R Tutorial | Learn R Programming

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target="_self">Beginner's DSA Sheet</a></li><li class="mega-dropdown__list-item" data-child="true" aria-expanded="false" data-expandable="false"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/explore?page=1&sprint=50746f92a895c22a50504ac0c1fb9c84&sortBy=submissions&sprint_name=Top 50 Array Problems&itm_source=geeksforgeeks&itm_medium=main_header_outIndia&itm_campaign=DSA_Header" target="_self">Top 50 Array Problems</a></li><li class="mega-dropdown__list-item" data-child="true" aria-expanded="false" data-expandable="false"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/explore?page=1&sprint=57184072610b884e5df3584cc534115d&sortBy=submissions&sprint_name=Top 50 String Problems&itm_source=geeksforgeeks&itm_medium=main_header_outIndia&itm_campaign=DSA_Header" target="_self">Top 50 String Problems</a></li><li class="mega-dropdown__list-item" data-child="true" aria-expanded="false" data-expandable="false"><a 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Problems</a></li></ul></li></ul></li><li class="mega-dropdown__list-item" data-child="true" aria-expanded="false" data-expandable="false"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/competitive-programming-a-complete-guide/?ref=outind" target="_self">Competitive Programming</a></li><li class="mega-dropdown__list-item" data-parent="false" aria-expanded="true" data-expandable="true"><span>Company Wise SDE Sheets</span><i class="gfg-icon gfg-icon_arrow-right"></i><ul class="mega-dropdown Screen_2"><li class="mega-dropdown__list-item" data-child="true" aria-expanded="false" data-expandable="false"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/facebookmeta-sde-sheet-interview-questions-and-answers/?ref=outind" target="_self">Facebook SDE Sheet</a></li><li class="mega-dropdown__list-item" data-child="true" aria-expanded="false" data-expandable="false"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/amazon-sde-sheet-interview-questions-and-answers/?ref=outind" target="_self">Amazon SDE Sheet</a></li><li 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<span>Share</span> </div> </div> </div> <div class="article--viewer_report tooltip"> <div class="three_dot_dropdown_div three_dot_dropdown_reportarticle"> <div class="three_dot_dropdown_inner_div" data-gfg-action="report-article" onclick="report_article();"> <i class="gfg-icon gfg-icon_report"></i> <span>Report</span> </div> </div>  </div> <div class="article--viewer_Gnews tooltip"> <a class="three_dot_dropdown_inner_div Gnews_wrapper" href ='https://news.google.com/publications/CAAqBwgKMLTrzwsw44bnAw?hl=en-IN&gl=IN&ceid=IN%3Aen' target="_blank"> <img class="gfg-icon_Gnews no-zoom-in-cursor" src=https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/auth-dashboard-uploads/Google-news.svg loading="lazy" alt="News"></img> <span class='kebab_menu_news_text'>Follow</span> </a> </div> </div> </div> <div class="text"> <p dir="ltr"><b><strong>R</strong></b><span> is an </span><b><strong>interpreted </strong></b><span>programming language widely used for statistical computing, data analysis and visualization. R language is open-source with large community support. R provides structured approach to data manipulation, along with decent libraries and packages like Dplyr, Ggplot2, shiny, Janitor and more.</span></p> <h2><span>Hello World Program in R Language </span></h2><p dir="ltr"><span>Here is an example of the first Hello World program in R Programming Language. To print in R language you just need to use a Print function.</span></p><div id="GFG_AD_gfg_mobile_336x280" style="margin: 5px 0;"></div> <gfg-tabs data-run-ide="false" data-mode="light"> <gfg-tab slot="tab">R</gfg-tab> <gfg-panel slot="panel" data-code-lang="r"> <code class="language-r"><div class=highlight><pre><span></span><span class=c1># Code</span> <span class=nf>print</span><span class=p>(</span><span class=s>"Hello World!"</span><span class=p>)</span> </pre></div></code> </gfg-panel></gfg-tabs><p dir="ltr"><span>Output</span></p> <pre><span>Hello World! </span></pre><h2><span>R-Basics</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-to-r-programming-language/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to R Programming Language</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/interesting-facts-about-r-programming-language/" target="_blank"><span>Interesting Facts about R</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-vs-python/" target="_blank"><span>R vs Python</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-to-install-r-studio-on-windows-and-linux/" target="_blank"><span>How to Install R Studio on Windows and Linux?</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/creation-and-execution-of-r-file-in-r-studio/" target="_blank"><span>Creation and Execution of R File in R Studio</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/hello-world-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Hello World in R Programming</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Fundamentals of R</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/basic-syntax-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Basic Syntax</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/comments-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Comments</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-operators/" target="_blank"><span>Operators</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-keywords/" target="_blank"><span>Keywords</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-data-types/" target="_blank"><span>Data Types</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Variables</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-variables/" target="_blank"><span>Variables</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/scope-of-variable-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Scope of Variable</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dynamic-scoping-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Dynamic Scoping</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/lexical-scoping-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Lexical Scoping</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/lexical-scoping-vs-dynamic-scoping-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Lexical Scoping vs Dynamic Scoping</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Input and Output</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/taking-input-from-user-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Taking Input from User</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/printing-output-of-an-r-program/" target="_blank"><span>Printing Output of R Program</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/print-the-argument-to-the-screen-in-r-programming-print-function/" target="_blank"><span>Print the Argument to the Screen – print() Function</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Data Structures</span></h2><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-structures-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Data Structures</span></a></p> <h3><span>Vectors</span></h3><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-vector/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Vectors</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/operations-on-vectors-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Operations on Vectors</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/append-operation-on-vectors-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Append Operation on Vectors</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dot-product-of-vectors-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Dot Product of Vectors</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-vectors-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Types of Vectors</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/assigning-vectors-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Assigning Vectors </span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/getting-and-setting-length-of-the-vectors-in-r-programming-length-function/" target="_blank"><span>Length of Vectors – length() Function</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/creating-a-vector-of-sequenced-elements-in-r-programming-seq-function/" target="_blank"><span>Creating a Vector of sequenced elements – seq() Function</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-the-minimum-and-maximum-element-of-a-vector-in-r-programming-range-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get Min and Max element of a Vector – range() Function</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/formatting-numbers-and-strings-in-r-programming-format-function/" target="_blank"><span>Formatting Numbers and Strings – format() Function</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/replace-the-elements-of-a-vector-in-r-programming-replace-function/" target="_blank"><span>Replace the Elements of a Vector – replace() Function</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sorting-of-a-vector-in-r-programming-sort-function/" target="_blank"><span>Sorting of a Vector – sort() Function</span></a></li><li value="13"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-elements-of-a-vector-to-strings-in-r-language-tostring-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert elements of a Vector to Strings – toString() Function</span></a></li><li value="14"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/extracting-substrings-from-a-character-vector-in-r-programming-substring-function/" target="_blank"><span>Extracting Substrings from a Character Vector – substring() Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-vector-function/" target="_blank"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on Vectors</strong></b></a></p> <h3><span>Lists</span></h3><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-lists/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Lists</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/two-dimensional-list-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Two Dimensional List</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/operations-on-lists-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Operations on Lists</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/list-of-vectors-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>List of Vectors</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/list-of-dataframes-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>List of Dataframes</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/named-list-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Named List</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/check-if-the-object-is-a-list-in-r-programming-is-list-function/" target="_blank"><span>Check if the Object is a List – is.list() Function</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-an-object-to-list-in-r-programming-as-list-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert an Object to List – as.list() Function</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/apply-a-function-over-a-list-of-elements-in-r-programming-lapply-function/" target="_blank"><span>Apply a Function over a List of elements – lapply() Function</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/performing-operations-on-multiple-lists-simultaneously-in-r-programming-mapply-function/" target="_blank"><span>Operations on Multiple Lists simultaneously – mapply() Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-list-function/" target="_blank"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on Lists</strong></b></a></p> <h3><span>Matrices</span></h3><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-matrices/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Matrices</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/create-matrix-from-vectors-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Create Matrix from Vectors</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/operations-on-matrices-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Operations on Matrices</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/matrix-multiplication-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Matrix Multiplication</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/algebraic-operations-on-a-matrix-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Algebraic Operations on a Matrix</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/combining-matrices-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Combining Matrices</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/matrix-transpose-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Matrix Transpose</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/inverse-of-matrix-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Inverse of Matrix</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-sparse-matrices-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Working with Sparse Matrices</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/check-if-the-object-is-a-matrix-in-r-programming-is-matrix-function/" target="_blank"><span>Check if the Object is a Matrix – is.matrix() Function</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-an-object-into-a-matrix-in-r-programming-as-matrix-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert an Object into a Matrix – as.matrix() Function</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-or-set-dimensions-of-a-matrix-in-r-programming-dim-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get or Set Dimensions of a Matrix – dim() Function</span></a></li><li value="13"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/calculate-cumulative-sum-of-a-numeric-object-in-r-programming-cumsum-function/" target="_blank"><span>Calculate Cumulative Sum of a Numeric Object – cumsum() Function</span></a></li><li value="14"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/compute-the-sum-of-rows-of-a-matrix-or-array-in-r-programming-rowsums-function/" target="_blank"><span>Compute the Sum of Rows of a Matrix or Array – rowSums Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-matrix-function/" target="_blank"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on Matrices</strong></b></a></p><div id="GFG_AD_Desktop_InContent_ATF_336x280" style="text-align:center; max-height: 280px;"></div><div id="GFG_AD_gfg_mobile_336x280_1" style="margin: 5px 0;"></div> <h3><span>DataFrames</span></h3><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-data-frames/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Data Frames</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/matrix-vs-dataframe-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Matrix vs Dataframe</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dataframe-operations-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>DataFrame Operations</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-dataframe-manipulation/" target="_blank"><span>DataFrame Manipulation</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/joining-of-dataframes-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Joining of Dataframes</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/the-factor-issue-in-a-dataframe-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>The Factor Issue in a DataFrame</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-reshaping-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Data Reshaping</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/creating-a-data-frame-from-vectors-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Creating a Data Frame from Vectors</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-wrangling-in-r-programming-data-transformation/" target="_blank"><span>Data Wrangling – Data Transformation</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-wrangling-in-r-programming-working-with-tibbles/" target="_blank"><span>Data Wrangling – Working with Tibbles</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/melting-and-casting-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Melting and Casting</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/subsetting-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Subsetting of DataFrames</span></a></li><li