CINXE.COM

<!doctype html> <html lang="fr"> <head prefix="og: http://ogp.me/ns# fb: http://ogp.me/ns/fb# article: http://ogp.me/ns/article#"> <base href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/"> <title>Navigation Polynésienne et Colonisation du Pacific - Encyclopédie de l'Histoire du Monde</title>  <link rel="preload" fetchpriority="high" href="/template/images/bg_timeline.png" as="image"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://fonts.gstatic.com" crossorigin> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://cdn.consentmanager.net"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://b.delivery.consentmanager.net"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://btloader.com"> <link rel="preconnect" href="https://securepubads.g.doubleclick.net"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://tpc.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://pagead2.googlesyndication.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://adservice.google.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://www.googleadservices.com"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://sb.scorecardresearch.co"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1.0, shrink-to-fit=no"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Type" content="text/html; charset=utf-8"> <meta name="theme-color" content="#082865"> <meta name="msapplication-navbutton-color" content="#082865"> <meta name="apple-mobile-web-app-status-bar-style" content="#082865"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:large"> <meta name="description" content="La navigation polynésienne dans l'océan Pacifique et son peuplement commencèrent il y a des milliers d'années. Les habitants des îles du Pacifique traversaient..."> <meta name="keywords" content="Oceania"> <meta name="author" content="Kim Martins"> <meta name="subjects" content="IndividualPeople"> <meta name="regions" content="Oceania"> <meta name="periods" content="Ancient,Medieval"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="fr" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="es" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/es/2-1586/la-navegacion-polinesia-y-la-colonizacion-del-paci/"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1586/polynesian-navigation--settlement-of-the-pacific/"> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1586/polynesian-navigation--settlement-of-the-pacific/"> <meta property="push:bimage" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/750x750/12542.jpg"> <meta http-equiv="Content-Security-Policy" content="upgrade-insecure-requests"> <meta name="impact-site-verification" value="-720600813"> <meta name="p:domain_verify" content="b24695bfa00137b2e95cb4ca94c3f5dd"> <meta property="twitter:account_id" content="4503599627388175"> <meta name="flattr:id" content="62l7dn"> <meta property="og:type" content="article"> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/"> <meta property="og:site_name" content="Encyclopédie de l'Histoire du Monde"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/12542.jpg"> <meta property="og:title" content="Navigation Polynésienne et Colonisation du Pacific"> <meta property="og:description" content="La navigation polynésienne dans l'océan Pacifique et son peuplement commencèrent il y a des milliers d'années. Les habitants des îles du Pacifique traversaient de vastes étendues d'eau océanique à bord..."> <meta property="article:publisher" content="https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook"> <meta property="article:author" content="https://www.facebook.com/kim.martins"> <meta name="twitter:card" content="summary_large_image"> <meta name="twitter:site" content="@whencyclopedfr"> <meta name="twitter:title" content="Navigation Polynésienne et Colonisation du Pacific"> <meta name="twitter:description" content="La navigation polynésienne dans l'océan Pacifique et son peuplement commencèrent il y a des milliers d'années. Les habitants des îles du Pacifique traversaient de vastes étendues d'eau océanique à bord..."> <meta name="twitter:creator" content="@kimmar"> <meta name="twitter:image:src" content="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x627/12542.jpg"> <meta name="twitter:domain" content="https://www.worldhistory.org"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/"> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"Organization","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","brand":"World History Encyclopedia","legalName":"World History Publishing Ltd","name":"World History Encyclopedia","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","sameAs":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/World_History_Encyclopedia","image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-954x231px.png","duns":"218445829","address":{"@type":"PostalAddress","addressCountry":"United Kingdom","addressLocality":"Godalming","addressRegion":"Surrey","postalCode":"GU7 1HE","streetAddress":"Brook House, Mint Street"},"logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/template/images/header/whe-logo-318x77px.png","width":318,"height":77}} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@type":"WebSite","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org","potentialAction":{"@type":"SearchAction","target":"https://www.worldhistory.org/search/?q={search_term_string}","query-input":"required name=search_term_string"},"publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","name":"World History Encyclopedia"} </script> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/","@type":"ScholarlyArticle","author":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/kim.martins/#person","name":"Kim Martins","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/kim.martins/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/kimsbarcea/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-kim.martins.jpg","description":"Kim est une \u00e9crivaine ind\u00e9pendante bas\u00e9e en Nouvelle-Z\u00e9lande. Elle est titulaire d'une licence d'histoire et d'une ma\u00eetrise en sciences du chaos et de la complexit\u00e9. Elle s'int\u00e9resse particuli\u00e8rement aux fables et \u00e0 la mythologie, ainsi qu'\u00e0 l'exploration du monde antique.","jobTitle":"Editor","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"citation":[{"@type":"WebPage","name":"Cook's Journal by James Cook","url":"http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks/e00043.html","lastReviewed":"2020-08-06T05:22:15+0000"},{"@type":"WebPage","name":"James Cook - A Journal of the proceedings of His Majesty's Bark Endeavour on a voyage round the world, by Lieutenant James Cook, Commander, commencing the 25th of May 1768 - 23 Oct. 1770: No. 133","url":"https://transcripts.sl.nsw.gov.au/page/james-cook-journal-proceedings-his-majestys-bark-endeavour-voyage-round-world-lieutenant-503","lastReviewed":"2020-08-06T05:22:19+0000"},{"@type":"ScholarlyArticle","name":"The Journal of the Polynesian Society","headline":"The Lapita Homeland: Some New Data and an Interpretation","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Allen, J."},"position":"Volume 98, No. 2, 1989"},{"@type":"Book","name":"Polynesian Navigation and the Discovery of New Zealand","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Evans, Jeff"},"isbn":"1877514152","datePublished":"2014","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Oratia Media"}},{"@type":"ScholarlyArticle","name":"Science","headline":"Voyaging Canoes and the Settlement of the Pacific","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Finley, B."},"position":"196, 1977"},{"@type":"Book","name":"Vaka Moana, Voyages of the Ancestors","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Howe, Professor K. R."},"isbn":"0824832132","datePublished":"2007","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"University of Hawaii Press"}},{"@type":"ScholarlyArticle","name":"Antiquity","headline":"The first settlement of Remote Oceania: The Philippines to the Marianas","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Hung, H., Carson, M., Bellwood, P., Campos, F., Piper, P., Dizon, E., Chi, Z"},"position":"85(329) 2011"},{"@type":"ScholarlyArticle","name":"Journal of the Polynesian Society","headline":"Against, across and down the wind: a case for the systematic exploration of the remote Pacific Islands","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Irwin, G.J."},"position":"98, 1989"},{"@type":"ScholarlyArticle","name":"Annual Review of Anthropology","headline":"Peopling of the Pacific: A Holistic Anthropological Perspective","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Kirch, P.V."},"position":"39(1) October 2010"},{"@type":"Book","name":"We, the Navigators","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Lewis, David & Oulton, Derek"},"isbn":"0824815823","datePublished":"1994","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"University of Hawaii Press"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Oceanic Migration","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Pearce, Charles E.M. & Pearce, F. M."},"isbn":"9048138256","datePublished":"2010","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Springer"}},{"@type":"Book","name":"Sea People","author":{"@type":"Person","name":"Thompson, Christina"},"isbn":"0062060872","datePublished":"2019","publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Harper"}}],"copyrightNotice":"By: Kim Martins - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creditText":"Kim Martins (World History Encyclopedia, https://www.worldhistory.org, CC BY-NC-SA)","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:02:18+0000","datePublished":"2020-08-07T16:00:08+0000","description":"La navigation polyn\u00e9sienne dans l'oc\u00e9an Pacifique et son peuplement commenc\u00e8rent il y a des milliers d'ann\u00e9es. Les habitants des \u00eeles du Pacifique traversaient de vastes \u00e9tendues d'eau oc\u00e9anique \u00e0 bord...","headline":"Navigation Polyn\u00e9sienne et Colonisation du Pacific","image":["https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12542.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1600x900/12542.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/1200x900/12542.jpg","https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/1500x1500/12542.jpg"],"inLanguage":{"@type":"Language","name":"French","alternateName":"fr"},"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","keywords":"Oceania","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","publishingPrinciples":"https://www.worldhistory.org/static/editorial-policy/","speakable":{"@type":"SpeakableSpecification","cssSelector":["h1","article"]},"translationOfWork":{"@type":"ScholarlyArticle","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/article/1586/polynesian-navigation--settlement-of-the-pacific/","headline":"Polynesian Navigation & Settlement of the Pacific","inLanguage":{"@type":"Language","name":"English","alternateName":"en"},"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12542.jpg.webp?v=1713962463","author":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/kim.martins/#person"},"translator":{"@type":"Person","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/bab.cartwright/#person","name":"Babeth \u00c9ti\u00e8ve-Cartwright","url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/user/bab.cartwright/","sameAs":["https://www.linkedin.com/in/babeth-eti\u00e8ve-cartwright-b94/"],"image":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/profile_photos/150-bab.cartwright.JPG","description":"Babeth s'est consacr\u00e9e \u00e0 la traduction apr\u00e8s avoir enseign\u00e9 l'anglais au British Council de Milan. Elle parle couramment le fran\u00e7ais, l'anglais et l'italien et a 25 ans d'exp\u00e9rience dans le domaine de l'\u00e9ducation. Elle aime voyager et d\u00e9couvrir l'histoire et le patrimoine d'autres cultures.","jobTitle":"Head of Translation","worksFor":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization"},"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/"} </script> <script type="text/javascript"> window.AHE = {}; AHE.domain = 'worldhistory.org'; AHE.lastDeploy = '1732096425'; AHE.ayEntityID = 'rBndncCqbjkzwhcPC'; window.idleQueue = []; const coreScriptsLoadedEvent = new Event('coreScriptsReady'); </script> <script>function async_load_js(script_url,cbfunc,defer){if(defer==undefined)defer=true;var s=document.createElement('script');s.src=script_url;if(defer){s.defer=true}else s.async=true;s.importance='low';s.fetchpriority='low';var x=document.getElementsByTagName('script')[0];x.parentNode.append(s);if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('load',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true});if(cbfunc)s.addEventListener('error',function(e){cbfunc(e)},{once:true})} function scheduleIdleQueue(){if(window.idleQueue.length>0)if(window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled){return}else{window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=true;if('requestIdleCallback'in window){requestIdleCallback(processIdleQueue,{timeout:2e3})}else processIdleQueue()}} function processIdleQueue(deadline){window.isRequestIdleCallbackScheduled=false;if(typeof deadline==='undefined')deadline={timeRemaining:function(){return Number.MAX_VALUE}};while((deadline.timeRemaining()>0||deadline.didTimeout)&&window.idleQueue.length>0){var queueFunc=window.idleQueue.shift();queueFunc()};scheduleIdleQueue()} function jsQueue(func){window.idleQueue.push(func);if(window.pageIsReady)if(document.readyState=='complete'||document.readyState=='loaded'||document.readyState=='interactive')scheduleIdleQueue()} function getUrlParameter(url,name){name=name.replace(/[\[]/,'\\[').replace(/[\]]/,'\\]');var regex=new RegExp('[\\?&]'+name+'=([^&#]*)'),results=regex.exec(url);return results===null?'':decodeURIComponent(results[1].replace(/\+/g,' '))} function get_media_layout(){var width=document.documentElement.clientWidth;if(width<768){return"mobile"}else if(width<992){return"tablet"}else if(width<1200){return"desktop-narrow"}else return"desktop-wide"} function getCookie(c_name){var i,x,y,ARRcookies=document.cookie.split(";");for(i=0;i<ARRcookies.length;i++){x=ARRcookies[i].substr(0,ARRcookies[i].indexOf("="));y=ARRcookies[i].substr(ARRcookies[i].indexOf("=")+1);x=x.replace(/^\s+|\s+$/g,"");if(x==c_name)return unescape(y)}} function jsonStore(key,value){if(value){return localStorage.setItem(key,JSON.stringify(value))}else return JSON.parse(localStorage.getItem(key))}</script> <script defer class="requiredJS ipJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/ajax/visitor-info.js.php?v=1732096425"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="https://cdn.jsdelivr.net/npm/jquery@3.6.1/dist/jquery.min.js"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/js/ahe-min.js?v=1732096425"></script> <script defer class="requiredJS" type="text/javascript" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" src="/analytics/pageview.js?v=1732096425"></script> <script> var url_parts = window.location.href.split("/"); var is_member = 0; var subdomain = url_parts[2].split(".")[0]; var currentURL = window.location.href; </script> <script> var requiredScripts = document.querySelectorAll('.requiredJS'); var loadedScripts = 0; const scriptsReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { requiredScripts.forEach(function(elem) { elem.addEventListener('load',function(elem) { loadedScripts++; if (loadedScripts == requiredScripts.length) { console.log('scriptsReady'); dispatchEvent(coreScriptsLoadedEvent); document.coreScriptsReady = true; resolve('scriptsLoaded'); } },false) }); }); const ipScriptReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.querySelector('.ipJS').addEventListener('load',function(elem) { console.log('ipScriptReady'); document.ipReady = true; resolve('ipScriptReady'); },false); }); const pageReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener("DOMContentLoaded", function() { scriptsReady.then(function() { setTimeout(function() { window.pageIsReady = true; resolve('pageReady'); },50); }) }); }); const privacyReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { pageReady.then(()=>{ if (AHE.isEU) { AHE.tcfConsentResolved = false; // CMP Listener Loop let cmpListenerInvterval = setInterval(()=>{ if (typeof window.__cmp == 'function') { AHE.consentStatus = __cmp('consentStatus'); AHE.consentData = __cmp('getCMPData'); if (typeof AHE.consentStatus == 'object' && AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists == true) { /* Purpose 1 - Store and/or access information on a device Purpose 2 - Select basic ads Purpose 3 - Create a personalized ads profile Purpose 4 - Select personalized ads Purpose 5 - Create a personalized content profile Purpose 6 - Select personalized content Purpose 7 - Measure ad performance Purpose 8 - Measure content performance Purpose 9 - Apply market research to generate audience insights Purpose 10 - Develop and improve products */ if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === true) { // EU Privacy Rules AHE.usPrivacyString = '1---'; if (typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents == 'object' && typeof AHE.consentData.purposeConsents[1] == 'boolean') { let purposes = AHE.consentData.purposeConsents; AHE.privacyAdConsent = (purposes[2] && purposes[3] && purposes[4] && purposes[7]) || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = (purposes[5] && purposes[6] && purposes[8]) || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = (purposes[8]) || false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } else if (AHE.consentStatus.userChoiceExists) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } else if (AHE.consentData.gdprApplies === false) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; } } } if (AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },100); // Fallback timeout setTimeout(()=>{ if (!AHE.tcfConsentResolved) { AHE.privacyAdConsent = false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = false; AHE.tcfConsentResolved = true; clearInterval(cmpListenerInvterval); console.warn('Privacy consent TIMEOUT (region | advertising | content | analytics):','EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } },10000); } else { // No Privacy Rules AHE.privacyAdConsent = true; AHE.privacyContentConsent = true; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = true; console.log('Privacy consent (region | advertising | content | analytics):','non-EU (' + ipCountry + ')',AHE.privacyAdConsent,AHE.privacyContentConsent,AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent); resolve('privacyReady'); } }); }); const deferredLoadedEvent = new Event('deferredLoaded'); const deferredReady = new Promise((resolve,reject) => { document.addEventListener('deferredLoaded',function(elem) { resolve('deferredReady'); }) }); </script> <script type="text/javascript"> var tag = "trans"; var tags_json = ["oceania"]; var media_layout = get_media_layout(); var euCountries = ["at", "be", "bg", "cy", "cz", "de", "dk", "ee", "es", "fi", "fr", "gb", "gr", "hr", "hu", "ie", "it", "is", "lt", "lu", "lv", "mt", "nl", "pl", "pt", "ro", "se", "si", "sk"]; var USDGBP = 0.79369; var EURGBP = 0.83454; var is_admin = 0; var ci_title = "Polynesian Navigation & Settlement of the Pacific"; var forced_country = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"country"); // A/B Testing let abParameter = getUrlParameter(window.location.href,"ab"); if (['a','b','c'].includes(abParameter)) { console.log('Set A/B test to ' + abParameter) AHE.ab = abParameter; } else if (getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'a' || getCookie('ahe_ab_group') == 'b') { AHE.ab = getCookie('ahe_ab_group'); } else if (Math.random() >= 0.5) { AHE.ab = 'a'; } else { AHE.ab = 'b'; } console.log('A/B group: ',AHE.ab); // Core Definitions AHE.contentLang = 'fr'; AHE.siteName = 'World History Encyclopedia'; AHE.ci_id = "2-1586"; AHE.ci_type_id = 2; AHE.ci_type = 'Article'; AHE.ci_author = 'kim.martins'; AHE.ci_author_id = '5589'; AHE.ci_translator_id = '1864'; AHE.lang_rtl = 0; AHE.ci_trans = 1; AHE.ci_translator = 'bab.cartwright'; AHE.siteKeywords = 'history,ancient,antiquity,medieval,education,k12,university,travel,culture,heritage'; AHE.contentKeywords = ["Oceania"]; AHE.contentKeywords.push('History'); AHE.cattaxIAB = 6; AHE.siteIAB = [ '132', // Education '133', // Adult Education '135', // Secondary Education '137', // College Education '141', // Undergraduate Education '145', // Homeschooling '146', // Homework & Study '148', // Online Education '1001', // Editorial / Professional '1011', // Academic Research Content '1013', // Educational Content '1216', // Professionally Produced ]; AHE.contentTitle = ci_title; AHE.contentUrl = 'https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/'; AHE.canonicalPath = '/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/'; AHE.contentIAB = Array.from(AHE.siteIAB); AHE.userLoggedin = '0'; AHE.digiTrustMemberID = 'Rk7R77ItMJ'; AHE.digiTrustSiteID = 'blvtF3tRZY'; AHE.userActivityTimeout = 120; AHE.categories = {"ci_subject_ids":[4],"ci_region_ids":[5],"ci_period_ids":[2,3],"ci_categories":[]}; AHE.categoriesHuman = {"ci_subject_ids":["IndividualPeople"],"ci_region_ids":["Oceania"],"ci_period_ids":["Ancient","Medieval"]}; AHE.media_layout = media_layout; AHE.is_admin = is_admin; AHE.is_member = AHE.is_member || 0; AHE.is_editor = 0; AHE.prebidAuctionRun = false; AHE.adLoadMethod = null; AHE.deferredLoaded = false; AHE.deferredTimeout = 5000; // milliseconds AHE.search_term = null; AHE.usPrivacyString = getCookie('usprivacy') || false; AHE.usPrivacyOptOut = false; AHE.pubcidOptout = getCookie('_pubcid_optout') || false; AHE.cmpLinkMoved = false; AHE.isEU = false; AHE.isUS = false; AHE.deviceType = (AHE.media_layout == 'mobile' || AHE.media_layout == 'tablet') ? 'mobile' : 'desktop'; AHE.idHashSha1 = null || getCookie('esh1') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'es1') || null; AHE.idHashSha256 = null || getCookie('esh') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'esh') || null; AHE.idHashSha256Clean = null || getCookie('esh-clean') || null; AHE.idHashMd5 = null || getCookie('emd') || getUrlParameter(window.location.href, 'emd') || null; AHE.imageErrors = []; AHE.visitCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("visitCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.pageViewCount = Math.max(1, (getCookie("pageViewCount") || 0) * 1); AHE.articleReadCount = (getCookie('articleReadCount') || 0) * 1; AHE.interestEmailOptIn = getCookie('interest_email_opt_in'); AHE.interestGroup = getCookie('interestGroup') || null; AHE.mcLists = getCookie('mcLists'); AHE.feedbackThanks = 'Merci pour votre retour!'; AHE.membershipPrices = {"co":{"price":12000,"cursymb":"COP","curticker":"COP","curname":"Colombian Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkpUk1JnvM","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkPcVXm37P"},"ph":{"price":140,"cursymb":"PHP","curticker":"PHP","curname":"Philippine Pisos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkEoLUtx27","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkOYQa1lvS"},"in":{"price":150,"cursymb":"\u20b9","curticker":"INR","curname":"Indian Rupees","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkDIggQ5Kk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdFQe2TOl"},"ca":{"price":6,"cursymb":"CA$","curticker":"CAD","curname":"Canadian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk3h0ZzsHk","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtk8R6BfmDY"},"ar":{"price":300,"cursymb":"ARS","curticker":"ARS","curname":"Argentine Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkSgP1i7ry","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkmn9cSOWz"},"mx":{"price":60,"cursymb":"MX$","curticker":"MXN","curname":"Mexican Pesos","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkJuSy5Bu9","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkWWocq1D9"},"au":{"price":6.5,"cursymb":"A$","curticker":"AUD","curname":"Australian Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdjUrjeVm","annual":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkdDShq92X"},"eu":{"price":4,"cursymb":"\u20ac","curticker":"EUR","curname":"Euros","monthly":"price_1Lbl7t2UunIs5vtkE9eS0s1w","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkaWNWJlaJ"},"gb":{"price":3.5,"cursymb":"\u00a3","curticker":"GBP","curname":"British Pounds","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkJP6XWDj7","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkWMIAjA35"},"us":{"price":5,"cursymb":"$","curticker":"USD","curname":"US Dollars","monthly":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkNDtNDiIi","annual":"price_1Lbl7u2UunIs5vtkYAGjycku"}}; AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; AHE.userDevice = {}; AHE.userID = ''; AHE.appNexusUser = { language: navigator.language.substr(0,2) }; AHE.appNexusSupplyType = media_layout.includes('desktop') ? 