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id="toc-Notable_members-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul 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data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="National Congress of American Indians" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/National_Congress_of_American_Indians" title="National Congress of American Indians – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="National Congress of American Indians" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%95%CE%B8%CE%BD%CE%B9%CE%BA%CF%8C_%CE%9A%CE%BF%CE%B3%CE%BA%CF%81%CE%AD%CF%83%CE%BF_%CE%91%CE%BC%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%B1%CE%BD%CF%8E%CE%BD_%CE%99%CE%BD%CE%B4%CE%B9%CE%AC%CE%BD%CF%89%CE%BD" title="Εθνικό Κογκρέσο Αμερικανών Ινδιάνων – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Εθνικό Κογκρέσο Αμερικανών Ινδιάνων" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Congreso_Nacional_de_Ind%C3%ADgenas_Estadounidenses" title="Congreso Nacional de Indígenas Estadounidenses – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Congreso Nacional de Indígenas Estadounidenses" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nasjonaal_Kongres_fan_Amerikaanske_Yndianen" title="Nasjonaal Kongres fan Amerikaanske Yndianen – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Nasjonaal Kongres fan Amerikaanske Yndianen" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E3%82%A4%E3%83%B3%E3%83%87%E3%82%A3%E3%82%A2%E3%83%B3%E5%9B%BD%E6%B0%91%E4%BC%9A%E8%AD%B0" title="アメリカインディアン国民会議 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="アメリカインディアン国民会議" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krajowy_Kongres_Indian_Ameryka%C5%84skich" title="Krajowy Kongres Indian Amerykańskich – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Krajowy Kongres Indian Amerykańskich" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%81_%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%85_%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%B9%D1%86%D0%B5%D0%B2" title="Национальный конгресс американских индейцев – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Национальный конгресс американских индейцев" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amerikan_intiaanien_kansalliskongressi" title="Amerikan intiaanien kansalliskongressi – 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80 years ago</span><span style="display:none"> (<span class="bday dtstart published updated">1944-11-17</span>)</span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Registration no.</th><td class="infobox-data">EIN 53-0210846<sup id="cite_ref-guide_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guide-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Purpose</th><td class="infobox-data">Public affairs, ethnic and racial minority rights, cultural awareness<sup id="cite_ref-guide_1-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guide-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Headquarters</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Tribal_Nations" title="Embassy of Tribal Nations">Embassy of Tribal Nations</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Location</th><td class="infobox-data label"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Washington,_D.C." title="Washington, D.C.">Washington, D.C.</a>, U.S.<sup id="cite_ref-guide_1-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guide-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">President</div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Macarro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Macarro (page does not exist)">Mark Macarro</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pechanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Pechanga">Pechanga</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-rickert23_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickert23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">First Vice President</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Brian Weeden (<a href="/wiki/Mashpee_Wampanoag" class="mw-redirect" title="Mashpee Wampanoag">Mashpee Wampanoag</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-rickert23_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickert23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Secretary</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Nickolaus D. Lewis (<a href="/wiki/Lummi_people" title="Lummi people">Lummi</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-rickert23_2-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickert23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Treasurer</div></th><td class="infobox-data">David Woerz (<a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-rickert23_2-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickert23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Website</th><td class="infobox-data"><span class="url"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ncai.org">ncai<wbr />.org</a></span></td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The <b>National Congress of American Indians</b> (<b>NCAI</b>) is an <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">American Indian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska Native</a> <a href="/wiki/Indigenous_rights" title="Indigenous rights">rights</a> organization.<sup id="cite_ref-guide_1-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guide-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was founded in 1944<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to represent the tribes and resist U.S. federal government pressure for termination of tribal rights and assimilation of their people. These were in contradiction of their <a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">treaty rights</a> and status as <a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">sovereign entities</a>. The organization continues to be an association of federally recognized and state-recognized Indian tribes. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Organization">Organization</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Organization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>NCAI was founded in 1944 and incorporated as a <a href="/wiki/501(c)(4)" class="mw-redirect" title="501(c)(4)">501(c)(4)</a> <a href="/wiki/Nonprofit" class="mw-redirect" title="Nonprofit">nonprofit</a> organization based in Washington, DC, in 1962.<sup id="cite_ref-guide_1-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-guide-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The organizational structure of the National Congress of American Indians includes a General Assembly, an Executive Council, and seven committees. </p><p>In addition to the four executive positions, the NCAI executive board also consists of 12 area vice presidents and 12 alternative area vice presidents.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Chuck Trimble was the former chief executive.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Current_administration">Current administration</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Current administration"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The executive board of the NCAI is as follows: </p> <ul><li>President: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mark_Macarro&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mark Macarro (page does not exist)">Mark Macarro</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pechanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Pechanga">Pechanga</a>)</li> <li>First Vice President: Brian Weeden (<a href="/wiki/Mashpee_Wampanoag" class="mw-redirect" title="Mashpee Wampanoag">Mashpee Wampanoag</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-rickert23_2-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickert23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Secretary: Nickolaus D. Lewis (<a href="/wiki/Lummi_people" title="Lummi people">Lummi</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-rickert23_2-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickert23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Treasurer: David Woerz (<a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a>)<sup id="cite_ref-rickert23_2-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rickert23-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Representatives_of_various_tribes_attending_organizational_meeting_of_the_National_Congress_of_American_Indians..._-_NARA_-_298658.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Representatives_of_various_tribes_attending_organizational_meeting_of_the_National_Congress_of_American_Indians..._-_NARA_-_298658.jpg/220px-Representatives_of_various_tribes_attending_organizational_meeting_of_the_National_Congress_of_American_Indians..._-_NARA_-_298658.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="177" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Representatives_of_various_tribes_attending_organizational_meeting_of_the_National_Congress_of_American_Indians..._-_NARA_-_298658.jpg/330px-Representatives_of_various_tribes_attending_organizational_meeting_of_the_National_Congress_of_American_Indians..._-_NARA_-_298658.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8c/Representatives_of_various_tribes_attending_organizational_meeting_of_the_National_Congress_of_American_Indians..._-_NARA_-_298658.jpg/440px-Representatives_of_various_tribes_attending_organizational_meeting_of_the_National_Congress_of_American_Indians..._-_NARA_-_298658.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2415" /></a><figcaption>Representatives of various tribes attending organizational meeting, 1944; all were alumni of the <a href="/wiki/Carlisle_Indian_School" class="mw-redirect" title="Carlisle Indian School">Carlisle Indian School</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Jt_goombi_usao.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d5/Jt_goombi_usao.jpg/220px-Jt_goombi_usao.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="366" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d5/Jt_goombi_usao.