value="13"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/handling-missing-values-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Handling Missing Values</span></a></li><li value="14"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-an-object-to-data-frame-in-r-programming-as-data-frame-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert an Object to Data Frame – as.data.frame() Function</span></a></li><li value="15"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-the-number-of-columns-of-an-object-in-r-programming-ncol-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get the number of columns of an Object – ncol() Function</span></a></li><li value="16"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-the-number-of-rows-of-an-object-in-r-programming-nrow-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get the number of rows of an Object – nrow() Function</span></a></li><li value="17"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-addition-of-the-objects-passed-as-arguments-in-r-programming-sum-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get Addition of the Objects passed as Arguments – sum() Function</span></a></li><li value="18"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/create-subsets-of-a-data-frame-in-r-programming-subset-function/" target="_blank"><span>Create Subsets of a Data frame – subset() Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-dataframe-function/"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on DataFrames</strong></b></a></p><div id="_GFG_ABP_Incontent_728x90" style="text-align:center;"></div> <h3><span>Arrays</span></h3><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-array/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Arrays</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/multidimensional-array-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Multidimensional Array</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/array-operations-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Array Operations</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/sorting-of-arrays-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Sorting of Arrays</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-values-of-an-object-to-logical-vector-in-r-programming-as-logical-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert values of an Object to Logical Vector – as.logical() Function</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/performing-different-operations-on-two-arrays-in-r-programming-outer-function/" target="_blank"><span>Performing different Operations on Two Arrays – outer() Function</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/intersection-of-two-objects-in-r-programming-intersect-function/" target="_blank"><span>Intersection of Two Objects – intersect() Function</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-exclusive-elements-between-two-objects-in-r-programming-setdiff-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get Exclusive Elements between Two Objects – setdiff() Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-array-functions/" target="_blank"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on Arrays</strong></b></a></p> <h3><span>Factors</span></h3><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-factors/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Factors</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/level-ordering-of-factors-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Level Ordering of Factors</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-factor-to-numeric-and-numeric-to-factor-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Convert Factor to Numeric and Numeric to Factor</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/check-if-a-factor-is-an-ordered-factor-in-r-programming-is-ordered-function/" target="_blank"><span>Check if a Factor is an Ordered Factor – is.ordered() Function</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-an-unordered-factor-to-an-ordered-factor-in-r-programming-as-ordered-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert Unordered Factor to Ordered Factor  – as.ordered() Function</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/checking-if-the-object-is-a-factor-in-r-programming-is-factor-function/" target="_blank"><span>Checking if the Object is a Factor – is.factor() Function</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-a-vector-into-factor-in-r-programming-as-factor-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert a Vector into Factor – as.factor() Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-factor-function/" target="_blank"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on Factors</strong></b></a></p> <h3><span>Strings</span></h3><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-strings/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Strings</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-text-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Working with Text</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/string-manipulation-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>String Manipulation</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/concatenate-two-strings-in-r-programming-paste-method/" target="_blank"><span>Concatenate Two Strings</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/string-matching-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>String Matching</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-to-find-substring-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>How to find a SubString?</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/finding-the-length-of-string-in-r-programming-nchar-method/" target="_blank"><span>Finding the length of string – nchar() method</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/adding-elements-in-a-vector-in-r-programming-append-method/" target="_blank"><span>Adding elements in a vector – append() method</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-string-from-lowercase-to-uppercase-in-r-programming-toupper-function/" target="_blank"><span>Convert string from Lowercase to Uppercase – toupper() function</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/convert-string-from-uppercase-to-lowercase-in-r-programming-tolower-method/" target="_blank"><span>Convert String from Uppercase to Lowercase – tolower() method</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/splitting-strings-in-r-programming-strsplit-method/" target="_blank"><span>Splitting Strings – strsplit() method</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/print-a-formatted-string-in-r-programming-sprintf-function/" target="_blank"><span>Print a Formatted string – sprintf() Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-string-functions/" target="_blank"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on Strings</strong></b></a></p> <h2><span>Decision Making</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/decision-making-in-r-programming-if-if-else-if-else-if-ladder-nested-if-else-and-switch/" target="_blank"><span>Decision Making</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-if-statement/" target="_blank"><span>if statement</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-if-else-statement/" target="_blank"><span>if-else statement</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/switch-case-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Switch case</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Control Flow</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/control-statements-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Control Statements</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/loops-in-r-for-while-repeat/" target="_blank"><span>Loops (for, while, repeat)</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/for-loop-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>For loop</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-while-loop/" target="_blank"><span>while loop</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-repeat-loop/" target="_blank"><span>Repeat loop</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/goto-statement-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>goto