'web' : 'mobile_web'; AHE.isHumanVerified = getCookie('whe_hv') || 0; AHE.isBot = navigator.webdriver || /bot|crawl|spider|googleother|google-extended|apis-google|mediapartners|baidu|bing|msn|teoma|slurp|yandex|anthropic|claude|chatgpt|cohere/i.test(navigator.userAgent); AHE.isIVT = false; AHE.IPv4 = null; AHE.IPv6 = null; AHE.cfTurnstileKey = '0x4AAAAAAAAwX90u0VMXFYiR'; AHE.gamTags = [].concat(tags_json); AHE.popupShown = null; AHE.cachebuster = Math.round(Math.random()*10000000); // JS-dependent definitions scriptsReady.then(function() { window.userLastActivity = Math.floor(Date.now() / 1000); AHE.privacyAdConsent = AHE.privacyAdConsent || getCookie('privacyAdConsent') || false; AHE.privacyContentConsent = AHE.privacyContentConsent || getCookie('privacyContentConsent') || false; AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent = AHE.privacyAnalyticsConsent || getCookie('privacyAnalyticsConsent') || false; // Store A/B Test Cookie setCookie('ahe_ab_group',AHE.ab); // IP Information if (typeof clientIP == 'string') { if (clientIP.includes(':')) { AHE.IPv6 = clientIP; } else if (clientIP.includes('.')) { AHE.IPv4 = clientIP; } } // Engagement Categories if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 15 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 4) { AHE.userEngagement = 'veryhigh'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 4; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 7 && AHE.articleReadCount >= 2 && AHE.visitCount >= 3) { AHE.userEngagement = 'high'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 3; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 3 && AHE.visitCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'medium'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 2; } else if (AHE.pageViewCount >= 2) { AHE.userEngagement = 'low'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 1; } else { AHE.userEngagement = 'none'; AHE.userEngagementLevel = 0; } if (!AHE.idHashMd5) { AHE.knownUser = 0; } else { AHE.knownUser = 1; } if (typeof AHE.mcLists == 'string') { AHE.mcLists = AHE.mcLists.split(','); } else { AHE.mcLists = []; } // Country-Specific JS adminLog("IP Country: " + ipCountry); if (forced_country) { console.log("ipCountry override: " + forced_country); ipCountry = forced_country; } AHE.ipCountry = ipCountry; if (euCountries.includes(ipCountry)) { // EU User AHE.isEU = true; } else if (ipCountry == 'us') { // US User AHE.isUS = true; } else { // Other Country } // Inline JS (if any) }); </script>  <script data-no-optimize="1" data-cfasync="false"> ipScriptReady.then(()=>{ console.log(AHE); if (AHE.is_member) { // Has Membership, Remove Ads console.log('Membership detected!'); pageReady.then(()=>{ handleMemberLayout(); }); } else { // No Membership, Show Ads (function(w, d) { w.adthrive = w.adthrive || {}; w.adthrive.cmd = w. adthrive.cmd || []; w.adthrive.plugin = 'adthrive-ads-manual'; w.adthrive.host = 'ads.adthrive.com';var s = d.createElement('script'); s.async = true; s.fetchPriority = 'high'; s.importance = 'high'; s.referrerpolicy='no-referrer-when-downgrade'; s.src = 'https://' + w.adthrive.host + '/sites/65a6e420255ef424515e267b/ads.min.js?referrer=' + w.encodeURIComponent(w.location.href) + '&cb=' + (Math.floor(Math.random() * 100) + 1); var n = d.getElementsByTagName('script')[0]; n.parentNode.insertBefore(s, n); })(window, document); try { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_1', value: (AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown')} ); }); window.adthrive.cmd.push(function() { window.adthrive.siteAds.targeting.push( {key: 'at_custom_2', value: (AHE.contentLang || 'en')} ); }); console.log('Raptive interest group & language set:',(AHE.interestGroup || 'unknown'),(AHE.contentLang || 'en')); } catch (e) { console.warn('Error setting Raptive user group!',e); } } }); </script>  <script> !function(){"use strict";function e(e){const t=e.match(/((?=([a-z0-9._!#$%+^&*()[\]<>-]+))\2@[a-z0-9._-]+\.[a-z0-9._-]+)/gi);return t?t[0]:""}function t(t){return e(a(t.toLowerCase()))}function a(e){return e.replace(/\s/g,"")}async function n(e){const t={sha256Hash:"",sha1Hash:""};if(!("msCrypto"in window)&&"https:"===location.protocol&&"crypto"in window&&"TextEncoder"in window){const a=(new TextEncoder).encode(e),[n,c]=await Promise.all([s("SHA-256",a),s("SHA-1",a)]);t.sha256Hash=n,t.sha1Hash=c}return t}async function s(e,t){const a=await crypto.subtle.digest(e,t);return Array.from(new Uint8Array(a)).map(e=>("00"+e.toString(16)).slice(-2)).join("")}function c(e){let t=!0;return Object.keys(e).forEach(a=>{0===e[a].length&&(t=!1)}),t}function i(e,t,a){e.splice(t,1);const n="?"+e.join("&")+a.hash;history.replaceState(null,"",n)}var o={checkEmail:e,validateEmail:t,trimInput:a,hashEmail:n,hasHashes:c,removeEmailAndReplaceHistory:i,detectEmails:async function(){const e=new URL(window.location.href),a=Array.from(e.searchParams.entries()).map(e=>`${e[0]}=${e[1]}`);let s,o;const r=["adt_eih","sh_kit"];if(a.forEach((e,t)=>{const a=decodeURIComponent(e),[n,c]=a.split("=");if("adt_ei"===n&&(s={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"url"}),r.includes(n)){o={value:c,index:t,emsrc:"sh_kit"===n?"urlhck":"urlh"}}}),s)t(s.value)&&n(s.value).then(e=>{if(c(e)){const t={value:e,created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(t)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",s.emsrc)}});else if(o){const e={value:{sha256Hash:o.value,sha1Hash:""},created:Date.now()};localStorage.setItem("adt_ei",JSON.stringify(e)),localStorage.setItem("adt_emsrc",o.emsrc)}s&&i(a,s.index,e),o&&i(a,o.index,e)},cb:"adthrive"};const{detectEmails:r,cb:l}=o;r()}(); </script>  <script> pageReady.then(()=>{ window.adthrive = window.adthrive || {}; window.adthrive.cmd = window.adthrive.cmd || []; if (AHE.idHashSha256 && AHE.domain) { window.adthrive.cmd.push(function () { let idHash = AHE.idHashSha256; if (AHE.idHashSha256Clean) { idHash = AHE.idHashSha256Clean; } window.adthrive.identityApi({ source: AHE.domain, sha256: idHash }, ({ success, data }) => { if (success) { // Identity API success! console.log(`Raptive Identity API success: ${data.message}`) } else { // Identity API error, check message console.error(`Error calling Raptive identity API: ${data.message}`) } }) }); } }); </script>  <link rel="stylesheet" fetchpriority="high" importance="high" type="text/css" href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css?family=Karla:400,700|Libre+Baskerville:400,400i,700&subset=latin-ext&display=swap"> <style>aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar{margin-top:40px !important}aside .adthrive-ad.adthrive-sticky-sidebar>div{top:20px !important}#primis_intext .adthrive-collapse-player{padding:0 !important}.adthrive-collapse-bottom-right{margin-right:10px !important}#footer .adthrive-footer-message{padding-bottom:40px}#footer .adthrive-footer-message>span{border-top:0;padding-top:5px;text-transform:none;color:#e0e0e0}.adthrive-device-phone #footer .adthrive-footer-message{margin-bottom:40px}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link{color:#e0e0e0 !important}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a{color:#fff;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #fff;border-radius:5px;padding:4px 8px;margin:10px;display:inline-block;font-weight:normal}footer .adthrive-ccpa-link a:hover{color:#293744;background-color:#fff}.ad_Mobile_Intext .adcontainer{min-height:250px}a.book_list_item:hover{text-decoration:none}a.book_list_item:hover .book_title{text-decoration:none;color:#b52600;transition:.25s}a.book_list_item{display:block;clear:both;min-height:115px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:20px 0}a.book_list_item:first-of-type{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3}.book_list_item .book_image{float:left;max-width:70px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.book_data{vertical-align:top;margin-left:120px}.book_list_item .book_title{font-size:18px;color:#000}.book_list_item .book_details{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;color:#666}.book_list_item .book_pricing{margin:.33em 0}.book_pricing .amazon_icon,.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-image:url("/images/amazon_icon.svg");width:16px;height:16px;display:inline-block;background-position:0 0;position:relative;top:4px;margin-right:2px;background-size:contain}.book_pricing .bookdepository_icon{background-position:10px 0;width:10px;margin-right:4px;top:3px}.book_list_item .book_price{color:#000;margin-right:1em}a.book_purchase_button{color:#000;display:inline-block;border:1px solid #222;border-radius:5px;padding:50px 15px 10px 15px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%;margin-right:20px;margin-bottom:10px;font-weight:normal;min-width:160px;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center 10px;text-align:center}a.book_purchase_button:hover{text-decoration:none;cursor:pointer;border:1px solid #000;background-color:#f3f3f3;transition:.25s}a.book_purchase_button.amazon{background-image:url('/images/amazon-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 15px}a.book_purchase_button.bookshoporg{background-image:url('/images/bookshoporg-logo.svg');background-size:160px;background-position:center center}a.book_purchase_button.bookdepository{background-image:url('/images/book-depository-logo.svg');background-size:100px;background-position:center 7px}a.book_purchase_button.waterstones{background-image:url('/images/waterstones-logo.svg');background-size:60px;background-position:center 11px}a.book_purchase_button.betterworldbooks{background-image:url('/images/betterworldbooks-logo-150px.png');background-size:150px;background-position:center 10px}a.book_purchase_button .shipping{font-size:14px;color:#999}.book_purchase_buttons{margin:25px 0;background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:15px 20px;border-radius:5px;display:block}.book_purchase_buttons .purchase{text-transform:uppercase;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;margin-right:20px}.book_purchase_buttons .sym{color:#b52600;font-size:20px;position:relative;top:2px;margin-right:5px}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:28px;margin-top:5px}.book_purchase_affiliate_explainer{color:#999;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-top:1em}.btn_book_blacklist{float:right}.headline_button,.content_button_tiny,.grey_button,.ci_rel_type{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#b52600;padding:0 10px;text-transform:uppercase;border-radius:5px;background-color:#f3f3f3;cursor:pointer}.content_button_tiny{top:0;float:right;margin-right:4px;padding:0 5px;line-height:160%;font-size:12px}a.ci_rel_type{font-weight:normal}.headline_button:hover,.content_button_tiny:hover,.grey_button:hover,.ci_rel_type:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.outline_button{border:1px solid #222;padding:3px 10px;border-radius:3px;color:#222;font-family:Karla;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;font-weight:normal !important;white-space:nowrap}.outline_button:hover,.outline_button.selector:hover{color:#FFF !important;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s;text-decoration:none;border:1px solid #222 !important}.outline_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;color:#b52600}.outline_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;color:#FFF}.outline_button.selector{margin:5px 5px 0 0;display:inline-block;line-height:15px;text-transform:none;border:1px solid #999;color:#999}.outline_button.selected{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:white}.outline_button input{display:none}.ci_rel_type{display:inline-block;text-transform:none;cursor:pointer;margin:0 2px;top:auto}.ci_rel_type.selected,.grey_button.selected{background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.ci_rel_type.selected .ci_rel_type_count{color:#BBB}.ci_rel_type_count{display:none;margin-top:-11px;font-size:8pt;color:#666}.grey_button{float:none;line-height:15px;font-size:14px;white-space:pre;padding:7px 10px;margin:3px 7px 7px 0;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.grey_button.green{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14}.grey_button.green:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button,.link_button,input[type=submit],input[type=button],.link_button.external_link,.content_button.external_link{display:block;width:160px;overflow:hidden;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 6px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:white;position:relative;top:0;white-space:nowrap}input[type=submit].content_button,input[type=button].content_button{height:33px;top:-1px}.green_button{display:inline-block;color:#FFF;background-color:#1bb77d;font-weight:bold;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:17px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;padding:6px 12px !important;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 0 5px 0;border-radius:5px;border:2px solid #1bb77d;position:relative;top:-1px;white-space:nowrap}.green_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#1bca90;border-color:#1bca90;transition-duration:.25s}input[type=submit],input[type=button]{padding:8px inherit !important}.content_button:hover,.link_button:hover,input[type=submit]:hover,input[type=button]:hover{color:#FFF;text-decoration:none;background:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button_narrow.inline,.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle}.content_button_narrow,.content_button.narrow{width:auto !important}.content_button.inline{display:inline-block;width:inherit;padding-left:20px !important;padding-right:20px !important}.content_button.red,.content_button.dark{display:inline-block;border:0;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;line-height:22px;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important}.content_button.red:hover{background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.content_button.dark{background-color:#222}.content_button.dark:hover{background-color:#b52600;transition-duration:.25s}input[disabled],.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{color:silver !important;cursor:default !important}input[disabled].content_button,input[disabled].content_button_tiny,input[disabled].content_button_narrow,.content_button.disabled,.content_button_tiny.disabled,.content_button_narrow.disabled{border:2px solid silver !important}input[disabled]:hover,.content_button.disabled:hover,.content_button_tiny.disabled:hover,.content_button_narrow.disabled:hover{color:silver !important;background-color:white !important}.social_login_button{display:block;width:174px;height:35px;background-image:url('/images/social_signin_buttons.png');background-color:silver}.social_login_button:hover{opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.social_login_button.google{background-position:0 0}.social_login_button.twitter{background-position:0 -36px}.social_login_button.facebook{background-position:0 71px}.social_login_button.patreon{background-position:0 35px}.big_red_button:hover{text-decoration:none;opacity:.9;transition-duration:.25s}.big_red_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:20px;background-color:#b52600;background-image:url("/template/images/big_red_button_bg.jpg");border-radius:5px;color:white;display:block;font-weight:bold;margin:20px auto 0;padding:5px 16px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;width:250px;cursor:pointer;white-space:nowrap}button.big_red_button{padding:6px 16px 7px;outline:0;border-style:none;font-size:13pt;font-family:hypatia-sans-pro;cursor:pointer}.simple_button{border:1px solid #222;color:#222;font-weight:normal;width:auto;padding:6px 14px !important;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:33px;text-align:center;text-transform:uppercase;cursor:pointer;margin:5px 5px 5px 0;border-radius:5px;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap}.simple_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#444;border:1px solid #444;color:#EEE;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red:hover{border:1px solid #222;background-color:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.simple_button.red{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-weight:bold}.simple_button.disabled{border:1px solid silver;color:silver}.simple_button.disabled:hover{border:1px solid silver;color:silver;background:#fff;cursor:default}.ad_membership_notice{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;position:relative;padding:0 10px;display:inline-block;border-radius:5px;float:right;background-color:#f3f3f3}.ad_membership_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;color:white;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}.publish_link span{display:none}.publish_link.publish span.label_publish,.publish_link.unpublish span.label_unpublish,.publish_link.schedule span.label_schedule{display:inline}.content_button.schedule{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;border-color:#293744}.content_button.schedule:hover{background-color:#293744;color:white}.content_button.schedule.inactive:hover{background-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744}.content_button.scheduled_label{background-color:#8cb2d6;border-color:#8cb2d6;color:#293744;cursor:default}.content_button.unpublish{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-color:#983e18}.content_button.publish{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-color:#6d9d14}.content_button.publish:hover{background-color:#6d9d14;color:white}.content_button.unpublish:hover{background-color:#983e18;color:white}#qc-cmp2-ui button,#qc-cmp2-ui button *{cursor:pointer}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2){background-color:#293744;color:#FFF}.qc-cmp2-summary-buttons button:nth-child(2):hover{background-color:#222;border-color:#222}.content_item{display:inline-block;margin:20px 0;padding:0;max-width:350px;vertical-align:top;position:relative}.content_item:hover h3{text-decoration:underline}.content_item:hover .ci_preview,.content_item:hover h3{color:#b52600 !important;transition:.5s}.content_item:hover{text-decoration:none;padding:0;transition:.5s;color:#b52600 !important}.content_item .ci_type_name{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-10px;color:#999;position:relative;top:-2px}.content_item .ci_image{margin:0;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;max-width:100%;width:360px;height:auto}.content_item .ci_header h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;font-weight:bold !important;text-transform:none;color:#b52600;margin-bottom:4px;line-height:120%;margin-top:6px}.content_item .ci_preview{color:#444;font-weight:normal;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;padding-left:30px;margin-top:-1px}.content_item .featured_ci_marker{float:left;background-color:#b52600;color:#fff;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;padding:1px 15px}.ci_info{display:flex;align-items:center;justify-content:flex-start;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin:0 0 5px 0;width:100%}.ci_info .block{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:6px}.ci_info .ci_author_image{width:50px;height:50px}.ci_author_image img{border-radius:50%}.ci_header .ci_info.wide{width:100%}.ci_header .rating_stars{margin-left:.5em}.ci_info.wide table{width:100%}.ci_author_and_copyright p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;color:#666}#ci_related_type_list{margin-bottom:30px;margin-top:10px}.filter_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;text-transform:uppercase;font-size:14px;display:block;margin:2px;margin-top:1em}.ci_type_icon{width:30px;height:30px;background-size:20px;background-color:white;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:center;border-radius:15px;position:absolute;top:7px;left:7px;opacity:.8}.content_item .ci_header{background:no-repeat left 1px;background-size:20px;padding-left:30px;min-height:21px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .ci_preview{font-size:14px}#ci_status_list_items{padding:0}#ci_status_list_items li{list-style-type:none;padding:.1em 0}*{-webkit-font-smoothing:antialiased;text-rendering:optimizeLegibility;-moz-osx-font-smoothing:grayscale;font-display:swap !important}body{font-family:"Libre Baskerville","Palatino Linotype","Book Antiqua",Palatino,serif;font-display:auto;color:#333}h1#page_title_text{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:60px;line-height:120%;color:#000;margin-bottom:-12px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin:0;padding-bottom:10px;break-after:avoid-page}#content h2{font-style:normal;font-weight:400;font-size:30px;line-height:120%;color:#000;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:10px;margin-top:60px;min-height:36px;break-after:avoid-page}h3{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:26px;line-height:130%;font-weight:normal;margin:20px 0 -10px 0;padding:0;color:#000;break-after:avoid-page}article h3 a{font-weight:normal}.link_nobold a{font-weight:normal}h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;color:#000;font-weight:bold;margin:20px 0 0 0}article th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3}article td,article th{border:1px solid #dadada}strong h3,b h3,h3 strong,h3 b{font-weight:normal !important}dfn{font-weight:bold}cite{font-style:normal}.ci_header h3{margin:4px 0 0 0}#content{font-size:16px;line-height:170%}a{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-decoration:none}a:hover{text-decoration:underline}.messages{display:block;margin:0 auto;width:75%;padding:1em 1em 1em 1em;margin-top:50px}#result_error_messages,.registration_errors,#float_message.msg_error,.errors_in_doc{border:1px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;color:#b52600}.errors_in_doc{border:0;border-radius:5px;font-size:18px}#result_messages_in_doc,.info_in_doc{background-color:#ffc600;color:#000;font-size:18px;border-radius:5px}.info_in_doc{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:.5em 1em;line-height:130%;margin:1em 0}#result_messages,#float_message{border:1px solid #999;background-color:#f8ecdd}.error_box{border:2px solid #b52600;background-color:#f1d1c9;padding:10px;margin:0 -12px}blockquote{font-size:16px;line-height:130%;color:grey;padding-left:5px;margin-bottom:0;padding:1px 1em 1px 80px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin-left:0;background-repeat:no-repeat;background-position:15px 15px}blockquote p{margin:.5em 0}.light{color:#999}.light.normal{font-weight:normal}textarea{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:.5em}input[type=text],input[type=url],input[type=number],select,input[type=password],input[type=email],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text],#ahe_dialogue_popup select,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password],#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email],#TB_window input[type=text],#TB_window select,#TB_window input[type=password],#TB_window input[type=email]{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;position:relative;top:0}input[type=text]:focus,input[type=email]:focus,input[type=url]:focus,input[type=number]:focus,select:focus,input[type=password]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=text]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=email]:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup select:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup input[type=password]:focus,#TB_window input[type=text]:focus,#TB_window select:focus,#TB_window input[type=password]:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}#content textarea,#TB_window textarea,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea{font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#222;border:1px solid #dadada;border-radius:5px;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(0,0,0,.1);padding:6px 10px;max-width:95%}#content textarea:focus,#TB_window textarea:focus,#ahe_dialogue_popup textarea:focus{border:1px solid #b52600;box-shadow:inset 0 0 5px rgba(181,38,0,.1);color:#222;outline:0}.link_style{color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;cursor:pointer}.link_style:hover{text-decoration:underline}.teamprofiles tr{margin-bottom:2em}.teamprofiles td{font-size:10px;vertical-align:top;padding:17px 7px 30px 7px}.teamprofiles p{margin:0 0 1em 0}.team_member_details li{list-style-type:circle}.big_quote{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;float:right;background:url(/template/images/bg_quote.png) center 20px no-repeat;padding:76px 20px 30px;text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;font-size:26px;text-align:center;color:#b52600;margin:10px;display:block;width:300px}.big_quote .quote_author{font-size:16px;color:#e4ded7}.ahe-ad,.sovrn-onetag-ad,.ahe-ad h4,.ahe-promo h4{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px}.ahe-ad h4,.sovrn-onetag-ad{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}.filter_count{color:#999}.partners_list p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:13px;line-height:21px}.statistics_table td{padding-left:.5em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}label,.banner-caption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#search_filters li{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.breadcrumb_navigation{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding-top:5px;padding-bottom:5px;font-size:14px}.search_filters{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}input::placeholder{color:#999}.form_field_label{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:14px;color:#666;font-weight:bold;margin-bottom:2px;margin-top:1em}.errors_in_doc{font-family:Karla;padding:10px 20px;display:inline-block;line-height:130%}.errors_in_doc p{margin:.5em 0}input[type=text]:read-only{opacity:.6}select{background-color:#fff}.error{background-color:orangered;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 6px}.error a{color:white !important;text-decoration:underline !important;font-weight:bold}.editorial_review_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;color:#666;line-height:18px;border-top:1px dotted #dadada;border-bottom:1px dotted #dadada;padding:1em 0}.editorial_review_header.translations{margin-top:.5em}.editorial_review_header{text-transform:uppercase;font-weight:bold;color:#222;padding-right:.8em;display:block}.yellow_highlight{background-color:#ffc600;padding:2px 5px;border-radius:3px}.yellow_highlight_box{background-color:#ffc600;padding:5px 10px;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.success{background-color:#c9e693;color:#6d9d14;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.failure{background-color:#ebbaa5;color:#983e18;border-radius:5px;padding:2px 4px;margin:-2px 0}.affiliate_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;font-size:14px;color:#999;margin:1em 0}.sans{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}.ahe-ad .ad_header{font-weight:normal;text-transform:uppercase;color:#999;margin-bottom:20px;margin-top:40px}li .count,li a.count{font-weight:normal;color:#999}#header{position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px;width:318px;height:77px}#header_donate_button{position:relative;float:right}.donate_button{display:inline-block;width:90px;height:32px;color:#FFF;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;font-size:12px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:17px;text-transform:uppercase;background:#b52600;border-radius:5px}.donate_button span{position:relative;top:8px}.donate_button span.hover{display:none}.donate_button:hover{text-decoration:none;background:#222;transition-duration:.25s}.donate_button:hover span.base{display:none}.donate_button:hover span.hover{display:initial}#header_tools .patreon_button{color:white;background-color:#b52600;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;border-radius:5px;padding:6px 10px;float:right;margin-left:0;text-transform:uppercase}#header_tools .patreon_button:hover{background-color:#222;text-decoration:none;transition-duration:.25s}#header_wrapper{box-shadow:0 2px 6px silver}.header_sm_link{width:32px;height:32px;display:none;opacity:.25}.header_sm_link svg{width:32px;height:32px}.header_sm_link:hover{opacity:1}.header_sm_link.twitter{background-position:-32px 0;background-position-x:-32px}.header_sm_link.instagram{background-position:-96px 0;background-position-x:-96px}.header_sm_link.youtube{background-position:-128px 0;background-position-x:-128px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:none}.sf-menu ul li:last-child a{border-bottom:0}a img{border:0}.body img,body.mceContentBody img,.image-wrapper .image img,.tag_definition_image,.