </td> <td>*ɸlāmābom </td> <td>*ɸlāmābos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*ɸlāmī </td> <td>*ɸlāmābim </td> <td>*ɸlāmābis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*ɸlāmī </td> <td>*ɸlāmābim </td> <td>*ɸlāmābis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*ɸlāmāi </td> <td>*ɸlāmābim </td> <td>*ɸlāmābis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="*i-stems">*i-stems</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: *i-stems">edit</a>]</div> E.g. *sūlis 'sight, view, eye' (feminine) (<a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Brittonic</a> sulis ~ <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> súil) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*sūlis </td> <td>*sūlī </td> <td>*sūlīs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*sūli </td> <td>*sūlī </td> <td>*sūlīs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*sūlim </td> <td>*sūlī </td> <td>*sūlīs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*sūleis </td> <td>*sūljous </td> <td>*sūljom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*sūlei </td> <td>*sūlibom </td> <td>*sūlibos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*sūlī </td> <td>*sūlibim </td> <td>*sūlibis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*sūlī </td> <td>*sūlibim </td> <td>*sūlibis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*sūlī </td> <td>*sūlibim </td> <td>*sūlibis </td></tr></tbody></table> E.g. *mori 'body of water, sea' (neuter) (<a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> Mori- ~ <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> muir ~ <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> môr) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*mori </td> <td>*morī </td> <td>*moryā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*mori </td> <td>*morī </td> <td>*moryā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*mori </td> <td>*morī </td> <td>*moryā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*moreis </td> <td>*moryous </td> <td>*moryom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*morei </td> <td>*moribom </td> <td>*moribos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*morī </td> <td>*moribim </td> <td>*moribis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*morī </td> <td>*moribim </td> <td>*moribis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*morī </td> <td>*moribim </td> <td>*moribis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="*u-stem_nouns">*u-stem nouns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: *u-stem nouns">edit</a>]</div> E.g. *bitus 'world, existence' (masculine) (<a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> Bitu- ~ <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> bith ~ <a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> byd ~ <a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a> bed) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*bitus </td> <td>*bitou </td> <td>*bitowes </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*bitu </td> <td>*bitou </td> <td>*bitowes </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*bitum </td> <td>*bitou </td> <td>*bitūs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*bitous </td> <td>*bitowou </td> <td>*bitowom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*bitou </td> <td>*bitubom </td> <td>*bitubos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*bitū </td> <td>*bitubim </td> <td>*bitubis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*bitū </td> <td>*bitubim </td> <td>*bitubis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*bitū </td> <td>*bitubim </td> <td>*bitubis </td></tr></tbody></table> E.g. *beru "<a href="/wiki/Rotisserie" title="Rotisserie">rotisserie</a> spit" (neuter) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*beru </td> <td>*berou </td> <td>*berwā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*beru </td> <td>*berou </td> <td>*berwā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*beru </td> <td>*berou </td> <td>*berwā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*berous </td> <td>*berowou </td> <td>*berowom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*berou </td> <td>*berubom </td> <td>*berubos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*berū </td> <td>*berubim </td> <td>*berubis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*berū </td> <td>*berubim </td> <td>*berubis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*berū </td> <td>*berubim </td> <td>*berubis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Velar_and_dental_stems">Velar and dental stems</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Velar and dental stems">edit</a>]</div> Before the *-s of the nominative singular, a velar consonant was <a href="/wiki/Fricative_consonant" class="mw-redirect" title="Fricative consonant">fricated</a> to *-x : *rīg- "king" > *rīxs. Likewise, final *-d <a href="/wiki/Voicelessness" title="Voicelessness">devoiced</a> to *-t-: *druwid- "druid" > *druwits.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> E.g. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/r%C4%ABxs#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/rīxs">*rīxs</a> "king" (masculine) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*rīxs </td> <td>*rīge </td> <td>*rīges </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*rīxs </td> <td>*rīge </td> <td>*rīges </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*rīgam </td> <td>*rīge </td> <td>*rīgās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*rīgos </td> <td>*rīgou </td> <td>*rīgom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*rīgei </td> <td>*rīgobom </td> <td>*rīgobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*rīgī </td> <td>*rīgobim </td> <td>*rīgobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*rīge </td> <td>*rīgobim </td> <td>*rīgobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*rīgi </td> <td>*rīgobim </td> <td>*rīgobis </td></tr></tbody></table> E.g. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/druwits#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/druwits">*druwits</a> "druid" (masculine) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*druwits </td> <td>*druwide </td> <td>*druwides </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*druwits </td> <td>*druwide </td> <td>*druwides </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*druwidem </td> <td>*druwide </td> <td>*druwidās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*druwidos </td> <td>*druwidou </td> <td>*druwidom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*druwidei </td> <td>*druwidobom </td> <td>*druwidobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*druwidī </td> <td>*druwidobim </td> <td>*druwidobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*druwide </td> <td>*druwidobim </td> <td>*druwidobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*druwidi </td> <td>*druwidobim </td> <td>*druwidobis </td></tr></tbody></table> E.g. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/karants#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/karants">*karants</a> "friend" (masculine) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*karants </td> <td>*karante </td> <td>*karantes </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*karants </td> <td>*karante </td> <td>*karantes </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*karantam </td> <td>*karante </td> <td>*karantās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*karantos </td> <td>*karantou </td> <td>*karantom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*karantei </td> <td>*karantobom </td> <td>*karantobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*karantī </td> <td>*karantobim </td> <td>*karantobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*karante </td> <td>*karantobim </td> <td>*karantobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*karanti </td> <td>*karantobim </td> <td>*karantobis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nasal_stems">Nasal stems</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Nasal stems">edit</a>]</div> Generally, nasal stems end in *-on-; this becomes *-ū in the nominative singular: *abon- "river" > *abū. E.g. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/ab%C5%AB#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/abū">*abū</a> "river" (feminine) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*abū </td> <td>*abone </td> <td>*abones </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*abū </td> <td>*abone </td> <td>*abones </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*abonam </td> <td>*abone </td> <td>*abonās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*abonos </td> <td>*abonou </td> <td>*abonom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*abonei </td> <td>*abnobom </td> <td>*abnobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*abonī </td> <td>*abnobim </td> <td>*abnobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*abone </td> <td>*abnobim </td> <td>*abnobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*aboni </td> <td>*abnobim </td> <td>*abnobis </td></tr></tbody></table> E.g. <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/anman#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/anman">*anman</a> "name" (neuter) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*anman </td> <td>*anmanī </td> <td>*anmanā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*anman </td> <td>*anmanī </td> <td>*anmanā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*anman </td> <td>*anmanī </td> <td>*anmanā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*anmēs </td> <td>*anmanou </td> <td>*anmanom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*anmanei </td> <td>*anmambom </td> <td>*anmambos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*anmanī </td> <td>*anmambim </td> <td>*anmambis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*anmane </td> <td>*anmambim </td> <td>*anmambis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*anmani </td> <td>*anmambim </td> <td>*anmambis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="*s-stem_nouns">*s-stem nouns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: *s-stem nouns">edit</a>]</div> Generally,*s-stems contain an *-es-, which becomes *-os in the nominative singular: *teges- 'house' > *tegos. E.g.<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tegos#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tegos">*tegos</a> "house" (neuter) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*tegos </td> <td>*tegese </td> <td>*tegesa </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*tegos </td> <td>*tegese </td> <td>*tegesa </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*tegos </td> <td>*tegese </td> <td>*tegesa </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*tegesos </td> <td>*tegesou </td> <td>*tegesom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*tegesi </td> <td>*tegesobom </td> <td>*tegesobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*tegesī </td> <td>*tegesobim </td> <td>*tegesobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*tegese </td> <td>*tegesobim </td> <td>*tegesobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*tegesi </td> <td>*tegesobim </td> <td>*tegesobis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="*r-stem_nouns">*r-stem nouns</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: *r-stem nouns">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li>r-stems are rare and principally confined to names of relatives. Typically they end in *-ter-, which becomes *-tīr in the nominative and *-tr- in all other cases aside from the accusative: *ɸater- 'father' > *ɸatīr, *ɸatros.</li></ul> E.g. *ɸatīr 'father' (masculine) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*ɸatīr </td> <td>*ɸatere </td> <td>*ɸateres </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*ɸatīr </td> <td>*ɸatere </td> <td>*ɸateres </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*ɸateram </td> <td>*ɸatere </td> <td>*ɸaterās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*ɸatros </td> <td>*ɸatrou </td> <td>*ɸatrom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*ɸatrei </td> <td>*ɸatrebom </td> <td>*ɸatrebos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*ɸatrī </td> <td>*ɸatrebim </td> <td>*ɸatrebis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*ɸatre </td> <td>*ɸatrebim </td> <td>*ɸatrebis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*ɸatri </td> <td>*ɸatrebim </td> <td>*ɸatrebis </td></tr></tbody></table> E.g. *mātīr 'mother' (feminine) <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Case </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Dual </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*mātīr </td> <td>*mātere </td> <td>*māteres </td></tr> <tr> <th>Vocative </th> <td>*mātīr </td> <td>*mātere </td> <td>*māteres </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*māteram </td> <td>*mātere </td> <td>*māterās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*mātros </td> <td>*mātrou </td> <td>*mātrom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative </th> <td>*mātrei </td> <td>*mātrebom </td> <td>*mātrebos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Ablative </th> <td>*mātrī </td> <td>*mātrebim </td> <td>*mātrebis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Instrumental </th> <td>*mātre </td> <td>*mātrebim </td> <td>*mātrebis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Locative </th> <td>*mātri </td> <td>*mātrebim </td> <td>*mātrebis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pronouns">Pronouns</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Pronouns">edit</a>]</div> The following personal pronouns in Celtic can be reconstructed as follows:<a href="#cite_note-McCone_2006-19">[19]</a>: 220–221 <a href="#cite_note-GOI-20">[20]</a>: 281  <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">First-person </th> <th colspan="2">Second-person </th></tr> <tr> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th> <th>Singular </th> <th>Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*mī </td> <td>*snī </td> <td>*tū </td> <td>*swī </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*me<a href="#cite_note-21">[* 1]</a> </td> <td>*snos </td> <td>*tu </td> <td>*swes </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*mene<a href="#cite_note-22">[* 2]</a> </td> <td>? </td> <td>*towe </td> <td>? </td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Remade as *mu in the prehistory of Irish by analogy to *tu. </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> Remade as *mowe in the prehistory of Irish by analogy to *towe. </li> </ol></div></div> The following third-person pronouns in Proto-Celtic may also be reconstructed.<a href="#cite_note-Schrijver_1997-23">[21]</a>: 62 <a href="#cite_note-McCone_2006-19">[19]</a>: 220  <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="3">Singular </th> <th rowspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>Masculine </th> <th>Feminine </th> <th>Neuter </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nominative </th> <td>*es, *ēs </td> <td>*sī </td> <td rowspan="2">*ed </td> <td>*eyes </td></tr> <tr> <th>Accusative </th> <td>*em </td> <td>*seyam? *sīm? </td> <td>*sūs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Genitive </th> <td>*esyo </td> <td>*esyās </td> <td>*esyo </td> <td>*ēsom? *esom? </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dative Instrumental Locative </th> <td>*e(s)yōi </td> <td>*esyāi </td> <td>*e(s)yōi </td> <td>*ēbis </td></tr></tbody></table> Forms of the masculine singular relative pronoun *yo- can be found in the first <a href="/wiki/Botorrita_plaque" title="Botorrita plaque">Botorrita plaque</a>: The form io-s in line 10 is the nominative singular masculine of the relative pronoun from Proto-Indo-European *yo- (Sanskrit ya-, Greek hos), which shows up in Old Irish only as the aspiration for leniting relative verb forms. Line 7 has the accusative singular io-m and the dative singular io-mui of the same root.