statement</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/break-and-next-statements-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Break and Next statements</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-next-statement/" target="_blank"><span>Next Statement</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Functions</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/functions-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Functions</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/function-arguments-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Function Arguments</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-functions-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Types of Functions</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/recursive-functions-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Recursive Functions</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/conversion-functions-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Conversion Functions</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Object Oriented Programming</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-object-oriented-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Object-Oriented Programming</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/classes-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Classes</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-objects/" target="_blank"><span>Objects</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/encapsulation-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Encapsulation</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/polymorphism-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Polymorphism</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-inheritance/" target="_blank"><span>Inheritance</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/abstraction-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Abstraction</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/looping-over-objects-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Looping over Objects</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-creating-listing-and-deleting-objects-in-memory/" target="_blank"><span>Creating, Listing, and Deleting Objects in Memory</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/s3-class-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>S3 class</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/explicit-coercion-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Explicit Coercion</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r6-classes-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>R6 Classes</span></a></li><li value="13"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/getting-attributes-of-objects-in-r-language-attributes-and-attr-function/" target="_blank"><span>Getting attributes of Objects – attributes() and attr() Function</span></a></li><li value="14"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-or-set-names-of-elements-of-an-object-in-r-programming-names-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get or Set names of Elements of an Object – names() Function</span></a></li><li value="15"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-the-minimum-element-of-an-object-in-r-programming-min-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get the Minimum element of an Object – min() Function</span></a></li><li value="16"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/get-the-maximum-element-of-an-object-in-r-programming-max-function/" target="_blank"><span>Get the Maximum element of an Object – max() Function</span></a></li></ul><p style="text-align: justify;" dir="ltr"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tag/r-object-function/"><b><strong>>>> More Functions on R Objects</strong></b></a></p> <h2><span>File Handling</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/file-handling-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to File Handling</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/reading-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Reading Files</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/writing-to-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Writing to Files</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/read-lines-from-a-file-in-r-programming-readlines-function/" target="_blank"><span>Read Lines from a File – readLines() Function</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-binary-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Working with Binary Files</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Packages in R</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/packages-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Packages</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dplyr-package-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>dplyr Package</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/using-ggplot2-package-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>ggplot2 package</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/grid-and-lattice-packages-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Grid and Lattice Packages</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/shiny-package-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Shiny Package</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tidyr-package-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>tidyr Package</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/what-are-the-tidyverse-packages-in-r-language/" target="_blank"><span>What Are the Tidyverse Packages?</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-munging-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Data Munging</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Data Interfaces</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-handling-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Data Handling</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/importing-data-in-r-script/" target="_blank"><span>Importing Data in R Script</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-to-import-data-from-a-file-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>How To Import Data from a File?</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/exporting-data-from-scripts-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Exporting Data from scripts </span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-csv-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Working with CSV files </span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-xml-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Working with XML Files</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-excel-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Working with Excel Files</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-json-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Working with JSON Files </span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/reading-tabular-data-from-files-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Reading Tabular Data from files</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/working-with-databases-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Working with Databases</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/database-connectivity-with-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Database Connectivity</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/manipulate-r-data-frames-using-sql/" target="_blank"><span>Manipulate Data Frames Using SQL</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Error Handling</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/handling-errors-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Error Handling</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/condition-handling-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Condition Handling</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/debugging-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Debugging in R Programming</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Data