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="260" data-file-height="432" /></a><figcaption>J.T. Goombi (<a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a>), former first vice president of the National Congress of American Indians</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a> have independent governments and distinct cultures, histories, and territories. However, the need to create a unified voice in dealing with the U.S. federal government led to an intertribal coalition. </p><p>In the 20th century, a generation of Native Americans came of age who were educated in intertribal boarding schools. They began thinking with a broad pan-Native American vision and learned to form alliances across tribes. They increasingly felt the need to work together politically to exert their power in dealing with the United States federal government. In addition, with the efforts after 1934 to reorganize tribal governments, activists believed that Indians had to work together to strengthen their political position. Activists formed the National Congress of American Indians to find ways to organize the tribes to deal in a more unified way with the US government. They wanted to challenge the government on its failure to implement treaties, to work against the tribal termination policy, and to improve public opinion of and appreciation for Indian cultures. </p><p>The NCAI's initial organization was largely created by Native American men who worked for the <a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a> (BIA) and represented many tribes. Among this group was <a href="/wiki/D%27Arcy_McNickle" title="D'Arcy McNickle">D'Arcy McNickle</a> of the BIA.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At the second national convention, Indian women attended as representatives in numbers equal to the men. The convention decided that BIA employees should be excluded from serving as general officers or members of the executive committee. The first president of the NCAI was <a href="/wiki/Napoleon_B._Johnson" title="Napoleon B. Johnson">Napoleon B. Johnson</a>, a judge in Oklahoma. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dan_Madrano&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dan Madrano (page does not exist)">Dan Madrano</a> (<a href="/wiki/Caddo" title="Caddo">Caddo</a>) was the first secretary-treasurer; he also had been serving as an elected member of the Oklahoma State Legislature.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From 1945 to 1952, the executive secretary of the NCAI was <a href="/wiki/Ruth_Muskrat_Bronson" title="Ruth Muskrat Bronson">Ruth Muskrat Bronson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a>), who established the organization's legislative news service.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowger199974_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowger199974-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bronson's work was largely voluntary, as the organization could not afford to pay her to act as its executive secretary.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowger199953_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowger199953-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1950, John Rainer became the first paid executive director of NCAI.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowger199969_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowger199969-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He was replaced by Bronson in 1951, who resigned in 1952. Frank George, a <a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_people" class="mw-redirect" title="Nez Perce people">Nez Perce</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Colville_Indian_Reservation" title="Colville Indian Reservation">Colville Indian Reservation</a>, briefly held the post<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowger199974_10-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowger199974-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> before <a href="/wiki/Helen_Peterson" title="Helen Peterson">Helen Peterson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a>-<a href="/wiki/Lakota_people" title="Lakota people">Lakota</a>) took over the post as the executive director of the organization in 1953. That same year, W. W. Short replaced Johnson as president of NCAI.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowger1999110–111_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowger1999110–111-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1954, Short was replaced by Joseph Garry (<a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_people" title="Coeur d'Alene people">Coeur d'Alene</a>), a veteran of both <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Korean_War" title="Korean War">Korean War</a>. Garry significantly enlarged the organizational direction away from its focus on issues of Native Americans in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Plains" title="Great Plains">Great Plains</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Southwestern_United_States" title="Southwestern United States">Southwest</a>, making it more inclusive of tribes in the <a href="/wiki/Midwestern_United_States" title="Midwestern United States">Midwest</a> and <a href="/wiki/Northwestern_United_States" title="Northwestern United States">Northwest</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECowger1999111–112_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECowger1999111–112-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1966, the NCAI mustered nearly 80 tribal leaders from 62 tribes to protest their exclusion from a US-Congress sponsored conference on reorganizing the BIA (Bureau of Indian Affairs). The congressional event was organized by <a href="/wiki/Morris_Udall" class="mw-redirect" title="Morris Udall">Morris Udall</a>, chairman of the House Committee on <a href="/wiki/United_States_Department_of_the_Interior" title="United States Department of the Interior">Interior</a> and <a href="/wiki/Office_of_Insular_Affairs" title="Office of Insular Affairs">Insular Affairs</a>, to discuss the reorganization of the Bureau of Indian Affairs. Udall eventually allowed the NCAI representatives to attend. He confirmed that the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tribal_Advisory_Commission&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tribal Advisory Commission (page does not exist)">Tribal Advisory Commission</a>, composed of tribe members, would be created to advise him.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>During the late 20th century, NCAI contributed to gaining legislation to protect and preserve Indian culture, including <a href="/wiki/NAGPRA" class="mw-redirect" title="NAGPRA">NAGPRA</a>. They worked with the tribes to assert their sovereignty in dealing with the federal government. </p><p>In the early 21st century, key goals of the NCAI are:<sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Enforce for Indians all rights under the Constitution and laws in the United States;</li> <li>Expand and improve educational opportunities provided for Indians;</li> <li>Improve methods for finding productive employment and developing tribal and individual resources;</li> <li>Increase number and quality of health facilities;</li> <li>Settle Indian claims equitably; and</li> <li>Preserve Indian cultural values.</li></ul> <p>On November 3, 2009, the <a href="/wiki/Embassy_of_Tribal_Nations" title="Embassy of Tribal Nations">Embassy of Tribal Nations</a> was opened in Washington D.C.<sup id="cite_ref-obama_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obama-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The building serves as a headquarters and central meeting place for the NCAI.<sup id="cite_ref-obama_20-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-obama-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2013, the NCAI passed a resolution to establish a National American Indian Holocaust Museum space inside a museum of the <a href="/wiki/Smithsonian_Institution" title="Smithsonian Institution">Smithsonian Institution</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-int_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-int-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the Smithsonian has been uncooperative.<sup id="cite_ref-int_21-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-int-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2017, the NCAI took over the assets of the <a href="/wiki/Indian_Country_Media_Network" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Country Media Network">Indian Country Media Network</a>, which were donated by the <a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation" title="Oneida Indian Nation">Oneida Indian Nation</a> in New York. In March 2021, the publication became independent from the NCAI.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> “This is an exciting time for Indian Country Today to become fiscally independent and to continue its tradition of an autonomous free press," NCAI President Fawn Sharp said in a press release regarding the change. “This is a new day for ICT, which has a long history as a premier source of news for and about Indigenous communities, written and produced by Indigenous journalists.” The publication's current president and CEO is Karen Michel, Ho Chunk. </p><p>In 2023, NCAI founded the NCAI Foundation (NCAIF) to promote philanthropy by and for Native American communities.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Constitution">Constitution</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Constitution"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The NCAI Constitution says that its members seek to provide themselves and their descendants with the traditional laws, rights, and benefits. It lists the by-laws and rules of order regarding membership, powers, and dues. There are four classes of membership: tribal, Indian individual, individual associate, and organization associate. Voting rights are reserved for tribal and Indian individual members. According to section B of Article III regarding membership, any tribe, band or group of American Indians and Alaska Natives shall be eligible for tribal membership provided it fulfills the following requirements: </p> <ul><li>A substantial number of its members reside upon the same reservation or (in the absence of a reservation) in the same general locality.</li> <li>It maintain a Tribal organization, with regular officers and the means of transacting business and arriving at a reasonably accurate count of its membership;</li> <li>It is not a mere offshoot or fraction of an organized Tribe itself eligible for membership</li> <li>It is recognized as a Tribe or other identifiable group of Native Americans by the Department of the Interior, Court of Claims, the Indian Claims Commission, or a State. An Indian or Alaska Native organization incorporated/chartered under state law is not eligible for tribal membership.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Achievements">Achievements</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Achievements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The NCAI has maintained a policy of non-protesting. During the 1960s NCAI carried a banner with the slogan, "INDIANS DON'T DEMONSTRATE":<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>In 1949, the NCAI made charges against Federal job bias towards the Indians</li> <li>In 1950, the NCAI influenced the insertion of an anti-reservation clause to the <a href="/wiki/Alaska_Statehood_Act" title="Alaska Statehood Act">Alaska Statehood Act</a>. This clause removes the ban against reservations for Alaskan Natives.