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image,.shadow_image,.in_text_image{margin:1em auto;display:block;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image_page .copyright{font-size:75%}.image_page .description{margin-top:2em}.image-wrapper .description{margin-top:1em}.image-wrapper figure{margin:0;padding:0;width:100%}figure .image{text-align:center}figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em 0}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption,figure.definition_image figcaption{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;text-align:center;margin-top:-7px}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image figcaption .figtitle{color:#222;font-weight:normal}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover,figure.definition_image a:hover{text-decoration:none}figure.image_intext_wrapper a:hover figcaption .figtitle,figure.definition_image a:hover figcaption .figtitle{color:#b52600;transition:.5s}figure.image_intext_wrapper figcaption .figauthor,figure.definition_image figcaption .figauthor{font-size:14px;font-weight:normal;color:#999;display:block}img.tag_definition_image{max-width:300px;height:auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}figure.definition_image{float:right;margin:0 0 10px 10px;display:table;max-width:300px}.image_large{max-width:100%;height:auto}.round_image{box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;border-radius:50%;padding:3px;border:1px solid #e7e7e7}body{padding:0;margin:0;overflow-x:hidden}body.iframe{background-color:#FFF}a img{border:0}#page{background-color:#FFF;width:1101px;border-left:1px solid white;border-right:1px solid white;margin:0 auto}#content_wrapper{padding:40px;padding-top:22px}.left_3_column{float:left;width:681px}.right_1_column{float:left;width:300px;margin-left:40px}.left_1_column{float:left;width:300px}.right_3_column{float:left;width:681px;margin-left:40px}.left_2_column{float:left;width:490px}.right_2_column{float:left;width:490px;margin-left:40px}.right_narrow_column{float:left;width:250px;margin-left:40px}.left_narrow_column{float:left;width:160px}.middle_wide_column{float:left;width:531px;margin-left:40px}.middle_2_column{float:left;width:427px;margin-left:21px}.full_4_column{width:1021px}.clear{clear:both}.pagination{margin:10px auto;display:block;text-align:center;font-size:10px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.pagination a{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px}.pagination a:hover{color:#FFF;background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none}.pagination strong{border:1px solid #b52600;padding:5px 7px;margin:2px;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.float_right{float:right}.hidden{display:none}.searchform input[type=text]{height:21px;margin-right:5px;border:1px solid #dadada}.left_1_column .searchform input[type=text]{width:145px;margin-left:-4px}.about_links,.left_menu{margin:0;padding:0;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3}.left_menu a,.about_link a{display:block;border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;padding:.3em .3em;margin:0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.left_menu a:hover,.about_link a:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3;text-decoration:none}.index_alphabet{display:block;margin:0;width:682px;padding-left:20px;background-image:url('/template/images/index_alphabet_fadout_bg.png');clear:both;max-width:728px}#index_tags_container{display:block;min-height:700px;vertical-align:middle;max-width:400px}input.button_height{font-size:12px;padding:4px}input[type=radio],input[type=checkbox]{position:relative;margin-right:.5em}#content select{height:33px;padding:0 10px;top:0}.uvOverlay1{z-index:2000000001 !important}#delete_reason_wrapper{display:none}table{border-collapse:collapse;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}table th{text-align:left;background-color:#f3f3f3;color:#000}table td,table th{border-color:#f3f3f3}.team_member_details b{font-size:14px;line-height:20px}.team_member_details{padding-left:2.5em !important}.teamprofiles td img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}#mce-EMAIL{width:200px;margin-right:5px}.right_narrow_column #mce-EMAIL{width:122px}.right_1_column #mce-EMAIL{width:165px}#mc_embed_signup{background-color:#f3f3f3;margin-top:30px;min-height:436px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}#mc_embed_signup .mc-field-group{line-height:150%}#mc_embed_signup form{padding:1px 15px 12px 15px}#mc_embed_signup h3{background-color:#222;display:inline-block;font-size:14px;color:white;border-radius:3px;padding:3px 10px;margin:10px 0 0 0;font-weight:bold}img.newsletter_banner{border-bottom:1px solid #e4ded7}.bottom_float_bar{position:fixed;bottom:0;width:100%;background-color:#353535;left:0;border-top:3px solid #b52600;z-index:10}.youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100%;margin:0 auto;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}#content.video_page .youtube-embed-wrapper,#content.image3d_page .youtube-embed-wrapper{max-width:100% !important}.youtube-embed-container{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%;width:100%}.youtube-embed-container iframe,.youtube-embed-container object,.youtube-embed-container embed{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.ad_Flexi_TopRight{margin-bottom:100px;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:250px}.ad_Flexi_LowerRight{margin:100px 0;min-height:600px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{max-width:728px;margin:auto}.ad_Mobile_Intext{margin:2em 0;clear:both}@media(max-width:991px){.ad_Mobile_Intext{display:block}.ad_Mobile_Intext .innerwrapper{text-align:center}}@media(min-width:992px){.ad_Mobile_Intext{display:none}.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-3,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-4,.ad_Mobile_Intext.intext-ad-5{display:block}}.sticky,.ahe-ad iframe.hstryFrame,.ahe-ad institutional_sub_promo{position:sticky;top:20px;display:block}#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{position:sticky;top:20px;margin-top:100px}.right_1_column .shop_promo{margin:100px 0}.image3d_embed{position:relative;padding-bottom:56.25%;height:0;overflow:hidden;max-width:100%}.image3d_embed iframe{position:absolute;top:0;left:0;width:100%;height:100%}.contribute_page #tag_add_button{float:none}body.iframe{padding:2em}.map_section{margin-top:1em}.pre_article_section{margin:14px 0}.ci_audio_link,.translations_header{clear:both;margin:10px 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.ci_audio_link img.headphones_icon{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:middle;padding-right:13px;position:relative;top:-1px}.translations_header{margin-bottom:6px}.translations_header img{width:32px;height:32px;vertical-align:top;padding-right:9px;position:relative;top:-7px}.translations_title{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;margin-right:.5em}.translations_links{display:inline-block;vertical-align:top}.inline{display:inline}.collection_contents .ci_listing{margin:2em 0}.collection_contents .ci_listing h3{margin-bottom:.5em}.timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:100px 0}.mosaicflow__column{float:left}.image-list img{float:left;display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222}.image-list .label{margin-left:170px}.image-list .preheader{font-family:Karla;color:#999;font-size:14px;margin-bottom:-8px}.image-list h3.header{margin:0}.image-list .image-list-item{margin:60px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both}.image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.6em 0}.image-list-cards img{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%;box-shadow:0 7px 10px -9px #222;margin:0 auto}.image-list-cards .label{margin-top:15px}.image-list-cards .preheader{color:#999;font-size:14px}.image-list-cards h4{margin:0}.image-list-cards .image-list-item{margin:40px 40px 40px 0;min-height:150px;clear:both;max-width:300px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;text-align:center;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%;position:relative}.image-list-cards .coming_soon{background-color:#ea5b3a;display:inline-block;padding:2px 0;color:#FFF;font-size:14px;text-transform:uppercase;line-height:15px;border-radius:3px;position:absolute;top:137px;width:110px;left:95px;left:calc(50% - 55px);font-weight:bold}.image-list-cards .image-list-item .label-content p{margin:.3em 0;color:#999}.image-list-cards.small .image-list-item{max-width:200px;margin:20px 40px 20px 0}.image-list-cards.small img{max-width:100px}.image-list-cards.small .coming_soon{top:90px}.checkbox_wrapper input[type=checkbox]{margin-right:-20px;position:relative;top:-2px}.checkbox_wrapper label{margin-bottom:.5em !important;display:inline-block;vertical-align:top;line-height:130%;margin-left:25px;float:right}.checkbox_wrapper{margin:.5em 0}.adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}.right_1_column .adcontainer{min-height:280px}.right_1_column .adcontainer>div{position:sticky;top:40px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_TopRight,#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_LowerRight{height:600px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MiddleRight{height:280px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{min-height:90px}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky{max-height:90px;overflow:hidden}.publication_status{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:10px}.publication_status.is_published .published{display:block}.publication_status.is_published .suggested{display:none}.publication_status .published{display:none}.publication_status .suggested{display:block}.publication_status .suggested{color:#983e18}.publication_status .published{color:#6d9d14}.publication_status .sym{font-weight:bold}#footer_spacer{clear:both;height:1px}#footer .social svg{width:30px;height:30px;opacity:70%;filter:invert(1);margin-right:5px}#footer .social a:hover svg{opacity:100%}.clear{clear:both}.inline_block_section{display:inline-block;margin:1em 1em 1em 0}.inline_block_section .form_field_label{margin-top:0}#loadingOverlay{display:none;position:fixed;width:100%;height:100%;background-color:#222;z-index:29999999;opacity:.85}#loadingOverlayMessage{color:white;font-size:60px;font-family:Libre Baskerville;position:fixed;top:50%;left:50%;transform:translate(-50%,-50%)}.membership-below-block-wrapper{min-height:301px}#audio-frame-wrapper{display:none}.highlight_box{display:block;padding:15px;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;font-family:Karla;line-height:130%}#float_message{display:none;position:fixed;top:0;left:50%;margin-right:-50%;transform:translate(-50%,0%);width:700px;padding:10px;border-top:0;font-size:16px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;z-index:19999999}#float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid silver;display:block;font-size:10px;text-align:center;padding-top:8px;margin-top:12px}.msg_error #float_message_close_wrapper{border-top:1px solid rgba(181,38,0,.3)}#float_message .content_button{margin-right:10px !important}.membership_below_notice{background-color:#b52600;padding:7px;background-size:cover;background-position:right;margin:40px 0}.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 310px 12px 20px;color:#FFF}#content .membership_below_notice h2{margin:10px 0;padding:0;color:#fff !important}.membership_below_notice p{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:130%}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button{display:inline-block;border:2px solid white;background-color:white;color:black;width:auto;padding:6px 17px !important}#content .membership_below_notice .content_button:hover{background-color:#ffc600;border-color:#ffc600}@media(max-width:1199px){.membership_below_notice_inner{padding:10px 10px 12px 20px}}.grey_box p{margin:.5em 0 1em 0;font-family:Karla;line-height:140%;font-size:16px !important}.grey_box p strong{background-color:#ffc600;padding:1px 3px;border-radius:3px}.grey_box{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative}h4.grey_box_title{position:absolute;top:0;margin-top:0;background-color:#222;color:#fff;padding:0 20px;left:0}h4.grey_box_title.red{background-color:#b52600}.editors_only{border-left:5px solid #dadada;padding-left:15px;margin-left:-20px;position:relative}.editors_only::before{content:"Editors Only";position:absolute;left:-108px;background-color:#dadada;color:#222;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;padding:0 10px}.editors_only .editors_only:before{display:none}.right_1_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0 80px 0}.left_3_column .grey_box{margin:40px 0}.grey_box h2{padding:0;margin:0 !important;line-height:120% !important}#mobilenewsletter{display:none;margin:20px -30px;padding:20px 30px}#mobilenewsletter .headline{font-size:24px;font-weight:bold}#mobilenewsletter form{margin-top:-10px}#mobilenewsletter input[type="submit"]{display:inline-block;width:auto;color:#FFF;background-color:#222;border:0;line-height:21px;position:relative}.membership-intext-promo{background:#f3f3f3;padding:20px;position:relative;margin:1em 0;clear:both}.membership-intext-promo h5{font-size:20px;margin:0}.membership-intext-promo p{margin:.75em 0;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.metricoolPixel{position:absolute;top:0;left:-1000px}footer{background-color:#f3f3f3}#membership_sidebar{position:fixed;left:-30px;bottom:100px;width:29px;height:133px;z-index:20}#membership_sidebar:hover{filter:grayscale(1)}.greystripe{background-color:#f3f3f3;box-shadow:0 0 0 100vmax #f3f3f3;clip-path:inset(0 -100vmax)}.right_1_column section{margin:60px 0}.pinterest_button{min-height:28px;position:relative;top:4px;float:right}#primis_intext{min-height:320px;margin-bottom:2em;clear:both;max-width:100%;overflow:hidden}#primis_intext .youtube_notice{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;color:#fff;font-size:14px;background-color:#222;padding:3px 7px;position:relative;display:inline-block;margin-top:15px}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover{background-color:#b52600;text-decoration:none;color:#fff;transition-duration:.2s}#primis_intext .youtube_notice svg{height:30px;width:30px;display:inline-block;vertical-align:middle;margin-top:-2px;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1)}#primis_intext .youtube_notice:hover svg{display:inline-block}.tooltip.help{cursor:help}.grid{display:grid;gap:20px}.grid.four_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr 1fr}.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr 1fr}hr.red_bar{width:15%;background-color:#b52600;height:3px;margin:0 auto;border:0}.ad_Flexi_MobileSticky{position:fixed;bottom:0;left:0;padding:0;width:100%;text-align:center;z-index:100;bottom:env(safe-area-inset-bottom)}.pre_article_buttons{margin:1em 0}.left_bar_highlight{border-left:5px solid #b52600;background-color:#B526000a;margin-left:-15px !important;padding-left:10px !important;padding-right:10px;padding-top:.5em;padding-bottom:.5em}.left_bar_highlight.yellow{border-left:5px solid #ffc600;background-color:#ffc6000f}.print_only{display:none}@media print{.print_only{display:unset}}aside .donate_message:first-child{margin-top:60px}.aws_book_item_short a{display:block;text-decoration:none;border-bottom:1px solid silver;font-size:.8em;color:#000 !important;padding:2px}.aws_book_item_short .title{font-weight:bold}.aws_book_item_short a:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;color:#FFF !important}#title_search_response{display:block;float:right;width:350px}#references{margin-top:0;font-size:14px;line-height:130%}body.contribute #references{border-top:0}.ref_list.tag_definition{margin:1.5em 0}.lang_rtl #page,.lang_rtl .trans,.lang_rtl .original_article_link{direction:rtl}lang_rtl blockquote{background-position:right 15px;padding:1px 80px 1em 1px;margin-right:0}.lang_rtl .big_quote{float:left}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author_image{float:right;margin-left:8px;top:7px}.lang_rtl .ci_info .ci_author{direction:rtl;float:right}.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl h1,.lang_rtl h2.trans_headline{text-align:right}.lang_rtl .left_3_column{float:right;padding-right:0}@media(max-width:1199px) and (min-width:992px){.right_1_column{margin-left:0;margin-right:40px}}.lang_rtl .headphones_icon{padding-left:13px;padding-right:0}.lang_rtl>#ahe_dialogue_popup{direction:rtl}#tag_index_wrapper{margin-top:0}#tag_edit_form p{margin:0}#tag_update_response{position:relative;top:2em}.related_pages ul{list-style-type:none;margin:0;padding:0}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper{width:430px;border:1px solid #DDD;padding:2px}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper img{padding:2px;cursor:pointer}#tag_definition_image_selector_wrapper .selected_tag_image{border:2px solid #b52600 !important;padding:0}#image_selector_ajax_loader{margin:34px}.tag_definition_image{margin-left:.5em}#tag_to_add{position:relative;top:1px;width:170px;margin-right:5px;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:10px}#tag_to_add:focus{color:#222}.ci_tag_item,.item_box{padding:5px 10px;border-collapse:collapse;background-color:#f3f3f3;border-radius:5px;margin:5px;display:inline-block;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;line-height:16px;position:relative;padding-right:30px}.ci_tag_item a,.item_box a{font-weight:normal}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link,.item_box .remove{margin-left:5px;background-color:#e0e0e0;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;line-height:26px;padding:0 7px;border-radius:5px}.ci_tag_item .remove_tag_link:hover,.item_box .remove:hover{color:#fff;background-color:#b52600;transition:.5s;text-decoration:none}#tag_index_wrapper{padding-top:.2em}#time_list{list-style-type:none;margin:0 0 -20px 0 !important;padding:0;width:100%;padding-right:20px;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.timeline_entry{margin:1.9em 0}.timeline_entry:last-child{border-bottom:0}.timeline_entry .date{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:bold;font-size:20px;margin:1em 0 .2em 0}#content .timeline_wrapper h2{margin-top:0;margin-bottom:0}#timeline_search_form select{padding:3px;border:1px solid #dadada}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td{vertical-align:top;padding-right:4em;width:300px;padding-left:1px}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table{margin:0;padding:0;border-spacing:0}table.timeline_search_form_wrapper td table td{width:auto;padding:0;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.tt_category_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;display:block;width:150px;margin-bottom:2px}.tt_legend_wrapper{white-space:nowrap;font-size:14px;padding-right:4px;margin-right:4px}.tt_legend_wrapper input{display:none}.tt_legend_wrapper label{padding-left:2px}.visual_timeline_button{margin:0 auto !important}#form_timeline_search #txt_book_search_submit{position:relative;top:-5px}.timeline_search_section{width:300px;float:left}.timeline_page .right_1_column #timeline_search_form{min-height:1000px}.timeline_types_wrapper{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#user_management_form small{line-height:12px;font-size:10px}#user_management_form input[type=text]{margin-bottom:.75em;width:200px}#user_management_form label{margin-bottom:.1em}#contact_user_message{width:95%;margin:1em 0}#user_navigation .link_button{float:none !important;display:block;clear:left !important;margin:6px 0}#image_result{margin-bottom:20px;position:relative}#image_result img{display:inline-block;border-radius:100%;width:50px;height:50px}#image_result span{position:absolute;display:inline-block;width:300px;bottom:35%;padding-left:10px}.user_short_bio{padding:15px 15px 15px 125px;min-height:100px;margin:10px 0}.user_short_bio img.avatar_image{float:left;margin-left:-125px;max-width:100px}.user_short_bio .user_name{font-size:20px;margin-bottom:5px}.sm_links{margin-top:10px}.user_biography{margin-left:200px}.user_biography .bio_image{float:left;margin-left:-200px;border-radius:50%}#lead_image_preview{max-width:300px;max-height:300px;width:auto;height:auto}.xres_headline{font-weight:bold}.xres_domain{color:#999;font-size:14px;line-height:18px}.xres_preview{color:#444;font-size:14px;line-height:18px;margin-top:3px}.card .xres picture,.card .xres img{width:100%;height:auto}.card .xres{position:relative;max-width:100%;break-inside:avoid;margin-bottom:0;overflow:hidden;border-bottom:1px solid #dadada;padding-bottom:10px;padding-top:10px}.card .xres a{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.card .xres .outline_button{position:absolute;right:10px;top:20px;z-index:2;background:white}.card .xres .xres_text{padding:10px 0}.card .xres .xres_domain{display:inline}.card .xres:hover{background-color:#f3f3f3}.card .xres picture{display:block;margin-bottom:-6px}.card .xres .editor_view_link.grey_button{display:none}.xres_categories .simple_button{clear:both}.xres_wrapper.card{margin-top:-20px}.xres_card_default_container .xres{border:1px solid #dadada;padding:10px 15px}.list .xres{margin:0;position:relative;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%}.list .xres:first-of-type{margin-top:1em}.list .xres .editor_view_link{position:absolute;top:11px;right:0;z-index:2;font-weight:normal}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;line-height:140%;font-weight:normal;text-decoration:none;display:inline-block}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button:not(:hover){background-color:white}.list .xres .xres_domain.external_link{display:inline;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:normal;position:relative;top:-5px}.list .xres .grey_button,.xres.listitem .grey_button{float:right}.list .xres picture,.list .xres img{display:none}.list .xres .xres_preview{display:none}.list .xres .editor_view_link.outline_button{display:none}.list .xres.listitem{margin:.3em 0}.xres .xres_domain{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}#moderate_ajax_container .xres.listitem .xres_domain{display:inline-block;position:relative;top:-8px}.xres.listitem .xres_headline,.xres.listitem a{font-weight:normal}.xres.listitem{margin:.2em 0}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_wrapper_outside{border:1px solid #999;padding:10px;border-radius:5px;display:block;max-width:600px}.xres_categories_dropdown_wrapper .selected_categories_header{margin-bottom:5px;display:block}body{background-color:#fff}.img-responsive{height:auto;max-width:100%}.img-responsive-full{height:auto;width:100%}#header_wrapper{background:url('/template/images/header/subject_headers/mesopotamia_shadow.jpg') center bottom repeat-x;padding-bottom:163px}#header{width:930px;margin:0 auto;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px;position:relative}#header_ahe_logo{margin:40px 40px 36px 0;float:left}#header_tools{float:right;padding-top:50px}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:inline-block;float:left;padding-top:6px;color:#999;font-size:17px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_follow_buttons .addthis_32x32_style span{border-radius:100% !important}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:40px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#title_bar{width:100%;padding-top:20px;min-height:108px}#title_bar .box_wrapper{padding-bottom:5px;margin-bottom:10px}#nav_bar{border-top:1px solid #e3e3e3;width:100%;text-align:center}.box_wrapper{width:930px;margin:0 auto}.v_spacing{padding:20px 0}#footer_wrapper #sponsors_box,#footer_wrapper #partners_list,#footer_wrapper #footer{margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#sponsors_box{padding:25px 20px;margin:0}.sponsors_logos_wrapper a>img{display:inline-block;margin:15px}#page{width:990px;border:0 solid #FFF}#content_wrapper{padding:0 15px}#content{width:960px}.left_narrow_column{width:150px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_narrow_column{width:250px;padding:15px;margin:0}.middle_wide_column{width:470px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_3_column,.right_3_column{width:600px;padding:15px;margin:0}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px;padding:15px;margin:0}.left_2_column{width:435px;padding-right:15px;padding-left:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:435px;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#map_container{width:100% !important}#grid_submissions{width:100%}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:335px}.item_1_col{width:21%;margin:0 1% 15px;float:left}.item_1_col img{width:100%;height:auto}.teamprofiles p{font-size:15px}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.team_member_details b{font-size:19px;line-height:27px}.team_pic{float:left;width:20%;margin:0;padding:0}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:73%;margin-left:5%;margin:0;padding:0}.timeline_wrapper{background-color:#f3f3f3;padding:20px}.timeline_entry{margin:12px 0;border-bottom:1px dashed #e3e3e3;padding:0 0 12px}.content_button_alphabet{display:inline-block;width:35px;height:35px;color:#b52600;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0;margin:0;margin-bottom:8px;cursor:pointer;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;background:none;transition:all .25s;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.content_button_alphabet.selected{background-color:#222;color:#fff}.content_button_alphabet:hover{text-decoration:none !important;background-color:#b52600;border-color:#b52600;color:#FFF}.index_alphabet{width:100%;padding-left:0;background-color:white;clear:both;z-index:1000 !important}.related_pages{margin-top:40px}.related_pages h2{margin-bottom:30px !important}.ci_author_image{float:left;width:32px;margin-right:10px}h3.highlight_box{font-size:20px}.registration_message_page{width:930px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}h2 i{color:#e5c357;font-size:31px}.section-team h3{text-align:center;letter-spacing:-1px;font-size:30px;text-transform:none;margin-bottom:15px}.tab-links{list-style:none;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:60px;padding:0}.tab-links li{width:33%;float:left;text-align:center}.tab-links.two li{width:50%}.tab-links.three li{width:33%}.tab-links.four li{width:25%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:20px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;padding-bottom:16px;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.tab-links li a:hover{text-decoration:none}.section-team.initial-on{display:block}.item-wrapper{padding:20px;background:#FFF;text-align:center}.tm-grid-item img{margin:0 auto 15px;float:none}.tm-grid-item img,.avatar_image{display:block;height:auto;max-width:150px;border-radius:50%}.tm-grid-item .tm-name{display:block;font-weight:bold;font-size:19px}.tm-grid-item .tm-studies{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:130%;margin-bottom:0}.tm-grid-item .tm-description{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:16px;line-height:130%}.tm-grid-item .tm-position{font-size:15px}.tm-grid-item .tm-summary{color:#666;font-size:16px}.clearfix:before,.clearfix:after{content:'.';display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;font-size:0;line-height:0;width:0;height:0}.clearfix:after{clear:both}.clr{clear:both;display:block;overflow:hidden;visibility:hidden;width:0;height:0}#accordion-home{border-radius:5px;box-shadow:0 8px 16px -12px #666;margin:0 15px 15px;height:280px}.kwicks{display:block;list-style-type:none;list-style:none;position:relative;margin:0;padding:0}.kwicks>*{display:block;overflow:hidden;padding:0;margin:0}.kwicks.kwicks-processed>*{margin:0;position:absolute}.kwicks-horizontal>*{float:left}.kwicks-horizontal>:first-child{margin-left:0}.kwicks-vertical>:first-child{margin-top:0}.kwicks{height:280px}.kwicks>li{height:280px}.kwicks>a{height:280px;width:125px;margin-left:5px;float:left}#panel-1{background:url('/template/images/accordion/encyclopedia.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-2{background:url('/template/images/accordion/education.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-3{background:url('/template/images/accordion/translation.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-4{background:url('/template/images/accordion/medialibrary.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-5{background:url('/template/images/accordion/books.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-6{background:url('/template/images/accordion/maps.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}#panel-7{background:url('/template/images/accordion/membership.png') left bottom no-repeat #fff}.pagination strong,.pagination a{display:inline-block;width:auto;height:35px;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;padding:0 10px 0;margin:1px;cursor:pointer;font-size:17px;border-radius:2px;border:1px solid #e3e3e3;line-height:35px;transition:all .25s}.book_recommendation_list .book_detail.book_image.book_smallimage{left:15px;top:-45px}.book_recommendation_list h3{line-height:24px;margin:5px 0 0 75px;padding:0}.book_recommendation_list p{margin-top:20px}.content_main_full_width,#map_area{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.full_4_column{width:auto;padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px}.contribute_page td p{padding-right:20px}.tooltipster-default{border-radius:5px;border:1px solid #f3f3f3;background:#f3f3f3;color:#000}.tooltipster-default .tooltipster-content{font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-size:14px;line-height:16px;padding:8px 10px;overflow:hidden;max-width:350px}.tooltipster-icon{cursor:help;margin-left:4px}.tooltipster-base{padding:0;font-size:0;line-height:0;position:absolute;left:0;top:0;z-index:19999999;pointer-events:none;width:auto;overflow:visible}.tooltipster-base .tooltipster-content{overflow:hidden}.tooltipster-arrow{display:block;text-align:center;width:100%;height:100%;position:absolute;top:1px;left:0;z-index:-1}.tooltipster-arrow span,.tooltipster-arrow-border{display:block;width:0;height:0;position:absolute}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-top:8px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-top:9px solid;bottom:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{border-left:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-left:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid;top:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-top span,.tooltipster-arrow-top .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:0;right:0;margin:0 auto}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left span{left:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-left .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{left:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right span{right:6px}.tooltipster-arrow-top-right .tooltipster-arrow-border,.tooltipster-arrow-bottom-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{right:5px}.tooltipster-arrow-left span,.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-left:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;right:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-left .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-left:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-arrow-right span,.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:8px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:8px solid transparent !important;border-right:8px solid;top:50%;margin-top:-7px;left:-7px}.tooltipster-arrow-right .tooltipster-arrow-border{border-top:9px solid transparent !important;border-bottom:9px solid transparent !important;border-right:9px solid;margin-top:-8px}.tooltipster-fade{opacity:0}.tooltipster-fade-show{opacity:1}.tooltipster-grow{transform:scale(0,0);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-grow-show{transform:scale(1,1);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-swing{opacity:0;transform:rotateZ(4deg);transition-property:transform}.tooltipster-swing-show{opacity:1;transform:rotateZ(0deg);transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.230,.635,.495,2.4)}.tooltipster-fall{top:0;transition-property:top;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-fall.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;top:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-slide{left:-40px;transition-property:left;transition-timing-function:cubic-bezier(0.175,.885,.32,1.15)}.tooltipster-slide.tooltipster-dying{transition-property:all;left:0 !important;opacity:0}.tooltipster-content-changing{opacity:.5;transform:scale(1.1,1.1)}@media(min-width:992px) and (max-width:1199px){.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_1_column{width:200px}.right_3_column{width:700px}.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:320px}.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(odd){margin-left:50px}.right_1_column{margin-left:40px}.left_3_column{width:560px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:255px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:40px}#books_preview .booklistentry:nth-child(5){display:none}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin-right:40px;max-width:255px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:255px;height:143px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n){margin-right:0 !important}.xres_wrapper.card{column-count:2}}@media(min-width:992px){.right_1_column #time_list{max-height:500px;overflow:scroll;overflow-y:scroll;overflow-x:hidden}#nav_bar ul li.toplevel>a{padding-right:2.5em}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul{padding-right:2.5em;*padding-right:1em;}.sf-arrows .sf-with-ul:after{content:'';position:absolute;top:50%;right:1em;margin-top:-3px;height:0;width:0;border:5px solid transparent;border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows>li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows>li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows>.sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-top-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul .sf-with-ul:after{margin-top:-5px;margin-right:-3px;border-color:transparent;border-left-color:#c02a1c}.sf-arrows ul li>.sf-with-ul:focus:after,.sf-arrows ul li:hover>.sf-with-ul:after,.sf-arrows ul .sfHover>.sf-with-ul:after{border-left-color:white}.ci_rel_type{margin-bottom:8px !important}#primis_video_mobile_container{display:none}}@media(max-height:800px){#header_wrapper{background-size:auto 80px;padding-bottom:70px !important}.sf-menu a{padding-top:15px !important;padding-bottom:15px !important}}@media(min-width:1200px){#header{width:1140px}#page{width:1200px}#content{width:1170px}.left_narrow_column{width:190px}.right_narrow_column{width:250px}.middle_wide_column{width:600px;padding:15px 35px 15px}.left_3_column{width:750px;padding-right:75px}.right_3_column{width:790px;padding-left:35px}.right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:1140px}.first-menu-item{padding-left:0 !important}.index_alphabet{z-index:1000 !important;top:0 !important;padding-top:15px !important;background-color:#FFF}.left_2_column{width:540px;padding-right:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.right_2_column{width:540px;padding-left:30px;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px}#header_donate_button{margin-left:60px}.header_sm_link{display:inline-block}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:100px !important}.membership-intext-promo p,.membership-intext-promo h5{margin:0;width:500px}.membership-intext-promo .content_button.red{position:absolute;right:30px;top:35px}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{padding-top:0}#header_tools .follow_us{display:none}#header_tools .patreon_button{margin-left:60px}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:300px !important}.registration_message_page{width:1140px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{display:none}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even),.right_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:70px}.left_3_column .content_item,.right_3_column .content_item{max-width:335px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:220px;height:123px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:220px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}}@media screen{@media(max-width:767px){.left_1_column,#primis_intext{display:none}#audio-frame-close{top:60px}#mobile_sm_buttons{display:block}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons{position:absolute;top:8px;left:15px;margin:0 !important;z-index:1000000}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_link{display:inline-block;margin-right:3px;filter:invert(1);opacity:1}#mobile_sm_buttons .header_sm_buttons .pinterest{display:none}#mobile_sm_buttons strong{display:none}#nav_bar{display:none !important}#meanmenu{min-height:48px}a.meanmenu-reveal{display:none}h1#page_title_text{font-size:40px !important}.home_page .membership-below-block-wrapper{display:none}.pagination .pagination_page{display:none !important}.mean-container .mean-bar{float:left;width:100%;position:relative;background:#b52600;padding:4px 0 0;min-height:42px;z-index:999999;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal{width:22px;height:22px;padding:13px 13px 11px 13px;position:absolute;top:0;right:0;cursor:pointer;color:#fff;text-decoration:none;font-size:16px;text-indent:-9999em;line-height:22px;font-size:1px;display:block;font-family:Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;font-weight:700}.mean-container a.meanmenu-reveal span{display:block;background:#fff;height:3px;margin-top:3px}.mean-container .mean-nav{float:left;width:100%;background:#b52600;margin-top:44px}.mean-container .mean-nav ul{padding:0;margin:0;width:100%;list-style-type:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li{position:relative;float:left;width:100%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a{display:block;float:left;width:90%;padding:1em 5%;margin:0;text-align:left;color:#fff;border-top:1px solid #383838;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.5);text-decoration:none;text-transform:uppercase}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li a{width:80%;padding:1em 10%;border-top:1px solid #f1f1f1;border-top:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.25);opacity:.75;filter:alpha(opacity=75);text-shadow:none !important;visibility:visible;text-transform:none}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li.mean-last a{border-bottom:0;margin-bottom:0}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li a{width:70%;padding:1em 15%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li a{width:60%;padding:1em 20%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li li li li li a{width:50%;padding:1em 25%}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a:hover{background:#252525;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1)}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand{margin-top:1px;width:26px;height:25px;padding:12px !important;text-align:center;position:absolute;right:0;top:0;z-index:2;font-weight:700;background:rgba(255,255,255,0.1);border:0 !important;border-left:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.4) !important;border-bottom:1px solid rgba(255,255,255,0.2) !important}.mean-container .mean-nav ul li a.mean-expand:hover{background:rgba(0,0,0,0.9)}.mean-container .mean-push{float:left;width:100%;padding:0;margin:0;clear:both}.mean-nav .wrapper{width:100%;padding:0;margin:0}.mean-container .mean-bar,.mean-container .mean-bar *{-webkit-box-sizing:content-box;-moz-box-sizing:content-box;box-sizing:content-box}.mean-remove{display:none !important}.ad img{box-shadow:none}#div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin:auto;width:320px;min-height:50px !important}#page{margin-bottom:40px}#header{padding-left:0;padding-right:0;width:100%}#header_wrapper{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;padding-bottom:0 !important;background-image:none;box-shadow:none}#header_ahe_logo{float:none;display:block;text-align:center;margin:25px auto;padding-top:20px}.header_row_top{display:none}#header_tools{float:none;padding-top:0}#header_tools .header_row_bottom{text-align:center;float:none;margin-right:0}#title_bar{padding-left:15px;padding-right:15px;width:auto;padding-top:5px;text-align:center}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.home #title_bar,.index #title_bar{display:none}.index #page,.home #page{padding-top:30px}.box_wrapper{width:100%}.membership-intext-promo{margin-left:-100px;margin-right:-100px;padding-left:100px;padding-right:100px}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr}.tab-links{margin-bottom:30px}.tab-links li{width:33%}.tab-links li a{display:block;font-weight:normal;font-size:18px;letter-spacing:-1px;padding-bottom:20px}.tab-links li a.active{font-weight:bold;border-bottom:4px solid #c42f28}.content_item{max-width:100%}.left_1_column,.right_3_column{width:100%;padding:15px 0;margin:0}.left_menu{display:none}.subscribe_button_container{display:block;width:90% !important;padding-left:5% !important;padding-right:5% !important}.content_button.subscribe_button{display:inline-block !important;margin:0 auto;width:80%;line-height:23px}.content_main_full_width{padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.benefit,.reason{width:45% !important;padding-left:1.25%;padding-right:1.25%;padding-top:30px;margin:0 !important}.reasons_list{margin-bottom:40px}.hide-in-mobile{display:none}#accordion-home{display:none}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}#page{width:100%;min-width:320px;overflow:hidden !important}#content{width:100%}.left_3_column,.right_1_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.map_section{margin-top:40px}.ad_Flexi_TopLeft{margin-bottom:30px}.ad_Flexi_BottomLeft{margin-top:30px}.footer_phrase{margin-top:1px;line-height:130%}#footer{padding-bottom:70px}#footer_contents{background-position:center 80px}.footer_section{margin-right:20px !important;margin-left:20px !important}.footer_section .center,.footer_section .right{margin:60px 0 !important;text-align:center;display:block !important;width:auto !important}.footer_section p{font-size:14px}.footer_section .partners img{margin:15px 15px}.shop_promo{margin-bottom:0 !important}#footer_spacer{height:1px;margin:0}#editor_tools,.gravity_widget_wrapper,.gravity_right_col,#middle_float_ad_container,.addthis-smartlayers-desktop,.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,#squinchpix_results,.share_this,#sponsors_box,#partners_list,.bottomRightStickySpacer,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky{display:none}.search_page .ci_related_content_outer_wrapper{display:block !important}.ci_related_content_outer_wrapper #ci_related_type_list{display:none}.ci_two_cols .columns{column-count:1}#content .search_form_in_content{display:none !important}.search_results_page h2.search_header{display:none}.static_page .left_1_column{display:none}.user_biography .bio_image{float:none;margin:1em 0;display:block}.user_biography{margin-left:0}#txt_book_search.wide{width:100%;max-width:300px}#txt_book_search_submit{display:none}.reasons_list{padding-left:10px;padding-right:10px}.shop_sections_wrapper{text-align:center}.shop_section{margin-right:0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{margin-top:20px;margin-bottom:20px;overflow:initial}.book_purchase_buttons .lp_download_wrapper{padding-left:0}}@media(max-width:560px){.big_quote{float:none;padding:76px 5% 30px;margin:20px 0;display:block;width:90%}img.tag_definition_image{float:none}figure.definition_image{float:none;margin:0;display:block;width:100%;max-width:100%}.body img,img.tag_definition_image,img.in_text_image,.video_link img,figure.image_intext_wrapper{margin:1em -8px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 16px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.left_2_column,.right_2_column{padding-right:0;padding-left:0;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin-right:0}.item-map{margin-bottom:25px;margin-top:10px}.benefit,.reason{width:100% !important;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.tm-lg-2{width:100%}.tm-lg-3{width:100%}.tm-lg-4{width:100%}.tm-lg-5{width:100%}.ci_audio_link img.soundcloud_icon{display:none}.book_review_text img.book_image.reviews_img{float:none;display:block;max-width:100%;height:auto}}@media(max-width:360px){.latest_content_items .content_item img.ci_image{margin:1em -15px;width:100%;width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;max-width:calc(100% + 30px) !important;display:block;height:auto;max-height:none}.featured_ci_marker{margin-left:-15px !important}}}@media screen{@media(max-width:991px){.print_button{display:none}#mc_embed_signup{background:none;min-height:auto}aside .newsletter_promo{display:none}.right_1_column .institutional_sub_promo{margin:0 !important;padding:0 !important;background-color:transparent}#header_tools .patreon_button{display:none}.mobile-band{margin-left:-40px !important;margin-right:-40px !important;padding-left:40px !important;padding-right:40px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper #time_list{height:initial !important;max-height:initial !important}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper h2{display:block;margin-top:15px !important}.right_1_column .timeline_outer_wrapper{margin:80px 0}.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper{background:transparent;padding:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry{border-bottom:0;margin:0}.right_1_column #time_list{margin:0}.right_1_column .timeline_entry .date{background-color:#f3f3f3;display:inline-block;padding:5px 15px 5px 200px;margin-left:-200px}#mobilenewsletter{display:block;margin:20px -40px;padding:20px 40px}body.home .membership_below_notice,body.home .membership-below-block-wrapper,img.newsletter_banner,.latest_content_items.featured,.our_videos_wrapper,.right_1_column .timeline_wrapper .timeline_add,#ad_sidebar_whitespace_sticky,#primis_intext{display:none}}@media(min-width:768px){.