Visualization</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/graph-plotting-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Graph Plotting</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/graphical-models-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Graphical Models</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-visualization-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Data Visualization</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-charts-and-graphs/" target="_blank"><span>Charts and Graphs</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/add-titles-to-a-graph-in-r-programming-title-function/" target="_blank"><span>Add Titles to a Graph</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/adding-colors-to-charts-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Adding Colors to Charts</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/adding-text-to-plots-in-r-programming-text-and-mtext-function/" target="_blank"><span>Adding Text to Plots</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/adding-axis-to-a-plot-in-r-programming-axis-function/" target="_blank"><span>Adding axis to a Plot</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/set-or-view-the-graphics-palette-in-r-programming-palette-function/" target="_blank"><span>Set or View the Graphics Palette</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/plotting-of-data-using-generic-plots-in-r-programming-plot-function/" target="_blank"><span>Plotting of Data using Generic plots</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-bar-charts/" target="_blank"><span>Bar Charts</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-line-graphs/" target="_blank"><span>Line Graphs</span></a></li><li value="13"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/adding-straight-lines-to-a-plot-in-r-programming-abline-function/" target="_blank"><span>Adding Straight Lines to a Plot</span></a></li><li value="14"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/addition-of-lines-to-a-plot-in-r-programming-lines-function/" target="_blank"><span>Addition of Lines to a Plot</span></a></li><li value="15"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/histograms-in-r-language/" target="_blank"><span>Histograms</span></a></li><li value="16"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-pie-charts/" target="_blank"><span>Pie Charts</span></a></li><li value="17"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/scatter-plots-in-r-language/" target="_blank"><span>Scatter plots</span></a></li><li value="18"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/create-dot-charts-in-r-programming-dotchart-function/" target="_blank"><span>Create Dot Charts</span></a></li><li value="19"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/boxplots-in-r-language/" target="_blank"><span>Boxplots in R Language</span></a></li><li value="20"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/stratified-boxplot-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Stratified Boxplot</span></a></li><li value="21"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/create-a-heatmap-in-r-programming-heatmap-function/" target="_blank"><span>Create a Heatmap</span></a></li><li value="22"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-pareto-chart/" target="_blank"><span>Pareto Chart</span></a></li><li value="23"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-waffle-chart/" target="_blank"><span>Waffle Chart</span></a></li><li value="24"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/draw-a-quantile-quantile-plot-in-r-programming-qqline-function/" target="_blank"><span>Quantile-Quantile Plot</span></a></li><li value="25"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/creating-3d-plots-in-r-programming-persp-function/" target="_blank"><span>Creating 3D Plots</span></a></li><li value="26"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/describe-parts-of-a-chart-in-graphical-form-in-r-programming-legend-function/" target="_blank"><span>Describe Parts of a Chart in Graphical Form</span></a></li><li value="27"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/principal-component-analysis-with-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Principal Component Analysis</span></a></li><li value="28"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/social-network-analysis-using-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Social Network Analysis</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Statistics</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-statistics/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Statistics</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/mean-median-and-mode-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Calculate the Mean, Median, and Mode</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/calculate-the-average-variance-and-standard-deviation-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Calculate the Average, Variance, and Standard Deviation</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/homogeneity-of-variance-test-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Homogeneity of Variance Test</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/covariance-and-correlation-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Covariance and Correlation</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/correlation-matrix-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Correlation Matrix</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/visualize-correlation-matrix-using-correlogram-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Visualize correlation matrix using correlogram</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/distance-matrix-by-gpu-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Distance Matrix by GPU</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/descriptive-analysis-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Descriptive Analysis</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/normal-distribution-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Normal Distribution</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/binomial-distribution-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Binomial Distribution</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/compute-the-negative-binomial-density-in-r-programming-dnbinom-function/" target="_blank"><span>Compute the Negative Binomial Density</span></a></li><li value="13"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/poisson-functions-in-r-programming-2/" target="_blank"><span>Poisson Functions</span></a></li><li value="14"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/anova-test-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>ANOVA Test</span></a></li><li value="15"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/manova-test-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>MANOVA Test</span></a></li><li value="16"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/naive-bayes-classifier-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Naive Bayes Classifier</span></a></li><li value="17"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/k-nn-classifier-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>K-NN Classifier</span></a></li><li value="18"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/central-tendency-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Central Tendency</span></a></li><li value="19"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/variability-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Variability</span></a></li><li value="20"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/skewness-and-kurtosis-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Skewness and Kurtosis</span></a></li><li value="21"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/absolute-and-relative-frequency-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Absolute and Relative Frequency</span></a></li><li value="22"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/permutation-hypothesis-test-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Permutation Hypothesis