</li> <li>On July 8, 1954, NCAI won its fight against legislation that would have allowed the states to take civil and criminal jurisdictions over Indians.</li> <li>On June 19, 1952, a self-help parley was opened in Utah where 50 agents for 12 groups proposed several self-help action plans</li> <li>Indians had annual conventions nationwide and dealt with various topics such as health care, employment, and safety issues<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:1_16-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In 2015 the organization successfully lobbied the State of California to ban the term "<a href="/wiki/Redskin" title="Redskin">redskins</a>" from being used by public schools in the state of California.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Internal_policy_differences">Internal policy differences</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Internal policy differences"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the early 1960s, a shift in attitude occurred. Many young American Indians branded the older generation as sell-outs and called for harsh militancy. Two important militant groups were born: the <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement</a> (AIM) and the <a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council</a> (NIYC). The two groups protested several conventions.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2023, two amendments to the NCAI constitution were proposed which would remove state-recognized tribes from full tribal membership to only associate non-voting tribal membership, as well as require candidates for NCAI national leadership to be enrolled members of federally-recognized tribes. The amendments received the vocal support of the principal chiefs of several federally-recognized tribes including the <a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation" title="Cherokee Nation">Cherokee Nation</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Band_of_Cherokee_Indians" title="Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians">Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians</a>. Ironically the NCAI had been founded to assert both civil and tribal rights by declaring that the common welfare of Native Americans required the preservation of cultural values. After 80 years of existence, NCAI membership has gone from 270 member tribes to 146 member tribes.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ongoing_issues">Ongoing issues</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Ongoing issues"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:National_Congress_of_American_Indians_Baseball_Poster.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="The advertising firm of DeVito/Verdi created a poster for the NCAI in 2001 to highlight stereotypical Native American mascots." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/National_Congress_of_American_Indians_Baseball_Poster.jpg/220px-National_Congress_of_American_Indians_Baseball_Poster.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="137" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1d/National_Congress_of_American_Indians_Baseball_Poster.jpg/330px-National_Congress_of_American_Indians_Baseball_Poster.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/1/1d/National_Congress_of_American_Indians_Baseball_Poster.jpg 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="249" /></a><figcaption>The advertising firm of DeVito/Verdi created a poster for the NCAI to highlight stereotypical Native American mascots.</figcaption></figure> <p>The NCAI has been advocating for improved living conditions on reservations, arguing that 560 tribes are federally recognized but fewer than 20 tribes gain profits from casinos to turn the tribe's economy around. <sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2020)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Other issues and topics include:<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <ul><li>Protection of programs and services to benefit Indian families, specifically targeting Indian Youth and <a href="/wiki/American_Indian_elder" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indian elder">elders</a></li> <li>Promotion and support of Indian education, including Head Start, elementary, post-secondary and Adult Education</li> <li>Enhancement of Indian health care, including prevention of juvenile substance abuse, HIV-AIDS prevention and other major diseases</li> <li>Support of environmental protection and natural resources management</li> <li>Protection of Indian cultural resources and religious freedom rights</li> <li>Promotion of the Rights of Indian economic opportunity both on and off reservations, including securing programs to provide incentives for economic development and the attraction of private capital to Indian Country</li> <li>Protection of the Rights of all Indian people to decent, safe and affordable housing.</li> <li>Spreading of state-specific information on voter ID requirements through its partnership with the non-partisan <a href="/wiki/VoteRiders" title="VoteRiders">VoteRiders</a><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> organization.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>In 2001, the advertising firm of <a href="/wiki/DeVito/Verdi" title="DeVito/Verdi">DeVito/Verdi</a> created an advertising campaign and poster for the NCAI to highlight offensive and racist sports team images and mascots.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In October 2013, the NCAI published a report on sports teams using harmful and racial "Indian" mascots.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Past_leadership">Past leadership</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Past leadership"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Past leadership<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template noprint noexcerpt Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:NOTRS" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:NOTRS"><span title="This claim needs references to better sources. (January 2023)">better source needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Year </th> <th>Meeting location </th> <th>President </th> <th>Executive Director </th></tr> <tr> <td>1944</td> <td>Denver, CO</td> <td>Napoleon B. Johnson, <a href="/wiki/Cherokee" title="Cherokee">Cherokee</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Muskrat_Bronson" title="Ruth Muskrat Bronson">Ruth Muskrat Bronson</a>, Cherokee </td></tr> <tr> <td>1945</td> <td>Browning, MT</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td>Ruth Muskrat Bronson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1946</td> <td>Oklahoma City, OK</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td>Ruth Muskrat Bronson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1947</td> <td>Santa Fe, NM</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td>Ruth Muskrat Bronson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1948</td> <td>Denver, CO</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td>Ruth Muskrat Bronson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1949</td> <td>Rapid City, SD</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Louis_R._Bruce" class="mw-redirect" title="Louis R. Bruce">Louis R. Bruce</a>, <a href="/wiki/St._Regis_Mohawk" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Regis Mohawk">St. Regis Mohawk</a>,<br /> Edward Rogers, <a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Chippewa" class="mw-redirect" title="Minnesota Chippewa">Minnesota Chippewa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1950</td> <td>Bellingham, WA</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td>John C. Rainer, <a href="/wiki/Taos_Pueblo" title="Taos Pueblo">Taos Pueblo</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1951</td> <td>St. Paul, MN</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td>Ruth Muskrat Bronson, Cherokee </td></tr> <tr> <td>1952</td> <td>Denver, CO</td> <td>N.B. Johnson</td> <td>Frank George, <a href="/wiki/Colville_Indian_Reservation" title="Colville Indian Reservation">Colville</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1953</td> <td>Phoenix, AZ</td> <td>Joseph R. Garry, <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_people" title="Coeur d'Alene people">Coeur D'Alene</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Helen_Peterson" title="Helen Peterson">Helen Peterson</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oglala_Lakota" class="mw-redirect" title="Oglala Lakota">Oglala Lakota</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1954</td> <td>Omaha, NE</td> <td>Joseph R. Garry</td> <td>Helen Peterson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1955</td> <td>Spokane, WA</td> <td>Joseph R. Garry</td> <td>Helen Peterson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1956</td> <td>Salt Lake City, UT</td> <td>Joseph R. Garry</td> <td>Helen Peterson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1957</td> <td>Claremore, OK</td> <td>Joseph R. Garry</td> <td>Helen Peterson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1958</td> <td>Missoula, MT</td> <td>Joseph R. Garry</td> <td>Helen Peterson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1959</td> <td>Phoenix, AZ</td> <td>Joseph R. Garry</td> <td>Helen Peterson </td></tr> <tr> <td>1960</td> <td>Denver, CO</td> <td>Walter Wetzel, <a href="/wiki/Blackfeet" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackfeet">Blackfeet</a></td> <td>Robert Burnett, <a href="/wiki/Rosebud_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosebud Sioux">Rosebud Sioux</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1961</td> <td>Lewiston, ID</td> <td>Walter Wetzel</td> <td>Robert Burnett </td></tr> <tr> <td>1962</td> <td>Cherokee, NC</td> <td>Walter Wetzel</td> <td>Robert Burnett </td></tr> <tr> <td>1963</td> <td>Bismarck, ND</td> <td>Walter Wetzel</td> <td>Robert Burnett </td></tr> <tr> <td>1964</td> <td>Sheridan, WY</td> <td>Walter Wetzel</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Vine_Deloria_Jr." title="Vine Deloria Jr.">Vine Deloria Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Standing_Rock_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Rock Sioux">Standing Rock Sioux</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1965</td> <td>Scottsdale, AZ</td> <td>Clarence Wesley, <a href="/wiki/San_Carlos_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="San Carlos Apache">San Carlos Apache</a></td> <td>Vine Deloria, Jr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>1966</td> <td>Oklahoma City, OK</td> <td>Clarence Wesley</td> <td>Vine Deloria, Jr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>1967</td> <td>Portland, OR</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wendell_Chino" title="Wendell Chino">Wendell Chino</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mescalero_Apache" class="mw-redirect" title="Mescalero