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{margin:20px 40px 20px 0 !important}}@media(min-width:768px) and (max-width:991px){#header{width:708px}#page{width:768px}#content{width:738px}.left_narrow_column{display:none}.right_narrow_column{display:none}.middle_wide_column{width:708px}.left_3_column{width:100%;padding-left:0;padding-right:0}.left_1_column{display:none}.right_3_column{width:100%}.right_1_column{width:100%;padding:0}#accordion-home{display:none}.content_item.featured .ci_preview_content{padding-left:395px}.left_3_column .content_item{max-width:340px}.left_3_column .content_item:nth-child(even){margin-left:50px}.left_3_column .content_item.featured:nth-child(even){margin-left:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(2n+0){margin-right:0}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item{max-width:215px !important;margin-right:40px !important}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item .ci_image{width:215px;height:121px}.ci_related_content_wrapper .content_item:nth-child(3n){margin-right:0 !important}.video_embed .right_1_column,.left_1_column{width:300px}.box_wrapper{width:708px;padding-left:30px;padding-right:30px}.ci_info .ci_social_media_buttons{display:none}img.tag_definition_image{margin:20px 0 20px 20px}.follow_us{display:none !important}.right_3_column .big_quote,.left_3_column .big_quote{margin-left:0;margin-right:0;width:338px}.right_3_column img,.left_3_column img{max-width:100%;height:auto}#grid_submissions .item_1_col{min-height:382px}.item_1_col{width:46%;margin:0 2% 0;float:left}.team_member{padding-top:20px;padding-bottom:10px;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;margin-bottom:10px}.team_pic{float:none;width:100%;margin:0;padding:0;padding-bottom:15px}.team_pic img{border:1px solid silver;padding:2px;border-radius:75px}.team_member_details{float:right;width:100%;margin-left:0;margin:0;padding:0}#header_search_field,.common_search_field{width:220px !important}#header_search_button_new,.common_search_button_new{left:234px !important}#header_tools{padding-top:46px}#footer_contents .footer_connect,#footer_contents .footer_about{width:12%}#footer_contents .footer_contribute{width:16%}#header_ahe_logo{margin-top:25px;margin-bottom:25px;margin-right:0 !important}.header_row_bottom{float:left;margin-right:34px !important}#header_tools .header_row_top{float:right !important}#header_follow_buttons{display:none !important}.registration_message_page{width:708px !important;padding-left:15px !important;padding-right:15px !important}.visual_timeline_button,.ad_Flexi_TopRight,.ad_Flexi_MiddleRight,.ad_Flexi_LowerRight,#uvTab,.bottomRightStickySpacer{display:none}.grid.four_col,.grid.three_col{grid-template-columns:1fr 1fr}}@media(min-width:768px){header nav{min-height:60px}#nav_bar{border-top:0 solid #e3e3e3;border-bottom:1px solid #e3e3e3;background:url('/template/images/bg_timeline.png') left top repeat}.sf-menu{padding-top:0;margin:0 auto}.sf-menu a{padding:20px 1em}#header_wrapper{padding-bottom:156px}.sf-menu,.sf-menu *{margin:0;padding:0;list-style:none}.sf-menu li{position:relative}.sf-menu ul{position:absolute;display:none;top:100%;left:50%;z-index:99;width:180px;margin-left:-96px}.sf-menu>li{float:left}.sf-menu li:hover>ul,.sf-menu li.sfHover>ul{display:block}.sf-menu a{display:block;position:relative}.sf-menu ul ul{top:0;left:100%}.sf-menu{margin-bottom:1em;font-family:Karla,Arial,Helvetica,sans-serif;margin:0 auto;margin-bottom:-4px !important;display:inline-block;text-transform:uppercase}.sf-menu ul{box-shadow:2px 2px 6px rgba(0,0,0,.2);min-width:12em;*width:12em;padding-top:18px !important;background:url('/template/images/bg_nav_ul.png') top left no-repeat rgba(0,0,0,0) !important;border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-web-border-radius:0 0 4px 4px;-moz-box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1);box-shadow:0 15px 10px rgba(0,0,0,.1)}.sf-menu ul li{text-transform:none}.sf-menu a{text-decoration:none;zoom:1;transition:all .25s}.sf-menu a{color:#494949;cursor:pointer}.sf-menu li{white-space:nowrap;*white-space:normal;transition:background .25s}.sf-menu ul li{background:#FFF}.sf-menu ul li a{border-bottom:1px solid #f0f0f0;padding:11px 8px;transition:all .25s;margin-left:10px;margin-right:10px;font-size:14px}.sf-menu ul li a:hover{color:#b52600}.sf-menu li:hover,.sf-menu li.sfHover{transition:none}}}</style> <link rel="alternate" type="application/rss+xml" title="World History Encyclopedia RSS Feed" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/rss2/?lang=fr"> <link rel="image_src" href="/img/r/p/500x600/12542.jpg?v=1648449425"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-16px.png" sizes="16x16"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-32px.png" sizes="32x32"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-64px.png" sizes="64x64"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-96px.png" sizes="96x96"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-128px.png" sizes="128x128"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-192px.png" sizes="192x192"> <link rel="icon shortcut" type="image/png" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-196px.png" sizes="196x196"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-120px.png"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-152px.png" sizes="152x152"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-167px.png" sizes="167x167"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/template/images/whe-favicon-180px.png" sizes="180x180"> <script> jsQueue(function(){ wheAnalyticsPageview(); }); </script>  <script defer src="https://www.googletagmanager.com/gtag/js?id=G-DMCY1BLGCJ"></script> <script> window.dataLayer = window.dataLayer || []; function gtag(){dataLayer.push(arguments);} gtag('js', new Date()); pageReady.then(()=>{ jsQueue(()=>{ // Consent Mode Defaults if (AHE.isEU) { if (AHE.is_member) { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied' }); } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'ad_storage': 'denied', 'ad_user_data': 'denied', 'ad_personalization': 'denied', 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } } else { gtag('consent', 'default', { 'wait_for_update': 2000 }); } async_load_js('/js/ga4.js?v=1732096425'); }); }); </script> <script> jsQueue(()=> { async_load_js('/js/deferred-min.js?v=1732096425',false,true); }); </script> <script> window.addEventListener('load', () => { processIdleQueue(); }); </script> <meta http-equiv="X-Translated-By" content="Google"> <meta http-equiv="X-Translated-To" content="en"> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.gstatic.com/_/translate_http/_/js/k=translate_http.tr.en_GB.omlEigW4xY8.O/am=DgY/d=1/rs=AN8SPfpjsL9kUWY0h-sp7Ilu7hZWGwEmeg/m=corsproxy" data-sourceurl="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/"></script> <link href="https://fonts.googleapis.com/css2?family=Material+Symbols+Outlined:opsz,wght,FILL,GRAD@20..48,100..700,0..1,-50..200" rel="stylesheet"> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.gstatic.com/_/translate_http/_/js/k=translate_http.tr.en_GB.omlEigW4xY8.O/am=DgY/d=1/exm=corsproxy/ed=1/rs=AN8SPfpjsL9kUWY0h-sp7Ilu7hZWGwEmeg/m=phishing_protection" data-phishing-protection-enabled="false" data-forms-warning-enabled="true" data-source-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/"></script> <meta name="robots" content="none"> </head> <body class="trans adthrive-cat-oceania"> <script type="text/javascript" src="https://www.gstatic.com/_/translate_http/_/js/k=translate_http.tr.en_GB.omlEigW4xY8.O/am=DgY/d=1/exm=corsproxy,phishing_protection/ed=1/rs=AN8SPfpjsL9kUWY0h-sp7Ilu7hZWGwEmeg/m=navigationui" data-environment="prod" data-proxy-url="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog" data-proxy-full-url="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" data-source-url="https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/" data-source-language="auto" data-target-language="en" data-display-language="en-GB" data-detected-source-language="fr" data-is-source-untranslated="false" data-source-untranslated-url="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/&anno=2" data-client="tr"></script> <img fetchpriority="low" src="https://tracker.metricool.com/c3po.jpg?hash=583da8995f3bf53448b13ddf790ada6c" class="metricoolPixel"> <div id="mobile_sm_buttons"></div> <div id="meanmenu"></div> <header id="header_wrapper" class="translated"> <div id="header"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" id="logo_link"> <div id="header_ahe_logo" style="width: 318px; height: 77px; position: relative;"> <div style="position: absolute;bottom: -14px;right: 0px;font-weight: normal;font-style: italic;font-size: 14px;"> En français </div> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewbox="0 0 496.06 120.11"> <defs> <style>.c{fill:#fff;}.d{fill:#b52600;}.e{fill:#231f20;}</style> </defs><g id="a"> <path class="e" d="m175.92,47.11h.15c.99-3.38,4.39-14.03,5.68-18.73.37-1.36.41-1.87.41-2.35,0-.66-.4-1.1-2.09-1.1-.18,0-.33-.11-.33-.26,0-.18.18-.26.62-.26,1.87,0,3.42.11,3.75.11.26,0,1.84-.11,2.98-.11.33,0,.52.07.52.22,0,.18-.11.3-.33.3-.15,0-.84.03-1.25.18-1.1.4-1.69,1.95-2.39,3.96-1.62,4.67-5.34,16.35-6.78,20.46-.96,2.72-1.14,3.16-1.55,3.16-.37,0-.59-.48-1.1-1.91l-7.18-20.44h-.07c-1.33,3.53-6.37,16.97-7.7,20.39-.59,1.54-.77,1.94-1.21,1.94-.37,0-.55-.4-1.28-2.9l-6.52-21.79c-.59-1.95-1.06-2.5-2.02-2.87-.47-.18-1.39-.22-1.65-.22-.18,0-.33-.04-.33-.26,0-.18.22-.26.59-.26,1.91,0,3.93.11,4.34.12.33,0,1.95-.11,3.78-.11.52,0,.66.11.66.26,0,.22-.18.26-.37.26-.3,0-.99,0-1.43.22-.22.11-.48.4-.48.88s.33,1.76.7,3.38c.55,2.35,4.36,15.84,4.91,17.79h.07l7.81-20.93c.55-1.5.7-1.69.92-1.69.26,0,.48.48.91,1.73l7.29,20.84Z" /> <path class="e" d="m203.84,23.92c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z" /> <path class="e" d="m226.05,35.1c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z" /> <path class="e" d="m256.83,41.67c0,5.4.14,7.75.8,8.41.59.59,1.54.85,4.41.85,1.95,0,3.56-.04,4.45-1.1.48-.59.85-1.5.96-2.2.04-.3.11-.48.33-.48.18,0,.22.15.22.55,0,.4-.26,2.61-.56,3.67-.26.84-.37.99-2.32.99-5.29,0-7.71-.23-9.85-.23-.15,0-.77.04-1.5.03-.74.04-1.54.07-2.1.07-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.87-.11,3.97-.11c.41,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.77.04-1.21.11-1.07.18-1.36.81-1.44,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.54Z" /> <path class="e" d="m275.49,35.15c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11.44,0,2.76-.11,4.96-.11,3.64,0,10.36-.32,14.73,4.2,1.83,1.91,3.56,4.96,3.55,9.34,0,4.63-1.92,8.19-3.98,10.36-1.58,1.65-4.89,4.22-11.14,4.21-3.16,0-7.79-.45-8.16-.45-.18,0-2.5.11-3.6.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm3.08,3.97c0,3.89.03,7.27.07,7.97.04.92.11,2.39.4,2.79.48.7,1.91,1.47,6.24,1.48,3.42,0,6.58-1.24,8.75-3.41,1.91-1.87,2.94-5.4,2.95-8.78,0-4.67-2.01-7.68-3.52-9.26-3.45-3.64-7.64-4.16-12.01-4.16-.74,0-2.09.11-2.39.26-.33.15-.44.33-.44.74-.04,1.25-.04,5-.04,7.82v4.56Z" /> <path class="e" d="m343.28,41.68c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.98.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.73-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-3.86c0-.15-.11-.22-.22-.22h-15.58c-.11-.01-.22.02-.22.2v3.86c0,3.53,0,6.43.17,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.17-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v.77c0,.18.11.22.22.22h15.58c.11.01.22-.02.22-.21v-.77c0-5.73,0-6.76-.06-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.29-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.29-.07-.29-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.11,4.15.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.3,0,.15-.15.22-.29.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.2-.08,7.93v6.47Z" /> <path class="e" d="m359.43,41.7c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47c.01-5.73.01-6.76-.06-7.94-.07-1.25-.44-1.87-1.25-2.06-.4-.11-.88-.15-1.14-.15-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.29.59-.29,1.21,0,3.53.11,3.71.11s2.5-.11,3.6-.11c.4,0,.59.07.59.29,0,.15-.15.22-.3.22-.26,0-.48.04-.92.11-.99.18-1.29.81-1.36,2.09-.07,1.18-.07,2.21-.08,7.94v6.47Z" /> <path class="e" d="m370.14,51.89c-.51-.26-.55-.4-.55-1.4,0-1.84.15-3.31.19-3.89.04-.4.11-.59.29-.59.22,0,.26.11.26.4,0,.33,0,.85.11,1.36.55,2.72,2.97,3.75,5.43,3.75,3.53,0,5.25-2.53,5.26-4.88,0-2.54-1.06-4.01-4.22-6.62l-1.65-1.36c-3.89-3.2-4.77-5.48-4.77-7.98,0-3.93,2.95-6.61,7.61-6.61,1.43,0,2.5.15,3.42.37.7.15.99.19,1.29.19s.37.07.37.26-.15,1.4-.15,3.89c0,.59-.07.85-.26.84-.22,0-.26-.18-.3-.48-.04-.44-.25-1.43-.47-1.84s-1.21-1.95-4.59-1.95c-2.54,0-4.52,1.58-4.52,4.26,0,2.09,1.02,3.34,4.48,6.18l1.03.81c4.34,3.42,5.36,5.7,5.36,8.64,0,1.51-.59,4.3-3.13,6.1-1.58,1.1-3.56,1.54-5.55,1.54-1.72,0-3.42-.26-4.92-1Z" /> <path class="e" d="m401.26,41.74c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.07.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.3-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.96,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-15.54s-5.42.07-5.42.07c-2.28.04-3.16.29-3.75,1.17-.41.62-.52.88-.63,1.14-.11.3-.22.37-.37.37-.11,0-.18-.11-.18-.33,0-.37.74-3.52.81-3.82.07-.22.22-.7.37-.7.26,0,.62.37,1.62.45,1.06.11,2.46.19,2.9.19h13.78c1.18.01,2.02-.1,2.61-.17.55-.11.88-.18,1.03-.18.18,0,.18.22.18.44,0,1.1-.12,3.64-.12,4.04,0,.33-.11.48-.26.48-.18,0-.26-.11-.3-.63l-.04-.4c-.15-1.1-.99-1.95-4.52-2.02l-4.63-.08v15.54Z" /> <path class="e" d="m428.03,24.13c8.27,0,14.43,5.23,14.43,13.79,0,8.23-5.82,15.02-14.67,15.01-10.07,0-14.25-7.84-14.24-14.45,0-5.95,4.35-14.36,14.49-14.35Zm.75,27.41c3.31,0,10.14-1.9,10.15-12.59,0-8.82-5.35-13.56-11.16-13.57-6.14,0-10.73,4.03-10.74,12.08,0,8.56,5.13,14.07,11.74,14.08Z" /> <path class="e" d="m450.24,35.32c0-5.73,0-6.76-.07-7.93-.07-1.25-.37-1.84-1.58-2.09-.3-.07-.92-.11-1.25-.11-.15,0-.3-.07-.3-.22,0-.22.18-.3.59-.3,1.65,0,3.97.12,4.15.12.4,0,3.2-.11,4.34-.11,2.32,0,4.78.22,6.72,1.62.92.66,2.53,2.47,2.53,5,0,2.72-1.14,5.44-4.45,8.48,3.01,3.86,5.5,7.13,7.63,9.41,1.98,2.09,3.56,2.5,4.48,2.65.7.11,1.21.11,1.43.11.18,0,.33.11.33.22,0,.22-.22.3-.88.29h-2.61c-2.06,0-2.98-.19-3.93-.7-1.58-.85-2.86-2.65-4.95-5.4-1.54-2.02-3.27-4.49-4-5.44-.15-.15-.26-.22-.48-.22l-4.52-.08c-.18,0-.26.11-.26.29v.88c0,3.53,0,6.43.18,7.97.11,1.06.33,1.87,1.43,2.02.51.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.3.11.3.22,0,.18-.18.29-.59.29-2.02,0-4.34-.11-4.52-.11-.04,0-2.35.11-3.45.11-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.3,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15.92-.95,1.07-2.02.19-1.54.19-4.45.19-7.97v-6.47Zm2.93,3.2c0,.18.07.33.26.44.55.33,2.24.59,3.86.59.88,0,1.91-.11,2.76-.7,1.29-.88,2.24-2.86,2.25-5.65,0-4.59-2.42-7.35-6.35-7.35-1.1,0-2.09.11-2.46.22-.18.07-.3.22-.3.44v12.01Z" /> <path class="e" d="m481.28,42.95c0-1.98-.37-2.79-.84-3.86-.26-.59-5.17-8.68-6.46-10.59-.92-1.36-1.84-2.28-2.5-2.72-.55-.37-1.25-.59-1.58-.59-.18,0-.37-.07-.37-.26,0-.15.15-.26.48-.26.7,0,3.45.11,3.64.11.26,0,1.65-.11,3.09-.11.4,0,.48.11.48.26s-.22.18-.55.33c-.3.15-.48.37-.48.66,0,.44.18.88.48,1.43.59,1.07,6.09,10.55,6.75,11.62.7-1.54,5.37-9.58,6.11-10.8.48-.77.63-1.39.63-1.87,0-.51-.15-.92-.59-1.03-.33-.11-.55-.18-.55-.37,0-.15.22-.22.59-.22.95,0,2.13.11,2.42.11.22,0,2.87-.11,3.56-.11.26,0,.48.07.48.22,0,.18-.18.3-.48.3-.4,0-1.11.15-1.69.51-.74.44-1.14.88-1.95,1.87-1.22,1.47-6.37,10.1-7.03,11.68-.55,1.32-.55,2.46-.55,3.67v3.16c0,.59,0,2.13.1,3.67.07,1.06.4,1.87,1.5,2.02.52.07,1.32.15,1.65.15.22,0,.29.11.29.22,0,.18-.18.3-.59.3-2.02,0-4.34-.12-4.52-.12s-2.5.11-3.6.11c-.4,0-.59-.07-.59-.29,0-.11.07-.22.29-.22.33,0,.77-.07,1.1-.15.74-.15,1.06-.95,1.14-2.02.11-1.54.11-3.09.11-3.67v-3.16Z" /> <path class="e" d="m153.78,81.94c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.4.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z" /> <path class="e" d="m179.6,95.34c.08,3.33.48,4.38,1.58,4.71.77.2,1.66.24,2.03.24.2,0,.32.08.32.24,0,.24-.24.32-.73.32-2.31,0-3.93-.13-4.3-.13s-2.07.12-3.89.12c-.41,0-.65-.04-.65-.33,0-.16.12-.24.32-.24.32,0,1.05-.04,1.66-.24,1.01-.28,1.22-1.46,1.22-5.15l.06-23.24c0-1.58.12-2.03.45-2.03.32,0,1.01.89,1.42,1.3.61.69,6.65,7.22,12.88,13.92,4.01,4.3,8.43,9.26,9.72,10.59l-.43-20.6c-.04-2.64-.32-3.53-1.58-3.86-.73-.16-1.66-.21-1.99-.21-.28,0-.32-.12-.32-.28,0-.24.32-.28.81-.28,1.82,0,3.77.13,4.22.13s1.79-.12,3.45-.12c.45,0,.73.04.73.29,0,.16-.16.28-.45.28-.2,0-.49,0-.98.12-1.34.28-1.5,1.17-1.5,3.61l-.1,23.77c0,2.68-.08,2.88-.37,2.88-.33,0-.81-.45-2.96-2.6-.45-.41-6.28-6.37-10.58-11-4.7-5.07-9.28-10.19-10.57-11.65l.51,19.43Z" /> <path class="e" d="m217.2,97.08c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.15-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.12,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.2.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.21,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.12,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.45-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.29.28.61,0,.28-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.92-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z" /> <path class="e" d="m254.67,90.43c0-2.19-.4-3.08-.93-4.26-.29-.65-5.71-9.58-7.13-11.69-1.01-1.5-2.02-2.52-2.76-3-.61-.41-1.38-.65-1.74-.65-.2,0-.41-.08-.41-.28,0-.16.16-.29.53-.29.77,0,3.81.13,4.02.13.28,0,1.82-.12,3.41-.12.45,0,.53.12.53.29s-.24.2-.61.36c-.33.16-.53.41-.53.73,0,.49.2.97.53,1.58.65,1.18,6.72,11.65,7.45,12.82.77-1.7,5.93-10.58,6.74-11.92.53-.85.69-1.54.69-2.07,0-.57-.16-1.02-.65-1.14-.37-.12-.61-.2-.61-.41,0-.16.24-.24.65-.24,1.05,0,2.35.12,2.68.12.24,0,3.16-.12,3.93-.12.28,0,.53.08.53.24,0,.2-.2.32-.53.32-.45,0-1.22.16-1.87.57-.81.49-1.26.97-2.15,2.07-1.34,1.62-7.03,11.15-7.76,12.89-.61,1.46-.61,2.72-.61,4.05v3.49c0,.65,0,2.35.11,4.06.08,1.18.44,2.07,1.66,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.98.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.18-1.05,1.26-2.23.12-1.7.12-3.41.12-4.05v-3.49Z" /> <path class="e" d="m276.58,97.14c-3.93-3.53-4.9-8.16-4.9-12.01,0-2.72.94-7.46,4.55-11.07,2.44-2.43,6.13-4.33,12.37-4.33,1.62,0,3.89.13,5.88.49,1.54.29,2.84.53,4.14.61.45.04.52.21.52.45,0,.32-.12.81-.2,2.27-.08,1.34-.08,3.57-.13,4.18-.04.61-.12.85-.37.85-.28,0-.32-.28-.32-.85,0-1.58-.65-3.24-1.7-4.14-1.42-1.22-4.54-2.32-8.11-2.32-5.39,0-7.91,1.57-9.33,2.95-2.96,2.84-3.66,6.44-3.66,10.58,0,7.75,5.95,14.85,14.63,14.86,3.04,0,5.44-.36,7.06-2.02.85-.89,1.38-2.68,1.5-3.41.08-.45.16-.61.41-.61.2,0,.28.28.28.61,0,.29-.49,3.81-.9,5.19-.24.77-.32.85-1.05,1.18-1.62.65-4.71.93-7.3.93-6.08,0-10.18-1.51-13.38-4.39Z" /> <path class="e" d="m312.35,89.31c0,5.96.15,8.56.88,9.29.65.65,1.7.93,4.86.94,2.15,0,3.94-.04,4.91-1.21.53-.65.93-1.66,1.06-2.43.04-.33.12-.53.37-.53.2,0,.24.16.24.61s-.29,2.88-.61,4.05c-.29.93-.41,1.09-2.55,1.09-5.84,0-8.52-.25-10.87-.25-.16,0-.85.04-1.66.04-.81.04-1.7.08-2.31.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13s3.16-.12,4.38-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.28,0-.85.04-1.34.12-1.18.2-1.5.89-1.58,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.22Z" /> <path class="e" d="m343.36,69.79c9.12,0,15.93,5.77,15.92,15.22,0,9.08-6.42,16.58-16.2,16.57-11.11,0-15.73-8.65-15.72-15.95,0-6.57,4.8-15.85,16-15.84Zm.82,30.26c3.65,0,11.2-2.1,11.21-13.9,0-9.73-5.91-14.97-12.32-14.98-6.77,0-11.84,4.45-11.85,13.33,0,9.45,5.66,15.54,12.96,15.55Z" /> <path class="e" d="m367.89,82.14c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.26.13,4.58.13.89,0,3.25-.12,5.11-.12,5.07,0,6.89,1.71,7.54,2.32.89.85,2.03,2.68,2.02,4.83,0,5.76-4.23,9.65-9.99,9.64-.2,0-.65,0-.85-.04-.2,0-.45-.08-.45-.28,0-.33.24-.37,1.09-.37,3.94,0,7.02-2.87,7.03-6.6,0-1.34-.12-4.06-2.27-6.25-2.15-2.19-4.62-2.03-5.55-2.03-.69,0-1.38.08-1.74.24-.24.08-.32.36-.32.77l-.02,16.67c0,3.89,0,7.1.2,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.82.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.32-.65.32-2.23,0-4.78-.13-4.99-.13-.12,0-2.68.12-3.89.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z" /> <path class="e" d="m393.32,82.17c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.29,0,8.36,0,9.29-.03.77-.04,1.42-.12,1.74-.2.2-.04.37-.2.57-.2.12,0,.16.16.16.37,0,.28-.2.77-.33,1.9-.04.41-.12,2.19-.2,2.68-.04.2-.12.45-.29.45-.24,0-.32-.2-.32-.53,0-.28-.04-.97-.24-1.46-.28-.65-.69-1.13-2.88-1.38-.69-.08-5.11-.13-5.56-.13-.16,0-.24.12-.24.4v11.2c-.01.28.03.41.23.41.53,0,5.52,0,6.45-.07.97-.08,1.54-.16,1.91-.57.28-.32.45-.52.61-.52.12,0,.2.08.2.32s-.21.93-.33,2.27c-.08.81-.16,2.31-.16,2.6,0,.32,0,.77-.28.77-.2,0-.29-.16-.29-.37,0-.4,0-.81-.16-1.34-.16-.57-.52-1.26-2.11-1.42-1.09-.12-5.11-.21-5.8-.21-.2,0-.28.12-.28.28v3.57c0,1.38-.05,6.08,0,6.93.12,2.8.72,3.33,4.7,3.33,1.05,0,2.84,0,3.89-.44,1.06-.45,1.54-1.26,1.83-2.92.08-.45.16-.61.37-.61.24,0,.24.32.24.61,0,.32-.33,3.08-.53,3.93-.28,1.05-.61,1.05-2.19,1.05-6.13,0-8.84-.25-10.02-.25-.08,0-.77.04-1.62.04-.81.04-1.74.08-2.35.08-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Z" /> <path class="e" d="m418.06,82.19c0-6.33,0-7.46-.07-8.76-.08-1.38-.41-2.03-1.74-2.31-.32-.08-1.01-.12-1.38-.12-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.82,0,4.38.13,4.58.13.49,0,3.04-.12,5.48-.12,4.02,0,11.44-.35,16.26,4.64,2.02,2.11,3.93,5.48,3.92,10.31,0,5.11-2.12,9.04-4.39,11.43-1.74,1.82-5.39,4.66-12.29,4.65-3.49,0-8.6-.49-9-.49-.2,0-2.76.12-3.97.12-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.32,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14Zm3.4,4.38c0,4.3.03,8.03.07,8.8.04,1.01.12,2.63.45,3.08.52.77,2.1,1.62,6.89,1.63,3.77,0,7.26-1.37,9.66-3.76,2.11-2.07,3.25-5.96,3.25-9.69,0-5.15-2.22-8.48-3.88-10.22-3.81-4.02-8.43-4.59-13.26-4.6-.81,0-2.31.12-2.63.28-.37.16-.49.37-.49.81-.04,1.38-.04,5.52-.05,8.64v5.03Z" /> <path class="e" d="m458.26,89.36c0,3.89,0,7.1.19,8.8.12,1.18.36,2.07,1.58,2.23.57.08,1.46.16,1.83.16.24,0,.32.12.32.24,0,.2-.2.33-.65.32-2.23,0-4.79-.13-4.99-.13s-2.76.12-3.97.12c-.45,0-.65-.08-.65-.33,0-.12.08-.24.32-.24.37,0,.85-.08,1.22-.16.81-.16,1.01-1.05,1.18-2.23.21-1.7.21-4.91.21-8.8v-7.14c.01-6.33.01-7.46-.06-8.76-.08-1.38-.49-2.07-1.38-2.27-.45-.12-.97-.16-1.26-.16-.16,0-.32-.08-.32-.24,0-.24.2-.32.65-.32,1.34,0,3.89.13,4.1.13s2.76-.12,3.97-.12c.45,0,.65.08.65.32,0,.16-.16.24-.32.24-.29,0-.53.04-1.02.12-1.09.2-1.42.89-1.5,2.31-.08,1.3-.08,2.43-.09,8.76v7.14Z" /> <path class="e" d="m478.55,71.5c.49-1.34.65-1.58.89-1.58s.41.2.89,1.46c.61,1.54,6.96,18.3,9.43,24.46,1.45,3.61,2.63,4.26,3.48,4.5.61.21,1.22.24,1.62.25.24,0,.41.04.41.24,0,.24-.37.33-.81.32-.61,0-3.57,0-6.37-.09-.77-.04-1.22-.04-1.22-.29,0-.16.12-.24.29-.28.24-.08.49-.45.24-1.09l-3.76-9.98c-.08-.16-.16-.24-.37-.24h-8.72c-.2,0-.33.11-.41.31l-2.44,7.18c-.37,1.01-.57,1.99-.57,2.72,0,.81.85,1.18,1.54,1.18h.41c.28,0,.41.08.41.24,0,.24-.24.32-.61.32-.97,0-2.72-.13-3.16-.13s-2.68.12-4.58.12c-.53,0-.77-.08-.77-.33,0-.16.16-.24.37-.24.29,0,.85-.04,1.18-.08,1.87-.24,2.68-1.78,3.41-3.81l9.23-25.18Zm4.2,16.23c.2,0,.2-.12.16-.28l-3.84-10.95c-.2-.61-.4-.61-.61,0l-3.58,10.95c-.08.2,0,.28.12.28h7.75Z" /> <path class="d" d="m15.26,0h89.58c8.42,0,15.26,6.84,15.26,15.26v89.59c0,8.42-6.84,15.26-15.26,15.26H15.25c-8.42,0-15.25-6.83-15.25-15.25V15.26C0,6.84,6.84,0,15.26,0Z" /> <path class="c" d="m101.37,23.07c-1.15,2.45-2.13,5.56-2.94,9.32-.82,3.76-1.49,7.91-2.02,12.45-.53,4.54-.94,9.26-1.23,14.16-.29,4.91-.51,9.71-.67,14.41-.16,4.7-.31,9.12-.43,13.24-.12,4.13-.27,7.66-.43,10.61v1.72c0,.82-.04,1.64-.12,2.45-.08.82-.23,1.53-.43,2.15-.21.61-.47.92-.8.92-.25,0-.45-.33-.61-.98-.16-.65-.29-1.41-.37-2.27-.08-.86-.14-1.67-.18-2.45-.04-.78-.06-1.29-.06-1.53-.16-2.94-.31-6.48-.43-10.61-.12-4.13-.27-8.54-.43-13.24-.17-4.7-.41-9.5-.74-14.41-.33-4.91-.76-9.63-1.29-14.16-.53-4.54-1.19-8.71-1.96-12.51-.78-3.8-1.74-6.89-2.88-9.26-.41-.98-.96-1.96-1.66-2.94-.7-.98-1.53-2.04-2.51-3.19-.57-.65-.8-1.06-.67-1.23.12-.16.55-.16,1.29,0,1.47.17,2.72.72,3.74,1.66,1.02.94,2.1,1.86,3.25,2.76,2.13,1.55,3.96,2.33,5.52,2.33s3.39-.78,5.52-2.33c1.14-.9,2.23-1.82,3.25-2.76,1.02-.94,2.31-1.49,3.86-1.66.74-.08,1.16-.06,1.29.06.12.12-.1.51-.67,1.17-1.96,2.29-3.35,4.33-4.17,6.13Zm-63.61,78.59c-1.02,1.63-1.28,2.58-.77,2.82.51.25,1.74-.61,3.69-2.58l38.61-40.47c.62-.66.92-1.1.92-1.35s-.31-.7-.92-1.35L40.69,18.39c-1.85-1.88-3.05-2.74-3.61-2.58-.56.16-.33,1.1.69,2.82,3.79,6.46,7.1,11.87,9.92,16.25,2.82,4.37,5.15,8.09,7,11.16,1.85,3.07,3.26,5.66,4.23,7.79.98,2.13,1.46,4.17,1.46,6.13s-.49,4-1.46,6.13c-.97,2.13-2.41,4.74-4.31,7.85-1.9,3.11-4.23,6.87-7,11.28-2.77,4.41-6.05,9.89-9.84,16.43Zm-20.4-42.2c2.16.44,4.32.94,6.48,1.5,2.16.56,4.3,1.39,6.41,2.49,2.12,1.11,4.25,2.63,6.41,4.57,2.16,1.94,4.32,4.52,6.48,7.73.99,1.33,1.4,1,1.21-1-.09-1.66-.43-3.19-1.01-4.57-.58-1.38-1.21-2.74-1.89-4.07-.67-1.33-1.26-2.66-1.75-3.99-.49-1.33-.74-2.72-.74-4.16s.25-2.85.74-4.24c.5-1.38,1.08-2.74,1.75-4.07.67-1.33,1.31-2.69,1.89-4.07.59-1.39.92-2.85,1.01-4.41.09-1.22.02-1.86-.2-1.91-.22-.05-.56.19-1.01.75-2.25,3.22-4.43,5.79-6.55,7.73-2.11,1.94-4.23,3.47-6.34,4.57-2.11,1.11-4.25,1.94-6.41,2.49-2.16.56-4.32,1.05-6.48,1.5-.81.22-1.6.44-2.36.67-.76.22-1.15.56-1.15,1,0,.33.38.61,1.15.83.77.22,1.55.44,2.36.67Z" /> </g><g id="b"> <path d="m485.74,74.37c0-2.59,1.98-4.47,4.68-4.47s4.68,1.88,4.68,4.47-1.98,4.42-4.68,4.42-4.68-1.93-4.68-4.42Zm8.49-.05c0-2.19-1.63-3.66-3.81-3.66s-3.81,1.47-3.81,3.66,1.63,3.71,3.86,3.71,3.76-1.58,3.76-3.71Zm-5.54-.71c0-.76-.05-1.12-.05-1.37,0-.31-.15-.36-.56-.36-.05,0-.15-.05-.15-.1,0-.1.1-.15.25-.15h.25c.1,0,.51.05.66.05.46,0,.66-.05,1.07-.05.86,0,2.13.15,2.13,1.37,0,.51-.15.92-.91,1.52l.86,1.07c.66.81.86.86.97.86s.15.05.15.1c0,.1-.05.15-.36.15-.66,0-1.02.05-1.78-.97l-.71-.97h-.91v.46c0,1.02.05,1.07.1,1.12.1.05.36.1.51.1.1,0,.15,0,.15.1s-.1.15-.2.15h-.2c-.1,0-.56-.05-.81-.05-.15,0-.66.05-.76.05h-.25c-.1,0-.2,0-.2-.1s.1-.15.2-.15q.46,0,.51-.31c0-.25.05-.61.05-1.42v-1.12Zm.92.61c.15.1.46.15.76.15.15,0,.36-.05.51-.15.25-.15.46-.41.46-.91,0-.71-.46-1.22-1.27-1.22-.05,0-.36,0-.46.1v2.03Z" /> </g> </svg> </div></a> <div id="header_tools"> <div class="header_row_top"><span class="header_sm_buttons"> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook_fr" rel="external" class="header_sm_link facebook"> <svg role="img" viewbox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter_fr" rel="external" class="header_sm_link twitter"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewbox="0 0 24 24"> <path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/tumblr_fr" rel="external" class="header_sm_link tumblr"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" viewbox="0 0 156.9 156.8"> <path d="M78.6,0a78.4,78.4,0,1,0,0,156.8c43.2,0,78.3-35.3,78.3-78.5A78.23,78.23,0,0,0,78.6,0Zm6.1,96c0,7.1,3.6,9.5,9.2,9.5H102v18H86.7c-13.7,0-24-7.1-24-24V72.4H50.2V57.7c13.7-3.6,19.5-15.4,20.2-25.6H84.7V55.4h16.6v17H84.7V96" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/pinterest_fr" rel="external" class="header_sm_link tumblr"> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 24 24" version="1.1" viewbox="0 0 24 24" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="m12 0c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12 0 5.1 3.2 9.4 7.6 11.2-0.1-0.9-0.2-2.4 0-3.4 0.2-0.9 1.4-6 1.4-6s-0.3-0.8-0.3-1.8c0-1.7 1-2.9 2.2-2.9 1 0 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.7 0 1-0.7 2.6-1 4-0.3 1.2 0.6 2.2 1.8 2.2 2.1 0 3.8-2.2 3.8-5.5 0-2.9-2.1-4.9-5-4.9-3.4 0-5.4 2.6-5.4 5.2 0 1 0.4 2.1 0.9 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.3 1.2-0.3 1.4-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 0.2-1.5-0.7-2.4-2.9-2.4-4.6 0-3.8 2.7-7.3 7.9-7.3 4.2 0 7.4 3 7.4 6.9 0 4.1-2.6 7.5-6.2 7.5-1.2 0-2.4-0.6-2.8-1.4l-0.7 2.9c-0.3 1-1 2.3-1.5 3.1 1 0.3 2.2 0.5 3.4 0.5 6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12s-5.4-12-12-12" /> </svg></a> </span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=header-button-fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="donate_button membership no_external" id="header_donate_button" rel="nofollow"> <span class="base">Adhésion</span> <span class="hover">Sans Pub</span> </a> <div class="clr"></div> </div> <div class="header_row_bottom"><search> <form accept-charset="utf-8" action="/search/"> <div class="search_wrapper"><input name="q" size="" class="autocomplete_tags_readable ancient_search_btn common_search_field" type="text" value="" placeholder="Recherche..."> <input type="hidden" name="lang" value="fr"> </div> </form> </search> <div class="media_search_clear"></div> <script type="text/javascript"> jsQueue(()=>{ $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").change(function(e) { var ci_types_list = []; $(".ci_type_filter_checkbox").each(function() { if (this.checked) { ci_types_list.push(this.value); } }); var ci_types_string = ci_types_list.join(','); console.log("CI types selected: " + ci_types_string); $("#ci_types_filter").val(ci_types_string); }); }); </script> <style> .media_search_type_filters { clear: both; position: relative; margin-bottom: 1em; } .search_checkbox input[type=checkbox] { position: relative; top: -1px; } .half_column { display: inline-block; width: 300px; } </style> <div class="clr"></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="clr"></div> <nav> <div id="nav_bar"> <ul class="sf-menu" id="example"> <li class="toplevel"><a class="first-menu-item" href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Accueil français</a></li> <li class="toplevel"><a class="first-menu-item" href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Accueil anglais</a></li> <li class="toplevel"><a class="first-menu-item" href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/about/fr/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Qui sommes-nous?