Test</span></a></li><li value="23"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/ab-testing-with-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>AB Testing</span></a></li><li value="24"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/completely-randomized-design-with-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Completely Randomized Design</span></a></li><li value="25"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/randomized-block-design-with-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Randomized Block Design</span></a></li><li value="26"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/bartletts-test-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Bartlett’s Test</span></a></li><li value="27"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tree-entropy-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Tree Entropy</span></a></li><li value="28"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tukeys-five-number-summary-in-r-programming-fivenum-function/" target="_blank"><span>Tukey’s Five-number Summary</span></a></li><li value="29"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/compute-summary-statistics-of-subsets-in-r-programming-aggregate-function/" target="_blank"><span>Compute Summary Statistics of Subsets</span></a></li><li value="30"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/hypothesis-testing-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Hypothesis Testing</span></a></li><li value="31"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/bootstrapping-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Bootstrapping</span></a></li><li value="32"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/time-series-analysis-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Time Series Analysis</span></a></li><li value="33"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/t-test-approach-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>T-Test Approach</span></a></li></ul><h2><span>Machine Learning with R</span></h2><ul><li value="1"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/introduction-to-machine-learning-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Introduction to Machine Learning</span></a></li><li value="2"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/setting-up-environment-for-machine-learning-with-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Setting up Environment for Machine Learning</span></a></li><li value="3"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/supervised-and-unsupervised-clustering-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Supervised and Unsupervised Learning</span></a></li><li value="4"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/classification-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Classification</span></a></li><li value="5"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/regression-and-its-types-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Regression and its Types</span></a></li><li value="6"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/regression-analysis-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Regression Analysis</span></a></li><li value="7"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/decision-tree-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Decision Tree</span></a></li><li value="8"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/random-forest-approach-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Random Forest Approach</span></a></li><li value="9"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/root-mean-square-error-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Root-Mean-Square Error</span></a></li><li value="10"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/clustering-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Clustering</span></a></li><li value="11"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/hierarchical-clustering-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Hierarchical Clustering</span></a></li><li value="12"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/dbscan-clustering-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>DBScan Clustering</span></a></li><li value="13"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/deep-learning-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Deep Learning</span></a></li><li value="14"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/building-a-simple-neural-network-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Building a Simple Neural Network</span></a></li><li value="15"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/how-neural-networks-are-used-for-regression-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>How Neural Networks are used for Regression?</span></a></li><li value="16"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/multi-layered-neural-networks-in-r-programming/" target="_blank"><span>Multi Layered Neural Networks</span></a></li><li value="17"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/survival-analysis-in-r/" target="_blank"><span>Survival Analysis</span></a></li><li value="18"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-stem-and-leaf-plots/" target="_blank"><span>Stem and Leaf Plots</span></a></li></ul><img src="https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20241014113537733149/Rtutoril.webp" alt="Rtutoril" width="850" height="372" srcset="https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20241014113537733149/Rtutoril.webp 850w,https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20241014113537733149/Rtutoril-100.webp 100w,https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20241014113537733149/Rtutoril-200.webp 200w,https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20241014113537733149/Rtutoril-300.webp 300w,https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20241014113537733149/Rtutoril-660.webp 660w,https://media.geeksforgeeks.org/wp-content/uploads/20241014113537733149/Rtutoril-768.webp 768w"><p dir="ltr"><br></p> <h2><span>Why Use R Programming Language?</span></h2><p style="text-align: left;" dir="ltr"><span>R programming language is a best resource for data science, data analysis, data visualization and machine learning. R provides various statistical techniques like statistical tests, clustering and data reduction. Graph making is easy eg. pie chart, histogram, box, plot, etc. R is totally free and open-source Programming language. The community support with the R language is very large and it works on all OS. R programming comes with many packages (libraries of functions) to solve various problems.</span></p> <h2><span>Applications of R Programming Language</span></h2><p style="text-align: left;" dir="ltr"><span>Some of the important applications of R Programming Language are listed below:</span></p> <ul><li value="1"><span>R is used in wide range of industries for example academics, government, insurance, retail, energy, media, technology, and electronics.</span></li><li value="2"><span>R helps in importing and cleaning data and data analysis.</span></li><li value="3"><span>R is used in data science. 