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id="toc-Debunking_and_rational_inquiry-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Perceived_dangers_of_pseudoscience" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Perceived_dangers_of_pseudoscience"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Perceived dangers of pseudoscience</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Perceived_dangers_of_pseudoscience-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pseudoskepticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pseudoskepticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Pseudoskepticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pseudoskepticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>History</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle History subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_roots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_roots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Historical roots</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_roots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-CSICOP_and_contemporary_skepticism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#CSICOP_and_contemporary_skepticism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>CSICOP and contemporary skepticism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-CSICOP_and_contemporary_skepticism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-After_1989" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#After_1989"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>After 1989</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-After_1989-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notable_skeptical_media" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notable_skeptical_media"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Notable skeptical media</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notable_skeptical_media-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div 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class="mw-page-title-main">Scientific skepticism</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 33 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-33" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">33 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptiese_beweging" title="Skeptiese beweging – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Skeptiese beweging" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%D9%83%D9%88%D9%83%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="شكوكية علمية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="شكوكية علمية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escepticisme_cient%C3%ADfic" title="Escepticisme científic – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Escepticisme científic" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptick%C3%A9_hnut%C3%AD" title="Skeptické hnutí – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Skeptické hnutí" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptikerbewegung" title="Skeptikerbewegung – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Skeptikerbewegung" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Teaduslik_skeptitsism" title="Teaduslik skeptitsism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Teaduslik skeptitsism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Escepticismo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Escepticismo científico – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Escepticismo científico" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eszeptizismo_zientifiko" title="Eszeptizismo zientifiko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Eszeptizismo zientifiko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B4%DA%A9%E2%80%8C%DA%AF%D8%B1%D8%A7%DB%8C%DB%8C_%D8%B9%D9%84%D9%85%DB%8C" title="شک‌گرایی علمی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="شک‌گرایی علمی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scepticisme_scientifique" title="Scepticisme scientifique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Scepticisme scientifique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B3%BC%ED%95%99%EC%A0%81_%ED%9A%8C%EC%9D%98%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98" title="과학적 회의주의 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="과학적 회의주의" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B3%D5%AB%D5%BF%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%BD%D5%AF%D5%A5%D5%BA%D5%BF%D5%AB%D6%81%D5%AB%D5%A6%D5%B4" title="Գիտական սկեպտիցիզմ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Գիտական սկեպտիցիզմ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skeptisisme_ilmiah" title="Skeptisisme ilmiah – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Skeptisisme ilmiah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scetticismo_scientifico" title="Scetticismo scientifico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Scetticismo scientifico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A1%D7%A4%D7%A7%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%9E%D7%93%D7%A2%D7%99%D7%AA" title="ספקנות מדעית – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ספקנות מדעית" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scepticismus_scientificus" title="Scepticismus scientificus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Scepticismus scientificus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zin%C4%81tniskais_skepticisms" title="Zinātniskais skepticisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Zinātniskais skepticisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tudom%C3%A1nyos_szkepticizmus" title="Tudományos szkepticizmus – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Tudományos szkepticizmus" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kewahaman_saintifik" title="Kewahaman saintifik – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Kewahaman saintifik" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wetenschappelijk_scepticisme" title="Wetenschappelijk scepticisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Wetenschappelijk scepticisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%A6%E7%9A%84%E6%87%90%E7%96%91%E4%B8%BB%E7%BE%A9" title="科学的懐疑主義 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="科学的懐疑主義" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vitenskapelig_skeptisisme" title="Vitenskapelig skeptisisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vitenskapelig skeptisisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sceptycyzm_naukowy" title="Sceptycyzm naukowy – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Sceptycyzm naukowy" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceticismo_cient%C3%ADfico" title="Ceticismo científico – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ceticismo científico" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Научный скептицизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Научный скептицизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vedeck%C3%BD_skepticizmus" title="Vedecký skepticizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vedecký skepticizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B8_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Научни скептицизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Научни скептицизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tieteellinen_skeptismi" title="Tieteellinen skeptismi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Tieteellinen skeptismi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vetenskaplig_skepticism" title="Vetenskaplig skepticism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vetenskaplig skepticism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%87%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%97%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%A8%E0%B8%B2%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%95%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C" title="วิมตินิยมทางวิทยาศาสตร์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="วิมตินิยมทางวิทยาศาสตร์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bilimsel_ku%C5%9Fkuculuk" title="Bilimsel kuşkuculuk – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Bilimsel kuşkuculuk" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9D%D0%B0%D1%83%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%B9_%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B5%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Науковий скептицизм – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Науковий скептицизм" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%A7%91%E5%AD%B8%E6%87%B7%E7%96%91%E8%AB%96" title="科學懷疑論 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="科學懷疑論" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> 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<div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Questioning of claims lacking empirical evidence</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For a general discussion of skepticism, see <a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">skepticism</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Five_Fellows_CSI_2018.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Five_Fellows_CSI_2018.jpg/220px-Five_Fellows_CSI_2018.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Five_Fellows_CSI_2018.jpg/330px-Five_Fellows_CSI_2018.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f7/Five_Fellows_CSI_2018.jpg/440px-Five_Fellows_CSI_2018.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3243" data-file-height="2432" /></a><figcaption>Five Fellows of <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a> in 2018</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Scientific skepticism</b> or <b>rational skepticism</b> (also spelled <b>scepticism</b>), sometimes referred to as <b>skeptical inquiry</b>,<sup id="cite_ref-KendrickInquiry_1-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-KendrickInquiry-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is a position in which one questions the veracity of claims lacking <a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">scientific evidence</a>. In practice, the term most commonly refers to the examination of claims and theories that appear to be <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">unscientific</a>, rather than the routine discussions and challenges among scientists. Scientific skepticism differs from <a href="/wiki/Philosophical_skepticism" title="Philosophical skepticism">philosophical skepticism</a>, which questions humans' ability to claim any knowledge about the nature of the world and how they perceive it, and the similar but distinct <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">methodological skepticism</a>, which is a systematic process of being skeptical about (or doubting) the truth of one's beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-Merton_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merton-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <b>skeptical movement</b> (<a href="/wiki/American_and_British_English_spelling_differences#Miscellaneous_spelling_differences" title="American and British English spelling differences">British spelling</a>: <b>sceptical movement</b>) is a contemporary <a href="/wiki/Social_movement" title="Social movement">social movement</a> based on the idea of scientific skepticism. The movement has the goal of investigating claims made on <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe topics</a> and determining whether they are supported by <a href="/wiki/Empirical_research" title="Empirical research">empirical research</a> and are <a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">reproducible</a>, as part of a methodological norm pursuing "the extension of certified knowledge".