Apache">Mescalero Apache</a></td> <td>Vine Deloria, Jr. </td></tr> <tr> <td>1968</td> <td>Omaha, NE</td> <td>Wendell Chino</td> <td>John Belindo, <a href="/wiki/Navajo" title="Navajo">Navajo</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kiowa" title="Kiowa">Kiowa</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1969</td> <td>Albuquerque, NM</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Earl_Old_Person" title="Earl Old Person">Earl Old Person</a>, Blackfeet</td> <td>Bruce Wilkie, <a href="/wiki/Makah" title="Makah">Makah</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1970</td> <td>Anchorage, AK</td> <td>Earl Old Person</td> <td>Franklin Ducheneaux, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_River_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne River Sioux">Cheyenne River Sioux</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1971</td> <td>Reno, NV</td> <td>Leon F. Cook, <a href="/wiki/Red_Lake_Chippewa" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Lake Chippewa">Red Lake Chippewa</a></td> <td>Leo W. Vocu, <a href="/wiki/Oglala_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Oglala Sioux">Oglala Sioux</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1972</td> <td>Sarasota, FL</td> <td>Leon F. Cook</td> <td>Charles Trimble, Oglala Sioux </td></tr> <tr> <td>1973</td> <td>Tulsa, OK</td> <td>Mel Tonasket, Colville</td> <td>Charles Trimble </td></tr> <tr> <td>1974</td> <td>San Diego, CA</td> <td>Mel Tonasket</td> <td>Charles Trimble </td></tr> <tr> <td>1975</td> <td>Portland, OR</td> <td>Mel Tonasket</td> <td>Charles Trimble </td></tr> <tr> <td>1976</td> <td>Salt Lake City, UT</td> <td>Mel Tonasket</td> <td>Charles Trimble </td></tr> <tr> <td>1977</td> <td>Dallas, TX</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Veronica_Murdock" title="Veronica Murdock">Veronica L. Murdock</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mohave_people" title="Mohave people">Mohave</a> (<a href="/wiki/Colorado_River_Indian_Tribes" title="Colorado River Indian Tribes">Colorado River Indian Tribes</a>)</td> <td>Charles Trimble </td></tr> <tr> <td>1978</td> <td>Rapid City, SD</td> <td>Veronica L. Murdock</td> <td>Andrew E. Ebona, <a href="/wiki/Tlingit" title="Tlingit">Tlingit</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1979</td> <td>Albuquerque, NM</td> <td>Edward Driving Hawk, Sioux</td> <td>Ronald Andrade, <a href="/wiki/Luise%C3%B1o" title="Luiseño">Luiseño</a>/<a href="/wiki/Kumeyaay" title="Kumeyaay">Kumeyaay</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1980</td> <td>Spokane, WA</td> <td>Edward Driving Hawk</td> <td>Ronald Andrade </td></tr> <tr> <td>1981</td> <td>Anchorage, AK</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Joseph_DeLaCruz" class="mw-redirect" title="Joseph DeLaCruz">Joseph DeLaCruz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Quinault_Indian_Nation" title="Quinault Indian Nation">Quinault</a></td> <td>Ronald Andrade </td></tr> <tr> <td>1982</td> <td>Bismarck, ND</td> <td>Joseph DeLaCruz</td> <td>Ronald Andrade </td></tr> <tr> <td>1983</td> <td>Green Bay, WI</td> <td>Joseph DeLaCruz</td> <td>Silas Whitman, <a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce" title="Nez Perce">Nez Perce</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1984</td> <td>Spokane, WA</td> <td>Joseph DeLaCruz</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Suzan_Shown_Harjo" title="Suzan Shown Harjo">Suzan Shown Harjo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne" title="Cheyenne">Cheyenne</a>/<a href="/wiki/Muscogee" title="Muscogee">Muscogee</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1985</td> <td>Tulsa, OK</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Reuben_Snake" title="Reuben Snake">Reuben A. Snake, Jr.</a>, <a href="/wiki/Winnebago_Tribe_of_Nebraska" title="Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska">Winnebago Tribe of Nebraska</a></td> <td>Suzan Shown Harjo </td></tr> <tr> <td>1986</td> <td>Phoenix, AZ</td> <td>Reuben A. Snake, Jr.</td> <td>Suzan Shown Harjo </td></tr> <tr> <td>1987</td> <td>Tampa, FL</td> <td>Reuben A. Snake, Jr.</td> <td>Suzan Shown Harjo </td></tr> <tr> <td>1988</td> <td>Sioux City, SD</td> <td><a href="/wiki/John_Gonzales_(Tewa_politician)" class="mw-redirect" title="John Gonzales (Tewa politician)">John Gonzales</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Ildefonso_Pueblo" class="mw-redirect" title="San Ildefonso Pueblo">San Ildefonso Pueblo</a></td> <td> <p>Suzan Shown Harjo </p> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1989</td> <td>Oklahoma City, OK</td> <td>John Gonzales</td> <td>Suzan Shown Harjo </td></tr> <tr> <td>1990</td> <td>Albuquerque, NM</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Wayne_Ducheneaux" title="Wayne Ducheneaux">Wayne L. Ducheneaux</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cheyenne_River_Sioux" class="mw-redirect" title="Cheyenne River Sioux">Cheyenne River Sioux</a></td> <td>A. Gay Kingman, Cheyenne River Sioux </td></tr> <tr> <td>1991</td> <td>San Francisco, CA</td> <td>Wayne L. Ducheneaux</td> <td>A. Gay Kingman </td></tr> <tr> <td>1992</td> <td>Arlington, VA</td> <td>gaiashkibos, <a href="/wiki/Lac_Courte_Oreilles" title="Lac Courte Oreilles">Lac Courte Oreilles</a></td> <td>Michael J. Anderson, <a href="/wiki/Muscogee_Creek" class="mw-redirect" title="Muscogee Creek">Creek</a>/<a href="/wiki/Choctaw" title="Choctaw">Choctaw</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1993</td> <td>Reno, NV</td> <td>gaiashkibos</td> <td>Rachel A. Joseph, <a href="/wiki/Shoshone" title="Shoshone">Shoshone</a>/<a href="/wiki/Paiute" title="Paiute">Paiute</a>/<a href="/wiki/Mono_people" title="Mono people">Mono</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1994</td> <td>Denver, CO</td> <td>gaiashkibos</td> <td>JoAnn K. Chase, <a href="/wiki/Mandan" title="Mandan">Mandan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Hidatsa" title="Hidatsa">Hidatsa</a>/<a href="/wiki/Arikara" title="Arikara">Arikara</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>1995</td> <td>San Diego, CA</td> <td>gaiashkibos</td> <td>JoAnn K. Chase </td></tr> <tr> <td>1996</td> <td>Phoenix, AZ</td> <td>W. Ron Allen, <a href="/wiki/Jamestown_S%E2%80%99Klallam" class="mw-redirect" title="Jamestown S’Klallam">Jamestown S’Klallam</a></td> <td>JoAnn K. Chase </td></tr> <tr> <td>1997</td> <td>Santa Fe, NM</td> <td>W. Ron Allen</td> <td>JoAnn K. Chase </td></tr> <tr> <td>1998</td> <td>Myrtle Beach, SC</td> <td>W. Ron Allen</td> <td>JoAnn K. Chase </td></tr> <tr> <td>1999</td> <td>Palm Springs, CA</td> <td>W. Ron Allen</td> <td>JoAnn K. Chase </td></tr> <tr> <td>2000</td> <td>St. Paul, MN</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Susan_Masten" title="Susan Masten">Susan Masten</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yurok" title="Yurok">Yurok</a></td> <td>JoAnn K. Chase </td></tr> <tr> <td>2001</td> <td>Spokane, WA</td> <td>Susan Masten</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson, Tlingit </td></tr> <tr> <td>2002</td> <td>San Diego, CA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Tex_G._Hall" title="Tex G. Hall">Tex G. Hall</a>, Mandan/Hidatsa/Arikara</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson </td></tr> <tr> <td>2003</td> <td>Albuquerque, NM</td> <td>Tex Hall</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson </td></tr> <tr> <td>2004</td> <td>Fort Lauderdale, FL</td> <td>Tex Hall</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson </td></tr> <tr> <td>2005</td> <td>Tulsa, OK</td> <td>Tex Hall</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson </td></tr> <tr> <td>2006</td> <td>Sacramento, CA</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Joe_A._Garcia" title="Joe A. Garcia">Joe A. Garcia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohkay_Owingeh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ohkay Owingeh">Ohkay Owingeh</a></td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson </td></tr> <tr> <td>2007</td> <td>Denver, CO</td> <td>Joe A. Garcia</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson </td></tr> <tr> <td>2008</td> <td>Phoenix, AZ</td> <td>Joe A. Garcia</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2009</td> <td>Palm Springs, CA</td> <td>Joe A. Garcia</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2010</td> <td>Albuquerque, NM</td> <td>Jefferson Keel, <a href="/wiki/Chickasaw" title="Chickasaw">Chickasaw</a></td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2011</td> <td>Portland, OR</td> <td>Jefferson Keel</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2012</td> <td>Sacramento, CA</td> <td>Jefferson Keel</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2013</td> <td>Tulsa, OK</td> <td>Jefferson Keel</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata</td></tr> <tr> <td>2014</td> <td>Atlanta, Georgia</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Brian_Cladoosby" title="Brian Cladoosby">Brian Cladoosby</a>, <a href="/wiki/Swinomish" class="mw-redirect" title="Swinomish">Swinomish</a></td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2015</td> <td>San Diego, CA</td> <td>Brian Cladoosby</td> <td>Jacqueline Johnson Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2016</td> <td>Phoenix, AZ</td> <td>Brian Cladoosby</td> <td>Jacqueline Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2017</td> <td>Milwaukee, WI</td> <td>Brian Cladoosby</td> <td>Jacqueline Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2018</td> <td>Denver, CO</td> <td>Jefferson Keel</td> <td>Jacqueline Pata </td></tr> <tr> <td>2019</td> <td>Albuquerque, NM</td> <td>Jefferson Keel</td> <td>Kevin Allis </td></tr> <tr> <td>2020</td> <td></td> <td>Fawn Sharp, <a href="/wiki/Quinault_Indian_Nation" title="Quinault Indian Nation">Quinault</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2021</td> <td></td> <td>Fawn Sharp</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td>2022</td> <td></td> <td>Fawn Sharp</td> <td>Jefferson Keel </td></tr> <tr> <td>2023</td> <td>New Orleans, LA</td> <td>Mark Macarro, <a href="/wiki/Pechanga" class="mw-redirect" title="Pechanga">Pechanga</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_members">Notable members</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Notable members"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ruth_Muskrat_Bronson" title="Ruth Muskrat Bronson">Ruth Muskrat Bronson</a>, executive director (1944–48) and a specialist in American Indian affairs</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vine_Deloria,_Jr." class="mw-redirect" title="Vine Deloria, Jr.">Vine Deloria, Jr.</a>, executive director (1964–1967). He ended major legislative battles</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Susan_Shown_Harjo" class="mw-redirect" title="Susan Shown Harjo">Susan Shown Harjo</a>, executive director (1984–1989)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._B._Milam" title="J. B. Milam">J. B. Milam</a>: founding member</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ira_Hayes" title="Ira Hayes">Ira Hayes</a>: American hero during the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Iwo_Jima" title="Battle of Iwo Jima">battle of Iwo Jima</a>, and also made a speech in the congress.