</a></li> <li class="toplevel ui_lang"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/login/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="login_link">connexion</a> <ul> <li><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/login/?ui_lang=fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Login" class="login_link">connexion</a></li> <li><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/register/?ui_lang=fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Registration" class="login_link">S'inscrire</a></li> </ul></li> </ul> </div> </nav> </header> <div id="title_bar"> <div class="box_wrapper v_spacing"> <h1 id="page_title_text" class="trans">Navigation Polynésienne et Colonisation du Pacific</h1> </div> </div> <div id="page"> <img fetchpriority="low" src="https://tracker.metricool.com/c3po.jpg?hash=e6d1989f7dd6d8015b64bbd5e406d15" class="metricoolPixel"> <div id="content_wrapper"> <div id="content" class="trans_page"> <script> function darkMode() { let css = document.createElement("link"); css.id = 'darkCSS'; css.setAttribute("rel", "stylesheet") css.setAttribute("type", "text/css") css.setAttribute("media","screen"); css.setAttribute("href", "/template/css/exclude/dark.css?v=1732096425"); document.getElementsByTagName("head")[0].appendChild(css) document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-white-r.svg">'; } function lightMode() { document.getElementById('darkCSS').remove(); document.querySelector('#header_ahe_logo').innerHTML = '<img src="/template/images/header/whe-logo-r.svg">'; } if (localStorage.getItem('darkMode') == 'dark') { darkMode(); } </script> <main class="left_3_column"> <nav id="toc_wrapper" style="display: none;"> <div id="toc"> <h2 class="no_toc">Contenus</h2> <div id="toc_contents"></div> <p class="toc_buttons"><span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Imprimer l'article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script></p> </div> </nav> <h2>Article</h2> <div class="clr"></div> <div class="ci_info"> <div class="ci_author_image"><img loading="lazy" alt="Kim Martins" src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-kim.martins.jpg" width="50" height="50"> </div> <div class="ci_author trans block"> de <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/user/kim.martins/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="author" title="User Page: Kim Martins">Kim Martins</a>, traduit par <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/user/bab.cartwright/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="translator" title="User Page: Babeth Étiève-Cartwright">Babeth Étiève-Cartwright</a> <br> publié le 07 août 2020 </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_section"> <div class="translations_header"> <div class="translations_title"> Disponible dans ces autres langues: <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/article/1586/polynesian-navigation--settlement-of-the-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="translation_link" rel="alternate">anglais</a>, <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/es/2-1586/la-navegacion-polinesia-y-la-colonizacion-del-paci/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="translation_link " rel="alternate">espagnol</a> </div> </div> <div class="pre_article_buttons no_print"><span id="play-remixd" class="outline_button">Écouter cet article</span> <div id="audio-frame-wrapper" data-height="90" style="height: 90px; margin-top: -10px"> <div id="audio-frame-close"> X </div><iframe id="audio-frame-contents" data-url="/audioplayer/fr/2-1586/"></iframe> </div><span class="outline_button print_button" onclick="printButtonClicked();">Imprimer l'article</span> <script> function printButtonClicked() { pageReady.then(()=>{ ga4Event('print_button','clicked',AHE.canonicalPath); window.print(); }); } </script> </div> </div> <article class="body trans"> <p>La navigation polynésienne dans l'océan Pacifique et son peuplement commencèrent il y a des milliers d'années.<a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1290/fantomes-nordiques-et-au-dela/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"></a><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-148/textes-des-pyramides-guide-de-lau-dela/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"></a><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-119/les-chaouabtis-la-main-doeuvre-de-lau-dela/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"></a><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1942/communautes-diasporiques-en-mediterranee-et-au-del/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB"></a> Les habitants des îles du Pacifique traversaient de vastes étendues d'eau océanique à bord de canoës doubles ou d'<em>outriggers</em>, en se guidant uniquement sur leur connaissance des étoiles et leurs observations de la mer et des vents.</p> <p>L'océan Pacifique représente un tiers de la surface de la terre et ses îles si éloignées furent les dernières à être atteintes par l'homme. Ces îles sont dispersées dans un océan qui couvre 165,25 millions de kilomètres carrés. Les ancêtres des Polynésiens, les Lapita, partirent de ce qui est aujourd'hui Taïwan et s'installèrent dans l'Océanie lointaine entre 1100 et 900 avant notre ère, bien qu'il existe des preuves de la présence de Lapita dans l'archipel de Bismarck dès 2000 avant notre ère. Les Lapita et leurs ancêtres étaient d'habiles marins qui mémorisaient les instructions de navigation et transmettaient leurs connaissances par le biais du folklore, des héros culturels et de simples histoires orales.</p> <div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-1"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header"> Publicité </div> <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_1" class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p></p> <figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="12542"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/image/12542/maori-chief-with-beached-waka/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Maori Chief with Beached Waka"></a> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12542.jpg.webp?v=1713962463&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12542.jpg.webp?v=1713962463&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12542.jpg?v=1713962463&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12542.jpg?v=1713962463&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12542.jpg?v=1713962463" alt="Maori Chief with Beached Waka" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="318"> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"> <div class="figtitle"> Chef maori avec Waka échoué </div> <div class="figauthor"> Augustus Earle (Public Domain) </div> </figcaption> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12542/maori-chief-with-beached-waka/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12542/maori-chief-with-beached-waka/","caption":"War Speech by British painter Augustus Earle (1793-1838 CE) depicting an event of 1827-1828 CE in the Bay of Islands, New Zealand and showing the waka (traditional Maori warcraft canoe).","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12542.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Augustus Earle - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Augustus Earle"},"creditText":"Augustus Earle / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:02:18+0000","datePublished":"2020-08-04T23:35:23+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Maori Chief with Beached Waka","height":445,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:EarleWarSpeech.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12542/maori-chief-with-beached-waka/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":true,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12542/maori-chief-with-beached-waka/","width":700} </script> <p></p> <p>Le système de navigation très développé des Polynésiens impressionna fortement les premiers explorateurs européens du Pacifique et, depuis, les spécialistes débattent de plusieurs questions :</p> <ul> <li>la migration et le peuplement des îles du Pacifique et de l'Océanie lointaine étaient-ils accidentels ou intentionnels?</li> <li>Quelles étaient les compétences maritimes et de navigation spécifiques de ces anciens navigateurs?</li> <li>Pourquoi un si grand nombre de connaissances indigènes en matière de navigation ont-elles été perdues et que peut-on faire pour préserver ce qui reste?</li> <li>Quels types de voiliers et de voiles étaient utilisés pour traverser un si vaste océan ?</li> </ul> <h3>La navigation antique et le peuplement du Pacifique</h3> <p>Il y a au moins 10 000 ans, les humains avaient migré vers la plupart des terres habitables pouvant être atteintes à pied. Il ne restait plus que la dernière frontière, les myriades d'îles de l'océan Pacifique, qui nécessitaient le développement de la technologie des bateaux et de méthodes de navigation capables de voyager sur de longues distances. L'Océanie proche, qui se compose de la Nouvelle-Guinée continentale et des îles qui l'entourent, de l'archipel Bismarck, des îles de l'Amirauté et des îles Salomon, fut colonisée lors d'une migration depuis l'Afrique il y a environ 50 000 ans, pendant la période du Pléistocène. Ces premiers colons du Pacifique sont les ancêtres des Mélanésiens et des Aborigènes d'Australie. Les faibles distances entre les îles de l'Océanie proche permettaient aux populations de faire des allers-retours entre les îles en utilisant des embarcations rudimentaires.</p> <div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-2"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header"> Publicité </div> <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_2" class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_mobile_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p></p> <figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="12535"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/image/12535/dispersal-of-austronesian-people-across-the-pacifi/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Dispersal of Austronesian People Across the Pacific"></a> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12535.png.webp?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12535.png.webp?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/750x750/12535.png.webp?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 750w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1500x1500/12535.png.webp?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1500w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12535.png?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12535.png?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/750x750/12535.png?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 750w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1500x1500/12535.png?v=1632930302&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1500w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/750x750/12535.png?v=1632930302" alt="Dispersal of Austronesian People Across the Pacific" class="in_text_image" width="750" height="317"> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"> <div class="figtitle"> Dispersion des peuples austronésiens à travers le Pacifique </div> <div class="figauthor"> Obsidian Soul (CC BY-NC-SA) </div> </figcaption> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12535/dispersal-of-austronesian-people-across-the-pacifi/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12535/dispersal-of-austronesian-people-across-the-pacifi/","caption":"A map outlining the migratory paths of Austronesian speaking populations, including estimated dates.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12535.png","copyrightNotice":"Obsidian Soul - CC BY-NC-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon this content non-commercially, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Obsidian Soul"},"creditText":"Obsidian Soul / World History Encyclopedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:02:18+0000","datePublished":"2020-08-03T04:25:18+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Dispersal of Austronesian People Across the Pacific","height":3065,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Chronological_dispersal_of_Austronesian_people_across_the_Pacific_(per_Benton_et_al,_2012,_adapted_from_Bellwood,_2011).png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12535/dispersal-of-austronesian-people-across-the-pacifi/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12535/dispersal-of-austronesian-people-across-the-pacifi/","width":7268} </script> <p></p> <p>La soi-disant deuxième vague de migration vers l'Océanie lointaine a fait l'objet d'intenses débats scientifiques. L'Océanie lointaine est constituée des îles situées à l'est du groupe des îles Salomon, comme le Vanuatu, les Fidji, les Tonga, <em>Aotearoa</em> (Nouvelle-Zélande), les îles de la Société, l'île de <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/1-12554/paques/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Pâques</a> et les Marquises. Ce qui fait débat, c'est l'origine des premières personnes qui s'installèrent dans cette région entre 1500 et 1300 avant notre ère, bien que l'on s'accorde généralement à dire que la patrie ancestrale était Taïwan. Une opinion dissidente a été celle de l'aventurier norvégien <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/1-11922/thor/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Thor</a> Heyerdahl (1914-2002) qui partit en 1947 sur un radeau en balsa appelé Kon-Tiki qui, espérait-il, prouverait une origine sud-américaine des insulaires du Pacifique. Cependant, les preuves archéologiques et génétiques indiquent clairement une origine asiatique du sud-est et des marins parlant un groupe de langues apparentées connu sous le nom d'austronésien, qui atteignirent les Fidji en 1300 av. JC et les Samoa vers 1100 av. JC. Toutes les langues polynésiennes modernes appartiennent à la famille des langues austronésiennes.</p> <p>Collectivement, ces peuples sont appelés les <em>Lapita</em> et étaient les ancêtres des Polynésiens, y compris des Maoris, bien que les archéologues utilisent le terme de complexe culturel Lapita car les Lapita ne constituaient pas un groupe homogène. Ils étaient cependant d'habiles marins qui introduisirent les stabilisateurs et les canoës doubles, ce qui rendit possible des voyages plus longs à travers le Pacifique, et leur poterie distinctive - la céramique Lapita - apparut dans l'archipel Bismarck dès 2000 av. JC. La poterie Lapita comprenait des bols et des plats aux motifs géométriques complexes imprimés dans l'argile par de petits tampons dentés.</p> <div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-3"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header"> Publicité </div> <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_3" class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Entre 1100 et 900 av. JC, la culture Lapita connut une expansion rapide en direction du sud-est dans le Pacifique, ce qui soulève la question d'une migration intentionnelle.</p> <h3>Migration accidentelle ou intentionnelle?</h3> <p>La zone géographique de l'Océanie lointaine appelée le triangle polynésien a pour angles <em>Aotearoa</em>, Hawaï et l'île de Pâques et comprend plus de 1 000 îles. Entre certaines des îles de ce triangle, il existe des distances de plus de 1 000 kilomètres. La distance entre le nord du Vanuatu et les Fidji, par exemple, est de plus de 800 kilomètres, et il aurait fallu beaucoup d'habileté et de courage pour naviguer dans un canoë ou un <em>outrigger</em> pendant cinq à six semaines vers une destination espérée.</p> <div class="big_quote"> LES COMPÉTENCES EN MATIÈRE D'ORIENTATION DES POLYNÉSIENS SONT CRUCIALES POUR LA QUESTION DU PEUPLEMENT HUMAIN DU PACIFIQUE. </div> <p>L'opinion européenne dominante était que toute migration était le résultat de tempêtes accidentelles ou de dérives de courants, et non d'une navigation indigène délibérée. Pedro Fernandez de Queiros (1563-1614), par exemple, écrivit au vice-roi du Pérou en 1595, exprimant son incrédulité quant au fait que des insulaires sans carte ni connaissance de la boussole, et qui avaient perdu la terre de vue après avoir pris la mer, pouvaient réussir un long voyage en mer (Lewis, 11).</p> <div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-4"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header"> Publicité </div> <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_4" class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Le capitaine James Cook (1728-1779), cependant, ne doutait guère que la navigation indigène avait fait preuve d'un haut degré de compétence. Dans le journal de son premier voyage dans l'océan Pacifique Sud, en 1768-1771, il écrivit</p> <blockquote> <p>...ces gens naviguent dans ces mers d'île en île pendant plusieurs centaines de lieues, le soleil leur servant de boussole le jour, et la lune et les étoiles la nuit. Lorsque cela sera prouvé, nous ne serons plus dans l'impossibilité de savoir comment les îles situées dans ces mers ont été peuplées. (Journal de Cook)</p> </blockquote> <p>L'archéologue Patrick Kirch souligne que la migration délibérée est le scénario le plus probable (Kirch, 137). Le peuple Lapita a pu vivre pendant des mois sur des îles éloignées du Pacifique en se nourrissant d'oiseaux sauvages et de fruits de mer, mais le succès de toute installation à long terme aurait nécessité le transport de plantes cultivées, comme le taro et l'igname, ainsi que d'animaux domestiques. La patate douce entra dans le système horticole polynésien vers 1000 de notre ère et constitue une preuve solide du contact des Polynésiens avec l'Amérique du Sud - la proposition inverse de celle de Thor Heyerdahl.</p> <p></p> <figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="12543"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/image/12543/fijian-ndrua-with-crab-claw-sail/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Fijian Ndrua with Crab Claw Sail"></a> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12543.jpg.webp?v=1644741003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12543.jpg.webp?v=1644741003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12543.jpg?v=1644741003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12543.jpg?v=1644741003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12543.jpg?v=1644741003" alt="Fijian Ndrua with Crab Claw Sail" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="319"> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"> <div class="figtitle"> Ndrua fidjien avec voile en pince de crabe </div> <div class="figauthor"> New York Public Library (Public Domain) </div> </figcaption> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12543/fijian-ndrua-with-crab-claw-sail/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12543/fijian-ndrua-with-crab-claw-sail/","caption":"The Ndrua was the traditional double canoe used in Fiji. The Ndrua is also referred to as the Drua, Na Drua, N'drua or Waqa Tabu. This is a public domain illustration from 1913 CE and shows the crab claw sail. Artist not listed.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12543.jpg","copyrightNotice":"New York Public Library - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Organization","name":"New York Public Library"},"creditText":"New York Public Library / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:02:18+0000","datePublished":"2020-08-05T00:01:16+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Fijian Ndrua with Crab Claw Sail","height":2946,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Fijian_druas_(NYPL_Hades-2359184-4043540).jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12543/fijian-ndrua-with-crab-claw-sail/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12543/fijian-ndrua-with-crab-claw-sail/","width":4632} </script> <p></p> <p>Des voyages récents dans des répliques de canoës, ainsi que des simulations informatiques, ont montré que la probabilité d'une migration accidentelle due à des dérives (conduisant à un voyage à sens unique) est négligeable. Le médecin et aventurier néo-zélandais d'origine britannique David Lewis (1917-2002), dans son livre <em>We, The Navigators</em>, expose en détail les méthodes de navigation traditionnelles indigènes qu'il a utilisées lors de son voyage de 1965 en catamaran ou <em>waka katea</em> (canoë double) de Tahiti à Aotearoa. Sans utiliser d'instruments modernes tels que la boussole, le chronomètre, le sextant ou la radio, il parcourut 3603 kilomètres et toucha terre avec un taux d'erreur de seulement 41 kilomètres (26 miles).</p> <div class="ad_Mobile_Intext ahe-ad intext-ad-5"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header"> Publicité </div> <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Mobile_Intext_5" class="adcontainer innerwrapper worldhistory_content_dynamic"> </div> </div> <p>Les compétences en matière d'orientation des Polynésiens sont cruciales pour la question du peuplement humain intentionnel du Pacifique, car leurs techniques de navigation leur permirent de traverser un vaste océan en utilisant à peine plus que leur mémoire.</p> <h3>Techniques de navigation indigènes</h3> <p>Malheureusement, la plupart des connaissances traditionnelles polynésiennes en matière de navigation ont été perdues pour plusieurs raisons :</p> <ul> <li>la plupart des explorateurs européens étaient sceptiques à l'égard des compétences maritimes indigènes, et cela était ancré dans le profond sentiment de supériorité technologique du récit occidental de l'époque.</li> <li>Les connaissances indigènes en matière de navigation étaient une tradition orale. Elles n'étaient pas enregistrées systématiquement et étaient également considérées comme des connaissances secrètes, connues uniquement de certaines familles et farouchement gardées.</li> <li>Les techniques de navigation européennes sont devenues dominantes.</li> </ul> <p>Cependant, le folklore polynésien, les héros culturels et les simples histoires orales connues sous le nom d'<em>aruruwow</em>, ont préservé certaines informations sur la navigation en haute mer et les connaissances ancestrales. La légende de Kupe et de sa découverte d'Aotearoa est un exemple qui montre comment les <em>aruruwow</em> étaient des aides-mémoire contenant des instructions codées pour atteindre une destination spécifique.</p> <div id="mobilenewsletter" class="grey_box mobilenewsletter"> <div class="headline"> Vous aimez l'Histoire? </div> <p>Abonnez-vous à notre newsletter hebdomadaire gratuite!</p> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=d9da079bee" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"><input type="email" placeholder="Email..." name="EMAIL" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL-mobile" style="width:60%;" required> <input type="submit" value="Je m'abonne" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-mobile" style="margin-top: 10px;">  <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;" aria-hidden="true"> <input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_d9da079bee" tabindex="-1" value=""> </div> </form> </div> <div class="big_quote"> LA DIRECTION PAR LES ÉTOILES ÉTAIT LA TECHNIQUE LA PLUS PRÉCISE CAR LES POINTS DE L'HORIZON OÙ SE LÈVENT LES ÉTOILES RESTENT LES MÊMES TOUT AU LONG DE L'ANNÉE. </div> <p>Dans l'histoire orale traditionnelle maorie, Kupe est un personnage légendaire et un explorateur de l'océan Pacifique (<em>Te Moana-nui-a-Kiwa</em>) qui quitta Hawaiiki vers 1300 à bord d'un <em>waka</em> (canoë) pour découvrir ce qui se trouvait au-delà de l'horizon. Hawaiiki est la patrie ancestrale des Maoris et on pense qu'elle se trouve dans les îles de la Polynésie orientale. Le navigateur de Kupe, Reti, suivit un chemin d'étoiles pour maintenir le <em>waka</em> sur sa trajectoire jusqu'à ce qu'il atteigne la terre ferme à Whangaroa, sur l'île du Nord d'Aotearoa. Il existe plusieurs versions de la légende de Kupe, certaines impliquant Kupe chassant une pieuvre géante (<em>Te Wheke-o-Muturangi</em>) jusqu'aux côtes d'Aotearoa, mais cet <em>aruruwow</em> contient des références aux étoiles, à la configuration des vents et aux courants qui ont été mémorisés par des générations de navigateurs.