<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Roots of the movement date at least from the 19th century, when people started publicly raising questions regarding the unquestioned acceptance of claims about <a href="/wiki/Kardecist_spiritism" title="Kardecist spiritism">spiritism</a>, of various widely held <a href="/wiki/Superstition" title="Superstition">superstitions</a>, and of <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">pseudoscience</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Publications such as those of the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Vereniging_tegen_de_Kwakzalverij" title="Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij">Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij</a> (1881) also targeted <a href="/wiki/Medical_quackery" class="mw-redirect" title="Medical quackery">medical quackery</a>. Using as a template the Belgian organization founded in 1949, <a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_Para" title="Comité Para">Comité Para</a>, Americans <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marcello_Truzzi" title="Marcello Truzzi">Marcello Truzzi</a> founded the <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP)</a>, in <a href="/wiki/Amherst,_New_York" title="Amherst, New York">Amherst, New York</a>, in 1976. Now known as the Committee for Skeptical Inquiry (CSI), this organization has inspired others to form similar groups worldwide.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammer_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Overview">Overview</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Overview"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Scientific skeptics maintain that empirical investigation of <a href="/wiki/Reality" title="Reality">reality</a> leads to the most reliable empirical <a href="/wiki/Knowledge" title="Knowledge">knowledge</a>, and suggest that the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a> is best suited to verifying results.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientific skeptics attempt to evaluate <a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">claims</a> based on verifiability and <a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">falsifiability</a>; they discourage accepting claims which rely on <a href="/wiki/Faith" title="Faith">faith</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anecdotal_evidence" title="Anecdotal evidence">anecdotal evidence</a>. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a> described scientific skepticism in his 1992 book The <i>New Skepticism</i>, calling it an essential part of scientific inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/The_Skeptics_Society" title="The Skeptics Society">The Skeptics Society</a> describes it as "the application of reason to any and all ideas—no <a href="/wiki/Sacred_cow_(idiom)" title="Sacred cow (idiom)">sacred cows</a> allowed."<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Robert K. Merton</a> introduced <a href="/wiki/Mertonian_norms" title="Mertonian norms">Mertonian norms</a>, which assert that all ideas must be tested and are subject to rigorous, structured community scrutiny.<sup id="cite_ref-Merton_2-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merton-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Kendrick_Frazier" title="Kendrick Frazier">Kendrick Frazier</a> said that scientific skeptics have a commitment to science, reason, evidence, and the quest for truth.<i><sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> <a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a> emphasized the importance of being able to ask skeptical questions, recognizing fallacious or fraudulent arguments, and considering the validity of an argument rather than simply whether we like the conclusion.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Similarly, <a href="/wiki/Steven_Novella" title="Steven Novella">Steven Novella</a> described skepticism as selecting "beliefs and conclusions that are reliable and valid to ones that are comforting or convenient" and as the study of "pitfalls of human reason and the mechanisms of deception so as to avoid being deceived by others or themselves".<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Brian_Dunning_(author)" title="Brian Dunning (author)">Brian Dunning</a> called skepticism "the process of finding a supported conclusion, not the justification of a preconceived conclusion.''<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pixie_Turner_at_QED_2019.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Pixie_Turner_at_QED_2019.jpg/220px-Pixie_Turner_at_QED_2019.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Pixie_Turner_at_QED_2019.jpg/330px-Pixie_Turner_at_QED_2019.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/Pixie_Turner_at_QED_2019.jpg/440px-Pixie_Turner_at_QED_2019.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>Nutritionist Pixie Turner talking about nutrition-related pseudoscience in 2019</figcaption></figure> <p>Skeptics often focus their criticism on claims they consider implausible, dubious or clearly contradictory to generally accepted science. Scientific skeptics do not assert that unusual claims should be automatically rejected out of hand on <a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>a priori</i></a> grounds—rather they argue that one should critically examine claims of paranormal or anomalous phenomena and that extraordinary claims would require extraordinary evidence in their favor before they could be accepted as having validity.<sup id="cite_ref-NeurologicaNovella10Aug2015_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeurologicaNovella10Aug2015-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> From a scientific point of view, skeptics judge ideas on many criteria, including falsifiability,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Occam%27s_Razor" class="mw-redirect" title="Occam's Razor">Occam's Razor</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-HowStuffWorksClark_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-HowStuffWorksClark-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Morgan%27s_Canon" title="Morgan's Canon">Morgan's Canon</a><sup id="cite_ref-Morgan_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Morgan-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and explanatory power, as well as the degree to which their <a href="/wiki/Prediction" title="Prediction">predictions</a> match <a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">experimental</a> results.<sup id="cite_ref-NeurologicaNovella10Aug2015_15-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NeurologicaNovella10Aug2015-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Quotation needed from source to verify. (June 2021)">need quotation to verify</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Skepticism in general may be deemed part of the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>; for instance an experimental result is not regarded as established until it can be shown to be repeatable independently.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Sci.Skeptic FAQ characterizes the skeptic spectrum as divided into "wet" and "dry" sceptics,<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>a<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> primarily based on the level of engagement with those promoting claims that appear to be pseudoscience; the dry skeptics preferring to debunk and ridicule, in order to avoid giving attention and thus credence to the promoters, and the "wet" skeptics, preferring slower and more considered engagement, in order to avoid appearing sloppy and ill-considered and thus similar to the groups all skeptics opposed.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammer_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 389">: 389 </span></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Ronald_A._Lindsay" title="Ronald A. Lindsay">Ron Lindsay</a> has argued that while some non-scientific claims appear to be harmless or "soft targets", it is important to continue to address them and the underlying habits of thought that lead to them so that we do not "have a lot more people believing that 9/11 was an inside job, that climate change is a hoax, that our government is controlled by aliens, and so forth—and those beliefs are far from harmless".<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Skeptical_movement">Skeptical movement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Skeptical movement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>With regard to the skeptical social movement, <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Loxton" title="Daniel Loxton">Daniel Loxton</a> refers to other movements already promoting "humanism, <a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">atheism</a>, rationalism, science education and even critical thinking" beforehand.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He saw the demand for the new movement—a movement of people called "skeptics"—as based on a lack of interest by the scientific community to address paranormal and fringe-science claims. In line with <a href="/wiki/Kendrick_Frazier" title="Kendrick Frazier">Kendrick Frazier</a>, he describes the movement as a surrogate in that area for institutional science.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The movement set up a distinct field of study, and provided an organizational structure, while "the long-standing genre of individual skeptical writing" lacked such a community and background.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Skeptical organizations typically tend to have science education and promotion among their goals.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The skeptical movement has had issues with allegations of sexism. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mary_Coulman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mary Coulman (page does not exist)">Mary Coulman</a> identified a disparity between women and men in the movement in a 1985 skeptic newsletter.<sup id="cite_ref-Hess_28-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hess-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 112">: 112 </span></sup> The skeptic movement has generally been made up of men; at a 1987 conference the members there discussed the fact that the attendees were predominantly older white men and a 1991 listing of 50 CSICOP fellows included four women.