<a href="#cite_note-24">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Adjectives">Adjectives</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Adjectives">edit</a>]</div> Adjectives in Proto-Celtic had positive, comparative, superlative and equative <a href="/wiki/Comparison_(grammar)" title="Comparison (grammar)">degrees of comparison</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Stuber_morphology-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Positive-degree_inflection_classes">Positive-degree inflection classes</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Positive-degree inflection classes">edit</a>]</div> Four inflection classes for positive-degree adjectives are known. Most adjectives belonged to the o-ā class, in which the adjectives inflected like masculine o-stems, neuter o-stems and feminine ā-stems when agreeing with nouns of their respective genders. A much smaller minority of adjectives were i- and u-stems.<a href="#cite_note-Stuber_morphology-25">[23]</a> Consonant-stem adjectives also existed but were vanishingly rare, with only relics in Old Irish like té "hot" < *teɸents. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Comparative_degree">Comparative degree</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Comparative degree">edit</a>]</div> The comparative degree was formed on most adjectives by attaching *-yūs to the adjective stem. For instance, *senos "old" would have a comparative *senyūs "older". However, some <a href="/wiki/Caland_system" title="Caland system">Caland system</a> adjectives instead had a comparative ending in *-is, which was then extended to *-ais. For example, *ɸlitanos "wide" had a comparative *ɸletais.<a href="#cite_note-Jasanoff_adj-26">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Superlative_degree">Superlative degree</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Superlative degree">edit</a>]</div> The superlative was formed by simply attaching *-isamos to the adjective stem. In some adjectives where the stem ends in *s, the suffix is truncated to *-(s)amos by <a href="/wiki/Haplology" title="Haplology">haplology</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Jasanoff_adj-26">[24]</a> Thus, *senos "old" would have a superlative *senisamos "oldest" but *trexsnos (stem *trexs-) would have a superlative *trexsamos. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Verbs">Verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Verbs">edit</a>]</div> From comparison between early Old Irish and Gaulish forms it seems that Continental and Insular Celtic verbs developed differently and so the study of Irish and Welsh may have unduly weighted past opinion of Proto-Celtic verb morphology.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] It can be inferred from Gaulish and Celtiberian as well as Insular Celtic that the Proto-Celtic verb had at least three moods: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">indicative</a> — seen in e.g. 1st <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr> Gaulish delgu "I hold", Old Irish tongu "I swear"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">imperative</a> — seen in e.g. 3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr> Celtiberian usabituz, Gaulish appisetu</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">subjunctive</a> — seen in e.g. 3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr> Gaulish buetid "may he be", Celtiberian asekati</li></ul> and four tenses: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">present</a> — seen in e.g. Gaulish uediíu-mi "I pray", Celtiberian zizonti "they sow"</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Preterite" title="Preterite">preterite</a> — seen in e.g. 3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr> Gaulish sioxti, Lepontic KariTe</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imperfect" title="Imperfect">imperfect</a> — perhaps in Celtiberian kombalkez, atibion</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">future</a> — seen in e.g. 3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr> Gaulish bissiet, Old Irish bieid "he shall be"</li></ul> A probable <a href="/wiki/Optative_mood" title="Optative mood">optative mood</a> also features in Gaulish (tixsintor) and an <a href="/wiki/Infinitive" title="Infinitive">infinitive</a> (with a characteristic ending -unei) in Celtiberian.<a href="#cite_note-27">[25]</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[26]</a> Verbs were formed by adding <a href="/wiki/Suffix" title="Suffix">suffixes</a> to a <a href="/wiki/Verb" title="Verb">verbal</a> <a href="/wiki/Word_stem" title="Word stem">stem</a>. The stem might be <a href="/wiki/Thematic_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Thematic stem">thematic</a> or <a href="/wiki/Athematic_stem" class="mw-redirect" title="Athematic stem">athematic</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Open_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Open syllable">open</a> or a <a href="/wiki/Closed_syllable" class="mw-redirect" title="Closed syllable">closed syllable</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Primary_endings">Primary endings</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Primary endings">edit</a>]</div> The primary endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows. They were used to form the present, future, and subjunctive conjugations.<a href="#cite_note-McCone_2006-19">[19]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Celtic primary endings </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Person and number </th> <th colspan="2">Basic endings </th> <th colspan="2">Thematic present </th></tr> <tr> <th>Active</th> <th>Mediopassive</th> <th>Active</th> <th>Mediopassive </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="First person singular">1st <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-ū (thematic) *-mi (athematic) </td> <td>*-ūr </td> <td>*-ū </td> <td>*-ūr </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person singular">2nd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-si </td> <td>*-tar </td> <td>*-esi </td> <td>*-etar </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person singular">3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-ti </td> <td>*-tor </td> <td>*-eti </td> <td>*-etor </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="First person plural">1st <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-mosi </td> <td>*-mor </td> <td>*-omosi </td> <td>*-omor </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person plural">2nd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-tesi </td> <td>*-dwe </td> <td>*-etesi </td> <td>*-edwe </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person plural">3rd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-nti </td> <td>*-ntor </td> <td>*-onti </td> <td>*-ontor </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Present-stem_formations">Present-stem formations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Present-stem formations">edit</a>]</div> Proto-Celtic possessed a diverse set of ways to form present stems. They can be roughly be divided into two broad categories of athematic and thematic. <ul><li>Thematic verbs feature a connecting vowel between the present stem and the basic primary endings. This vowel is -o- in the first-person and third-person plural and -e- in the third-person singular and second-person forms. The first-person singular of these verbs end in *-ū.</li> <li>Athematic verbs feature no such connecting vowel, and their 1st-person singular forms end in *-mi instead of *-ū.</li></ul> These two inflectional categories can themselves be subdivided based on the means of derivation from a verb root via a combination of root <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_ablaut" title="Indo-European ablaut">ablaut</a> grades and suffixes. These derivational classes include:<a href="#cite_note-KPV-29">[27]</a>: 36–47  <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Derivational classes of Proto-Celtic verbs </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Inflectional class </th> <th>Root ablaut </th> <th>Affix </th> <th>Class </th> <th>KPV designation </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="11">Thematic </th> <td rowspan="3">e-grade </td> <td>(none) </td> <td>Simple thematic </td> <td>A-1 </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ye- </td> <td>e-grade *-ye- </td> <td>A-5 </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-de- </td> <td>e-grade *-de- </td> <td>A-6 </td></tr> <tr> <td>o-grade </td> <td>*-ī- *-eyo- </td> <td>*-eye- causative/iterative </td> <td>(none) </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="6">zero grade </td> <td rowspan="2">(none) </td> <td>Thematized root athematic </td> <td rowspan="2">A-2 </td></tr> <tr> <td>tudáti-type thematic </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ske- </td> <td>*-ske- inchoative </td> <td>A-3 </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ye- </td> <td>zero-grade *-ye- </td> <td>A-4 </td></tr> <tr> <td>Nasal infix </td> <td>Aniṭ-root nasal-infix </td> <td>A-8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>i-reduplication </td> <td>i-reduplicated present </td> <td>A-15 </td></tr> <tr> <td>(varied) </td> <td>*-āye- </td> <td>Denominative </td> <td>(none) </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5">Athematic </th> <td>e-grade </td> <td>(none) </td> <td>CeRH-root present </td> <td>A-13 </td></tr> <tr> <td rowspan="3">zero grade </td> <td>*-na- (when levelled) </td> <td>seṭ-root nasal-infix </td> <td>A-8 </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-nu- </td> <td>*-new- present </td> <td>A-10 </td></tr> <tr> <td>*-ī- </td> <td>essive </td> <td>A-7 </td></tr> <tr> <td>(varied) </td> <td>*-ā- </td> <td>factitive </td> <td>(none) </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nasal-infix_presents">Nasal-infix presents</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Nasal-infix presents">edit</a>]</div> In Proto-Celtic, the Indo-European <a href="/wiki/Nasal_infix" title="Nasal infix">nasal infix</a> presents split into two categories: ones originally derived from laryngeal-final roots (i.e. seṭ roots in Sanskrit), and ones that were not (i.e. from aniṭ roots). In seṭ verbs, the nasal appears at the end of the present stem, while in aniṭ-derived verbs the nasal was followed by a root-final stop (generally -g- in Old Irish). <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="To_aniṭ_roots">To aniṭ roots</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: To aniṭ roots">edit</a>]</div> Aniṭ nasal infix verbs conjugated exactly like basic thematic verbs in the present tense. However, the origin of the invariant root vowel in -o- in *CewC- roots in Old Irish is unclear. Usually, it is held that the consonantism in these verbs was generalized in favour of the plural stem *CunC- in Old Irish. One would expect alternation between o in the 1st- and 3rd- person plural and -u- elsewhere in the present; but for both contexts Old Irish only attests -o-. The following verbs can be reconstructed in this class: <ul><li>To *CeyC- roots: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dingeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dingeti">*dingeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/grindeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/grindeti">*grindeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/indeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/indeti">*indeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/link%CA%B7eti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/linkʷeti">*linkʷeti</a></li> <li>Double-nasal presents: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/ganndeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/ganndeti">*ganndeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/glanndeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/glanndeti">*glanndeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/skanndeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/skanndeti">*skanndeti</a></li> <li>To *CewC- roots: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/bundeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/bundeti">*bundeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/bungeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/bungeti">*bungeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dlungeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dlungeti">*dlungeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/exsstungeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/exsstungeti">*exsstungeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/lungeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/lungeti">*lungeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/rundeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/rundeti">*rundeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/slunketi#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/slunketi">*slunketi</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tungeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tungeti">*tungeti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/unketi#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/unketi">*unketi</a></li> <li>Others: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/annketi#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/annketi">*annketi</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dringeti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dringeti">*dringeti</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="To_seṭ_roots">To seṭ roots</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: To seṭ roots">edit</a>]</div> On the other hand, the seṭ presents originally had a long vowel after the nasal in the singular and -a- after the nasal in the plural, but the attested Celtic languages levelled this alternation away. Gaulish shows traces of the singular long-vowel vocalism while Old Irish generalized the plural -a- to the singular.<a href="#cite_note-Lambert_Stifter_2012-30">[28]</a> The seṭ nasal-infix presents were further subdivided into subcategories based on the root-final laryngeal. Traditionally two subclasses have long been accepted, the *h₁ subclass (cited with a -ni- suffix) and *h₂ (cited with a -na- suffix). *h₃ nasal-infixed verbs were often leveled to act like *h₂ verbs, being also cited with a -na- suffix; the only original difference between the two would have been the 3rd-person plural ending in *-nonti instead of *-nanti. The nasal-infix seṭ verbs in Proto-Celtic underwent multiple <a href="/wiki/Morphological_leveling" title="Morphological leveling">levelings</a>. First, the suffixal vowel in the plural forms was harmonized so that they would all be the short counterpart to the vowel in the singular forms. Then all the long vowels in the singular were shortened to make the suffix vowel identical in quality and length across all person-number combinations.