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nipo_T._Strongheart" class="mw-redirect" title="Nipo T. Strongheart">Nipo T. Strongheart</a> performer-lecturer and <a href="/wiki/Technical_advisor" title="Technical advisor">technical advisor</a> on several Hollywood films involving Native Americans and a cofounder.<sup id="cite_ref-Fisher-at-Oregon_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Fisher-at-Oregon-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Society_of_American_Indians" title="Society of American Indians">Society of American Indians</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=National_Congress_of_American_Indians&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output 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Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.tahlequahdailypress.com/news/lifestyles/cns-byrd-re-elected-to-ncai-district-post/article_550c3e14-4f2c-5d76-a0ad-e0cd8bfe4d8b.html">"CN's Byrd re-elected to NCAI district post"</a>. <i>Tahlequah Daily Press</i>. October 26, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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It states the purpose of the NCAI, the different types of memberships, and the rules and regulations.</small></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCowger1999" class="citation book cs1">Cowger, Thomas W. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/nationalcongress00thom#page/110/mode/1up/search/peterson"><i>The National Congress of American Indians : the founding years</i></a>. Lincoln, Nebraska: University of Nebraska Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1502-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8032-1502-3"><bdi>978-0-8032-1502-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+National+Congress+of+American+Indians+%3A+the+founding+years&rft.place=Lincoln%2C+Nebraska&rft.pub=University+of+Nebraska+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-8032-1502-3&rft.aulast=Cowger&rft.aufirst=Thomas+W.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fnationalcongress00thom%23page%2F110%2Fmode%2F1up%2Fsearch%2Fpeterson&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ANational+Congress+of+American+Indians" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Deloria, Vine Jr. <i>Custer Died for Your Sins: An Indian Manifesto.</i> New York: Avon Books, 1970. <small>This book explores the reality and myths surrounding Indians, the problems of leadership, and modern Indian affairs.</small></li> <li>Johnson, N B. <i>The National Congress of American Indians.</i> <small>Written by the Justice of Supreme Court of Oklahoma and published in the <i>Chronicles of Oklahoma</i>, this article discusses the formation of the NCAI, and Congress'reaction.</small></li> <li><i>Report of Activities, American Association on Indian Affairs, June 1945-May 1946.</i> <small>This article discusses the reasons why a nationwide organization of Indians is so crucial.</small></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.1525/phr.2009.78.3.403?seq=1#page_scan_tab_contents">Shreve, Bradley G. “From Time Immemorial: The Fish-in Movement and the Rise of the Intertribal Activism”</a>, <i>Pacific Historical Review</i> 78.3 (2009): 403–434, via JSTOR</li> <li>Cowger, Thomas W. <i>The National Congress of American Indians: The Founding Years.</i> Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press, 1999.</li></ul> 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href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210202061126/https://www.ncai.org/resources/ncai-publications/Ending_the_Legacy_of_Racism.pdf">Archived</a> February 2, 2021, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output 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autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_topics" title="Template talk:Native American topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Native_American_topics" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native American</a> topics</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="History of Native Americans in the United States">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithic_stage" title="Lithic stage">Lithic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archaic_period_in_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaic period in the Americas">Archaic period in the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Formative_stage" title="Formative stage">Formative stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Classic_stage" title="Classic stage">Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-Classic_stage" title="Post-Classic stage">Post-Classic stage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woodland_period" title="Woodland period">Woodland period</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_trade" title="Native American trade">Trade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Age_of_Discovery" title="Age of Discovery">Age of Discovery</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_colonization_of_the_Americas" title="European colonization of the Americas">European colonization of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_history_of_the_Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Population history of the Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_genocide_in_the_United_States" title="Native American genocide in the United States">Genocide</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Partus_sequitur_ventrem" title="Partus sequitur ventrem">Partus sequitur ventrem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five_Civilized_Tribes" title="Five Civilized Tribes">Five Civilized Tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slavery_among_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Slavery among Native Americans in the United States">Slavery</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Amerindian_slave_ownership" title="Amerindian slave ownership">ownership</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_removal" title="Indian removal">Indian removal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Territory" title="Indian Territory">Indian Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_American_Civil_War" title="Native Americans in the American Civil War">Native Americans in the American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Certificate_Degree_of_Indian_Blood" class="mw-redirect" title="Certificate Degree of Indian Blood">Certificate Degree of Indian Blood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_assimilation_of_Native_Americans" title="Cultural assimilation of Native Americans">Cultural assimilation of Native Americans</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Appropriations_Act" title="Indian Appropriations Act">Indian Appropriations Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racial_Integrity_Act" class="mw-redirect" title="Racial Integrity Act">Racial Integrity Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act_of_1924" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Citizenship Act of 1924">Indian Citizenship Act of 1924</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act_of_1934" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Reorganization Act of 1934">Indian Reorganization Act of 1934</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jim_Crow_laws" title="Jim Crow laws">Jim Crow laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_and_World_War_II" title="Native Americans and World War II">Native Americans and World War II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_schools" title="American Indian boarding schools">American Indian boarding schools</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_boarding_school_gravesites" title="American Indian boarding school gravesites">gravesites</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_rights_movement" title="Civil rights movement">Civil rights movement</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_movement" title="Red Power movement">Native American rights movement/Red Power movement (1968-1977)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Racism_against_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Racism against Native Americans in the United States">Discrimination</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American culture">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam"> Hohokam culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plains_Indians" title="Plains Indians">Plains Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iroquois" title="Iroquois">Iroquois culture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_cuisine" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American cuisine">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_music" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American music">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Film_and_Video_Festival" title="Native American Film and Video Festival">Film</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_Peoples%27_Day_(United_States)" title="Indigenous Peoples' Day (United States)">Indigenous Peoples' Day</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_literature" title="Mesoamerican literature">Mesoamerican literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_fashion" title="Native American fashion">Fashion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Neighborhoods</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_disease_and_epidemics" title="Native American disease and epidemics">Native American disease and epidemics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_identity_in_the_United_States" title="Native American identity in the United States">Native American identity in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pow_wow" class="mw-redirect" title="Pow wow">Pow wow</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_wars" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American wars">Wars</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beaver_Wars" title="Beaver Wars">Beaver Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Powhatan_Wars" title="Anglo-Powhatan Wars">Anglo-Powhatan Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pequot_War" title="Pequot War">Pequot War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kieft%27s_War" title="Kieft's War">Kieft's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peach_Tree_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Peach Tree War">Peach Tree War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Esopus_Wars" title="Esopus