</p> <h3>Étoiles, mers, vents, oiseaux</h3> <p>Les Polynésiens connaissaient le langage des étoiles. Ils possédaient un système de navigation très développé qui impliquait non seulement l'observation des étoiles lorsqu'elles se levaient et traversaient le ciel nocturne, mais aussi la mémorisation de cartes du ciel entières. Dans tout le Pacifique, les navigateurs insulaires enseignaient aux jeunes hommes les compétences acquises au fil des générations. Les connaissances en matière de navigation étaient un secret bien gardé au sein d'une famille de navigateurs, et l'enseignement commençait dès le plus jeune âge. À Kiribati, par exemple, les cours étaient dispensés dans le <em>maneaba</em> (maison de réunion) où les chevrons et les poutres étaient sectionnés pour correspondre à un segment du ciel nocturne. La position de chaque étoile au lever et au coucher du soleil et les trajectoires des étoiles entre les îles étaient gravées dans la mémoire. Des pierres et des coquillages étaient placés sur des nattes ou dans le sable pour enseigner l'histoire des étoiles. Les <em>Karakia</em> (prières) et les histoires orales contenaient des références aux instructions de navigation. <em>Te Ika-roa</em>, par exemple, signifie la Voie lactée; <em>Atua-tahi</em> est Canopus; <em>Tawera</em> est <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/1-462/venus/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Vénus</a> l'étoile du matin; <em>Meremere</em> est Vénus l'étoile du soir. Voici les instructions de navigation du Kupe :</p> <blockquote> <p>Lorsque vous partez, posez la proue du canoë sur le pilier des nuages qui se trouve au sud-ouest. À la nuit tombée, dirigez-vous vers l'étoile Atua-tahi. Tiens-toi à gauche de Mangaroa et continue ton chemin. Lorsque le jour se lève, naviguez à nouveau vers le pilier des nuages et continuez votre route. (Cité dans Evans, 49)</p> </blockquote> <p>La navigation par les étoiles était la technique la plus précise car les points de l'horizon où les étoiles se lèvent restent les mêmes tout au long de l'année, même si les étoiles se lèvent plus tôt chaque nuit. Une série de dix à douze étoiles - un chemin d'étoiles - suffisait pour guider le navigateur. Le chemin d'étoiles de Tikopia (qui fait partie du groupe des îles Salomon) à Anuta (l'île la plus à l'est des Salomon), par exemple, compte neuf étoiles.</p> <p></p> <figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="12533"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/image/12533/star-compass/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Star Compass"></a> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12533.png.webp?v=1599217204&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12533.png.webp?v=1599217204&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12533.png?v=1599217204&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12533.png?v=1599217204&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12533.png?v=1599217204" alt="Star Compass" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="428"> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"> <div class="figtitle"> boussole stellaire </div> <div class="figauthor"> Newportm (CC BY-SA) </div> </figcaption> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12533/star-compass/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12533/star-compass/","caption":"A recreation of the star compass of Polynesian navigator, Mau Piailug (1932-2010 CE), depicted with shells on sand and with Satawalese (Caroline Islands) text labels, as described by the Polynesian Voyaging Society.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12533.png","copyrightNotice":"Newportm - CC BY-SA - This license lets others remix, tweak, and build upon a work even for commercial reasons, as long as they credit the author and license their new creations under the identical terms. When republishing on the web a hyperlink back to the original content source URL must be included.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Newportm"},"creditText":"Newportm / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:02:18+0000","datePublished":"2020-08-03T03:58:46+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Star Compass","height":600,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Mau-star-compass.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12533/star-compass/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12533/star-compass/","width":702} </script> <p></p> <p>Les navigateurs indigènes devaient avoir une connaissance approfondie du mouvement des étoiles dans le ciel nocturne. Une étoile montante coupe l'horizon à un point bas, mais ne peut être utilisée comme référence de positionnement que pendant un certain temps avant qu'elle ne soit montée trop haut, et l'étoile suivante à se lever est alors utilisée pour maintenir le vaisseau sur sa trajectoire. De jour ou lorsque la nuit était nuageuse, les canoës étaient dirigés par une combinaison de techniques. Le navigateur s'asseyait sur le côté gauche, vers l'arrière, et s'allongeait parfois pour sentir la houle et le mouvement de l'océan. Les vagues sont plus courtes et plus raides, avec une crête déferlante plus près de la terre, alors qu'en mer, les vagues sont ressenties comme une lente ondulation. La lecture de la surface de l'océan était une aide visuelle sur laquelle les navigateurs s'appuyaient pour estimer la dérive latérale du <em>waka</em>. Les chapeaux blancs des vagues indiquent la force d'un courant au milieu de l'océan. Si une vague se déplace dans la même direction que le vent, par exemple, mais que le courant va dans le sens contraire, la vague semblera être abrupte. Le pilotage par la houle était utilisé comme solution aux courants forts et changeants.</p> <p></p> <figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="12541"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/image/12541/tahitian-double-hulled-war-canoe/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Tahitian Double-Hulled War Canoe"></a> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12541.jpg.webp?v=1699651263&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12541.jpg.webp?v=1699651263&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12541.jpg?v=1699651263&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12541.jpg?v=1699651263&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12541.jpg?v=1699651263" alt="Tahitian Double-Hulled War Canoe" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="418"> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"> <div class="figtitle"> Canoë de guerre tahitien à double coque </div> <div class="figauthor"> Giulio Ferrario (Public Domain) </div> </figcaption> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12541/tahitian-double-hulled-war-canoe/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12541/tahitian-double-hulled-war-canoe/","caption":"Tahitian Double-Hulled War Canoe or Pahi by Giulio Ferrario (1767-1847 CE). From an engraving published in 1827 CE.","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12541.jpg","copyrightNotice":"Giulio Ferrario - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Giulio Ferrario"},"creditText":"Giulio Ferrario / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:02:18+0000","datePublished":"2020-08-04T23:24:03+0000","encodingFormat":"image/jpeg","headline":"Tahitian Double-Hulled War Canoe","height":1862,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Tahitian_warrior_dugouts,_Le_Costume_Ancien_et_Moderne_by_Giulio_Ferrario,_1827.jpg"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12541/tahitian-double-hulled-war-canoe/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12541/tahitian-double-hulled-war-canoe/","width":2232} </script> <p></p> <p>D'autres techniques étaient :</p> <ul> <li>l'observation de la couleur et de la formation des nuages. Un nuage en forme de V est parfois observé au-dessus d'une île, et les navigateurs indigènes savaient qu'un dessous de nuage sombre correspondait à de la végétation réfléchie, tandis qu'un dessous blanchâtre indiquait du sable ou des récifs coralliens.</li> <li>l'observation de la migration régulière des oiseaux ou de leurs habitudes de vol. Les sternes royales, par exemple, ne volent pas plus loin que 20 à 30 miles nautiques (35 à 55 kilomètres) de la terre.</li> <li>l'observation de la bioluminescence. Les organismes marins vivants émettent de la lumière qui apparaît sous forme de stries et de flashs. Les navigateurs des îles Santa Cruz appelaient la bioluminescence "<em>te lapa</em>" ou éclair sous-marin qui agit comme une boussole vers la terre. Près de la terre, le mouvement des éclairs est rapide et indique généralement que le canoë se trouve à 128-160 kilomètres de la terre.</li> </ul> <h3>Canoës et voiles</h3> <p>Les marins polynésiens développèrent le canoë à double coque (également appelé catamaran). Certains de leurs canoës de voyage étaient plus longs que l'<em>Endeavour </em>de Cook, qui mesurait environ 30 mètres (98 pieds), mais la longueur moyenne des canoës était de 15,2 à 22,8 mètres (50 à 75 pieds). En Micronésie (région du Pacifique occidental), on préférait les canoës munis d'un balancier sur un côté. La capacité de charge de ces embarcations était considérable. Un canoë double tongien pouvait transporter 80 à 100 personnes, tandis qu'un <em>outrigger</em> marquisien équipé pour la pêche ou la <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/1-154/guerre/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">guerre</a> pouvait transporter 40 à 50 personnes.</p> <p></p> <figure class="image_intext_wrapper" rel="12537"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/image/12537/austronesian-sail-types/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" title="Austronesian Sail Types"></a> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12537.png.webp?v=1629945003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12537.png.webp?v=1629945003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/500x600/12537.png?v=1629945003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 500w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/r/p/1000x1200/12537.png?v=1629945003&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 1000w" type="image/png"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/r/p/500x600/12537.png?v=1629945003" alt="Austronesian Sail Types" class="in_text_image" width="500" height="493"> </picture> <figcaption class="image_caption"> <div class="figtitle"> Types de voiles austronésiennes </div> <div class="figauthor"> Obsidian Soul (Public Domain) </div> </figcaption> </figure> <script type="application/ld+json"> {"@context":"https://schema.org","@id":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12537/austronesian-sail-types/#imageobject","@type":"ImageObject","acquireLicensePage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12537/austronesian-sail-types/","caption":"Austronesian sail types: \r\nA: Double sprit (Sri Lanka) \r\nB: Common sprit (Philippines) \r\nC: Oceanic sprit (Tahiti) \r\nD: Oceanic sprit (Marquesas) \r\nE: Oceanic sprit (Philippines) \r\nF: Crane sprit (Marshall Islands)\r\nG: Rectangular boom lug (Maluku) \r\nH: Square boom lug (Gulf of Thailand) \r\nI: Trapezial boom lug (Vietnam)","contentUrl":"https://www.worldhistory.org/uploads/images/12537.png","copyrightNotice":"Obsidian Soul - Public Domain - This item is in the public domain, and can be used, copied, and modified without any restrictions.","creator":{"@type":"Person","name":"Obsidian Soul"},"creditText":"Obsidian Soul / Wikipedia","dateModified":"2024-11-28T03:02:18+0000","datePublished":"2020-08-03T04:42:19+0000","encodingFormat":"image/png","headline":"Austronesian Sail Types","height":979,"isAccessibleForFree":true,"isBasedOn":{"@type":"CreativeWork","url":"https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Austronesian_Sail_Types.png"},"isFamilyFriendly":true,"isPartOf":"https://www.worldhistory.org#website","license":"http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Public_domain","mainEntityOfPage":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12537/austronesian-sail-types/","publisher":"https://www.worldhistory.org#organization","representativeOfPage":false,"url":"https://www.worldhistory.org/image/12537/austronesian-sail-types/","width":994} </script> <p></p> <p>Cook observa que les <em>pahi</em> tahitiens pouvaient naviguer plus vite que l'<em>Endeavour</em>: " ...leurs grands canoës naviguent beaucoup plus vite que ce navire, je crois que tout cela est vrai et qu'ils peuvent donc facilement faire 40 lieues par jour ou plus " (Cook, <em>A Journal of the Proceedings</em>...).</p> <p>Les embarcations de longue distance étaient de robustes bateaux à planches attachés ensemble avec du sennit tressé ou de la fibre de noix de coco torsadée. Des matériaux de calfatage tels que la gomme de l'arbre à pain les rendaient aptes à la navigation. Différents types de canoës étaient utilisés en Polynésie et en Micronésie, mais les trois principaux types étaient le <em>pahi</em>, le <em>tongiaki</em> et le <em>ndrua</em>. Le <em>pahi</em> était un navire tahitien à deux coques et deux mâts ; le <em>tongiaki</em> de Tonga était un canoë double avec des voiles triangulaires qui fut pris pour une barque par le capitaine hollandais William Schoeten (vers 1567-1625) ; et le <em>ndrua</em> était le canoë double avec des coques inégales utilisé à Fidji. Les voiles polynésiennes étaient les suivantes: la voile triangulaire à sommet abaissé, les voiles en forme de pince ou de pince de crabe, et la latine ou la voile triangulaire fixée à deux longues bômes. Les voiles étaient généralement fabriquées à partir de feuilles de pandanus tissées.</p> <h3>Préserver le savoir indigène</h3> <p>Des efforts récents ont été déployés pour mieux comprendre et préserver les remarquables prouesses de matelotage qui permettaient aux Polynésiens de diriger leurs embarcations avec précision sur les vastes étendues du Pacifique. En 1985, un <em>waka</em> de voyage de 22 mètres (72 pieds) baptisé Hawaikinui a été construit. Sa double coque a été construite à partir de deux arbres totara de Nouvelle-Zélande résistants aux insectes, et le <em>waka</em> a navigué avec succès de Tahiti à Aotearoa en utilisant les techniques de navigation polynésiennes traditionnelles.</p> <p></p> <div class="youtube-embed-wrapper"> <div class="youtube-embed-container"> <iframe data-src="https://www.youtube.com/embed/sJgru2rAvpI?autoplay=0&cc_lang_pref=fr" frameborder="0" allowfullscreen title="Young Waka Crew Guided by Stars to Return to New Zealand"></iframe> </div> </div> <p></p> <p>En 2018, un jeune équipage a navigué un <em>waka</em> de voyage à double coque d'Aotearoa à l'île Norfolk, au large de la côte est de l'Australie. Bien qu'ils aient rencontré de fortes houles océaniques et des vents défavorables, ce voyage avait pour but d'enseigner aux jeunes l'art de naviguer à la lumière des étoiles et de renouer avec les traditions ancestrales. La navigation polynésienne connaîtra une renaissance moderne grâce à l'éducation et à la reconnexion.</p> </article> <div class="ad_Flexi_BottomLeft ahe-ad"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_source=whe&utm_medium=remove_ads_button_fr&utm_campaign=membership_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="ad_membership_notice" rel="nofollow">Supprimer la pub</a> <div class="ad_header"> Publicité </div> <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_BottomLeft" class="adcontainer worldhistory_below_content"> </div> </div> <div id="references"> <h2>Bibliographie</h2> <ul id="reference_list" class="ref_list bibliography"> <li id="bibID__b4e42139280fbcbffa7fd42d0713d37c"><cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=http://gutenberg.net.au/ebooks/e00043.html" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="Cook's Journal by James Cook">Cook's Journal by James Cook</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 6 Aug 2020.</span></cite></li> <li id="bibID__b426949603d6f5ee23a2d519eec68645"><cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://transcripts.sl.nsw.gov.au/page/james-cook-journal-proceedings-his-majestys-bark-endeavour-voyage-round-world-lieutenant-503" class="reference_link" rel="external" title="James Cook - A Journal of the proceedings of His Majesty's Bark Endeavour on a voyage round the world, by Lieutenant James Cook, Commander, commencing the 25th of May 1768 - 23 Oct. 1770: No. 133">James Cook - A Journal of the proceedings of His Majesty's Bark Endeavour on a voyage round the world, by Lieutenant James Cook, Commander, commencing the 25th of May 1768 - 23 Oct. 1770: No. 133</a><span class="accessed_date">, accessed 6 Aug 2020.</span></cite></li> <li id="bibID__37b466095aa3dc66f8e6fc90afaa9f37"><cite class="bib_text">Allen, J. "The Lapita Homeland: Some New Data and an Interpretation." <i>The Journal of the Polynesian Society</i>, Volume 98, No. 2, 1989, pp. 129-146.</cite></li> <li id="bibID__d80c773a2c4390fb2409bf368ff1560c"><cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/books/1877514152/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="sponsored">Evans, Jeff. <i>Polynesian Navigation and the Discovery of New Zealand.</i> Oratia Media, 2014.</a></cite></li> <li id="bibID__0717922c18d78977496efa8e17cc7108"><cite class="bib_text">Finley, B. "Voyaging Canoes and the Settlement of the Pacific." <i>Science</i>, 196, 1977, pp. 1277-1285.</cite></li> <li id="bibID__1775c04e71f6613e826443a2b853ee8d"><cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/books/0824832132/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="sponsored">Howe, Professor K. R. <i>Vaka Moana, Voyages of the Ancestors.</i> University of Hawaii Press, 2007.</a></cite></li> <li id="bibID__516fed5ed9e05f214f45c0928795dad3"><cite class="bib_text">Hung, H., Carson, M., Bellwood, P., Campos, F., Piper, P., Dizon, E., Chi, Z. "The first settlement of Remote Oceania: The Philippines to the Marianas." <i>Antiquity</i>, 85(329) 2011, pp. 909-926.</cite></li> <li id="bibID__8f12276b59012376d685311cbe060540"><cite class="bib_text">Irwin, G.J. "Against, across and down the wind: a case for the systematic exploration of the remote Pacific Islands." <i>Journal of the Polynesian Society</i>, 98, 1989, pp. 167–206.</cite></li> <li id="bibID__293de6e699ee01b547e500eb39fa75cb"><cite class="bib_text">Kirch, P.V. "Peopling of the Pacific: A Holistic Anthropological Perspective." <i>Annual Review of Anthropology</i>, 39(1) October 2010, pp. 131-148.</cite></li> <li id="bibID__011fe2b3ff8c50a9057d576a7ea4fa21"><cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/books/0824815823/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="sponsored">Lewis, David & Oulton, Derek. <i>We, the Navigators.</i> University of Hawaii Press, 1994.</a></cite></li> <li id="bibID__697077c1f784472b0d27cec4ddbcd212"><cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/books/9048138256/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="sponsored">Pearce, Charles E.M. & Pearce, F. M. <i>Oceanic Migration.</i> Springer, 2010.</a></cite></li> <li id="bibID__23ca9ee2c9a80173561425837ada1df8"><cite class="bib_text"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/books/0062060872/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="sponsored">Thompson, Christina. <i>Sea People.</i> Harper, 2019.</a></cite></li> </ul> <div class="book_promo_wrapper"></div><span class="light affiliate_notice">World History Encyclopedia est un associé d'Amazon et perçoit une commission sur les achats de livres sélectionnés.</span> <div id="books_rec"> </div> <script> jsQueue(()=>{ $("ul.bibliography").sortList(); }); </script> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <h2>Traducteur</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/user/bab.cartwright/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="nofollow" title="Babeth Étiève-Cartwright"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-bab.cartwright.JPG?v=1581527741" width="100" height="100" alt="Babeth Étiève-Cartwright" class="avatar_image"></a> <div class="user_name"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/user/bab.cartwright/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="author" title="Babeth Étiève-Cartwright">Babeth Étiève-Cartwright</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Babeth s'est consacrée à la traduction après avoir enseigné l'anglais au British Council de Milan. Elle parle couramment le français, l'anglais et l'italien et a 25 ans d'expérience dans le domaine de l'éducation. Elle aime voyager et découvrir l'histoire et le patrimoine d'autres cultures. </div> <div class="sm_links"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.linkedin.com/in/babeth-eti%C3%A8ve-cartwright-b94" title="Babeth Étiève-Cartwright" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="user_short_bio_wrapper"> <h2>Auteur</h2> <div class="user_short_bio"> <div class="left_col"> </div> <div class="right_col"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/user/kim.martins/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="nofollow" title="Kim Martins"><img data-src="/uploads/profile_photos/150-kim.martins.jpg?v=1551745866" width="100" height="100" alt="Kim Martins" class="avatar_image"></a> <div class="user_name"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/user/kim.martins/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="author" title="Kim Martins">Kim Martins</a> </div> <div class="short_bio_text"> Kim est une écrivaine indépendante basée en Nouvelle-Zélande. Elle est titulaire d'une licence d'histoire et d'une maîtrise en sciences du chaos et de la complexité. Elle s'intéresse particulièrement aux fables et à la mythologie, ainsi qu'à l'exploration du monde antique. </div> <div class="sm_links"><a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.facebook.com/kim.martins" title="Kim Martins" class="sm_tiny_sprite facebook no_external"></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://twitter.com/@kimmar" title="Kim Martins" class="sm_tiny_sprite twitter no_external"></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.linkedin.com/kimsbarcea" title="Kim Martins" class="sm_tiny_sprite linkedin no_external"></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.pinterest.com/zephilicious" title="Kim Martins" class="sm_tiny_sprite pinterest no_external"></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://kvmartins.com/" title="KVMartins.com" class="sm_tiny_sprite website no_external" rel="ugc"></a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="ci_related_wrapper"> <div class="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper" id="ci_related_content_outer_wrapper"> <h2>Contenus associés</h2> <div id="ci_related_type_list"><span class="filter_label">Filtres:</span> <div rel="0" class="ci_type_0 ci_rel_type selected"> Tous<span class="ci_rel_type_count"> </span> </div> <div rel="1" class="ci_type_1 ci_rel_type "> Définitions<span class="ci_rel_type_count">213</span> </div> <div rel="2" class="ci_type_2 ci_rel_type "> Articles<span class="ci_rel_type_count">86</span> </div> </div> <div id="ci_related_content"> <div class="ci_related_content_wrapper ci_two_cols three_cols"> <div class="columns"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1393/les-tatouages-traditionnels-maoris-de-nouvelle-zel/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 ci_no_img" id="2-1393"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/10739.jpg.webp?v=1717390683&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/10739.jpg.webp?v=1717390683&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/10739.jpg?v=1717390683&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/10739.jpg?v=1717390683&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/10739.jpg?v=1717390683" width="360" height="202" alt="Les tatouages traditionnels maoris de Nouvelle Zélande" class="ci_image "> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>Les tatouages traditionnels maoris de Nouvelle Zélande</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Le Te Papa Tongawera (ou tout simplement Te Papa) est le musée... </div> </div></a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1028/construction-navale-romaine-et-navigation/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 ci_no_img" id="2-1028"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/5597.jpg.webp?v=1726003806&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/5597.jpg.webp?v=1726003806&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/5597.jpg?v=1726003806&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/5597.jpg?v=1726003806&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/5597.jpg?v=1726003806" width="360" height="202" alt="Construction Navale Romaine et Navigation" class="ci_image "> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>Construction Navale Romaine et Navigation</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> Contrairement à aujourd'hui, où la construction navale est basée... </div> </div></a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/1-14674/colonisation-phenicienne/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 ci_no_img" id="1-14674"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/4916.jpg.webp?v=1719851707&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/4916.jpg.webp?v=1719851707&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/4916.jpg?v=1719851707&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/4916.jpg?v=1719851707&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/4916.jpg?v=1719851707" width="360" height="202" alt="Colonisation Phénicienne" class="ci_image "> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Définition </div> <h3>Colonisation Phénicienne</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> La prospérité des villes phéniciennes telles que Tyr, Sidon et... </div> </div></a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/1-11220/colonisation-grecque/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 ci_no_img" id="1-11220"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/2600.jpg.webp?v=1723429445&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/2600.jpg.webp?v=1723429445&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/2600.jpg?v=1723429445&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/2600.jpg?v=1723429445&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/2600.jpg?v=1723429445" width="360" height="202" alt="Colonisation Grecque" class="ci_image "> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Définition </div> <h3>Colonisation