<a href="#cite_note-McCone_1991-31">[29]</a>: 11–23  <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Evolution of Proto-Celtic ablaut in the nasal infix for seṭ roots </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Person and number </th> <th colspan="3">Pre-leveling </th> <th colspan="2">Leveling of vowel quality </th> <th colspan="2">Leveling of vowel length </th></tr> <tr> <th>*h₁ verbs </th> <th>*h₂ verbs </th> <th>*h₃ verbs </th> <th>*h₁ verbs </th> <th>*h₂ and *h₃ verbs </th> <th>*h₁ verbs </th> <th>*h₂ and *h₃ verbs </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="First person singular">1st <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-nīmi </td> <td>*-nāmi </td> <td>*-nāmi </td> <td>*-nīmi </td> <td>*-nāmi </td> <td>*-nimi </td> <td>*-nami </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person singular">2nd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-nīsi </td> <td>*-nāsi </td> <td>*-nāsi </td> <td>*-nīsi </td> <td>*-nāsi </td> <td>*-nisi </td> <td>*-nasi </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person singular">3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-nīti </td> <td>*-nāti </td> <td>*-nāti </td> <td>*-nīti </td> <td>*-nāti </td> <td>*-niti </td> <td>*-nati </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="First person plural">1st <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-namosi </td> <td>*-namosi </td> <td>*-namosi </td> <td>*-nimosi </td> <td>*-namosi </td> <td>*-nimosi </td> <td>*-namosi </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person plural">2nd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-natesi </td> <td>*-natesi </td> <td>*-natesi </td> <td>*-nitesi </td> <td>*-natesi </td> <td>*-nitesi </td> <td>*-natesi </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person plural">3rd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-nenti </td> <td>*-nanti </td> <td>*-nonti </td> <td>*-ninti </td> <td>*-nanti </td> <td>*-ninti </td> <td>*-nanti </td></tr></tbody></table> The following seṭ-root nasal presents are reconstructible for Proto-Celtic: <ul><li>*h₁-final roots: <ul><li>-ni- relics: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/baln%C4%ABti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/balnīti">*balnīti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tin%C4%ABti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tinīti">*tinīti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/daln%C4%ABti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dalnīti">*dalnīti</a></li> <li>Converted to -na- before Old Irish: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/din%C4%ABti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/dinīti">*dinīti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/win%C4%ABti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/winīti">*winīti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/k%CA%B7aln%C4%ABti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/kʷalnīti">*kʷalnīti</a></li></ul></li> <li>*h₂ subclass: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/k%CA%B7rin%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/kʷrināti">*kʷrināti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/rin%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/rināti">*rināti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/damn%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/damnāti">*damnāti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/bin%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/bināti">*bināti</a> (?), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tlin%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/tlināti">*tlināti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/%C9%B8aln%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/ɸalnāti">*ɸalnāti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/marn%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/marnāti">*marnāti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/sann%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/sannāti">*sannāti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/swann%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/swannāti">*swannāti</a></li> <li>*h₃-final roots: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/%C9%B8arn%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/ɸarnāti">*ɸarnāti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/gnin%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/gnināti">*gnināti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/starn%C4%81ti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/starnāti">*starnāti</a></li> <li>Semivowel-final aniṭ root: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/kriniti#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/kriniti">*kriniti</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/klinutor#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/klinutor">*klinutor</a></li> <li>Unknown laryngeal: <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/glinati#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/glinati">*glinati</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/linati#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/linati">*linati</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/barnati#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/barnati">*barnati</a>, <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/walnator#Proto-Celtic" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Celtic/walnator">*walnator</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Preterite_formations">Preterite formations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Preterite formations">edit</a>]</div> There were two or three major preterite formations in Proto-Celtic, plus another moribund type. <ul><li>The s-preterite</li> <li>The reduplicated suffixless preterite (originating from the PIE reduplicated stative)</li> <li>The t-preterite</li> <li>The root aorist</li></ul> The s-, t-, and root aorist preterites take Indo-European secondary endings, while the reduplicated suffix preterite took stative endings. These endings are:<a href="#cite_note-KPV-29">[27]</a>: 62–67  <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Celtic preterite endings </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Person and number </th> <th colspan="2">Ending type </th></tr> <tr> <th>Secondary endings </th> <th>Stative endings </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="First person singular">1st <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-am </td> <td>*-a </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person singular">2nd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-s </td> <td>*-as </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person singular">3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-t </td> <td>*-e </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="First person plural">1st <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-mo(s) </td> <td>*-mo </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person plural">2nd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-te(s) </td> <td>*-te </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person plural">3rd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-ant </td> <td>*-ar </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="t-preterite">t-preterite</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: t-preterite">edit</a>]</div> The Old Irish t-preterite was traditionally assumed to be a divergent evolution from the s-preterite, but that derivation was challenged by <a href="/wiki/Jay_Jasanoff" title="Jay Jasanoff">Jay Jasanoff</a>, who alleges that they were instead imperfects of <a href="/wiki/Narten_present" title="Narten present">Narten presents</a>. Either derivation requires Narten ablaut anyway, leading to a stem vowel i in the singular and e in the plural. The stem vowel in the t-preterite was leveled to *e if the next consonant was either velar or *m, and *i in front of *r or *l.<a href="#cite_note-32">[30]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Suffixless_preterites">Suffixless preterites</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Suffixless preterites">edit</a>]</div> Many suffixless preterite formations featured <a href="/wiki/Reduplication" title="Reduplication">reduplication</a>. The nature of the reduplication depends on the structure of the root.<a href="#cite_note-KPV-29">[27]</a>: 68–79  <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Proto-Celtic suffixless preterites </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Root </th> <th>Meaning </th> <th>Shape </th> <th>Preterite stem </th> <th>Notes </th></tr> <tr> <td>*keng- </td> <td>"to step" </td> <td>Other root types </td> <td>*ke-kong- </td> <td>Classic Indo-European reduplication, where the root is put in the o-grade and the prefixed reduplicant is formed with the first consonant followed by *e. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*nigʷ- </td> <td>"to wash" </td> <td>*C(R)eiT- </td> <td>*ni-noig- </td> <td rowspan="2">In Proto-Celtic, roots with a semivowel (PIE *-y- or *-w-) before a non-laryngeal consonant have the reduplicant formed not with the first consonant of the root followed by *e, but instead the first consonant of the root followed by the semivowel. The root itself remains in the o-grade. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*duk- </td> <td>"to lead, carry" </td> <td>*C(R)euT- </td> <td>*du-douk- </td></tr> <tr> <td>*gʷed- </td> <td>"to pray" </td> <td>*CeT- </td> <td>*gʷād- </td> <td>Roots ending in only a single stop as their coda generally merely change the stem vowel to *ā to form their preterite, without apparent reduplication. It originally spread from *ād- (from *h₁e-h₁od-), the preterite stem for *ed- "to eat". </td></tr> <tr> <td>*kerd- </td> <td>"to throw, put" </td> <td>*CeRT- </td> <td>*kard- </td> <td>A few roots in *CeRT- also had the *CeT- preterite formation applied to them but the long *ā was shortened due to <a href="/wiki/Osthoff%27s_law" title="Osthoff's law">Osthoff's law</a>. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*dā- </td> <td>"to give" </td> <td>*C(C)eH- </td> <td>*de-dū (singular) *ded(a)- (plural) </td> <td>Laryngeal-final roots produced long vowels in the root syllable in the singular, but not in the plural (where the root was in the zero-grade instead). Usually the singular stem was generalized in Celtic, but in these cases the plural stem was generalized. </td></tr> <tr> <td>*kʷri- </td> <td>"to buy" </td> <td>*C(R)eiH- </td> <td>*kʷi-kʷr- </td> <td>The treatment for *CeH- roots was also extended to *C(R)eiH- roots. Due to the roots' semivowel, the reduplicant also contains the semivowel. </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Future_formations">Future formations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Future formations">edit</a>]</div> One major formation of the future in Celtic, the s-future. It is a descendant of the Proto-Indo-European (h₁)se-<a href="/wiki/Desiderative_mood" title="Desiderative mood">desiderative</a>, with i-reduplication in many verbs. The Old Irish a- and s-future come from here.<a href="#cite_note-McCone_1991-31">[29]</a> Another future formation, attested only in <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a>, is the -sye-desiderative. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Subjunctive_formations">Subjunctive formations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Subjunctive formations">edit</a>]</div> Most verbs took one subjunctive suffix in Proto-Celtic, -(a)s-, followed by the thematic primary endings. It was a descendant of the subjunctive of an Indo-European sigmatic thematic formation <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-seti" class="extiw" title="wikt:Reconstruction:Proto-Indo-European/-seti">*-seti</a>. The -ase- variant originated in roots that ended in a <a href="/wiki/Laryngeal_theory" title="Laryngeal theory">laryngeal</a> in Proto-Indo-European; when the *-se- suffix was attached right after a laryngeal, the laryngeal regularly vocalized into *-a-. It would then analogically spread to other Celtic strong verb roots ending in sonorants in addition to the weak verbs, even if the root did not originally end in a laryngeal.<a href="#cite_note-McCone_1991-31">[29]</a> There were also two, possibly three verbs that did not use -(a)se-, instead straight-out taking thematised primary endings. They are: *bwiyeti "to be, exist" (subjunctive *bweti), *klinutor "to hear" (subjunctive *klowetor), and possibly *ɸalnati “to approach, drive” (subjunctive *ɸeleti).<a href="#cite_note-Darling-33">[31]</a> Primary subjunctive formations in Proto-Celtic generally use the e-grade of the verb root, even if the present stem uses the zero-grade. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Imperative_formation">Imperative formation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Imperative formation">edit</a>]</div> Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic were as follows:<a href="#cite_note-McCone_2006-19">[19]</a>: 147–148 <a href="#cite_note-Stuber_morphology-25">[23]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Imperative endings in Proto-Celtic </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Person and number </th> <th colspan="2">Active endings </th></tr> <tr> <th>Basic endings </th> <th>With thematic vowels </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person singular">2nd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>-∅, *-si </td> <td>*-e </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person singular">3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-tou, *-tūd, *-tu </td> <td>*-etou, *-etūd, *-etu </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="First person plural">1st <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-mo(s) </td> <td>*-omo(s) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person plural">2nd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-te(s) </td> <td>*-ete(s) </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person plural">3rd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*-ntou, *-ntu </td> <td>*-ontou, *-ontu </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Second-person_singular_imperative">Second-person singular imperative</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Second-person singular imperative">edit</a>]</div> The second-person singular imperative was generally endingless in the active; no ending was generally added to athematic verbs. On thematic -e/o- verbs, the imperative ended in thematic vowel *-e. However, there is also another second-person singular active imperative ending, -si, which was attached to the verb root athematically even with thematic strong verbs.<a href="#cite_note-Jasanoff_1986-34">[32]</a> The thematic deponent second-person singular imperative ending was *-eso. The -the in Old Irish is secondary.<a href="#cite_note-Barnes_2015-35">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-McCone_2006-19">[19]</a>: 140  <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Third-person_imperative">Third-person imperative</h5>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Third-person imperative">edit</a>]</div> The third-person imperative endings in <a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Celtic">Insular Celtic</a>, <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a> have completely separate origins from each other. The Insular Celtic endings are derived from *-tou, *-ntou, Gaulish endings from *-tu, *-ntu, and the Celtiberian third-person imperative singular ending stems from *-tūd.<a href="#cite_note-Stuber_morphology-25">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Example_conjugations">Example conjugations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Example conjugations">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Grammatical_conjugation" title="Grammatical conjugation">Grammatical conjugation</a></div> Scholarly reconstructions <a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatasović2009-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-36">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[36]</a> may be summarised in tabular format.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Accuracy_dispute#Disputed_statement" title="Wikipedia:Accuracy dispute">dubious</a> – <a href="/wiki/Talk:Proto-Celtic_language#Dubious" title="Talk:Proto-Celtic language">discuss</a>] <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Conjugation like *bere/o- 'bear, carry, flow' </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2"> </th> <th rowspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Grammatical_person" title="Grammatical person">Person</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">Present</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Imperfect_tense" class="mw-redirect" title="Imperfect tense">Imperfect</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Future_tense" title="Future tense">Future</a> </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Past_tense" title="Past tense">Past</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">Active</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mediopassive_voice" title="Mediopassive voice">Medio- passive</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">Active</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mediopassive_voice" title="Mediopassive voice">Medio- passive</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">Active</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mediopassive_voice" title="Mediopassive voice">Medio- passive</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Active_voice" title="Active voice">Active</a></th> <th><a href="/wiki/Mediopassive_voice" title="Mediopassive voice">Medio- passive</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Indicative_mood" class="mw-redirect" title="Indicative mood">Indicative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="First person singular">1st <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berū</td> <td>*berūr</td> <td>*beremam</td> <td>—</td> <td>*bibrāsū</td> <td>*bibrāsūr</td> <td>*bīram</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person singular">2nd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*beresi</td> <td>*beretar</td> <td>*beretās</td> <td>—</td> <td>*bibrāsesi</td> <td>*bibrāsetar</td> <td>*birs</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person singular">3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*bereti</td> <td>*beretor</td> <td>*bereto</td> <td>—</td> <td>*bibrāseti</td> <td>*bibrāsetor</td> <td>*birt</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="First person plural">1st <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*beromosi</td> <td>*beromor</td> <td>*beremo</td> <td>—</td> <td>*bibrāsomosi</td> <td>*bibrāsomor</td> <td>*berme</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person plural">2nd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*beretesi</td> <td>*beredwe</td> <td>?