<sup id="cite_ref-Hess_28-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hess-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 109">: 109 </span></sup> Following a 2011 conference, <a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Watson" title="Rebecca Watson">Rebecca Watson</a>, a prominent skeptic,<sup id="cite_ref-Rinallo2013_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rinallo2013-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page / location: 57">: 57 </span></sup> raised issues of the way female skeptics are targeted with <a href="/wiki/Cybercrime#Harassment" title="Cybercrime">online harassment</a> including threats of sexual violence by opponents of the movement, and also raised issues of sexism within the movement itself. While she received some support in response to her discussion of sexism within the movement, she later became a target of virulent online harassment, even from fellow skeptics, after posting an online video that discussed her discomfort with being propositioned in a confined space. This became known as "<a href="/wiki/Elevatorgate" class="mw-redirect" title="Elevatorgate">Elevatorgate</a>", based on Watson's discussion about being propositioned in a hotel elevator in the early morning after a skeptic event.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Debunking_and_rational_inquiry">Debunking and rational inquiry</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Debunking and rational inquiry"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Debunking" title="Debunking">Debunking</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:25_Wendy_PB_Picture.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/25_Wendy_PB_Picture.jpg/170px-25_Wendy_PB_Picture.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/25_Wendy_PB_Picture.jpg/255px-25_Wendy_PB_Picture.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cb/25_Wendy_PB_Picture.jpg/340px-25_Wendy_PB_Picture.jpg 2x" data-file-width="474" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Center_for_Inquiry" title="Center for Inquiry">Independent Investigations Group</a> testing <a href="/wiki/Power_Balance" title="Power Balance">Power Balance</a> bracelet in 2010</figcaption></figure> <p>The verb "to debunk" is used to describe efforts by skeptics to expose or discredit claims believed to be false, exaggerated, or pretentious. It is closely associated with skeptical investigation or rational inquiry of controversial topics (compare <a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_characterized_as_pseudoscience" title="List of topics characterized as pseudoscience">list of topics characterized as pseudoscience</a>) such as <a href="/wiki/Unidentified_flying_object" title="Unidentified flying object">U.F.O.s</a>, claimed <a href="/wiki/Paranormal" title="Paranormal">paranormal</a> phenomena, <a href="/wiki/Cryptid" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryptid">cryptids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theories" class="mw-redirect" title="Conspiracy theories">conspiracy theories</a>, <a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative medicine</a>, <a href="/wiki/Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, or exploratory or <a href="/wiki/Fringe_science" title="Fringe science">fringe</a> areas of scientific or <a href="/wiki/Pseudoscientific" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudoscientific">pseudoscientific</a> research.<sup id="cite_ref-dict_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-dict-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Further topics that scientifically skeptical literature questions include health claims surrounding certain foods, procedures, and <a href="/wiki/Alternative_medicine" title="Alternative medicine">alternative medicines</a>; the plausibility and existence of <a href="/wiki/Supernatural" title="Supernatural">supernatural</a> abilities (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Tarot_reading" class="mw-redirect" title="Tarot reading">tarot reading</a>) or entities (e.g. <a href="/wiki/Poltergeists" class="mw-redirect" title="Poltergeists">poltergeists</a>, <a href="/wiki/Angels" class="mw-redirect" title="Angels">angels</a>, <a href="/wiki/Deity" title="Deity">gods</a>—including <a href="/wiki/Zeus" title="Zeus">Zeus</a>); the monsters of <a href="/wiki/Cryptozoology" title="Cryptozoology">cryptozoology</a> (e.g. the <a href="/wiki/Loch_Ness_monster" class="mw-redirect" title="Loch Ness monster">Loch Ness monster</a>); as well as <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a>/<a href="/wiki/Intelligent_design" title="Intelligent design">intelligent design</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">dowsing</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conspiracy_theory" title="Conspiracy theory">conspiracy theories</a>, and other claims the skeptic sees as unlikely to be true on scientific grounds.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Skeptics such as <a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a> have become famous for <a href="/wiki/Debunker" title="Debunker">debunking</a> claims related to some of these. Paranormal investigator <a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Joe Nickell</a> cautions, however, that "debunkers" must be careful to engage paranormal claims seriously and without bias. He explains that open minded investigation is more likely to teach and change minds than debunking.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A striking characteristic of the skeptical movement is the fact that while most of the phenomena covered, such as <a href="/wiki/Astrology" title="Astrology">astrology</a> and <a href="/wiki/Homeopathy" title="Homeopathy">homeopathy</a>, have been debunked again and again, they stay popular.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammer_6-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Frazier reemphasized in 2018 that "[w]e need independent, evidence-based, science-based critical investigation and inquiry now more than perhaps at any other time in our history."<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The scientific skepticism community has traditionally been focused on what people believe rather than why they believe—there might be psychological, cognitive or instinctive reasons for belief when there is little evidence for such beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Hammer, the bulk of the skeptical movement's literature works on an implicit model, that belief in the irrational is being based on scientific illiteracy or cognitive illusions. He points to the skeptical discussion about astrology: The skeptical notion of astrology as a "failed hypothesis" fails to address basic <a href="/wiki/Anthropological" class="mw-redirect" title="Anthropological">anthropological</a> assumptions about astrology as a form of ritualized <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>. While the anthropological approach attempts to explain the activities of astrologers and their clients, the skeptical movement's interest in the cultural aspects of such beliefs is muted.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammer_6-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>According to sociologist David J. Hess, the skeptical discourse tends to set science and the skeptical project apart from the social and the economic. From this perspective, he argues that skepticism takes on some aspects of a sacred discourse, as in <a href="/wiki/Emile_Durkheim" class="mw-redirect" title="Emile Durkheim">Emile Durkheim</a>'s <i><a href="/wiki/The_Elementary_Forms_of_the_Religious_Life" title="The Elementary Forms of the Religious Life">Elementary Forms of the Religious Life</a></i>—Science, seen as pure and sacred (motivated by values of the mind and reason), is set apart from popular dealings with the paranormal, seen as profane (permeated by the economic and the social); obscuring the confrontation between science and religion.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Hess states as well a strong tendency in <a href="/wiki/Other_(philosophy)" title="Other (philosophy)">othering</a>: both skeptics and their opponents see the other as being driven by materialistic philosophy and material gain and assume themselves to have purer motives.<sup id="cite_ref-:32_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:32-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Perceived_dangers_of_pseudoscience">Perceived dangers of pseudoscience</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Perceived dangers of pseudoscience"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>While not all pseudoscientific beliefs are necessarily dangerous, some can potentially be harmful.<sup id="cite_ref-Hammer_6-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Hammer-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Plato" title="Plato">Plato</a> believed that to release others from ignorance despite their initial resistance is a great and noble thing.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern skeptical writers address this question in a variety of ways. <a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a> argued that some individual actions based on beliefs for which there is no evidence of efficacy, can result in destructive actions.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a> often wrote on the issue of <a href="/wiki/Fraud" title="Fraud">fraud</a> by psychics and faith healers.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unqualified medical practice and alternative medicine can result in serious injury and death.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Skeptical activist <a href="/wiki/Tim_Farley" title="Tim Farley">Tim Farley</a>, who aims to create catalogue of harmful pseudoscientific practices and cases of damage caused by them, estimates documented number of killed or injured to be more than 600,000.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a> points to religion as a source of violence (notably in <i><a href="/wiki/The_God_Delusion" title="The God Delusion">The God Delusion</a></i>), and considers <a href="/wiki/Creationism" title="Creationism">creationism</a> a threat to biology.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-sfgatedawkins_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-sfgatedawkins-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some skeptics, such as the members of <i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptics%27_Guide_to_the_Universe" title="The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe">The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe</a></i> podcast, oppose <a href="/wiki/Anti-cult_movement" title="Anti-cult movement">certain new religious movements</a> because of their cult-like behaviors.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Leo_Igwe" title="Leo Igwe">Leo Igwe</a>, Junior Fellow at the Bayreuth International Graduate School of African Studies<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and past Research Fellow of the <a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a> (JREF),<sup id="cite_ref-hill-20122_51-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hill-20122-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-jref-20122_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-jref-20122-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> wrote <i>A Manifesto for a Skeptical Africa</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-manifesto2_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manifesto2-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> which received endorsements from multiple public activists in Africa, as well as skeptical endorsers around the world.