Wars">Esopus Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/King_Philip%27s_War" title="King Philip's War">King Philip's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuscarora_War" title="Tuscarora War">Tuscarora War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yamasee_War" title="Yamasee War">Yamasee War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dummer%27s_War" title="Dummer's War">Dummer's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pontiac%27s_War" title="Pontiac's War">Pontiac's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Dunmore%27s_War" title="Lord Dunmore's War">Lord Dunmore's War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Revolutionary_War" title="American Revolutionary War">American Revolutionary War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee%E2%80%93American_wars" title="Cherokee–American wars">Cherokee–American wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northwest_Indian_War" title="Northwest Indian War">Northwest Indian War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/War_of_1812" title="War of 1812">War of 1812</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creek_War" title="Creek War">Creek War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arikara_War" title="Arikara War">Arikara War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a> / <a href="/wiki/Second_Seminole_War" title="Second Seminole War">Second Seminole War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_Indian_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Osage Indian War">Osage Indian War </a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Civil_War" title="American Civil War">American Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Texas%E2%80%93Indian_wars" title="Texas–Indian wars">Texas–Indian wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Wars" title="Comanche Wars">Comanche Wars (1836–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Antelope_Hills_expedition" title="Antelope Hills expedition">Antelope Hills expedition (1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Comanche_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Comanche Campaign">Comanche Campaign (1867–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_River_War" title="Red River War">Red River War (1874–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Buffalo_Hunters%27_War" title="Buffalo Hunters' War">Buffalo Hunters' War (1876–1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cayuse_War" title="Cayuse War">Cayuse War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Apache Wars (1849–1924)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Jicarilla_War" title="Jicarilla War">Jicarilla War (1849–1855)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Chiricahua_Wars" title="Apache Wars">Chiricahua Wars (1860–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Yavapai_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Yavapai War">Tonto War (1871–1875)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Victorio%27s_War" title="Victorio's War">Victorio's War (1879–1880)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Apache_Wars#Geronimo's_War" title="Apache Wars">Geronimo's War (1881–1886)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Post_1887_Apache_Wars_period" class="mw-redirect" title="Post 1887 Apache Wars period">Post 1887 Apache Wars period (1887–1924)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yuma_War" title="Yuma War">Yuma War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute Wars (1850–1923)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Battle_at_Fort_Utah" title="Battle at Fort Utah">Battle at Fort Utah (1850)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Walkara#Walker_War" title="Walkara">Walker War (1853–1854)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Tintic_War" title="Tintic War">Tintic War (1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Black_Hawk_War_(1865%E2%80%9372)" class="mw-redirect" title="Black Hawk War (1865–72)">Black Hawk War (1865–1872)</a> / <a href="/wiki/White_River_War" class="mw-redirect" title="White River War">White River War (1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Ute War (1887)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Bluff_War" title="Bluff War">Bluff War (1914–1915)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ute_Wars" title="Ute Wars">Bluff Skirmish (1921)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Posey_War" title="Posey War">Posey War (1923)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars" title="Sioux Wars">Sioux Wars (1854–1891)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Sioux_Wars#First_Sioux_War" title="Sioux Wars">First Sioux War (1854-1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Dakota_War_of_1862" title="Dakota War of 1862">Dakota War (1862)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Colorado_War" title="Colorado War">Colorado War (1863–1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Powder_River_Expedition_(1865)" title="Powder River Expedition (1865)">Powder River War (1865)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Red_Cloud%27s_War" title="Red Cloud's War">Red Cloud's War (1866–1868)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Great_Sioux_War_of_1876" title="Great Sioux War of 1876">Great Sioux War (1876–1877)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Northern_Cheyenne_Exodus" title="Northern Cheyenne Exodus">Northern Cheyenne Exodus (1878-1879)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Ghost_Dance_War" title="Ghost Dance War">Ghost Dance War (1890–1891)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rogue_River_Wars" title="Rogue River Wars">Rogue River Wars (1855–1856)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yakima_War" title="Yakima War">Yakima War (1855–1858)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Puget_Sound_War" title="Puget Sound War">Puget Sound War (1855–1856)</a> / <a href="/wiki/Coeur_d%27Alene_War" title="Coeur d'Alene War">Coeur d'Alene War (1858)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mohave_War" title="Mohave War">Mohave War (1858–1859)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Wars#American_period" title="Navajo Wars">Navajo Wars (1849–1866)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paiute_War" title="Paiute War">Paiute War (1860)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yavapai_Wars" title="Yavapai Wars">Yavapai Wars (1861–1875)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snake_War" title="Snake War">Snake War (1864–1869)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hualapai_War_(1865%E2%80%9370)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hualapai War (1865–70)">Hualapai War (1865–1870)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modoc_War" title="Modoc War">Modoc War (1872–1873)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nez_Perce_War" title="Nez Perce War">Nez Perce War (1877)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War" title="Bannock War">Bannock War (1878)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crow_War" title="Crow War">Crow War (1887)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bannock_War_of_1895" title="Bannock War of 1895">Bannock Uprising (1895)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yaqui_Uprising" title="Yaqui Uprising">Yaqui Uprising (1896)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Sugar_Point" title="Battle of Sugar Point">Battle of Sugar Point (1898)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crazy_Snake_Rebellion" title="Crazy Snake Rebellion">Crazy Snake Rebellion (1909)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek#Last_Massacre" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Last Massacre (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Kelley_Creek" title="Battle of Kelley Creek">Battle of Kelley Creek (1911)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Bear_Valley" title="Battle of Bear Valley">Battle of Bear Valley (1918)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Education, science<br /> and technology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_studies" title="Native American studies">Native American studies</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Religion</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_religions" title="Native American religions">Native American religions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_people_and_Mormonism" title="Native American people and Mormonism">Native American people and Mormonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_church" class="mw-redirect" title="Native American church">Native American church</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Smudging" title="Smudging">Smudging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sun_Dance" title="Sun Dance">Sun Dance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sweat_lodge" title="Sweat lodge">Sweat lodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longhouse_Religion" title="Longhouse Religion">Longhouse Religion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Political movements</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">National Congress of American Indians</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Movement" title="American Indian Movement">American Indian Movement (AIM)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Power_Movement" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Power Movement">Red Power Movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Alcatraz" title="Occupation of Alcatraz">Occupation of Alcatraz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Broken_Treaties" title="Trail of Broken Treaties">Trail of Broken Treaties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupation_of_Wounded_Knee" class="mw-redirect" title="Occupation of Wounded Knee">Occupation of Wounded Knee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Same-sex_marriage_in_tribal_nations_in_the_United_States" title="Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States">Same-sex marriage in tribal nations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Missing_and_Murdered_Indigenous_Women" title="Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women">Missing and Murdered Indigenous Women</a> (<a href="/wiki/Red_handprint" title="Red handprint">Red handprint</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Native American recognition in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_women_in_politics" title="Native American women in politics">Native American women in politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty" class="mw-redirect" title="Tribal sovereignty">Tribal sovereignty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_Back" title="Land Back">Land Back</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Civic