</td> <td>—</td> <td>*bibrāsete</td> <td>*bibrāsedwe</td> <td>*berte</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person plural">3rd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*beronti</td> <td>*berontor</td> <td>*berento</td> <td>—</td> <td>*bibrāsonti</td> <td>*bibrāsontor</td> <td>*berant</td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="6"><a href="/wiki/Subjunctive_mood" title="Subjunctive mood">Subjunctive</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="First person singular">1st <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berasū</td> <td>*berasūr</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person singular">2nd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berasesi</td> <td>*berasetar</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person singular">3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*beraseti</td> <td>*berasetor</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="First person plural">1st <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berasomosi</td> <td>*berasomor</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person plural">2nd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berasetesi</td> <td>*berasedwe</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person plural">3rd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berasonti</td> <td>*berasontor</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5"><a href="/wiki/Imperative_mood" title="Imperative mood">Imperative</a> </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person singular">2nd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*bere</td> <td>*bereso</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_singular" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person singular">3rd <abbr title="singular">sg.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*beretou</td> <td>?</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/First_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="First person plural">1st <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*beromos</td> <td>?</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Second_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Second person plural">2nd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berete</td> <td>?</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Third_person_plural" class="mw-redirect" title="Third person plural">3rd <abbr title="plural">pl.</abbr></a> </th> <td>*berontou</td> <td>?</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>— </td></tr> <tr> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Participle" title="Participle">Participle</a> </th> <td>*beronts</td> <td>*beromnos</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>—</td> <td>*bertyos</td> <td>*britos </td></tr> </tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Copula">Copula</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: Copula">edit</a>]</div> The copula *esti was irregular. It had both athematic and thematic conjugations in the present tense. Schrijver supposes that its athematic present was used clause-initially and the thematic conjugation was used when that was not the case.<a href="#cite_note-es--39">[37]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Conjugation of *esti in Proto-Celtic </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Person </th> <th colspan="2"><a href="/wiki/Present_tense" title="Present tense">Present</a> </th></tr> <tr> <th>Athematic </th> <th>Thematic </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st sg. </th> <td>*esmi </td> <td>*esū </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd sg. </th> <td>*esi </td> <td>*esesi </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd sg. </th> <td>*esti </td> <td>*eseti </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st pl. </th> <td>*esmosi </td> <td>*esomosi </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd pl. </th> <td>**estes </td> <td>*esetes </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd pl. </th> <td>*senti </td> <td>**esonti </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Numerals">Numerals</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Numerals">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Numeral </th> <th><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European_language" title="Proto-Indo-European language">PIE</a> </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>1 </th> <td>*h₁óynos </td> <td>*oinos </td></tr> <tr> <th>2 </th> <td>*dwóh₁ </td> <td>*duwo </td></tr> <tr> <th>3 </th> <td>*tréyes </td> <td>*trīs </td></tr> <tr> <th>4 </th> <td>*kʷetwóres </td> <td>*kʷetwores </td></tr> <tr> <th>5 </th> <td>*pénkʷe </td> <td>*kʷenkʷe </td></tr> <tr> <th>6 </th> <td>*swéḱs </td> <td>*swexs </td></tr> <tr> <th>7 </th> <td>*septḿ̥ </td> <td>*seɸtam > *sextam </td></tr> <tr> <th>8 </th> <td>*oḱtṓw </td> <td>*oxtū </td></tr> <tr> <th>9 </th> <td>*h₁néwn̥ </td> <td>*nowan </td></tr> <tr> <th>10 </th> <td>*déḱm̥ </td> <td>*dekam </td></tr> <tr> <th>20 </th> <td>*wídḱm̥ti </td> <td>*wikantī </td></tr> <tr> <th>30 </th> <td>*tridḱómt </td> <td>*trīkontes </td></tr> <tr> <th>100 </th> <td>*ḱm̥tóm </td> <td>*kantom </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Vocabulary">Vocabulary</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Vocabulary">edit</a>]</div> The vast majority of reliably reconstructible lexical items in Proto-Celtic have good <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a> etymologies, unlike what is found in, for example, the <a href="/wiki/Greek_language" title="Greek language">Greek language</a>—at least 90% according to Matasovic.<a href="#cite_note-40">[38]</a> These include most of the items on the <a href="/wiki/Swadesh_list" title="Swadesh list">Swadesh list</a> of basic vocabulary. But a few words that do not have Indo-European cognates, so may be borrowings from substrate or adstrate <a href="/wiki/Pre-Indo-European_languages" title="Pre-Indo-European languages">Pre-Indo-European languages</a>, are also from basic vocabulary, including *bodyo- ‘yellow’ (though this has possible cognates in Italic), *kani "good," and *klukka "stone."<a href="#cite_note-41">[39]</a> It is notable that fully 32 items have been reconstructed for Proto-Celtic with the meaning "fight."<a href="#cite_note-42">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Examples_of_morphology_derivation_from_PIE">Examples of morphology derivation from PIE</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Examples of morphology derivation from PIE">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Two_examples_of_verbs">Two examples of verbs</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Two examples of verbs">edit</a>]</div> (The following examples lack the dual plural and are conjugated in the present tense) <table class="wikitable"> <caption>"To bear/carry" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronoun </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st Sg. </th> <td>*bʰéroh₂ </td> <td>*berū </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd Sg. </th> <td>*bʰéresi </td> <td>*beresi </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd Sg. </th> <td>*bʰéreti </td> <td>*bereti </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st Pl. </th> <td>*bʰéromos </td> <td>*beromosi </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd Pl. </th> <td>*bʰérete </td> <td>*beretesi </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd Pl. </th> <td>*bʰéronti </td> <td>*beronti </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>"To be" (athematic version) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Pronoun </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>1st Sg. </th> <td>*h₁ésmi </td> <td>*esmi </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd Sg. </th> <td>*h₁ési </td> <td>*esi </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd Sg. </th> <td>*h₁ésti </td> <td>*esti </td></tr> <tr> <th>1st Pl. </th> <td>*h₁smós </td> <td>*esmosi </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd Pl. </th> <td>*h₁sté </td> <td>*estes </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd Pl. </th> <td>*h₁sénti </td> <td>*senti </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Examples_of_noun_declension">Examples of noun declension</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Examples of noun declension">edit</a>]</div> (The following examples lack the dual number) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Masculine_noun">Masculine noun</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Masculine noun">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>"Bear" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nom. </th> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱos </td> <td>*artos </td> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱoes </td> <td>*artoi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voc. </th> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱe </td> <td>*arte </td> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱoes </td> <td>*artūs </td></tr> <tr> <th>Acc. </th> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱom </td> <td>*artom </td> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱoms </td> <td>*artoms </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱosyo </td> <td>*artī </td> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱoHom </td> <td>*artom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱoey </td> <td>*artūi </td> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱomos </td> <td>*artobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Loc. </th> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱey </td> <td>*artei </td> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱoysu </td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <th>Inst. </th> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱoh₁ </td> <td>*artū </td> <td>*h₂ŕ̥tḱōys </td> <td>*artūis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feminine_noun">Feminine noun</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Feminine noun">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>"Open land" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nom. </th> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂ </td> <td>*landā </td> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂es </td> <td>*landās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voc. </th> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂ </td> <td>*landā </td> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂es </td> <td>*landās </td></tr> <tr> <th>Acc. </th> <td>*ln̥dʰā́m </td> <td>*landam </td> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂m̥s </td> <td>*landāms </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂s </td> <td>*landās </td> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂oHom </td> <td>*landom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂ey </td> <td>*landāi </td> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂mos </td> <td>*landābos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Loc. </th> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂i </td> <td>*landai </td> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂su </td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <th>Inst. </th> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂h₁ </td> <td>? </td> <td>*ln̥dʰéh₂mis </td> <td>*landābis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Neuter_noun">Neuter noun</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Neuter noun">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>"Yoke" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Singular </th> <th colspan="2">Plural </th></tr> <tr> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nom. </th> <td>*yugóm </td> <td>*yugom </td> <td>*yugéh₂ </td> <td>*yugā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voc. </th> <td>*yugóm </td> <td>*yugom </td> <td>*yugéh₂ </td> <td>*yugā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Acc. </th> <td>*yugóm </td> <td>*yugom </td> <td>*yugéh₂ </td> <td>*yugā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*yugósyo </td> <td>*yugī </td> <td>*yugóHom </td> <td>*yugom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*yugóey </td> <td>*yugūi </td> <td>*yugómos </td> <td>*yugobos </td></tr> <tr> <th>Loc. </th> <td>*yugéy </td> <td>*yugei </td> <td>*yugóysu </td> <td>? </td></tr> <tr> <th>Inst. </th> <td>*yugóh₁ </td> <td>*yugū </td> <td>*yugṓys </td> <td>*yugūis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="An_example_of_adjectival_declension">An example of adjectival declension</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: An example of adjectival declension">edit</a>]</div> (The following example lacks the dual number) <table class="wikitable"> <caption>"High (Singular)" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2">Feminine </th> <th colspan="2">Neuter </th></tr> <tr> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nom. </th> <td>*h₂ḱrós </td> <td>*akros </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂ </td> <td>*akrā </td> <td>*h₂ḱróm </td> <td>*akrom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voc. </th> <td>*h₂ḱré </td> <td>*akre </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂ </td> <td>*akrā </td> <td>*h₂ḱróm </td> <td>*akrom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Acc. </th> <td>*h₂ḱróm </td> <td>*akrom </td> <td>*h₂ḱrā́m </td> <td>*akram </td> <td>*h₂ḱróm </td> <td>*akrom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*h₂ḱrósyo </td> <td>*akrī </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂s </td> <td>*akrās </td> <td>*h₂ḱrósyo </td> <td>*akrī </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*h₂ḱróey </td> <td>*akrūi </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂ey </td> <td>*akrai </td> <td>*h₂ḱróey </td> <td>*akrūi </td></tr> <tr> <th>Inst. </th> <td>*h₂ḱróh₁ </td> <td>*akrū </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂h₁ </td> <td>? </td> <td>*h₂ḱróh₁ </td> <td>*akrū </td></tr></tbody></table> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>"High (Plural)" </caption> <tbody><tr> <th rowspan="2">Case </th> <th colspan="2">Masculine </th> <th colspan="2">Feminine </th> <th colspan="2">Neuter </th></tr> <tr> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th>Nom. </th> <td>*h₂ḱróes </td> <td>*akroi </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂es </td> <td>*akrās </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂ </td> <td>*akrā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Voc. </th> <td>*h₂ḱróes </td> <td>*akroi </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂es </td> <td>*akrās </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂ </td> <td>*akrā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Acc. </th> <td>*h₂ḱróms </td> <td>*akroms </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂m̥s </td> <td>*akrams </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂ </td> <td>*akrā </td></tr> <tr> <th>Gen. </th> <td>*h₂ḱróHom </td> <td>*akrom </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂oHom </td> <td>*akrom </td> <td>*h₂ḱróHom </td> <td>*akrom </td></tr> <tr> <th>Dat. </th> <td>*h₂ḱrómos </td> <td>*akrobos </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂mos </td> <td>*akrābos </td> <td>*h₂ḱrómos </td> <td>*akrobis </td></tr> <tr> <th>Inst. </th> <td>*h₂ḱrṓys </td> <td>*akrobis </td> <td>*h₂ḱréh₂mis </td> <td>*akrābis </td> <td>*h₂ḱrṓys </td> <td>*akrobis </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Derivation_of_personal_pronouns_(nominative_case)_from_PIE">Derivation of personal pronouns (nominative case) from PIE</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Derivation of personal pronouns (nominative case) from PIE">edit</a>]</div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>No. </th> <th>Pronoun </th> <th>PIE </th> <th>PC </th></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="5">Sg. </th> <th>1st </th> <td>*éǵ > *me [acc.] </td> <td>*mī </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd </th> <td>*túh₂ </td> <td>*tū </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd M. </th> <td>*ís </td> <td>*se </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd F. </th> <td>*seh₂ > *sih₂ [*só + *-ih₂] </td> <td>*sī </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd N. </th> <td>*íd </td> <td>*ed </td></tr> <tr> <th rowspan="3">Pl. </th> <th>1st </th> <td>*wéy > *nos [acc.] > *nēs </td> <td>*snīs; *snīsnīs </td></tr> <tr> <th>2nd </th> <td>*yū́ > *wos [acc.] > *wēs </td> <td>*swīs; *swīswīs </td></tr> <tr> <th>3rd </th> <td>*éyes </td> <td>*eyes </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Celtic">Pre-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Italo-Celtic" title="Italo-Celtic">Italo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaker_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Beaker culture">Beaker culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urnfield" class="mw-redirect" title="Urnfield">Urnfield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hallstatt_culture" title="Hallstatt culture">Hallstatt culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_T%C3%A8ne_culture" title="La Tène culture">La Tène culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_substrate_hypothesis" title="Goidelic substrate hypothesis">Goidelic substrate hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligures" title="Ligures">Ligures</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Azilian" title="Azilian">Azilian</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> Notes <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.britannica.com/art/Celtic-literature#ref42288">Celtic literature</a> at britannica.com, accessed 7 February 2018 </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFRhys1905" class="citation journal cs1">Rhys, John (1905). Evans, E. Vincent (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/ycymmrodor18cymmuoft">"The Origin of the Welsh Englyn and Kindred Metres"</a>. Y Cymmrodor. XVIII. London: Honourable Society of Cymmrodorion.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Y+Cymmrodor&rft.atitle=The+Origin+of+the+Welsh+Englyn+and+Kindred+Metres&rft.volume=XVIII&rft.date=1905&rft.aulast=Rhys&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fycymmrodor18cymmuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-koch131-3"><a href="#cite_ref-koch131_3-0">^</a> Koch, John T. (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Centre/2020/Celto-Germanic2020.pdf">Celto-Germanic Later Prehistory and Post-Proto-Indo-European vocabulary in the North and West</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211125063756/https://www.wales.ac.uk/Resources/Documents/Centre/2020/Celto-Germanic2020.pdf">Archived</a> 2021-11-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, pp. 45–48. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumacher2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schumacher, Stefan (2004). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (in German). Innsbruck, Austria: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität Innsbruck. p. 85. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-85124-692-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-85124-692-6"><bdi>3-85124-692-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+keltischen+Prim%C3%A4rverben.+Ein+vergleichendes%2C+etymologisches+und+morphologisches+Lexikon&rft.place=Innsbruck%2C+Austria&rft.pages=85&rft.pub=Institut+f%C3%BCr+Sprachen+und+Literaturen+der+Universit%C3%A4t+Innsbruck&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3-85124-692-6&rft.aulast=Schumacher&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver2016" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Schrijver" title="Peter Schrijver">Schrijver, Peter</a> (2016). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=HP4sDwAAQBAJ&q=%22peter+schrijver%22+%22celtic+from+the+west+3%22&pg=PA9">"17. Ancillary study: Sound Change, the Italo-Celtic Linguistic Unity, and the Italian Homeland of Celtic"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/John_T._Koch" title="John T. Koch">Koch, John T.</a>; <a href="/wiki/Barry_Cunliffe" title="Barry Cunliffe">Cunliffe, Barry</a> (eds.). Celtic from the West 3: Atlantic Europe in the Metal Ages – Questions of Shared Language. Oxford, UK: <a href="/wiki/Oxbow_Books" class="mw-redirect" title="Oxbow Books">Oxbow Books</a>. pp. 489–502. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-78570-227-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-78570-227-3"><bdi>978-1-78570-227-3</bdi></a>. Retrieved May 12, 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=17.+Ancillary+study%3A+Sound+Change%2C+the+Italo-Celtic+Linguistic+Unity%2C+and+the+Italian+Homeland+of+Celtic&rft.btitle=Celtic+from+the+West+3%3A+Atlantic+Europe+in+the+Metal+Ages+%E2%80%93+Questions+of+Shared+Language&rft.place=Oxford%2C+UK&rft.pages=489-502&rft.pub=Oxbow+Books&rft.date=2016&rft.isbn=978-1-78570-227-3&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DHP4sDwAAQBAJ%26q%3D%2522peter%2Bschrijver%2522%2B%2522celtic%2Bfrom%2Bthe%2Bwest%2B3%2522%26pg%3DPA9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMatasović2009-6">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatasović2009_6-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMatasović2009_6-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMatasović2009">Matasović 2009</a>. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTESchrijver2015196–197-7"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTESchrijver2015196–197_7-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFSchrijver2015">Schrijver 2015</a>, pp. 196–197. </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> Matasovic, R. (2009) Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. p.7 </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> Salmon, Joseph (1992) Accentual Change and Language Contact Stanford UP </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> Matasovic, R. (2009) Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Brill. pp.11–12 </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> Cólera, Carlos Jordán (2007) "Celtiberian," e-Keltoi: Journal of Interdisciplinary Celtic Studies: Vol. 6, Article 17. p.759. Available at: <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17">https://dc.uwm.edu/ekeltoi/vol6/iss1/17</a> accessed June 21, 2023 </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> Welsh adfer 'to restore' < *ate-ber-, cymeryd < obsolete cymer < M.W. cymeraf < *kom-ber- (with -yd taken from the verbal noun cymryd < *kom-britu). </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> However, according to Hackstein (2002) *CH.CC > Ø in unstressed medial syllables. Thus, H can disappear in weak cases while being retained in strong cases, e.g. IE nom.sg. *dʰugh₂tḗr vs. gen.sg. *dʰugtr-os 'daughter' > early PC *dugater- ~ dugtr-. This then led to a paradigmatic split, resulting in Celtiberian gen.sg. tuateros, nom.pl. tuateres vs. Gaulish duxtir (< *dugtīr). (Zair 2012: 161, 163). </li> <li id="cite_note-Eska_prehist-14">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eska_prehist_14-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eska_prehist_14-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eska_prehist_14-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEska2018" class="citation journal cs1">Eska, Joseph F. (March 12, 2018). "Laryngeal Realism and the Prehistory of Celtic". Transactions of the Philological Society. 116 (3). Wiley: 320–331. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2F1467-968x.12122">10.1111/1467-968x.12122</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0079-1636">0079-1636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=Laryngeal+Realism+and+the+Prehistory+of+Celtic&rft.volume=116&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=320-331&rft.date=2018-03-12&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2F1467-968x.12122&rft.issn=0079-1636&rft.aulast=Eska&rft.aufirst=Joseph+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Eska_orth-15">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Eska_orth_15-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Eska_orth_15-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEska2021" class="citation journal cs1">Eska, Joseph (January 26, 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/781221/">"Laryngeal Realism and early Insular Celtic orthography"</a>. North American Journal of Celtic Studies. 3 (1): 1–17. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2472-7490">2472-7490</a>. Retrieved November 24, 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=North+American+Journal+of+Celtic+Studies&rft.atitle=Laryngeal+Realism+and+early+Insular+Celtic+orthography&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-17&rft.date=2021-01-26&rft.issn=2472-7490&rft.aulast=Eska&rft.aufirst=Joseph&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F781221%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen,_Holger1913" class="citation book cs1">Pedersen, Holger (1913). Vergleichende Grammatik der keltischen Sprachen, 2. Band, Bedeutungslehre (Wortlehre). Göttingen: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-26119-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-26119-4"><bdi>978-3-525-26119-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vergleichende+Grammatik+der+keltischen+Sprachen%2C+2.+Band%2C+Bedeutungslehre+%28Wortlehre%29&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=978-3-525-26119-4&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Holger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> Untermann, J. (1967). "Die Endung des Genitiv singularis der o-Stämme im Keltiberischen." In W. Meid (ed.), Beiträge zur Indogermanistik und Keltologie, Julius Pokorny zum 80. Geburtstag gewidmet, pp. 281–288. Innsbruck: Sprachwissenschaftliches Institut der Universität Innsbruck. </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStokes1887" class="citation journal cs1">Stokes, Whitley (November 1887). "Celtic Declension". Transactions of the Philological Society. 20 (1): 97–201.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=Celtic+Declension&rft.volume=20&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=97-201&rft.date=1887-11&rft.aulast=Stokes&rft.aufirst=Whitley&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCone_2006-19">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_2006_19-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_2006_19-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_2006_19-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_2006_19-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_2006_19-4">e</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCone2006" class="citation book cs1">McCone, Kim (2006). The Origins and Development of the Insular Celtic Verbal Complex. Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics. Department of Old Irish, National University of Ireland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-46-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-46-7"><bdi>978-0-901519-46-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+and+Development+of+the+Insular+Celtic+Verbal+Complex&rft.series=Maynooth+studies+in+Celtic+linguistics&rft.pub=Department+of+Old+Irish%2C+National+University+of+Ireland&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0-901519-46-7&rft.aulast=McCone&rft.aufirst=Kim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-GOI-20"><a href="#cite_ref-GOI_20-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurneysen1940" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Thurneysen" title="Rudolf Thurneysen">Thurneysen, Rudolf</a> (1940). A Grammar of Old Irish. Translated by Binchy, D. A; Bergin, Osborn. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85500-161-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-85500-161-6"><bdi>1-85500-161-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Old+Irish&rft.pub=Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=1940&rft.isbn=1-85500-161-6&rft.aulast=Thurneysen&rft.aufirst=Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schrijver_1997-23"><a href="#cite_ref-Schrijver_1997_23-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver1997" class="citation book cs1">Schrijver, Peter (1997). Studies in the History of Celtic Pronouns and Particles. Maynooth studies in Celtic linguistics. Department of Old Irish, National University of Ireland. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-59-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-59-7"><bdi>978-0-901519-59-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+History+of+Celtic+Pronouns+and+Particles&rft.series=Maynooth+studies+in+Celtic+linguistics&rft.pub=Department+of+Old+Irish%2C+National+University+of+Ireland&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-901519-59-7&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Matasovic, R. Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic. Leiden: Brill. 2006. p. 436 </li> <li id="cite_note-Stuber_morphology-25">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Stuber_morphology_25-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuber_morphology_25-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuber_morphology_25-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Stuber_morphology_25-3">d</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStüber" class="citation book cs1">Stüber, Karin. "The morphology of Celtic". In Jared Klein; Brian Joseph; Matthias Fritz (eds.). Handbook of Comparative and Historical Indo-European Linguistics. Vol. 2. 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Die Sprache. 34: 171–189.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Die+Sprache&rft.atitle=The+origin+of+the+Celtic+comparative+type+OIr.+tressa%2C+MW+trech+%27stronger%27&rft.volume=34&rft.pages=171-189&rft.date=1991&rft.aulast=Jasanoff&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a> Stefan Schumacher, Die keltischen Primärverben: Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Literaturen der Universität, 2004). </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> Pierre-Yves Lambert, La langue gauloise: Description linguistique, commentaire d'inscriptions choisies (Paris: Errance, revised ed. 2003). </li> <li id="cite_note-KPV-29">^ <a href="#cite_ref-KPV_29-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KPV_29-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-KPV_29-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchumacherSchulze-Thulinaan_de_Wiel2004" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Schumacher, Stefan; Schulze-Thulin, Britta; aan de Wiel, Caroline (2004). Die keltischen Primärverben. Ein vergleichendes, etymologisches und morphologisches Lexikon (in German). Innsbruck: Institut für Sprachen und Kulturen der Universität Innsbruck. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/3-85124-692-6" title="Special:BookSources/3-85124-692-6"><bdi>3-85124-692-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Die+keltischen+Prim%C3%A4rverben.