<sup id="cite_ref-manifesto2_53-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-manifesto2-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is a Nigerian human rights advocate and campaigner against the impacts of <a href="/wiki/Witch_Children_in_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Witch Children in Africa">child witchcraft</a> accusations. Igwe came into conflict with high-profile <a href="/wiki/Witchcraft" title="Witchcraft">witchcraft</a> believers, leading to attacks on himself and his family.<sup id="cite_ref-de-waal-2012_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-de-waal-2012-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-robbins-2011a_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-robbins-2011a-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2018, <a href="/wiki/Amardeo_Sarma" title="Amardeo Sarma">Amardeo Sarma</a> provided some perspective on the state of the skeptical movement by addressing "the essence of contemporary skepticism and [highlighting] the vital nonpartisan and science-based role of skeptics in preventing deception and harm." He emphasized the dangers of pseudoscience as a reason for prioritizing skeptical work.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pseudoskepticism">Pseudoskepticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Pseudoskepticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pseudoskepticism" title="Pseudoskepticism">Pseudoskepticism</a></div> <p>Richard Cameron Wilson, in an article in <i><a href="/wiki/New_Statesman" title="New Statesman">New Statesman</a></i>, wrote that "the bogus sceptic is, in reality, a disguised <a href="/wiki/Dogma" title="Dogma">dogmatist</a>, made all the more dangerous for his success in appropriating the mantle of the unbiased and open-minded inquirer". Some advocates of discredited intellectual positions (such as <a href="/wiki/AIDS_denial" class="mw-redirect" title="AIDS denial">AIDS denial</a>, <a href="/wiki/Holocaust_denial" title="Holocaust denial">Holocaust denial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Climate_change_denial" title="Climate change denial">climate change denial</a>) engage in pseudoskeptical behavior when they characterize themselves as "skeptics". This is despite their <a href="/wiki/Cherry_picking" title="Cherry picking">cherry picking</a> of evidence that conforms to a pre-existing belief.<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_NS_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson_NS-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Wilson, who highlights the phenomenon in his 2008 book <i>Don't Get Fooled Again</i>, the characteristic feature of false skepticism is that it "centres not on an impartial search for the truth, but on the defence of a preconceived ideological position".<sup id="cite_ref-Wilson_fooled_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wilson_fooled-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Scientific skepticism is itself sometimes criticized on this ground. The term <i>pseudoskepticism</i> has found occasional use in controversial fields where opposition from scientific skeptics is strong. For example, in 1994, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Blackmore" title="Susan Blackmore">Susan Blackmore</a>, a parapsychologist who became more skeptical and eventually became a <a href="/wiki/CSICOP" class="mw-redirect" title="CSICOP">Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal</a> (CSICOP) fellow in 1991, described what she termed the "worst kind of pseudoskepticism": </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> There are some members of the skeptics' groups who clearly believe they know the right answer prior to inquiry. They appear not to be interested in weighing alternatives, investigating strange claims, or trying out psychic experiences or altered states for themselves (heaven forbid!), but only in promoting their own particular belief structure and cohesion ...<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Commenting on the labels "dogmatic" and "pathological" that the "Association for Skeptical Investigation"<sup id="cite_ref-SI_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SI-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> puts on critics of paranormal investigations, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Todd_Carroll" title="Robert Todd Carroll">Bob Carroll</a> of the <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic's Dictionary">Skeptic's Dictionary</a></i><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> argues that that association "is a group of pseudo-skeptical paranormal investigators and supporters who do not appreciate criticism of paranormal studies by truly genuine skeptics and critical thinkers. The only skepticism this group promotes is skepticism of critics and [their] criticisms of paranormal studies."<sup id="cite_ref-carroll_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-carroll-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Historical_roots">Historical roots</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Historical roots"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to skeptic author <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Loxton" title="Daniel Loxton">Daniel Loxton</a>, "skepticism is a story without a beginning or an end." His 2013 article in <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptic_(U.S._magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic (U.S. magazine)">Skeptic</a></i> magazine "Why Is There a Skeptical Movement" claims a history of two millennia of paranormal skepticism.<sup id="cite_ref-Loxton2013_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loxton2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He is of the opinion that the practice, problems, and central concepts extend all the way to antiquity and refers to a debunking tale as told <a href="/wiki/Bel_and_the_Dragon#Bel" title="Bel and the Dragon">in some versions of the Old Testament</a>, where the Prophet Daniel exposes a tale of a "living" statue as a scam.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to Loxton, throughout history, there are further examples of individuals practicing critical inquiry and writing books or performing publicly against particular frauds and popular superstitions, including people like <a href="/wiki/Lucian" title="Lucian">Lucian of Samosata</a> (2nd century), <a href="/wiki/Michel_de_Montaigne" title="Michel de Montaigne">Michel de Montaigne</a> (16th century), <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Ady" title="Thomas Ady">Thomas Ady</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Browne" title="Thomas Browne">Thomas Browne</a> (17th century), <a href="/wiki/Antoine_Lavoisier" title="Antoine Lavoisier">Antoine Lavoisier</a> and <a href="/wiki/Benjamin_Franklin" title="Benjamin Franklin">Benjamin Franklin</a> (18th century), many different philosophers, scientists and magicians throughout the 19th and early 20th century up until and after <a href="/wiki/Harry_Houdini" title="Harry Houdini">Harry Houdini</a>. However, skeptics banding together in societies that research the paranormal and fringe science is a modern phenomenon.<sup id="cite_ref-Loxton2013_63-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loxton2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Two early important works influential to the skeptical movement were <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Webster_Hering" title="Daniel Webster Hering">Daniel Webster Hering</a>'s <i>Foibles and Fallacies of Science</i> (1924) and D. H. Rawcliffe's <i><a href="/wiki/The_Psychology_of_the_Occult" title="The Psychology of the Occult">The Psychology of the Occult</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Loxton2013_63-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loxton2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Loxton mentions the Belgian <a href="/wiki/Comit%C3%A9_Para" title="Comité Para">Comité Para</a> (1949) as the oldest "broad mandate" skeptical organization.<sup id="cite_ref-Loxton2013_63-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loxton2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although it was preceded by the Dutch <a href="/wiki/Vereniging_tegen_de_Kwakzalverij" title="Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij">Vereniging tegen de Kwakzalverij</a> (VtdK) (1881), which is therefore considered the oldest skeptical organization by others,<sup id="cite_ref-Quackometer_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quackometer-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Standaard_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Standaard-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the VtdK only focuses on fighting quackery, and thus has a 'narrow mandate'. The Comité Para was partly formed as a response to a predatory industry of bogus psychics who were exploiting the grieving relatives of people who had gone missing during the <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Loxton2013_63-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loxton2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a> traces the origins of the modern scientific skeptical movement to <a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Martin Gardner</a>'s 1952 book <i><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1968, the <a href="/wiki/Association_fran%C3%A7aise_pour_l%27information_scientifique" title="Association française pour l'information scientifique">French Association for Scientific Information</a> (AFIS) was founded. AFIS strives to promote science against those who deny its cultural value, abuse it for criminal purposes or as a cover for <a href="/wiki/Quackery" title="Quackery">quackery</a>. According to AFIS, science itself cannot solve humanity's problems, nor can one solve them without using the <a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">scientific method</a>. It maintains that people should be informed about scientific and technical advancements and the problems it helps to solve. Its magazine, <i>Science et pseudo-sciences</i>, attempts to distribute scientific information in a language that everyone can understand.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="CSICOP_and_contemporary_skepticism">CSICOP and contemporary skepticism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: CSICOP and contemporary skepticism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ken-RayPaulRandiKen_photo_at_TAM8.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ken-RayPaulRandiKen_photo_at_TAM8.jpg/220px-Ken-RayPaulRandiKen_photo_at_TAM8.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ken-RayPaulRandiKen_photo_at_TAM8.jpg/330px-Ken-RayPaulRandiKen_photo_at_TAM8.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ken-RayPaulRandiKen_photo_at_TAM8.jpg/440px-Ken-RayPaulRandiKen_photo_at_TAM8.jpg 2x" data-file-width="640" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>Influential North American skeptics: <a href="/wiki/Ray_Hyman" title="Ray Hyman">Ray Hyman</a>, <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a> and <a href="/wiki/Kendrick_Frazier" title="Kendrick Frazier">Kendrick Frazier</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In 1976, the Committee for the Scientific Investigation of Claims of the Paranormal (CSICOP), known as the <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a> (CSI) since November 2006, was founded in the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a>. Some see this as the "birth of modern skepticism",<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> however, founder <a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Paul Kurtz</a> actually modeled it after the Comité Para, including its name.