and economic<br />groups</div></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/National_Association_for_the_Advancement_of_Colored_People" class="mw-redirect" title="National Association for the Advancement of Colored People">National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund (NARF)</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">National Congress of American Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Youth_Council" title="National Indian Youth Council">National Indian Youth Council (NIYC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_of_All_Red_Nations" title="Women of All Red Nations">Women of All Red Nations (WARN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Indian_Treaty_Council" title="International Indian Treaty Council">The International Indian Treaty Council (IITC)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Ethnic subdivisions</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_Indians_in_the_United_States" title="Black Indians in the United States">Black Indians in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Indigenous peoples of the Americas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louisiana_Creole_people" title="Louisiana Creole people">Louisiana Creole people</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pretendian" title="Pretendian">Pretendian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Demographics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Modern_social_statistics_of_Native_Americans" title="Modern social statistics of Native Americans">Modern social statistics of Native Americans</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reservation_poverty" title="Reservation poverty">Reservation poverty</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Languages</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/American_English" title="American English">American English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_English" title="American Indian English">American Indian English</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Pidgin_English" title="Native American Pidgin English">Native American Pidgin English</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_languages_of_the_Americas" title="Indigenous languages of the Americas">Native American languages</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By state/city</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_U.S._communities_with_Native_American_majority_populations" class="mw-redirect" title="List of U.S. communities with Native American majority populations">List</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Natives" title="Alaska Natives">Alaska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Arizona" title="Indigenous peoples of Arizona">Arizona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_California" title="Indigenous peoples of California">California</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Indigenous_People_of_Colorado" title="Template:Indigenous People of Colorado">Colorado</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_peoples_of_Florida" title="Indigenous peoples of Florida">Florida</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_Hawaiians" title="Native Hawaiians">Hawaii</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indians_of_Iowa" class="mw-redirect" title="American Indians of Iowa">Iowa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_Americans_in_Maryland" title="Template:Native Americans in Maryland">Maryland</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Native_Americans_in_Baltimore" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Native Americans in Baltimore">Baltimore</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Michigan" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Michigan">Michigan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Nebraska" title="Native American tribes in Nebraska">Nebraska</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_North_Carolina" title="Template:Native American Tribes in North Carolina">North Carolina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Tribes_in_Oklahoma" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Native American Tribes in Oklahoma">Oklahoma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_peoples_of_Oregon" title="Native American peoples of Oregon">Oregon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_tribes_in_Virginia" title="Native American tribes in Virginia">Virginia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_Tribes_in_Wisconsin" title="Template:Native American Tribes in Wisconsin">Wisconsin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_of_the_United_States" title="List of Native Americans of the United States">Native Americans</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_artists" title="List of Native American artists">artists</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_actors" title="List of Native American actors">actors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_leaders_of_the_Indian_Wars" title="List of Native American leaders of the Indian Wars">Native American War Leaders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_musicians" title="List of Native American musicians">musicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States_Congress" title="List of Native Americans in the United States Congress">Native American politicians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writers_from_peoples_indigenous_to_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="List of writers from peoples indigenous to the Americas">writers</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Native_American_Medal_of_Honor_recipients" title="List of Native American Medal of Honor recipients">Native American Medal of Honor recipients</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes" class="mw-redirect" title="List of federally recognized tribes">List of federally recognized tribes</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_by_state" title="List of federally recognized tribes by state">by state</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State-recognized tribes in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_reservations_in_the_United_States" title="List of Indian reservations in the United States">List of Indian reservations in the United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Indian_massacres_in_North_America" title="List of Indian massacres in North America">Massacres</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Native_American_culture" title="Category:Native American culture">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" title="Portal:Indigenous peoples of the Americas">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background:#F0E68C;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Native_American_rights" title="Template talk:Native American rights"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Native_American_rights" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Native American rights"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Rights_of_Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Rights</a> of <a href="/wiki/Native_Americans_in_the_United_States" title="Native Americans in the United States">Native Americans in the United States</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Case law</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Johnson_v._McIntosh" title="Johnson v. McIntosh">Johnson v. McIntosh</a></i> (1823)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_v._Georgia" title="Cherokee Nation v. Georgia">Cherokee Nation v. Georgia</a></i> (1831)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Worcester_v._Georgia" title="Worcester v. Georgia">Worcester v. Georgia</a></i> (1832)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fellows_v._Blacksmith" title="Fellows v. Blacksmith">Fellows v. Blacksmith</a></i> (1857)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/New_York_ex_rel._Cutler_v._Dibble" title="New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble">New York ex rel. Cutler v. Dibble</a></i> (1858)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Standing_Bear_v._Crook" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing Bear v. Crook">Standing Bear v. Crook</a></i> (D. Neb. 1879)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ex_parte_Crow_Dog" title="Ex parte Crow Dog">Ex parte Crow Dog</a></i> (1883)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elk_v._Wilkins" title="Elk v. Wilkins">Elk v. Wilkins</a></i> (1884)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Seneca_Nation_of_Indians_v._Christy" title="Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy">Seneca Nation of Indians v. Christy</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Talton_v._Mayes" title="Talton v. Mayes">Talton v. Mayes</a></i> (1896)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lone_Wolf_v._Hitchcock" title="Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock">Lone Wolf v. Hitchcock</a></i> (1903)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Santa_Fe_Pacific_Railroad_Co." title="United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.">United States v. Santa Fe Pacific Railroad Co.</a></i> (1941)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Tee-Hit-Ton_Indians_v._United_States" title="Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States">Tee-Hit-Ton Indians v. United States</a></i> (1955)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Williams_v._Lee" title="Williams v. Lee">Williams v. Lee</a></i> (1959)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Federal_Power_Commission_v._Tuscarora_Indian_Nation" title="Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation">Federal Power Commission v. Tuscarora Indian Nation</a></i> (1960)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Menominee_Tribe_v._United_States" title="Menominee Tribe v. United States">Menominee Tribe v. United States</a></i> (1968)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/McClanahan_v._Arizona_State_Tax_Commission" title="McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission">McClanahan v. Arizona State Tax Commission</a></i> (1973)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_v._County_of_Oneida" title="Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida">Oneida Indian Nation of New York v. County of Oneida</a></i> (1974)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Bryan_v._Itasca_County" title="Bryan v. Itasca County">Bryan v. Itasca County</a></i> (1976)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Antelope" title="United States v. Antelope">United States v. Antelope</a></i> (1977)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Santa_Clara_Pueblo_v._Martinez" title="Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez">Santa Clara Pueblo v. Martinez</a></i> (1978)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Merrion_v._Jicarilla_Apache_Tribe" title="Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe">Merrion v. Jicarilla Apache Tribe</a></i> (1982)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Solem_v._Bartlett" title="Solem v. Bartlett">Solem v. Bartlett</a></i> (1984)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/County_of_Oneida_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York_State" title="County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State">County of Oneida v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York State</a></i> (1985)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Carolina_v._Catawba_Indian_Tribe,_Inc." title="South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.">South Carolina v. Catawba Indian Tribe, Inc.