+Ein+vergleichendes%2C+etymologisches+und+morphologisches+Lexikon&rft.place=Innsbruck&rft.pub=Institut+f%C3%BCr+Sprachen+und+Kulturen+der+Universit%C3%A4t+Innsbruck&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=3-85124-692-6&rft.aulast=Schumacher&rft.aufirst=Stefan&rft.au=Schulze-Thulin%2C+Britta&rft.au=aan+de+Wiel%2C+Caroline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Lambert_Stifter_2012-30"><a href="#cite_ref-Lambert_Stifter_2012_30-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLambertStifter2012" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Lambert, Pierre-Yves; Stifter, David (2012). 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Études Celtiques (in French and English). 38 (1): 139–164. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3406%2Fecelt.2012.2351">10.3406/ecelt.2012.2351</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0373-1928">0373-1928</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89tudes+Celtiques&rft.atitle=Le+plomb+gaulois+de+Rez%C3%A9&rft.volume=38&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=139-164&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3406%2Fecelt.2012.2351&rft.issn=0373-1928&rft.aulast=Lambert&rft.aufirst=Pierre-Yves&rft.au=Stifter%2C+David&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-McCone_1991-31">^ <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_1991_31-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_1991_31-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-McCone_1991_31-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCone1991" class="citation book cs1">McCone, Kim (1991). 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Wiesbaden: Reichert Verlag. pp. 127–135.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Long-vowel+preterites+in+Indo-European&rft.btitle=The+Indo-European+Verb&rft.place=Wiesbaden&rft.pages=127-135&rft.pub=Reichert+Verlag&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Jasanoff&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Darling-33"><a href="#cite_ref-Darling_33-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDarling2020" class="citation thesis cs1">Darling, Mark (2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.repository.cam.ac.uk/handle/1810/310768">The Subjunctive in Celtic: Studies in Historical Phonology and Morphology</a> (Thesis). University of Cambridge. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.17863%2FCAM.57857">10.17863/CAM.57857</a>. Retrieved September 1, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=The+Subjunctive+in+Celtic%3A+Studies+in+Historical+Phonology+and+Morphology&rft.inst=University+of+Cambridge&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.17863%2FCAM.57857&rft.aulast=Darling&rft.aufirst=Mark&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.repository.cam.ac.uk%2Fhandle%2F1810%2F310768&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Jasanoff_1986-34"><a href="#cite_ref-Jasanoff_1986_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJasanoff1986" class="citation journal cs1">Jasanoff, Jay (1986). "Old Irish tair 'come!'". Transactions of the Philological Society. 84 (1). Wiley: 132–141. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-968x.1986.tb01050.x">10.1111/j.1467-968x.1986.tb01050.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0079-1636">0079-1636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Philological+Society&rft.atitle=Old+Irish+tair+%27come%21%27&rft.volume=84&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=132-141&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-968x.1986.tb01050.x&rft.issn=0079-1636&rft.aulast=Jasanoff&rft.aufirst=Jay&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Barnes_2015-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Barnes_2015_35-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarnes2015" class="citation journal cs1">Barnes, Timothy (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://muse.jhu.edu/article/809031/pdf">"Old Irish cuire, its congeners, and the ending of the 2nd sg. middle imperative"</a>. Ériu. 65 (1): 49–56. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3318%2Feriu.2015.65.3">10.3318/eriu.2015.65.3</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2009-0056">2009-0056</a>. Retrieved September 2, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89riu&rft.atitle=Old+Irish+cuire%2C+its+congeners%2C+and+the+ending+of+the+2nd+sg.+middle+imperative&rft.volume=65&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=49-56&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.3318%2Feriu.2015.65.3&rft.issn=2009-0056&rft.aulast=Barnes&rft.aufirst=Timothy&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmuse.jhu.edu%2Farticle%2F809031%2Fpdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> Alexander MacBain, 1911, xxxvi–xxxvii; <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/etymologicaldict00macbuoft#page/xxxvi/mode/2up">An etymological dictionary of the Gaelic language</a>; Stirling: Eneas MacKay </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Alan Ward, A Checklist of Proto-Celtic Lexical Items (1982, revised 1996), 7–14. </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> Examples of attested <a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> verbs at <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="https://www.angelfire.com/me/ik/gaulish.html">https://www.angelfire.com/me/ik/gaulish.html</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-es--39"><a href="#cite_ref-es-_39-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver2019" class="citation book cs1">Schrijver, Peter (December 6, 2019). 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Brill. pp. 209–235. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1163%2F9789004416192_012">10.1163/9789004416192_012</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004414501" title="Special:BookSources/9789004414501"><bdi>9789004414501</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:213806505">213806505</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Italo-Celtic+and+the+Inflection+of+%2Aes-+%E2%80%98be%E2%80%99&rft.btitle=Dispersals+and+Diversification&rft.pages=209-235&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2019-12-06&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A213806505%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1163%2F9789004416192_012&rft.isbn=9789004414501&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> Matasovic, R. 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Historische Sprachforschung. 115: 1–22.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Historische+Sprachforschung&rft.atitle=Uridg.+%2ACH.CC+%3E+%2AC.CC&rft.volume=115&rft.pages=1-22&rft.date=2002&rft.au=Hackstein%2C+Olav&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLane,_George_S.1933" class="citation journal cs1">Lane, George S. (1933). "The Germano-Celtic Vocabulary". Language. 9 (3): 244–264. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F409353">10.2307/409353</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/409353">409353</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Language&rft.atitle=The+Germano-Celtic+Vocabulary&rft.volume=9&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=244-264&rft.date=1933&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F409353&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F409353%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Lane%2C+George+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasović2009" class="citation book cs1">Matasović, Ranko (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.brill.nl/default.aspx?partid=227&pid=24854">Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic</a>. <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17336-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-17336-1"><bdi>978-90-04-17336-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Etymological+Dictionary+of+Proto-Celtic&rft.series=Leiden+Indo-European+Etymological+Dictionary+Series%2C+9&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-90-04-17336-1&rft.aulast=Matasovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ranko&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.brill.nl%2Fdefault.aspx%3Fpartid%3D227%26pid%3D24854&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatasović2011" class="citation book cs1">Matasović, Ranko (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mudrac.ffzg.hr/~rmatasov/EDPC-Addenda%20et%20corrigenda.pdf">Addenda et corrigenda to Ranko Matasović's Etymological Dictionary of Proto-Celtic</a> (PDF). <a href="/wiki/Indo-European_Etymological_Dictionary" title="Indo-European Etymological Dictionary">Leiden Indo-European Etymological Dictionary Series, 9</a>. <a href="/wiki/Brill_Publishers" title="Brill Publishers">Brill Academic Publishers</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Addenda+et+corrigenda+to+Ranko+Matasovi%C4%87%27s+Etymological+Dictionary+of+Proto-Celtic&rft.series=Leiden+Indo-European+Etymological+Dictionary+Series%2C+9&rft.pub=Brill+Academic+Publishers&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Matasovi%C4%87&rft.aufirst=Ranko&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmudrac.ffzg.hr%2F~rmatasov%2FEDPC-Addenda%2520et%2520corrigenda.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCone1996" class="citation book cs1">McCone, Kim (1996). Towards a Relative Chronology of Ancient and Medieval Celtic Sound Change. <a href="/wiki/Maynooth" title="Maynooth">Maynooth</a>: Department of Old and Middle Irish, <a href="/wiki/St_Patrick%27s_College,_Maynooth" class="mw-redirect" title="St Patrick's College, Maynooth">St. Patrick's College</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-40-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-901519-40-5"><bdi>978-0-901519-40-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Towards+a+Relative+Chronology+of+Ancient+and+Medieval+Celtic+Sound+Change&rft.place=Maynooth&rft.pub=Department+of+Old+and+Middle+Irish%2C+St.+Patrick%27s+College&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=978-0-901519-40-5&rft.aulast=McCone&rft.aufirst=Kim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPedersen,_Holger1913" class="citation book cs1">Pedersen, Holger (1913). Vergleichende Grammatik der keltischen Sprachen. 2. Band, Bedeutungslehre (Wortlehre). <a href="/wiki/G%C3%B6ttingen" title="Göttingen">Göttingen</a>: Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-525-26119-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-525-26119-4"><bdi>978-3-525-26119-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Vergleichende+Grammatik+der+keltischen+Sprachen&rft.place=G%C3%B6ttingen&rft.pub=Vandenhoeck+%26+Ruprecht&rft.date=1913&rft.isbn=978-3-525-26119-4&rft.au=Pedersen%2C+Holger&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver,_Peter1994" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Schrijver_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Schrijver (linguist)">Schrijver, Peter</a> (1994). "The Celtic adverbs for 'against' and 'with' and the early apocope of *-i". Ériu. 45: 151–89.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=%C3%89riu&rft.atitle=The+Celtic+adverbs+for+%27against%27+and+%27with%27+and+the+early+apocope+of+%2A-i&rft.volume=45&rft.pages=151-89&rft.date=1994&rft.au=Schrijver%2C+Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Peter_Schrijver_(linguist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Schrijver (linguist)">Schrijver, Peter</a> (1995). Studies in British Celtic Historical Phonology. <a href="/wiki/Amsterdam" title="Amsterdam">Amsterdam</a>: Rodopi. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-5183-820-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-5183-820-6"><bdi>978-90-5183-820-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Studies+in+British+Celtic+Historical+Phonology&rft.place=Amsterdam&rft.pub=Rodopi&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-90-5183-820-6&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSchrijver2015" class="citation book cs1">Schrijver, Peter (2015). "Pruners and trainers of the Celtic family tree: The rise and development of Celtic in light of language contact". Proceedings of the XIV International Congress of Celtic Studies, Maynooth 2011. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. pp. 191–219.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pruners+and+trainers+of+the+Celtic+family+tree%3A+The+rise+and+development+of+Celtic+in+light+of+language+contact&rft.btitle=Proceedings+of+the+XIV+International+Congress+of+Celtic+Studies%2C+Maynooth+2011&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pages=191-219&rft.pub=Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=2015&rft.aulast=Schrijver&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThurneysen,_Rudolf1946" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Thurneysen" title="Rudolf Thurneysen">Thurneysen, Rudolf</a> (1946). A Grammar of Old Irish. Tr. <a href="/wiki/D._A._Binchy" title="D. A. Binchy">D. A. Binchy</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osborn_Bergin" title="Osborn Bergin">Osborn Bergin</a>. Dublin: Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Grammar+of+Old+Irish&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=Dublin+Institute+for+Advanced+Studies&rft.date=1946&rft.au=Thurneysen%2C+Rudolf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZair2012" class="citation book cs1">Zair, Nicholas (2012). The Reflexes of the Proto-Indo-European Laryngeals in Celtic. Leiden: Brill.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Reflexes+of+the+Proto-Indo-European+Laryngeals+in+Celtic&rft.place=Leiden&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Zair&rft.aufirst=Nicholas&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AProto-Celtic+language" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Proto-Celtic_language&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Proto-Celtic_language" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic language</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">For a list of words relating to Proto-Celtic language, see the <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Category:Proto-Celtic_language" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Category:Proto-Celtic language">Proto-Celtic language category of words</a> in <a href="/wiki/Wiktionary" title="Wiktionary">Wiktionary</a>, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leiden_University" title="Leiden University">Leiden University</a> has compiled <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110711231504/http://www.indo-european.nl/cgi-bin/main.cgi?root=leiden">etymological dictionaries of various IE languages</a>, a project supervised by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Lubotsky" title="Alexander Lubotsky">Alexander Lubotsky</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid 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#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Celtic_languages" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Celtic_languages" title="Template:Celtic languages"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Celtic_languages" title="Template talk:Celtic languages"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic_languages" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Celtic languages"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Celtic_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Celtic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Continental Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine Gaulish</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languages" title="Hispano-Celtic languages">Hispano-Celtic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Noric</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic_languages" title="Insular Celtic languages">Insular Celtic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a> (Brythonic)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reconstructed</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Common Brittonic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Southwestern_Brittonic_languages" title="Southwestern Brittonic languages">Southwestern Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Western_Brittonic_languages" title="Western Brittonic languages">Western Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Welsh" title="Old