<sup id="cite_ref-Loxton2013_63-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Loxton2013-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Kurtz' motive was being "dismayed ... by the rising tide of belief in the paranormal and the lack of adequate scientific examinations of these claims."<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Kurtz was an atheist and had also founded the <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_the_Scientific_Examination_of_Religion" title="Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion">Committee for the Scientific Examination of Religion</a>. While he saw both aspects as being covered in the skeptical movement, he had recommended CSICOP to focus on paranormal and pseudoscientific claims and to leave religious aspects to others.<sup id="cite_ref-NisbetKurtsStrategicError_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NisbetKurtsStrategicError-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Despite not being the oldest, CSICOP was "the first successful, broad-mandate North American skeptical organization of the contemporary period",<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> popularized the usage of the terms "skeptic", "skeptical" and "skepticism" by its magazine, <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Wonder_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Wonder-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and directly inspired the foundation of many other skeptical organizations throughout the world, especially in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These included <a href="/wiki/Australian_Skeptics" title="Australian Skeptics">Australian Skeptics</a> (1980), <a href="/wiki/F%C3%B6reningen_Vetenskap_och_Folkbildning" title="Föreningen Vetenskap och Folkbildning">Vetenskap och Folkbildning</a> (Sweden, 1982), <a href="/wiki/New_Zealand_Skeptics" class="mw-redirect" title="New Zealand Skeptics">New Zealand Skeptics</a> (1986), <a href="/wiki/Gesellschaft_zur_wissenschaftlichen_Untersuchung_von_Parawissenschaften" title="Gesellschaft zur wissenschaftlichen Untersuchung von Parawissenschaften">GWUP</a> (Austria, Germany and Switzerland, 1987), <a href="/wiki/Skepsis_(organization)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skepsis (organization)">Skepsis r.y.</a> (Finland, 1987), <a href="/wiki/Stichting_Skepsis" title="Stichting Skepsis">Stichting Skepsis</a> (Netherlands, 1987), <a href="/wiki/CICAP" title="CICAP">CICAP</a> (Italy, 1989) and <a href="/wiki/SKEPP" title="SKEPP">SKEPP</a> (Dutch-speaking Belgium, 1990). </p><p> Besides scientists such as <a href="/wiki/Astronomers" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronomers">astronomers</a>, stage magicians like <a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">James Randi</a> were important in investigating charlatans and exposing their trickery. In 1996 Randi formed the <a href="/wiki/James_Randi_Educational_Foundation" title="James Randi Educational Foundation">James Randi Educational Foundation</a> (JREF) and created the <a href="/wiki/One_Million_Dollar_Paranormal_Challenge" title="One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge">One Million Dollar Paranormal Challenge</a>, where anyone who could demonstrate paranormal abilities, under mutually agreed-upon controlled circumstances, could claim the prize. After Randi's retirement in 2015, the Paranormal Challenge was officially terminated by the JREF with the prize unclaimed:<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"></p><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Effective 9/1/2015 the JREF has made major changes including converting to a grant making foundation and no longer accepting applications for the Million Dollar Prize from the general public.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Other influential second-generation American organizations were <a href="/wiki/The_Skeptics_Society" title="The Skeptics Society">The Skeptics Society</a> (founded in 1992 by <a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Michael Shermer</a>), the <a href="/wiki/New_England_Skeptical_Society" title="New England Skeptical Society">New England Skeptical Society</a> (originating in 1996) and the <a href="/wiki/Independent_Investigations_Group" class="mw-redirect" title="Independent Investigations Group">Independent Investigations Group</a> (formed in 2000 by <a href="/wiki/James_Underdown" title="James Underdown">James Underdown</a>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="After_1989">After 1989</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: After 1989"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Merseyside_Skeptics_Society_audience.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="Photo of Brian Deer speaking at Skeptics in the Pub meeting in Liverpool" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Merseyside_Skeptics_Society_audience.jpg/220px-Merseyside_Skeptics_Society_audience.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Merseyside_Skeptics_Society_audience.jpg/330px-Merseyside_Skeptics_Society_audience.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Merseyside_Skeptics_Society_audience.jpg/440px-Merseyside_Skeptics_Society_audience.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2133" /></a><figcaption>Brian Deer talks to the Merseyside Skeptics Society at a Skeptics in the Pub meeting.</figcaption></figure> <p>After the <a href="/wiki/Revolutions_of_1989" title="Revolutions of 1989">Revolutions of 1989</a>, Eastern Europe saw a surge in quackery and paranormal beliefs that were no longer restrained by the generally secular Communist regimes or the Iron curtain and its information barriers. The foundation of many new skeptical organizations was as well intending to <a href="/wiki/Consumer_protection" title="Consumer protection">protect consumers</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These included the <a href="/wiki/Czech_Skeptics%27_Club_Sisyfos" class="mw-redirect" title="Czech Skeptics' Club Sisyfos">Czech Skeptics' Club Sisyfos</a> (1995),<sup id="cite_ref-Sisyfos_77-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Sisyfos-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Skeptic_Society" title="Hungarian Skeptic Society">Hungarian Skeptic Society</a> (2006), the <a href="/wiki/Polish_Sceptics_Club" class="mw-redirect" title="Polish Sceptics Club">Polish Sceptics Club</a> (2010)<sup id="cite_ref-autogenerated1_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-autogenerated1-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the Russian-speaking <a href="/wiki/Skeptic_Society" title="Skeptic Society">Skeptic Society</a> (2013).<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Austrian Skeptical Society in Vienna (founded in 2002) deals with issues such as <a href="/wiki/John_Grander" class="mw-redirect" title="John Grander">Johann Grander's "vitalized water"</a> and the use of <a href="/wiki/Dowsing" title="Dowsing">dowsing</a> at the Austrian Parliament<i>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></i> </p><p>The European Skeptics Congress (ESC) has been held throughout Europe since 1989, from 1994 onwards co-ordinated by the <a href="/wiki/European_Council_of_Skeptical_Organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="European Council of Skeptical Organizations">European Council of Skeptical Organizations</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-EarlierEvents_81-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EarlierEvents-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United States, <a href="/wiki/The_Amaz!ng_Meeting" class="mw-redirect" title="The Amaz!ng Meeting">The Amaz!ng Meeting</a> (TAM) hosted by the JREF in <a href="/wiki/Las_Vegas" title="Las Vegas">Las Vegas</a> had been the most important skeptical conference since 2003, with two spin-off conferences in <a href="/wiki/London" title="London">London</a>, <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">UK</a> (2009 and 2010) and one in <a href="/wiki/Sydney" title="Sydney">Sydney</a>, Australia (2010). Since 2010, the <a href="/wiki/Merseyside_Skeptics_Society" title="Merseyside Skeptics Society">Merseyside Skeptics Society</a> and Greater Manchester Skeptics jointly organized <a href="/wiki/Merseyside_Skeptics_Society#QED:_Question,_Explore,_Discover" title="Merseyside Skeptics Society">Question, Explore, Discover</a> (QED) in <a href="/wiki/Manchester" title="Manchester">Manchester</a>, UK. World Skeptics Congresses have been held so far, namely in <a href="/wiki/Buffalo,_New_York" title="Buffalo, New York">Buffalo, New York</a> (1996), <a href="/wiki/Heidelberg" title="Heidelberg">Heidelberg</a>, Germany (1998), Sydney, Australia (2000), <a href="/wiki/Burbank,_California" title="Burbank, California">Burbank, California</a> (2002), <a href="/wiki/Abano_Terme" title="Abano Terme">Abano Terme</a>, Italy (2004) and Berlin, Germany (2012).<sup id="cite_ref-EarlierEvents_81-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EarlierEvents-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1991, the <a href="/wiki/Center_for_Inquiry" title="Center for Inquiry">Center for Inquiry</a>, a US think-tank, brought the CSICOP<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="/wiki/Council_for_Secular_Humanism" class="mw-redirect" title="Council for Secular Humanism">Council for Secular Humanism</a><sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (CSH) under one umbrella. In January 2016, the <a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins_Foundation_for_Reason_and_Science" title="Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science">Richard Dawkins Foundation for Reason and Science</a> announced its merger with the Center for Inquiry.<sup id="cite_ref-Merger_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Merger-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 2010, as a form of skeptical outreach to the general population, <a href="/wiki/Susan_Gerbic" title="Susan Gerbic">Susan Gerbic</a> launched the <a href="/wiki/Susan_Gerbic#GSoW" title="Susan Gerbic">Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia</a> (GSoW) project to improve skeptical content on Wikipedia.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notable_skeptical_media">Notable skeptical media</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Notable skeptical media"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_notable_skeptics" class="mw-redirect" title="List of notable skeptics">List of notable skeptics</a>, <a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_conferences" title="List of skeptical conferences">List of skeptical conferences</a>, and <a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_organizations" title="List of skeptical organizations">List of skeptical organizations</a></div> <p><b>Books</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_skepticism" title="List of books about skepticism">List of books about skepticism</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon-Haunted_World" title="The Demon-Haunted World">The Demon-Haunted World</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Why_People_Believe_Weird_Things" title="Why People Believe Weird Things">Why People Believe Weird Things</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science">Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptics%27_Guide_to_the_Universe_(book)" title="The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe (book)"><i>The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe</i></a></li></ul> <p><b>Magazines</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_magazines" title="List of skeptical magazines">List of skeptical magazines</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Skeptic_(U.S._magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic (U.S. magazine)">Skeptic</a></i> (US)</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic_(UK_magazine)" class="mw-redirect" title="The Skeptic (UK magazine)">The Skeptic</a></i> (UK)</li></ul> <p><b>Television programs</b> </p> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Penn_%26_Teller:_Bullshit!" title="Penn & Teller: Bullshit!">Penn & Teller: Bullshit!