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An environment is a collection of symbols, value, and pair, every environment has a parent environment it is possible for an environment to have multipl</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">5 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li></ul></div><div class="leftbar-dropdown"><h2 class="dropdown-title">Input/Output<span class="gfg-icon gfg-icon_arrow-down-thin"></span></h2><ul style="display: none;"><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/taking-input-from-user-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Taking Input from User in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Developers often have a need to interact with users, either to get data or to provide some sort of result. Most programs today use a dialog box as a way of asking the user to provide some type of input. Like other programming languages in R it's also possible to take input from the user. For doing s</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">7 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/printing-output-of-an-r-program/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Printing Output of an R Program </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">In R there are various methods to print the output. Most common method to print output in R program, there is a function called print() is used. Also if the program of R is written over the console line by line then the output is printed normally, no need to use any function for print that output. T</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/print-the-argument-to-the-screen-in-r-programming-print-function/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Print the Argument to the Screen in R Programming - print() Function </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">print() function in R Language is used to print out the argument to the screen. Syntax: print(x, digits, na.print) Parameters: x: specified argument to be displayed digits: defines minimal number of significant digits na.print: indicates NA values output format Example 1: # R program to illustrate #</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">1 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li></ul></div><div class="leftbar-dropdown"><h2 class="dropdown-title">Control Flow<span class="gfg-icon gfg-icon_arrow-down-thin"></span></h2><ul style="display: none;"><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/control-statements-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Control Statements in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Control statements are expressions used to control the execution and flow of the program based on the conditions provided in the statements. These structures are used to make a decision after assessing the variable. In this article, we'll discuss all the control statements with the examples. In R pr</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/decision-making-in-r-programming-if-if-else-if-else-if-ladder-nested-if-else-and-switch/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Decision Making in R Programming - if, if-else, if-else-if ladder, nested if-else, and switch </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Decision making is about deciding the order of execution of statements based on certain conditions. In decision making programmer needs to provide some condition which is evaluated by the program, along with it there also provided some statements which are executed if the condition is true and optio</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">5 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/switch-case-in-r/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Switch case in R </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Switch case statements are a substitute for long if statements that compare a variable to several integral values. Switch case in R is a multiway branch statement. It allows a variable to be tested for equality against a list of values. Switch statement follows the approach of mapping and searching</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">2 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/for-loop-in-r/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">For loop in R </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">For loop in R Programming Language is useful to iterate over the elements of a list, data frame, vector, matrix, or any other object. It means the for loop can be used to execute a group of statements repeatedly depending upon the number of elements in the object. It is an entry-controlled loop, in</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">5 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-while-loop/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - while loop </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">While loop in R programming language is used when the exact number of iterations of a loop is not known beforehand. It executes the same code again and again until a stop condition is met. While loop checks for the condition to be true or false n+1 times rather than n times. This is because the whil</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">5 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-repeat-loop/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - Repeat loop </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Repeat loop in R is used to iterate over a block of code multiple number of times. And also it executes the same code again and again until a break statement is found. Repeat loop, unlike other loops, doesn't use a condition to exit the loop instead it looks for a break statement that executes if a</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">2 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/goto-statement-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">goto statement in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Goto statement in a general programming sense is a command that takes the code to the specified line or block of code provided to it. This is helpful when the need is to jump from one programming section to the other without the use of functions and without creating an abnormal shift. Unfortunately,</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">2 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/break-and-next-statements-in-r/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Break and Next statements in R </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">In R Programming Language, we require a control structure to run a block of code multiple times. Loops come in the class of the most fundamental and strong programming concepts. A loop is a control statement that allows multiple executions of a statement or a set of statements. The word âloopingâ me</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">3 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li></ul></div><div class="leftbar-dropdown"><h2 class="dropdown-title">Functions<span class="gfg-icon gfg-icon_arrow-down-thin"></span></h2><ul style="display: none;"><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/functions-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Functions in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">A function accepts input arguments and produces the output by executing valid R commands that are inside the function. Functions are useful when you want to perform a certain task multiple times. In R Programming Language when you are creating a function the function name and the file in which you a</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">8 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/function-arguments-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Function Arguments in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Arguments are the parameters provided to a function to perform operations in a programming language. In R programming, we can use as many arguments as we want and are separated by a comma. There is no limit on the number of arguments in a function in R. In this article, we'll discuss different ways</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/types-of-functions-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Types of Functions in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">A function is a set of statements orchestrated together to perform a specific operation. A function is an object so the interpreter is able to pass control to the function, along with arguments that may be necessary for the function to accomplish the actions. The function in turn performs the task a</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">6 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/recursive-functions-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Recursive Functions in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Recursion, in the simplest terms, is a type of looping technique. It exploits the basic working of functions in R. Recursive Function in R: Recursion is when the function calls itself. This forms a loop, where every time the function is called, it calls itself again and again and this technique is