Welsh">Old Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Welsh" title="Middle Welsh">Middle Welsh</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Pictish</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Classical_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Gaelic">Classical Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish" title="Early Modern Irish">Early Modern Irish</a>/<a href="/wiki/Classical_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Gaelic">Classical Gaelic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Galwegian_Gaelic" title="Galwegian Gaelic">Galwegian Gaelic</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Unknown</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Belgian_language" title="Ancient Belgian language">Ancient Belgian</a>? (possibly hypothetical)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camunic_language" title="Camunic language">Camunic</a>? (possibly related to <a href="/wiki/Rhaetic" title="Rhaetic">Rhaetic</a> or pre-Indo-European)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ligurian_(ancient_language)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ligurian (ancient language)">Ligurian</a>? (possibly independent or pre-Indo-European)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lusitanian_language" title="Lusitanian language">Lusitanian</a>? (possibly <a href="/wiki/Italic_languages" title="Italic languages">Italic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhaetic" title="Rhaetic">Rhaetic</a>? (possibly <a href="/wiki/Tyrsenian_languages" title="Tyrsenian languages">Tyrsenian</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartessian_language" title="Tartessian language">Tartessian</a>? (possibly <a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hispanic_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Hispanic languages">Paleo-Hispanic</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beurla_Reagaird" title="Beurla Reagaird">Beurla Reagaird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic-speaking areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lower_Brittany" title="Lower Brittany">Lower Brittany</a> (Brittany)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Wladfa" title="Y Wladfa">Y Wladfa</a> (Chubut Province, Argentina; Welsh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaeltacht" title="Gaeltacht">Gaeltacht</a> (Ireland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_Breton_Island" title="Cape Breton Island">Cape Breton Island</a> (Nova Scotia; Scottish Gaelic)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A0idhealtachd" title="Gàidhealtachd">Gàidhealtachd</a> (Scotland)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Fro_Gymraeg" title="Y Fro Gymraeg">Y Fro Gymraeg</a> (Wales)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Immersive education</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diwan_(school)" title="Diwan (school)">Diwan</a> (Breton)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skol_Veythrin_Karenza" title="Skol Veythrin Karenza">Skol Veythrin Karenza</a> (Cornish)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelscoil" title="Gaelscoil">Gaelscoil</a> (Irish)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bunscoill_Ghaelgagh" title="Bunscoill Ghaelgagh">Bunscoill Ghaelgagh</a> (Manx)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic-medium_education" title="Scottish Gaelic-medium education">Scottish Gaelic-medium education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-medium_education" title="Welsh-medium education">Welsh-medium education</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Italics indicate <a href="/wiki/Language_death" title="Language death">extinct or ancestor languages</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Celts" title="Template:Celts"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Celts" title="Template talk:Celts"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Celts" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Celts"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Celts_and_modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a> · <a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Celtic studies</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Celtic tribes</a> · <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Celtic languages</a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Peoples" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Peoples</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Ancient Celtic ethnic groups</a> (<a href="/wiki/Names_of_the_Celts" title="Names of the Celts">Names</a>)</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Belgae" title="Belgae">Belgae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Britons" title="Celtic Britons">Britons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caledonians" title="Caledonians">Caledonians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberians" title="Celtiberians">Celtiberians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaeci" title="Gallaeci">Gallaeci</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gauls" title="Gauls">Gauls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatians_(people)" title="Galatians (people)">Galatians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helvetii" title="Helvetii">Helvetii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontii" title="Lepontii">Lepontii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noricum" title="Noricum">Noricum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcae" title="Volcae">Volcae</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celtic ethnic groups</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bretons" title="Bretons">Bretons</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_people" title="Cornish people">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_people" title="Welsh people">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaels" title="Gaels">Gaels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_people" title="Manx people">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_people" title="Scottish people">Scots</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Celtic diaspora</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_diaspora" title="Cornish diaspora">Cornish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_diaspora" title="Scottish diaspora">Scottish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_diaspora" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh diaspora">Welsh diaspora</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related ethnic groups</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Celtic" title="Anglo-Celtic">Anglo-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_Americans" title="Breton Americans">Breton Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_Americans" title="Cornish Americans">Cornish Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/English_people" title="English people">English people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_people" title="Irish people">Irish people</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="8" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Celtic_round_dogs.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/100px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png" decoding="async" width="100" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/150px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Celtic_round_dogs.svg/200px-Celtic_round_dogs.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="1400" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Studies" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_studies" title="Celtic studies">Studies</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Places</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dálriata</a> / <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/British_Iron_Age" title="British Iron Age">Iron Age Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brigantia_(ancient_region)" title="Brigantia (ancient region)">Brigantia (ancient region)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain" title="Roman Britain">Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sub-Roman_Britain" title="Sub-Roman Britain">Sub-Roman Britain</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dumnonia" title="Dumnonia">Dumnonia</a> / <a href="/wiki/Hen_Ogledd" title="Hen Ogledd">Hen Ogledd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaul" title="Gaul">Iron Age Gaul</a> / <a href="/wiki/Roman_Gaul" title="Roman Gaul">Roman Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Britonia" title="Britonia">Britonia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Armorica" title="Armorica">Armorica</a> / <a href="/wiki/Domnon%C3%A9e" title="Domnonée">Domnonée</a> / <a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecia" title="Gallaecia">Gallaecia</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaul" title="Cisalpine Gaul">Cisalpine Gaul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_settlement_of_Southeast_Europe" title="Celtic settlement of Southeast Europe">Balkans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts_in_Transylvania" title="Celts in Transylvania">Transylvania</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatia" title="Galatia">Galatia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ancient religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic_paganism" title="Proto-Celtic paganism">Proto-Celtic religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_religion" title="Ancient Celtic religion">Celtic polytheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_deities" title="Celtic deities">Celtic deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Animism" title="Celtic Animism">Celtic Animism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_mythology" title="Celtic mythology">Celtic mythology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Celtic Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Rite" title="Celtic Rite">Celtic Rites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_stone_idols" title="Celtic stone idols">Celtic stone idolss</a>* <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Monasticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Monasticism">Monasticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Romano-Celtic_temple" title="Romano-Celtic temple">Romano-Celtic temple</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Celtic_pagan_practices" title="Template:Celtic pagan practices">Practices</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Mythology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_mythology" title="Scottish mythology">Scottish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_mythology" title="Welsh mythology">Welsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">British</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_mythology" title="Breton mythology">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_mythology" title="Cornish mythology">Cornish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bard" title="Bard">Bard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brehon" title="Brehon">Brehon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Celtic calendar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Celtic festivals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_women" title="Ancient Celtic women">Celtic women</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celticisation" title="Celticisation">Celticisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chief_of_the_Name" title="Chief of the Name">Chief of the Name</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Derbfine" title="Derbfine">Derbfine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">Druid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan_chief" title="Scottish clan chief">Clan chief</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_astrology" title="Early Irish astrology">Gaelic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fili" class="mw-redirect" title="Fili">Fili</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanistry" title="Tanistry">Tanistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seancha%C3%AD" title="Seanchaí">Seanchaí</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sept" title="Sept">Sept</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BAath" title="Túath">Túath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vates" title="Vates">Vates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_warfare" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic warfare">Warfare</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_coinage" title="Celtic coinage">Coinage</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Modern_Celts" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celts_(modern)" title="Celts (modern)">Modern Celts</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Celtic nations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_union" title="Celtic union">Celtic union</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_rock" title="Celtic rock">Rock</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Celtic_Christianity" title="Neo-Celtic Christianity">Neo-Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_neopaganism" title="Celtic neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Wicca" title="Celtic Wicca">Celtic Wicca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Druidry_(modern)" title="Druidry (modern)">Neo-Druidism</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Nations" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_nations" title="Celtic nations">Nations</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a> definition</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Brittany" title="Brittany">Brittany</a> (Breizh)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a> (Kernow)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> (Éire)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> (Mannin)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a> (Alba)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a> (Cymru)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other claimants</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nova_Scotia" title="Nova Scotia">Nova Scotia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/England" title="England">England</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Y_Wladfa" title="Y Wladfa">Y Wladfa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Culture" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Culture</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_literature" title="Celtic literature">Literature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Matter_of_Britain" title="Matter of Britain">Arthurian Legend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_bardic_poetry" title="Irish bardic poetry">Bardic Poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breton_literature" title="Breton literature">Breton literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_literature" title="Cornish literature">Cornish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_literature" title="Irish literature">Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_literature" title="Scottish literature">Scottish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh-language_literature" title="Welsh-language literature">Welsh-language literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_literature_in_English" title="Welsh literature in English">Welsh literature in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early Irish literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_annals" title="Irish annals">Irish annals</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic literature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Brittany" title="Culture of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Cornwall" title="Culture of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Ireland" title="Culture of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Culture of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Scotland" title="Culture