Grecque</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> À partir de 800 av. JC environ, les cités-États de la Grèce antique... </div> </div></a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/1-19230/la-colonisation-europeenne-des-ameriques/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_1 ci_no_img" id="1-19230"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/12386.jpg.webp?v=1717490893&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/12386.jpg.webp?v=1717490893&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/12386.jpg?v=1717490893&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/12386.jpg?v=1717490893&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/12386.jpg?v=1717490893" width="360" height="202" alt="La Colonisation Européenne des Amériques" class="ci_image "> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__1"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Définition </div> <h3>La Colonisation Européenne des Amériques</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> La colonisation européenne des Amériques fut le processus par lequel... </div> </div></a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1762/la-colonisation-portugaise-du-cap-vert/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_item ci_related_item ci_type_2 ci_no_img" id="2-1762"> <picture> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/14107.png.webp?v=1639064703&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/14107.png.webp?v=1639064703&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/webp"> <source srcset="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/360x202/14107.png?v=1639064703&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 360w,https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/img/c/p/720x404/14107.png?v=1639064703&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB 720w" type="image/jpeg"> <img loading="lazy" src="https://www.worldhistory.org/img/c/p/360x202/14107.png?v=1639064703" width="360" height="202" alt="La colonisation portugaise du Cap-Vert" class="ci_image "> </picture> <div class="ci_preview_content"> <div class="ci_header type__2"> <div class="ci_type_name"> Article </div> <h3>La colonisation portugaise du Cap-Vert</h3> </div> <div class="ci_preview"> La colonisation portugaise des îles du Cap-Vert (Cabo Verde) débuta... </div> </div></a> </div> <nav class="pagination"><strong class="pagination_page">1</strong> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="2" rel="next ">2</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="3" rel="">3</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="4" rel="">4</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="5" rel="">5</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="6" rel="">6</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="7" rel="">7</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="8" rel="">8</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="9" rel="">9</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" class="pagination_page" data-page="10" rel="">10</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" data-page="2" rel="next">suivant ›</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB#" data-page="50" rel="">Fin »</a> </nav> </div> </div> </div> </div> <script type="text/javascript"> var wrapper_selector_prefix = '#ci_related_wrapper '; var pag = 1; var cit = "0"; var cist = ""; function handle_related_pagination_click() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper .pagination a").off().one("click",function(e) { e.preventDefault(); var newpage = $(this).attr("data-page"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=navigation+polyn%C3%A9sienne+et+colonisation+du+pacific+oc%C3%A9anie&lang=fr&ci_id=2-1586&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%222-1586%22%2C%22max_results%22%3A300%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + newpage + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); if (document.getElementById('ci_related_type_list')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_type_list').offset().top; } else if (document.getElementById('ci_related_content_outer_wrapper')) { var eTop = $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '#ci_related_content_outer_wrapper').offset().top; } if (eTop > 0) { $(window).scrollTop(eTop); } updateBrowserURL(cit,newpage,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); } function updateBrowserURL(cit,page,cist) { let urlComponents = []; let url = ''; if (cit) { urlComponents.push('type:'+cit); } if (page) { urlComponents.push('page:'+page); } if (cist) { urlComponents.push('subtype:'+cist); } url = '#ci_related_filters=' + urlComponents.join('&'); window.location = url; } function applyBrowserURLFilters() { if (window.location.hash) { let filters = window.location.hash.match(/ci_related_filters=type:([0-9]+)&page:([0-9]+)(&subtype:([0-9]+))?/); if (filters) { let type = filters[1] ?? 0; let page = filters[2] ?? 0; let subtype = filters[4] ?? 0; if (type || page || subtype) { console.log('Applying filters!'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=navigation+polyn%C3%A9sienne+et+colonisation+du+pacific+oc%C3%A9anie&lang=fr&ci_id=2-1586&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%222-1586%22%2C%22max_results%22%3A300%7D&cit=" + type + "&lim=6&pag=" + page + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + subtype,function() { jsQueue(()=>{ // Change UI selection $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_type_'+type).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector[data-subtype-id=2]").addClass("selected"); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); } } } } jsQueue(()=>{ applyBrowserURLFilters(); }); jsQueue(()=>{ handle_related_pagination_click(); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").click(function() { cit = $(this).attr('rel'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + "#ci_related_type_current_selection").html(null); $(this).clone().appendTo("#ci_related_type_current_selection"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_rel_type").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=navigation+polyn%C3%A9sienne+et+colonisation+du+pacific+oc%C3%A9anie&lang=fr&ci_id=2-1586&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%222-1586%22%2C%22max_results%22%3A300%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + '.ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector').click(function() { cist = $(this).attr('data-subtype-id'); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_subtype_selectors .outline_button.selector").removeClass("selected"); $(this).addClass("selected"); $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,0.1,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").load("/ajax/ajax-search-new.php?q=navigation+polyn%C3%A9sienne+et+colonisation+du+pacific+oc%C3%A9anie&lang=fr&ci_id=2-1586&filter=%7B%22exclude_ci_ids%22%3A%222-1586%22%2C%22max_results%22%3A300%7D&cit=" + cit + "&lim=6&pag=" + pag + "&ci_subtype_ids=" + cist,function() { $(wrapper_selector_prefix + ".ci_related_content_wrapper").fadeTo(400,1); updateBrowserURL(cit,pag,cist); handle_related_pagination_click(); }); }); }); }); </script> <div id="citation_info"> <h2>Citer cette ressource</h2> <div class="citation_apa"> <h4>Style APA</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p>Martins, K. (2020, août 07). <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="no_external">Navigation Polynésienne et Colonisation du Pacific [Polynesian Navigation & Settlement of the Pacific]</a>. (B. Étiève-Cartwright, Traducteur). <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. Extrait de https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/</p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_chicago"> <h4>Style Chicago</h4> <div class="citation_details citation_style"> <p>Martins, Kim. "<a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="no_external">Navigation Polynésienne et Colonisation du Pacific</a>." Traduit par Babeth Étiève-Cartwright. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. modifié le août 07, 2020. https://www.worldhistory.org/trans/fr/2-1586/navigation-polynesienne-et-colonisation-du-pacific/.</p> </div> </div> <div class="citation_mla citation_style"> <h4>Style MLA</h4> <div class="citation_details"> <p>Martins, Kim. "<a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/article/1586/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="no_external">Navigation Polynésienne et Colonisation du Pacific</a>." Traduit par Babeth Étiève-Cartwright. <i>World History Encyclopedia</i>. World History Encyclopedia, 07 août 2020. Web. 28 nov. 2024.</p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ci_author_and_copyright" id="ci_author_and_copyright"> <h2>Licence & Copyright</h2> <p>Écrit par <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/user/kim.martins/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" rel="author" title="User Page: Kim Martins">Kim Martins</a>, publié le 07 août 2020. Le titulaire du droit d'auteur a publié ce contenu sous les termes de licence suivants: <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/4.0/deed.fr" rel="nofollow">Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike</a>. <span class="no_print">A noter que les contenus liés à cette page peuvent avoir des des termes de licence différents.</span></p> </div> </main> <aside class="right_1_column"> <div id="mc_embed_signup"> <form action="//ancient.us8.list-manage.com/subscribe/post?u=c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46&id=d9da079bee" method="post" id="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" name="mc-embedded-subscribe-form" class="validate"> <div id="mc_embed_signup_scroll"> <h2>Newsletter</h2> <p>Recevez gratuitement nos tous derniers articles dans votre boîte mail, une fois par semaine:</p> <div class="mc-field-group"><input type="email" placeholder="Email..." name="EMAIL" autocomplete="email" class="required email" id="mce-EMAIL" style="width:80%;" required> </div> <p>Êtes-vous un...?</p> <div class="mc-field-group input-group" style="margin-top: -10px;"><input type="radio" value="1" name="group[15]" id="mc-history-enthusiast" required><label for="mc-history-enthusiast">Passionné(e) d'Histoire</label><br><input type="radio" value="2" name="group[15]" id="mc-teacher" required><label for="mc-teacher">Enseignant(e)</label><br><input type="radio" value="4" name="group[15]" id="mc-student" required><label for="mc-student">Étudiant(e)</label><br><input type="radio" value="8" name="group[15]" id="mc-librarian" required><label for="mc-librarian">Bibliothécaire</label> </div> <div id="mce-responses" class="clear"> <div class="response" id="mce-error-response" style="display:none"></div> <div class="response" id="mce-success-response" style="display:none"></div> </div> <input type="submit" value="Je m'abonne" name="subscribe" id="mc-embedded-subscribe" class="button content_button red" style="margin-top: 10px;"> <div style="position: absolute; left: -5000px;" aria-hidden="true"> <input type="text" name="b_c3168e59d8bfba7986977db46_d9da079bee" tabindex="-1" value=""> </div> <div class="clear"></div> </div> </form> </div> <style> #mc_embed_signup h2 { margin-top: 20px; margin-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; } #mc_embed_signup { margin: 100px 0px; min-height: 434px; } </style> <div class="institutional_sub_promo mobile-band donate_message"> <h2>Soutenez-nous</h2> <p><strong>Nous sommes une organisation à but non lucratif</strong></p> <p></p> <p>Notre mission est d’inciter les gens à s’investir dans le patrimoine culturel et améliorer l’enseignement de l’histoire dans le monde entier. Soutenez l'Encyclopédie de l'Histoire du Monde. Merci !</p><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/donate/?ui_lang=fr&utm_campaign=donate_fr&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidebar_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_button red donation" rel="nofollow">Faire un don</a> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_campaign=membership_fr&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidebar_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" class="content_button red membership" rel="nofollow">Adhésion</a> </div> <style> .donate_message .content_button.red { margin: 0px; } .donate_message .content_button.red:first-of-type { margin-right: 10px; } .institutional_sub_promo p { margin: 0.5em 0 1em 0; font-family: Karla; line-height: 140%; font-size: 16px !important; } .institutional_sub_promo p strong { background-color: #ffc600; padding: 1px 3px; border-radius: 3px; } .institutional_sub_promo { background-color: #f3f3f3; padding: 20px; } .right_1_column .institutional_sub_promo { margin: 100px 0px; } .left_3_column .institutional_sub_promo { margin: 40px 0px; } .institutional_sub_promo h2 { padding: 0; margin: 0 !important; line-height: 120% !important; } </style> </aside> <script type="text/javascript"> jsQueue(()=>{ $('.advertise-here').remove(); }); </script> <style type="text/css"> #content #original_article h2 { margin-bottom: 0px; padding-bottom: 0px; } .original_article_link { font-family: Karla; line-height: 140%; font-weight: bold; border-top: 1px dotted #dadada; border-bottom: 1px dotted #dadada; padding: 0.5em 0em; } .ad_Flexi_LowerRight { margin: 150px 0px; } h2.trans_headline { background-image: url('/template/images/icons/flags_png/France.png'); background-repeat: no-repeat; background-position: 0px 1px; background-size: 46px; padding-left: 60px; } </style> <p id="footer_spacer"> </p> </div> </div> </div> <div class="ad_Flexi_MobileSticky ahe-ad"> <div id="div-adcontainer-AHE_Flexi_MobileSticky" class="adcontainer"></div> </div> <div class="worldhistory_sticky_dynamic"></div><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/membership_fr/?utm_campaign=membership_fr&utm_source=whe&utm_medium=sidetab_heart_fr&_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB" id="membership_sidebar" title="Adhésion"> <img src="/template/images/membership/membership-sidetab-fr.svg?v=1732096425" width="29" height="133" alt="Adhésion"> </a> <footer> <div id="footer_wrapper"> <div id="recommended_list"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <p>Numerous educational institutions recommend us, including <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.conted.ox.ac.uk/about/curious-minds-explore">Oxford University</a>. Our publication has been reviewed for educational use by <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.commonsense.org/education/website/world-history-encyclopedia">Common Sense Education</a>, <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://scout.wisc.edu/report/2017/1020">Internet Scout (University of Wisconsin)</a>, <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.merlot.org/merlot/viewCompositeReview.htm?id%3D1270309">Merlot (California State University)</a>, <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.oercommons.org/courses/world-history-encyclopedia">OER Commons</a> and the <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://www.slj.com/?detailStory%3Dunbury-the-past-apps-and-websites-for-exploring-ancient-worlds-mix-it-up">School Library Journal</a>. Please note that some of these recommendations are listed under our old name, Ancient History Encyclopedia.</p> </div> </div> <div id="footer"> <div class="box_wrapper"> <div id="footer_contents"> <div class="footer_section top"> <div class="mission center"><strong>Our Mission</strong> Our mission is to engage people with cultural heritage and to improve history education worldwide. </div> <div class="social right"><strong>Follow Us</strong> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/facebook" class="footer_sm_link facebook no_external" title="Follow us on Facebook" rel="me"> <svg role="img" viewbox="0 0 24 24" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <title>Facebook</title><path d="M24 12.073c0-6.627-5.373-12-12-12s-12 5.373-12 12c0 5.99 4.388 10.954 10.125 11.854v-8.385H7.078v-3.47h3.047V9.43c0-3.007 1.792-4.669 4.533-4.669 1.312 0 2.686.235 2.686.235v2.953H15.83c-1.491 0-1.956.925-1.956 1.874v2.25h3.328l-.532 3.47h-2.796v8.385C19.612 23.027 24 18.062 24 12.073z" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/twitter" class="footer_sm_link twitter no_external" title="Follow us on Twitter" rel="me"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewbox="0 0 24 24"> <path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.066 9.645c.183 4.04-2.83 8.544-8.164 8.544-1.622 0-3.131-.476-4.402-1.291 1.524.18 3.045-.244 4.252-1.189-1.256-.023-2.317-.854-2.684-1.995.451.086.895.061 1.298-.049-1.381-.278-2.335-1.522-2.304-2.853.388.215.83.344 1.301.359-1.279-.855-1.641-2.544-.889-3.835 1.416 1.738 3.533 2.881 5.92 3.001-.419-1.796.944-3.527 2.799-3.527.825 0 1.572.349 2.096.907.654-.128 1.27-.368 1.824-.697-.215.671-.67 1.233-1.263 1.589.581-.07 1.135-.224 1.649-.453-.384.578-.87 1.084-1.433 1.489z" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/pinterest" class="footer_sm_link pinterest no_external" title="Follow us on Pinterest" rel="me"> <svg enable-background="new 0 0 24 24" version="1.1" viewbox="0 0 24 24" xml:space="preserve" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"><path d="m12 0c-6.6 0-12 5.4-12 12 0 5.1 3.2 9.4 7.6 11.2-0.1-0.9-0.2-2.4 0-3.4 0.2-0.9 1.4-6 1.4-6s-0.3-0.8-0.3-1.8c0-1.7 1-2.9 2.2-2.9 1 0 1.5 0.8 1.5 1.7 0 1-0.7 2.6-1 4-0.3 1.2 0.6 2.2 1.8 2.2 2.1 0 3.8-2.2 3.8-5.5 0-2.9-2.1-4.9-5-4.9-3.4 0-5.4 2.6-5.4 5.2 0 1 0.4 2.1 0.9 2.7 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.2 0.1 0.3-0.1 0.4-0.3 1.2-0.3 1.4-0.1 0.2-0.2 0.3-0.4 0.2-1.5-0.7-2.4-2.9-2.4-4.6 0-3.8 2.7-7.3 7.9-7.3 4.2 0 7.4 3 7.4 6.9 0 4.1-2.6 7.5-6.2 7.5-1.2 0-2.4-0.6-2.8-1.4l-0.7 2.9c-0.3 1-1 2.3-1.5 3.1 1 0.3 2.2 0.5 3.4 0.5 6.6 0 12-5.4 12-12s-5.4-12-12-12" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/linkedin" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Linkedin" rel="me"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewbox="0 0 24 24"> <path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm-2 16h-2v-6h2v6zm-1-6.891c-.607 0-1.1-.496-1.1-1.109 0-.612.492-1.109 1.1-1.109s1.1.497 1.1 1.109c0 .613-.493 1.109-1.1 1.109zm8 6.891h-1.998v-2.861c0-1.881-2.002-1.722-2.002 0v2.861h-2v-6h2v1.093c.872-1.616 4-1.736 4 1.548v3.359z" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/instagram" class="footer_sm_link instagram no_external" title="Follow us on Instagram" rel="me"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewbox="0 0 24 24"> <path d="M14.829 6.302c-.738-.034-.96-.04-2.829-.04s-2.09.007-2.828.04c-1.899.087-2.783.986-2.87 2.87-.033.738-.041.959-.041 2.828s.008 2.09.041 2.829c.087 1.879.967 2.783 2.87 2.87.737.033.959.041 2.828.041 1.87 0 2.091-.007 2.829-.041 1.899-.086 2.782-.988 2.87-2.87.033-.738.04-.96.04-2.829s-.007-2.09-.04-2.828c-.088-1.883-.973-2.783-2.87-2.87zm-2.829 9.293c-1.985 0-3.595-1.609-3.595-3.595 0-1.985 1.61-3.594 3.595-3.594s3.595 1.609 3.595 3.594c0 1.985-1.61 3.595-3.595 3.595zm3.737-6.491c-.464 0-.84-.376-.84-.84 0-.464.376-.84.84-.84.464 0 .84.376.84.84 0 .463-.376.84-.84.84zm-1.404 2.896c0 1.289-1.045 2.333-2.333 2.333s-2.333-1.044-2.333-2.333c0-1.289 1.045-2.333 2.333-2.333s2.333 1.044 2.333 2.333zm-2.333-12c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm6.958 14.886c-.115 2.545-1.532 3.955-4.071 4.072-.747.034-.986.042-2.887.042s-2.139-.008-2.886-.042c-2.544-.117-3.955-1.529-4.072-4.072-.034-.746-.042-.985-.042-2.886 0-1.901.008-2.139.042-2.886.117-2.544 1.529-3.955 4.072-4.071.747-.035.985-.043 2.886-.043s2.14.008 2.887.043c2.545.117 3.957 1.532 4.071 4.071.034.747.042.985.042 2.886 0 1.901-.008 2.14-.042 2.886z" /> </svg></a> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://link.worldhistory.org/youtube" class="footer_sm_link youtube no_external" title="Follow us on YouTube" rel="me"> <svg xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg" width="24" height="24" viewbox="0 0 24 24"> <path d="M12 0c-6.627 0-12 5.373-12 12s5.373 12 12 12 12-5.373 12-12-5.373-12-12-12zm4.441 16.892c-2.102.144-6.784.144-8.883 0-2.276-.156-2.541-1.27-2.558-4.892.017-3.629.285-4.736 2.558-4.892 2.099-.144 6.782-.144 8.883 0 2.277.156 2.541 1.27 2.559 4.892-.018 3.629-.285 4.736-2.559 4.892zm-6.441-7.234l4.917 2.338-4.917 2.346v-4.684z" /> </svg></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="links"><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/about/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">About</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/contact/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Contact</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/advertise/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Advertise</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/privacy/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Privacy Policy</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/partners/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Partners</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/supporters/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Supporters</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/newsletter/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Newsletter</a> <span class="bullet">•</span> <a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/config/fr/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">Settings</a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered"> <p><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/contact/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">World History Publishing</a> is a non-profit company registered in the United Kingdom.<br><a href="https://www-worldhistory-org.translate.goog/static/contact/?_x_tr_sl=auto&_x_tr_tl=en&_x_tr_hl=en-GB">World History Foundation</a> is a non-profit organization registered in Canada.</p> <p>Some Rights Reserved (2009-2024) under Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-ShareAlike license unless otherwise noted.</p> <p>The World History Encyclopedia logo is a <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://trademarks.ipo.gov.uk/ipo-tmcase/page/Results/1/UK00003762855">registered trademark</a>.</p> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section"> <div class="centered partners"><strong>Featured Partner</strong> <a href="https://translate.google.com/website?sl=auto&tl=en&hl=en-GB&u=https://unesdoc.unesco.org/archives" title="UNESCO Digital Archives" rel="nofollow"><img src="/images/partners/unesco_archives_white.png" width="216" height="125" alt="UNESCO Archives" loading="lazy"></a> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section ccpa"> <div class="centered"> <div id="ccpa_message"> </div> </div> </div> <div class="footer_section exec"> <div class="centered"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </footer> <div id="float_message"></div> <script type="text/javascript" async src="https://btloader.com/tag?o=5698917485248512&upapi=true&domain=worldhistory.org"></script> <script>!function(){"use strict";var e;e=document,function(){var t,n;function r(){var t=e.createElement("script");t.src="https://cafemedia-com.videoplayerhub.com/galleryplayer.js",e.head.appendChild(t)}function a(){var t=e.cookie.match("(^|[^;]+)\s*__adblocker\s*=\s*([^;]+)");return t&&t.pop()}function c(){clearInterval(n)}return{init:function(){var e;"true"===(t=a())?r():(e=0,n=setInterval((function(){100!==e&&"false" !== t || c(), "true" === t && (r(), c()), t = a(), e++}), 50))}}}().init()}(); </script>  <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/deferred.css?v=1732096425" media="all"> <link rel="stylesheet" type="text/css" importance="low" fetchpriority="low" href="/template/css/exclude/print.css?v=1732096425" media="print"> <script> document.querySelectorAll('img, picture').forEach(function(imgItem) { imgItem.addEventListener('error',function(e) { AHE.imageErrors.push(this.src); }); }); </script> <script>(function(){function c(){var b=a.contentDocument||a.contentWindow.document;if(b){var d=b.createElement('script');d.innerHTML="window.__CF$cv$params={r:'8e98708429abd47e',t:'MTczMjc3Njc5Mi4wMDAwMDA='};var a=document.createElement('script');a.nonce='';a.src='/cdn-cgi/challenge-platform/scripts/jsd/main.js';document.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(a);";b.getElementsByTagName('head')[0].appendChild(d)}}if(document.body){var a=document.createElement('iframe');a.height=1;a.width=1;a.style.position='absolute';a.style.top=0;a.style.left=0;a.style.border='none';a.style.visibility='hidden';document.body.appendChild(a);if('loading'!==document.readyState)c();else if(window.addEventListener)document.addEventListener('DOMContentLoaded',c);else{var e=document.onreadystatechange||function(){};document.onreadystatechange=function(b){e(b);'loading'!==document.readyState&&(document.onreadystatechange=e,c())}}}})();</script> <script defer src="https://static.cloudflareinsights.com/beacon.min.js/vcd15cbe7772f49c399c6a5babf22c1241717689176015" integrity="sha512-ZpsOmlRQV6y907TI0dKBHq9Md29nnaEIPlkf84rnaERnq6zvWvPUqr2ft8M1aS28oN72PdrCzSjY4U6VaAw1EQ==" data-cf-beacon="{"rayId":"8e98708429abd47e","version":"2024.10.5","serverTiming":{"name":{"cfExtPri":true,"cfL4":true,"cfSpeedBrain":true,"cfCacheStatus":true}},"token":"be8053e1a4b1469aa8a22373f6ec9dec","b":1}" crossorigin="anonymous"></script> <script>function gtElInit() {var lib = new google.translate.TranslateService();lib.translatePage('fr', 'en', function () {});}</script> <script src="https://translate.google.com/translate_a/element.js?cb=gtElInit&hl=en-GB&client=wt" type="text/javascript"></script> </body> </html>