</a></i> (1986)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Hodel_v._Irving" title="Hodel v. Irving">Hodel v. Irving</a></i> (1987)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Mississippi_Band_of_Choctaw_Indians_v._Holyfield" title="Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield">Mississippi Band of Choctaw Indians v. Holyfield</a></i> (1989)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Duro_v._Reina" title="Duro v. Reina">Duro v. Reina</a></i> (1990)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/South_Dakota_v._Bourland" title="South Dakota v. Bourland">South Dakota v. Bourland</a></i> (1993)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._Coeur_d%27Alene_Tribe_of_Idaho" title="Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho">Idaho v. Coeur d'Alene Tribe of Idaho</a></i> (1997)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Idaho_v._United_States" title="Idaho v. United States">Idaho v. United States</a></i> (2001)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Lara" title="United States v. Lara">United States v. Lara</a></i> (2004)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/City_of_Sherrill_v._Oneida_Indian_Nation_of_New_York" title="City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York">City of Sherrill v. Oneida Indian Nation of New York</a></i> (2005)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Cobell_v._Salazar" title="Cobell v. Salazar">Cobell v. Salazar</a></i> (D.C. Cir. 2009)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Adoptive_Couple_v._Baby_Girl" title="Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl">Adoptive Couple v. Baby Girl</a></i> (2013)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Sharp_v._Murphy" title="Sharp v. Murphy">Sharp v. Murphy</a> </i>and<i> <a href="/wiki/McGirt_v._Oklahoma" title="McGirt v. Oklahoma">McGirt v. Oklahoma</a></i> (2020)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_v._Castro-Huerta" title="Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta">Oklahoma v. Castro-Huerta</a></i> (2022)</li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_United_States_Supreme_Court_cases_involving_Indian_tribes" title="List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes">List of United States Supreme Court cases involving Indian tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Legislation</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blood_quantum_laws" title="Blood quantum laws">Blood quantum laws</a> (1705 onwards)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonintercourse_Act" title="Nonintercourse Act">Nonintercourse Act</a> (1790,1793,1796,1799,1802,1834)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civilization_Fund_Act" title="Civilization Fund Act">Civilization Act</a> (1819)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Removal_Act" title="Indian Removal Act">Indian Removal Act</a> (1830)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Act" title="Dawes Act">Dawes Act</a> (1887)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Curtis_Act_of_1898" title="Curtis Act of 1898">Curtis Act</a> (1898)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Burke_Act" title="Burke Act">Burke Act</a> (1906)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Citizenship_Act" title="Indian Citizenship Act">Indian Citizenship Act</a> (1924)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Reorganization_Act" title="Indian Reorganization Act">Indian Reorganization Act</a> (1934)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_arts_and_crafts_laws" title="Indian arts and crafts laws">Indian arts and crafts laws</a> (1935–2019)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oklahoma_Indian_Welfare_Act" title="Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act">Oklahoma Indian Welfare Act</a> (1936)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nationality_Act_of_1940" title="Nationality Act of 1940">Nationality Act</a> (1940)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_Law_280" title="Public Law 280">Public Law 280</a> (1953)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Relocation_Act_of_1956" title="Indian Relocation Act of 1956">Indian Relocation Act</a> (1956)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Civil_Rights_Act_of_1968" title="Civil Rights Act of 1968">Indian Civil Rights Act</a> (1968)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alaska_Native_Claims_Settlement_Act" title="Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act">Alaska Native Claims Settlement Act</a> (1971)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Self-Determination_and_Education_Assistance_Act_of_1975" title="Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act of 1975">Indian Self-Determination and Education Assistance Act</a> (1975)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/American_Indian_Religious_Freedom_Act" title="American Indian Religious Freedom Act">American Indian Religious Freedom Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Child_Welfare_Act" title="Indian Child Welfare Act">Indian Child Welfare Act</a> (1978)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diminishment" title="Diminishment">Diminishment</a> (1984)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Gaming_Regulatory_Act" title="Indian Gaming Regulatory Act">Indian Gaming Regulatory Act</a> (1988)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Languages_Act_of_1990" title="Native American Languages Act of 1990">Native American Languages Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Arts_and_Crafts_Act_of_1990" title="Indian Arts and Crafts Act of 1990">Indian Arts and Crafts Act</a> (1990)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Nation_Truth_in_Advertising_for_Native_Art" title="Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art">Cherokee Nation Truth in Advertising for Native Art</a> (2008)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Native_American_recognition_in_the_United_States" title="Native American recognition in the United States">Federal</a> and<br /><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/United_States_federal_recognition_of_Native_Hawaiians" title="United States federal recognition of Native Hawaiians">Federal recognition of Native Hawaiians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Legal_status_of_Hawaii" title="Legal status of Hawaii">Legal status of Hawaii</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_federally_recognized_tribes_in_the_contiguous_United_States" title="List of federally recognized tribes in the contiguous United States">Federally recognized tribes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/State-recognized_tribes_in_the_United_States" title="State-recognized tribes in the United States">State recognized tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#F0E68C;;width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aboriginal_title_in_the_United_States" title="Aboriginal title in the United States">Aboriginal title</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bureau_of_Indian_Affairs" title="Bureau of Indian Affairs">Bureau of Indian Affairs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_Commission" title="Cherokee Commission">Cherokee Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dawes_Rolls" title="Dawes Rolls">Dawes Rolls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Declaration_on_the_Rights_of_Indigenous_Peoples" title="Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples">Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eagle_feather_law" title="Eagle feather law">Eagle feather law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Eagle-bone_whistle" title="Eagle-bone whistle">Eagle-bone whistle</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hunting_license" title="Hunting license">Hunting license</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/In_the_Courts_of_the_Conqueror" title="In the Courts of the Conqueror">In the Courts of the Conqueror</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_reservation" title="Indian reservation">Indian reservations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_Walk_of_the_Navajo" title="Long Walk of the Navajo">Long Walk of the Navajo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Indian_Gaming_Commission" title="National Indian Gaming Commission">National Indian Gaming Commission</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_civil_rights" title="Native American civil rights">Native American civil rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_gaming" title="Native American gaming">Native American gaming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Rights_Fund" title="Native American Rights Fund">Native American Rights Fund</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recognition_of_Native_American_sacred_sites_in_the_United_States" title="Recognition of Native American sacred sites in the United States">Recognition of sacred sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seminole_Wars" title="Seminole Wars">Seminole Wars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Survivance" title="Survivance">Survivance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trail_of_Tears" title="Trail of Tears">Trail of Tears</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Treaty_rights" title="Treaty rights">Treaty rights</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tribal_sovereignty_in_the_United_States" title="Tribal sovereignty in the United States">Tribal sovereignty</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_self-determination" title="Native American self-determination">Self-determination</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/United_States_Congressional_Joint_Special_Committee_on_Conditions_of_Indian_Tribes" title="United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes">United States Congressional Joint Special Committee on Conditions of Indian Tribes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div 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