</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/MythBusters" title="MythBusters">MythBusters</a></i></li></ul> <p><b>Podcasts</b> </p> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_podcasts" title="List of skeptical podcasts">List of skeptical podcasts</a></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptics%27_Guide_to_the_Universe" title="The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe">The Skeptics' Guide to the Universe</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skepticality" title="Skepticality">Skepticality</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Australian_Skeptics#The_Skeptic_Zone" title="Australian Skeptics">The Skeptic Zone</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Skeptoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptoid">Skeptoid</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Point_of_Inquiry" title="Point of Inquiry">Point of Inquiry</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/For_Good_Reason" class="mw-redirect" title="For Good Reason">For Good Reason</a></i></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 0.3em;vertical-align:middle}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .portalleft{clear:left;float:left;margin:0.5em 1em 0.5em 0}.mw-parser-output .portalright{clear:right;float:right;margin:0.5em 0 0.5em 1em}}</style><ul role="navigation" 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data-file-height="128" /></a></span></span><span class="portalbox-link"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Science" title="Portal:Science">Science portal</a></span></li></ul> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_skepticism" title="Academic skepticism">Academic skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-cult_movement" title="Anti-cult movement">Anti-cult movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atheism" title="Atheism">Atheism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brights_movement" title="Brights movement">Brights movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Denialism" title="Denialism">Denialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freethought" title="Freethought">Freethought</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductivism" title="Inductivism">Inductivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lists_about_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists about skepticism">Lists about skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logical_positivism" title="Logical positivism">Logical positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism (philosophy)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophic_burden_of_proof" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophic burden of proof">Philosophic burden of proof</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precautionary_principle" title="Precautionary principle">Precautionary principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religious_skepticism" title="Religious skepticism">Religious skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reproducibility" title="Reproducibility">Reproducibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reductionism#In_science" title="Reductionism">Scientific reductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_humanism" title="Secular humanism">Secular humanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secular_movement" title="Secular movement">Secular movement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SkeptiCamp" title="SkeptiCamp">SkeptiCamp</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skepticism" title="Skepticism">Skepticism</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" title="The Skeptic's Dictionary">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Snopes.com" class="mw-redirect" title="Snopes.com">Snopes.com</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory_of_justification" class="mw-redirect" title="Theory of justification">Theory of justification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstitions" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstitions">Superstitions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superstitions_in_Muslim_societies" class="mw-redirect" title="Superstitions in Muslim societies">Superstitions in Muslim societies</a></li></ul></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><b>Notes</b> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Direct URL has been blacklisted as a source: faqs.org/faqs/skeptic-faq/</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-KendrickInquiry-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-KendrickInquiry_1-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFFrazier2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kendrick_Frazier" title="Kendrick Frazier">Frazier, Kendrick</a> (November 1, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170610192458/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/why_we_do_this_revisiting_the_higher_values_of_skeptical_inquiry">"Why We Do This: Revisiting the Higher Values of Skeptical Inquiry"</a>. <i>csicop.org</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/why_we_do_this_revisiting_the_higher_values_of_skeptical_inquiry">the original</a> on June 10, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 12,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=csicop.org&rft.atitle=Why+We+Do+This%3A+Revisiting+the+Higher+Values+of+Skeptical+Inquiry&rft.date=2013-11-01&rft.aulast=Frazier&rft.aufirst=Kendrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fwhy_we_do_this_revisiting_the_higher_values_of_skeptical_inquiry&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Merton-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Merton_2-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Merton_2-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerton1942" class="citation book cs1">Merton, R. K. (1942). <i>The Normative Structure of Science</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Normative+Structure+of+Science&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Merton&rft.aufirst=R.+K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span> in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerton1973" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton, Robert King</a> (1973). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sociologyofscien0000mert"><i>The Sociology of Science: Theoretical and Empirical Investigations</i></a></span>. Chicago: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Chicago_Press" title="University of Chicago Press">University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52091-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-52091-9"><bdi>978-0-226-52091-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sociology+of+Science%3A+Theoretical+and+Empirical+Investigations&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-226-52091-9&rft.aulast=Merton&rft.aufirst=Robert+King&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsociologyofscien0000mert&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStemwedel2008" class="citation cs2">Stemwedel, Janet D. (January 29, 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://scienceblogs.com/ethicsandscience/2008/01/29/basic-concepts-the-norms-of-sc">"Basic concepts: the norms of science"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(blog)</span>, <i>ScienceBlogs: Adventures in Ethics and Science</i>, <a href="/wiki/ScienceBlogs" title="ScienceBlogs">ScienceBlogs</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130512231940/http://scienceblogs.com/ethicsandscience/2008/01/29/basic-concepts-the-norms-of-sc/">archived</a> from the original on May 12, 2013</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ScienceBlogs%3A+Adventures+in+Ethics+and+Science&rft.atitle=Basic+concepts%3A+the+norms+of+science&rft.date=2008-01-29&rft.aulast=Stemwedel&rft.aufirst=Janet+D.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscienceblogs.com%2Fethicsandscience%2F2008%2F01%2F29%2Fbasic-concepts-the-norms-of-sc&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span>: quoting <a href="/wiki/Robert_K._Merton" title="Robert K. Merton">Merton, R. K.</a> (1942)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Asbjørn Dyrendal: "Oh no it isn't!" Skeptics and the Rhetorical Use of Science in Religion. in Olav Hammer & James R. Lewis (red.) <i>Handbook of</i> <i>Religion and the Authority of Science</i>. pp. 879–900. Leiden: Brill Academic Publishers 2010, Dyrendal refers to spiritualists as early targets of skeptics based on Hammer 2007.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> Loxton, 2013, pp. 10ff.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hammer-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hammer_6-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hammer_6-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hammer_6-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hammer_6-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hammer_6-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKempLewis2007" class="citation book cs1">Kemp, Daren; Lewis, James R. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bm-7DH2bZ8QC&pg=PA395"><i>Handbook of New Age</i></a>. Brill. pp. 382, 390, 395–396. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-9004153554" title="Special:BookSources/978-9004153554"><bdi>978-9004153554</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+of+New+Age&rft.pages=382%2C+390%2C+395-396&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-9004153554&rft.aulast=Kemp&rft.aufirst=Daren&rft.au=Lewis%2C+James+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DBm-7DH2bZ8QC%26pg%3DPA395&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovella2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Novella" title="Steven Novella">Novella, Steven</a> (August 10, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412180401/http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/rethinking-the-skeptical-movement/">"Rethinking the Skeptical Movement"</a>. <i>Neurologica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/rethinking-the-skeptical-movement/">the original</a> on April 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2016</span>. <q>If somehow you thought you'd gained some kind of understanding about the natural world [...], how would you then be able to demonstrate to anyone else that the understanding was valid? Seems like you'd need something like the scientific method to do this, otherwise you're left with all such insights being equal, and no way to distinguish which are valid.