of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Wales" title="Culture of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_art" title="Celtic art">Art</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bell_shrine" title="Bell shrine">Bell shrines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_brooch" title="Celtic brooch">Brooches</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dragonesque_brooch" title="Dragonesque brooch">Dragonesque</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_cross" title="Celtic cross">Celtic cross</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_knot" title="Celtic knot">Knotwork</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_cross" title="High cross">High crosses</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_art" title="Insular art">Insular art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlace_(art)" title="Interlace (art)">Interlace</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_leaf-crown" title="Celtic leaf-crown">Leaf-crowns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_maze" title="Celtic maze">Mazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_stone" title="Pictish stone">Pictish stones</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Torc" title="Torc">Torcs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Triskelion" title="Triskelion">Triple spiral</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clothing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Dress" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic Dress">Celtic Dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_clothing" title="Irish clothing">Gaelic clothing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_dress" title="Highland dress">Highland dress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tartan" title="Tartan">Tartan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Regional cultures</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_Ireland" title="Gaelic Ireland">Gaelic culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Highlands" title="Scottish Highlands">Highland culture</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_music" title="Celtic music">Music</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_music" title="Ancient Celtic music">Ancient Celtic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Breton Folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_folk_music" title="Gaelic folk music">Gaelic music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_traditional_music" title="Irish traditional music">Irish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_folk_music" title="Scottish folk music">Scottish folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_folk_music" title="Welsh folk music">Welsh folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_singing" title="Sean-nós singing">Sean-nós singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnyx" title="Carnyx">Carnyx</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="National_music_scenes" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National music scenes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Brittany" title="Music of Brittany">Brittany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Cornwall" title="Music of Cornwall">Cornwall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folk_music_of_Ireland" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk music of Ireland">Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_the_Isle_of_Man" title="Music of the Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Scotland" title="Music of Scotland">Scotland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Wales" title="Music of Wales">Wales</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_festivals" title="List of Celtic festivals">Festivals</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_calendar" title="Celtic calendar">Calendar</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samhain" title="Samhain">Samhain</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Gaeaf" title="Calan Gaeaf">Calan Gaeaf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imbolc" title="Imbolc">Imbolc</a>/<a href="/wiki/G%C5%B5yl_Fair_y_Canhwyllau" title="Gŵyl Fair y Canhwyllau">Gŵyl Fair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beltane" title="Beltane">Beltane</a>/<a href="/wiki/Calan_Mai" title="Calan Mai">Calan Mai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lughnasadh" title="Lughnasadh">Lughnasadh</a>/<a href="/wiki/Gathering_Day" title="Gathering Day">Calan Awst</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Festival_Interceltique_de_Lorient" title="Festival Interceltique de Lorient">Festival Interceltique de Lorient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pan_Celtic_Festival" title="Pan Celtic Festival">Pan Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebridean_Celtic_Festival" title="Hebridean Celtic Festival">Hebridean Celtic Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Connections" title="Celtic Connections">Celtic Connections</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Media_Festival" title="Celtic Media Festival">Celtic Media Festival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eisteddfod" title="Eisteddfod">Eisteddfod</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sport</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bando_(sport)" title="Bando (sport)">Bando</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bataireacht" class="mw-redirect" title="Bataireacht">Bataireacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camogie" title="Camogie">Camogie</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cammag" title="Cammag">Cammag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cnapan" title="Cnapan">Cnapan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_hurling" title="Cornish hurling">Cornish hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_wrestling" title="Cornish wrestling">Cornish wrestling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curling" title="Curling">Curling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_football" title="Gaelic football">Gaelic football</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ladies%27_Gaelic_football" title="Ladies' Gaelic football">Ladies'</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_handball" title="Gaelic handball">Gaelic handball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gouren" title="Gouren">Gouren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rounders" title="Rounders">Rounders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_games" title="Highland games">Highland games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hurling" title="Hurling">Hurling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_road_bowling" title="Irish road bowling">Road bowls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shinty" title="Shinty">Shinty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_handball" title="Welsh handball">Welsh handball</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Politics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Politics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nationalism</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_nationalism" title="Breton nationalism">Breton nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Breton_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Breton nationalism">history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reunification_of_Brittany" title="Reunification of Brittany">reunification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_nationalism" title="Cornish nationalism">Cornish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Cornwall" title="Constitutional status of Cornwall">status</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_nationalism" title="Irish nationalism">Irish nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_nationalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Manx nationalism">Isle of Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitutional_status_of_Orkney,_Shetland_and_the_Western_Isles" title="Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles">Constitutional status of Orkney, Shetland and the Western Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_nationalism" title="Scottish nationalism">Scottish nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_national_identity" title="Scottish national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_nationalism" title="Welsh nationalism">Welsh nationalism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_national_identity" class="mw-redirect" title="Welsh national identity">national identity</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Autonomy</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_devolution" title="Cornish devolution">Cornish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_devolution" title="Scottish devolution">Scottish devolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_devolution" title="Welsh devolution">Welsh devolution</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independence</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_independence" class="mw-redirect" title="Breton independence">Breton independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_independence" title="Scottish independence">Scottish independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_independence" title="Welsh independence">Welsh independence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_Ireland" title="United Ireland">United Ireland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Irish_republicanism" title="Irish republicanism">Irish republicanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pan-Celticism" title="Pan-Celticism">Pan-Celticism</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_League" title="Celtic League">Celtic League</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Congress" title="Celtic Congress">Celtic Congress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Revival" title="Celtic Revival">Celtic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_society" title="Celtic society">Celtic society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_unity" class="mw-redirect" title="Celtic unity">Celtic unity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columba_Project" title="Columba Project">Columba Project</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages" title="Celtic languages">Languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Brittonic_languages" title="Brittonic languages">Brittonic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Breton_language" title="Breton language">Breton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cornish_language" title="Cornish language">Cornish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Welsh_language" title="Welsh language">Welsh</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Goidelic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Mixed_language" title="Mixed language">Mixed</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shelta" title="Shelta">Shelta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bungi_dialect" title="Bungi dialect">Bungi Creole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beurla_Reagaird" title="Beurla Reagaird">Beurla Reagaird</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Continental_Celtic_languages" title="Continental Celtic languages">Ancient Celtic languages</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Extinct_language" title="Extinct language">Extinct</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Common_Brittonic" title="Common Brittonic">Proto-Brittonic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Proto-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_language" title="Celtiberian language">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaulish" title="Gaulish">Gaulish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galatian_language" title="Galatian language">Galatian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallaecian_language" title="Gallaecian language">Gallaecian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepontic_language" title="Lepontic language">Lepontic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Noric_language" title="Noric language">Noric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cumbric" title="Cumbric">Cumbric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hispano-Celtic_languages" title="Hispano-Celtic languages">Hispano-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cisalpine_Gaulish" title="Cisalpine Gaulish">Cisalpine Gaulish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a> dialects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arran_Gaelic" title="Arran Gaelic">Arran Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deeside_Gaelic" title="Deeside Gaelic">Deeside Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galwegian_Gaelic" title="Galwegian Gaelic">Galwegian Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Law_and_Warfare" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Celtic_law" title="Celtic law">Law</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Early Irish law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyfraith_Hywel" title="Cyfraith Hywel">Cyfraith Hywel</a> (Medieval Welsh law)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Scots_law" title="History of Scots law">Early Scots law</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Celtic_warfare" title="Ancient Celtic warfare">Warfare</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cateran" title="Cateran">Ceathairne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kern_(soldier)" title="Kern (soldier)">Ceithearn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fianna" title="Fianna">Fianna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaesatae" title="Gaesatae">Gaesatae</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gallowglass" title="Gallowglass">Gallóglaigh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hobelar" title="Hobelar">Hobelar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Redshank_(soldier)" title="Redshank (soldier)">Redshanks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trimarcisia" title="Trimarcisia">Trimarcisia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Lists" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Lists</div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_ancient_Celtic_peoples_and_tribes" title="List of ancient Celtic peoples and tribes">Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_deities" title="List of Celtic deities">Deities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_English_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="Lists of English words of Celtic origin">Celtic words in English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Spanish_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Spanish words of Celtic origin">– in Spanish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Galician_words_of_Celtic_origin" title="List of Galician words of Celtic origin">– in Galician</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_French_words_of_Gaulish_origin" title="List of French words of Gaulish origin">Gaulish words in French</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Galicia" title="List of Celtic place names in Galicia">Celtic place names in Galicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Italy" title="List of Celtic place names in Italy">– in Italy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Celtic_place_names_in_Portugal" title="List of Celtic place names in Portugal">– in Portugal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Celts" title="Portal:Celts">Celts portal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/File:Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/16px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/24px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg/32px-Triple-Spiral-4turns_green_transparent.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="639" data-file-height="600" /></a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link 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