k</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/conversion-functions-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Conversion Functions in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Sometimes to analyze data using R, we need to convert data into another data type. As we know R has the following data types Numeric, Integer, Logical, Character, etc. similarly R has various conversion functions that are used to convert the data type. In R, Conversion Function are of two types: Con</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li></ul></div><div class="leftbar-dropdown"><h2 class="dropdown-title">Data Structures<span class="gfg-icon gfg-icon_arrow-down-thin"></span></h2><ul style="display: none;"><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/data-structures-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Data Structures in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">A data structure is a particular way of organizing data in a computer so that it can be used effectively. The idea is to reduce the space and time complexities of different tasks. Data structures in R programming are tools for holding multiple values. Râs base data structures are often organized by</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">6 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-strings/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R Strings </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Strings are a bunch of character variables. It is a one-dimensional array of characters. One or more characters enclosed in a pair of matching single or double quotes can be considered a string in R. Strings in R Programming represent textual content and can contain numbers, spaces, and special char</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">7 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-vector/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R Vectors </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">R Vectors are the same as the arrays in R language which are used to hold multiple data values of the same type. One major key point is that in R Programming Language the indexing of the vector will start from '1' and not from '0'. We can create numeric vectors and character vectors as well.Â  Creati</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">5 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-lists/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - Lists </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">A list in R programming is a generic object consisting of an ordered collection of objects. Lists are one-dimensional, heterogeneous data structures. The list can be a list of vectors, a list of matrices, a list of characters, a list of functions, and so on. A list is a vector but with heterogeneous</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">8 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-array/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - Array </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Arrays are essential data storage structures defined by a fixed number of dimensions. Arrays are used for the allocation of space at contiguous memory locations. In R Programming Language Uni-dimensional arrays are called vectors with the length being their only dimension. Two-dimensional arrays are</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">12 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-matrices/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - Matrices </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">R-matrix is a two-dimensional arrangement of data in rows and columns. In a matrix, rows are the ones that run horizontally and columns are the ones that run vertically. In R programming, matrices are two-dimensional, homogeneous data structures. These are some examples of matrices: Creating a Matri</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">12 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-factors/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R Factors </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Factors in R Programming Language are data structures that are implemented to categorize the data or represent categorical data and store it on multiple levels. They can be stored as integers with a corresponding label to every unique integer. The R factors may look similar to character vectors, the</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">5 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-data-frames/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - Data Frames </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">R Programming Language is an open-source programming language that is widely used as a statistical software and data analysis tool. Data Frames in R Language are generic data objects of R that are used to store tabular data. Data frames can also be interpreted as matrices where each column of a matr</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">10 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li></ul></div><div class="leftbar-dropdown"><h2 class="dropdown-title">Object Oriented Programming<span class="gfg-icon gfg-icon_arrow-down-thin"></span></h2><ul style="display: none;"><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-object-oriented-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - Object Oriented Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">In this article, we will discuss Object-Oriented Programming (OOPs) in R Programming Language. We will discuss the S3 and S4 classes, the inheritance in these classes, and the methods provided by these classes. OOPs in R Programming Language:In R programming, OOPs in R provide classes and objects as</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">7 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/classes-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Classes in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Classes and Objects are basic concepts of Object-Oriented Programming that revolve around the real-life entities. Everything in R is an object. An object is simply a data structure that has some methods and attributes. A class is just a blueprint or a sketch of these objects. It represents the set o</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/r-objects/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">R - Objects </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">Every programming language has its own data types to store values or any information so that the user can assign these data types to the variables and perform operations respectively. Operations are performed accordingly to the data types. These data types can be character, integer, float, long, etc</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/encapsulation-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Encapsulation in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">In R programming, OOPs provides classes and objects as its key tools to reduce and manage the complexity of the program. R is a functional language that uses concepts of OOPs. We can think of class like a sketch of a car. It contains all the details about the model_name, model_no, engine, etc. Based</div> </div> <div class="reading-time"> <i class="reading-time-icon" data-gfg-action="readingtime"></i> <span style="color: var(--recommendation-card-text-color);font-size: 14px;font-weight: 500;line-height: 17px;">4 min read</span> </div> </a><hr style="background:var(--gfg-selected-color); width:70%; margin: 0 auto;"></li><li class="similarReadDropdownItem"><a href="https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/polymorphism-in-r-programming/?ref=lbp"><div class="gfg-similar-read-item-content"> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-heading">Polymorphism in R Programming </div> <div class="gfg-similar-read-item-subheading">R language is evolving and it implements parametric polymorphism, which means that methods in R refer to functions, not classes. Parametric polymorphism primarily lets you define a generic method or function for types of objects you havenât yet defined and may never do. 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