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neurologica&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Skeptical+Movement&rft.date=2015-08-10&rft.aulast=Novella&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheness.com%2Fneurologicablog%2Findex.php%2Frethinking-the-skeptical-movement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurtz1992" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Paul_Kurtz" title="Paul Kurtz">Kurtz, Paul</a> (1992). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newskepticisminq0000kurt"><i>The New Skepticism: Inquiry and Reliable Knowledge</i></a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Prometheus_Books" title="Prometheus Books">Prometheus</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/newskepticisminq0000kurt/page/371">371</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-766-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87975-766-3"><bdi>978-0-87975-766-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+New+Skepticism%3A+Inquiry+and+Reliable+Knowledge&rft.pages=371&rft.pub=Prometheus&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-0-87975-766-3&rft.aulast=Kurtz&rft.aufirst=Paul&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fnewskepticisminq0000kurt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skeptic.com/about_us/">"About Us – A Brief Introduction"</a>. The Skeptics Society. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140601130116/http://www.skeptic.com/about_us/">Archived</a> from the original on June 1, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=About+Us+%E2%80%93+A+Brief+Introduction&rft.pub=The+Skeptics+Society&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skeptic.com%2Fabout_us%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrazier2019" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kendrick_Frazier" title="Kendrick Frazier">Frazier, Kendrick</a> (2019). "You Can't fit What We Skeptics Do into a Neat Box". <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <b>43</b> (2): 22–23.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=You+Can%27t+fit+What+We+Skeptics+Do+into+a+Neat+Box&rft.volume=43&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=22-23&rft.date=2019&rft.aulast=Frazier&rft.aufirst=Kendrick&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/962093-science-is-more-than-a-body-of-knowledge-it-is">"Carl Sagan > Quotes > Quotable Quote"</a>. <i>Goodreads.com</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170830161340/https://www.goodreads.com/quotes/962093-science-is-more-than-a-body-of-knowledge-it-is">Archived</a> from the original on August 30, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 30,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Goodreads.com&rft.atitle=Carl+Sagan+%3E+Quotes+%3E+Quotable+Quote&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.goodreads.com%2Fquotes%2F962093-science-is-more-than-a-body-of-knowledge-it-is&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSagan1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/32855551"><i>The demon-haunted world : science as a candle in the dark</i></a> (1st ed.). New York: Random House. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-394-53512-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-394-53512-X"><bdi>0-394-53512-X</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/32855551">32855551</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+demon-haunted+world+%3A+science+as+a+candle+in+the+dark&rft.place=New+York&rft.edition=1st&rft.pub=Random+House&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F32855551&rft.isbn=0-394-53512-X&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldcat.org%2Foclc%2F32855551&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skepticblog.org/2008/11/17/skeptic-the-name-thing-again/">"Skepticblog"</a>. <i>skepticblog.org</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140425110706/http://www.skepticblog.org/2008/11/17/skeptic-the-name-thing-again/">Archived</a> from the original on April 25, 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=skepticblog.org&rft.atitle=Skepticblog&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skepticblog.org%2F2008%2F11%2F17%2Fskeptic-the-name-thing-again%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skeptoid.com/skeptic.php">"Skeptoid"</a>. <i>skeptoid.com</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=skeptoid.com&rft.atitle=Skeptoid&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fskeptoid.com%2Fskeptic.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-NeurologicaNovella10Aug2015-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-NeurologicaNovella10Aug2015_15-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-NeurologicaNovella10Aug2015_15-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovella2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Novella" title="Steven Novella">Novella, Steven</a> (August 10, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412180401/http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/rethinking-the-skeptical-movement/">"Rethinking the Skeptical Movement"</a>. <i>Neurologica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/rethinking-the-skeptical-movement/">the original</a> on April 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neurologica&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Skeptical+Movement&rft.date=2015-08-10&rft.aulast=Novella&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheness.com%2Fneurologicablog%2Findex.php%2Frethinking-the-skeptical-movement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNovella2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Steven_Novella" title="Steven Novella">Novella, Steven</a> (August 10, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412180401/http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/rethinking-the-skeptical-movement/">"Rethinking the Skeptical Movement"</a>. <i>Neurologica</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://theness.com/neurologicablog/index.php/rethinking-the-skeptical-movement/">the original</a> on April 12, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2016</span>. <q>It's a little nuanced, but ultimately it comes down to the idea that science can only really falsify a hypothesis. Tests are often constructed to prove the hypothesis false.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Neurologica&rft.atitle=Rethinking+the+Skeptical+Movement&rft.date=2015-08-10&rft.aulast=Novella&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ftheness.com%2Fneurologicablog%2Findex.php%2Frethinking-the-skeptical-movement%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-HowStuffWorksClark-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-HowStuffWorksClark_17-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFClark2007" class="citation web cs1">Clark, Josh (October 4, 2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160729093039/http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/scientific-experiments/occams-razor3.htm">"How Occam's Razor Works"</a>. <i>How Stuff Works</i>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://science.howstuffworks.com/innovation/scientific-experiments/occams-razor3.htm">the original</a> on July 29, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 8,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=How+Stuff+Works&rft.atitle=How+Occam%27s+Razor+Works&rft.date=2007-10-04&rft.aulast=Clark&rft.aufirst=Josh&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fscience.howstuffworks.com%2Finnovation%2Fscientific-experiments%2Foccams-razor3.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Morgan-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Morgan_18-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMorgan,_C.L.1903" class="citation book cs1">Morgan, C.L. (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.174177"><i>An Introduction to Comparative Psychology</i></a> (2 ed.). London: W. Scott. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.174177/page/n70">59</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Introduction+to+Comparative+Psychology&rft.place=London&rft.pages=59&rft.edition=2&rft.pub=W.+Scott&rft.date=1903&rft.au=Morgan%2C+C.L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fin.ernet.dli.2015.174177&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWudka1998" class="citation web cs1">Wudka, Jose (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070601225205/http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node6.html#SECTION02121000000000000000">"What is the scientific method?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://physics.ucr.edu/~wudka/Physics7/Notes_www/node6.html#SECTION02121000000000000000">the original</a> on June 1, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2007</span>. <q>A theory is accepted not based on the prestige or convincing powers of the proponent, but on the results obtained through observations and/or experiments which anyone can reproduce: the results obtained using the scientific method are repeatable.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+the+scientific+method%3F&rft.date=1998&rft.aulast=Wudka&rft.aufirst=Jose&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphysics.ucr.edu%2F~wudka%2FPhysics7%2FNotes_www%2Fnode6.html%23SECTION02121000000000000000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHammer2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Olav_Hammer" title="Olav Hammer">Hammer, Olav</a> (2007). "New Age religion and the sceptics". In Kemp, Daren; <a href="/wiki/James_R._Lewis_(scholar)" title="James R. Lewis (scholar)">Lewis, James R.</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Bm-7DH2bZ8QC"><i>Handbook of New Age</i></a>. Volume 1 of Brill Handbooks on Contemporary Religion. Leiden: Brill. p. 389. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789004153554" title="Special:BookSources/9789004153554"><bdi>9789004153554</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 20,</span> 2021</span>. <q>Within the discourse of anti-New Age, anti-paranormal, sceptical writers, there are personal differences. 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Lindsay">Lindsay, Ronald A.</a> (2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20181104151605/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/why_skepticism1">"Why Skepticism?: Sasquatch, Broken Windows, and Public Policy"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <b>41</b> (2): 46–50. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/why_skepticism1">the original</a> on November 4, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 4,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Why+Skepticism%3F%3A+Sasquatch%2C+Broken+Windows%2C+and+Public+Policy&rft.volume=41&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=46-50&rft.date=2017&rft.aulast=Lindsay&rft.aufirst=Ronald+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fwhy_skepticism1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoxton2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Loxton" title="Daniel Loxton">Loxton, Daniel</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skeptic.com/downloads/Why-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf">"Why Is There a Skeptical Movement?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 31<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2019</span>. <q>If other movements already promoted humanism, atheism, rationalism, science education and even critical thinking, what possible need could there be for organizing an additional, new movement—a movement of people called 'skeptics'?</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Is+There+a+Skeptical+Movement%3F&rft.pages=31&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Loxton&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.skeptic.com%2Fdownloads%2FWhy-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoxton2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Loxton" title="Daniel Loxton">Loxton, Daniel</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skeptic.com/downloads/Why-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf">"Why Is There a Skeptical Movement?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 32<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2019</span>. <q>CSICOP – and with it the global network of likeminded organizations that CSICOP inspired, such as the JREF and the Skeptics Society—was created with the specific yet ambitious goal of filling a very large gap in scholarship. The skeptical movement sought to bring organized critical focus to the same ancient problem that isolated, outnumbered, independent voices had been struggling to address for centuries: a virtually endless number of unexamined, potentially harmful paranormal or pseudoscientific claims ignored or neglected by mainstream scientists and scholars. [...] '[...] We are in effect a surrogate in that area for institutional science.'<span class="cs1-kern-right"></span></q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Is+There+a+Skeptical+Movement%3F&rft.pages=32&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Loxton&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.skeptic.com%2Fdownloads%2FWhy-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLoxton2013" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Loxton" title="Daniel Loxton">Loxton, Daniel</a> (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.skeptic.com/downloads/Why-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf">"Why Is There a Skeptical Movement?"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. p. 29<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">August 18,</span> 2019</span>. <q>The difference is between the long-standing genre of individual skeptical writing, and the recognition that this scholarship collectively comprised a distinct field of study.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Is+There+a+Skeptical+Movement%3F&rft.pages=29&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Loxton&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.skeptic.com%2Fdownloads%2FWhy-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.vof.se/about">"About the Swedish Skeptics Association"</a>. <i>Vetenskap och Folkbildning</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161113025227/http://www.vof.se/about/">Archived</a> from the original on November 13, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 14,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Vetenskap+och+Folkbildning&rft.atitle=About+the+Swedish+Skeptics+Association&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.vof.se%2Fabout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nycskeptics.org/about">"About NYC Skeptics"</a>. <i>NYC Skeptics</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171115143504/http://nycskeptics.org/about">Archived</a> from the original on November 15, 2017<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">November 14,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NYC+Skeptics&rft.atitle=About+NYC+Skeptics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnycskeptics.org%2Fabout&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hess-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hess_28-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hess_28-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHess1993" class="citation book cs1">Hess, David J. (1993). <i>Science in the New Age: The Paranormal, Its Defenders and Debunkers, and American Culture</i>. Univ of Wisconsin Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0299138202" title="Special:BookSources/978-0299138202"><bdi>978-0299138202</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Science+in+the+New+Age%3A+The+Paranormal%2C+Its+Defenders+and+Debunkers%2C+and+American+Culture&rft.pub=Univ+of+Wisconsin+Press&rft.date=1993&rft.isbn=978-0299138202&rft.aulast=Hess&rft.aufirst=David+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rinallo2013-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Rinallo2013_29-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRinalloScottMaclaran2013" class="citation book cs1">Rinallo, Diego; Scott, Linda M.; Maclaran, Pauline (2013). <i>Consumption and Spirituality</i>. Routledge. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0415889117" title="Special:BookSources/978-0415889117"><bdi>978-0415889117</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Consumption+and+Spirituality&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=978-0415889117&rft.aulast=Rinallo&rft.aufirst=Diego&rft.au=Scott%2C+Linda+M.&rft.au=Maclaran%2C+Pauline&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWatson2012" class="citation news cs1"><a href="/wiki/Rebecca_Watson" title="Rebecca Watson">Watson, Rebecca</a> (October 24, 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2012/10/sexism_in_the_skeptic_community_i_spoke_out_then_came_the_rape_threats.html">"It Stands to Reason, Skeptics Can Be Sexist Too"</a>. <i>Slate</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424094011/http://www.slate.com/articles/double_x/doublex/2012/10/sexism_in_the_skeptic_community_i_spoke_out_then_came_the_rape_threats.html">Archived</a> from the original on April 24, 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Slate&rft.atitle=It+Stands+to+Reason%2C+Skeptics+Can+Be+Sexist+Too&rft.date=2012-10-24&rft.aulast=Watson&rft.aufirst=Rebecca&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.slate.com%2Farticles%2Fdouble_x%2Fdoublex%2F2012%2F10%2Fsexism_in_the_skeptic_community_i_spoke_out_then_came_the_rape_threats.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReagle2015" class="citation book cs1">Reagle, Joseph M. (2015). <i>Reading the Comments: Likers, Haters, and Manipulators at the Bottom of the Web</i>. MIT Press. pp. 114–117. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0262028936" title="Special:BookSources/978-0262028936"><bdi>978-0262028936</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Reading+the+Comments%3A+Likers%2C+Haters%2C+and+Manipulators+at+the+Bottom+of+the+Web&rft.pages=114-117&rft.pub=MIT+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0262028936&rft.aulast=Reagle&rft.aufirst=Joseph+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"> De Waal, Mandy De (September 2, 2011) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-02-dawkins-watson-and-the-elevator-ride/">"Dawkins, Watson and the elevator ride"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110908060753/http://mg.co.za/article/2011-09-02-dawkins-watson-and-the-elevator-ride">Archived</a> September 8, 2011, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> <i><a href="/wiki/Mail_%26_Guardian" title="Mail & Guardian">Mail & Guardian</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-dict-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-dict_33-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/Debunker">"Debunker"</a>. <i>Dictionary.com Unabridged</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070821043533/http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/debunker">Archived</a> from the original on August 21, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">September 26,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Dictionary.com+Unabridged&rft.atitle=Debunker&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdictionary.reference.com%2Fbrowse%2FDebunker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span> "to expose or excoriate (a claim, assertion, sentiment, etc.) as being pretentious, false, or exaggerated: to debunk advertising slogans."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Gardner, Martin</a> (1957). <a href="/wiki/Fads_and_Fallacies_in_the_Name_of_Science" title="Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science"><i>Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</i></a>. Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20394-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20394-2"><bdi>978-0-486-20394-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fads+and+Fallacies+in+the+Name+of+Science&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-486-20394-2&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Martin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com/contents.html">"Skeptics Dictionary Alphabetical Index Abracadabra to Zombies"</a>. skepdic.com. 2007. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070528204928/http://skepdic.com/contents.html">Archived</a> from the original on May 28, 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 27,</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Skeptics+Dictionary+Alphabetical+Index+Abracadabra+to+Zombies&rft.pub=skepdic.com&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fskepdic.com%2Fcontents.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickell2005" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Joe_Nickell" title="Joe Nickell">Nickell, Joe</a> (December 16, 2005), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pointofinquiry.org/joe_nickell_skeptical_inquiry_vs_debunking/"><i>Skeptical inquiry vs debunking</i></a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160324160704/http://www.pointofinquiry.org/joe_nickell_skeptical_inquiry_vs_debunking/">archived</a> from the original on March 24, 2016</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Skeptical+inquiry+vs+debunking&rft.date=2005-12-16&rft.aulast=Nickell&rft.aufirst=Joe&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.pointofinquiry.org%2Fjoe_nickell_skeptical_inquiry_vs_debunking%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHansen1992" class="citation web cs1">Hansen, George P. (1992). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tricksterbook.com/ArticlesOnline/CSICOPoverview.htm">"CSICOP and the Skeptics: An Overview"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100510120707/http://www.tricksterbook.com/ArticlesOnline/CSICOPoverview.htm">Archived</a> from the original on May 10, 2010<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 25,</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CSICOP+and+the+Skeptics%3A+An+Overview&rft.date=1992&rft.aulast=Hansen&rft.aufirst=George+P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tricksterbook.com%2FArticlesOnline%2FCSICOPoverview.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFrazier2018" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Kendrick_Frazier" title="Kendrick Frazier">Frazier, Kendrick</a> (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180606235847/https://www.csicop.org/si/show/in_troubled_times_this_is_what_we_do">"In Troubled Times, This Is What We Do"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <b>42</b> (2): 14–15. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.csicop.org/si/show/in_troubled_times_this_is_what_we_do">the original</a> on June 6, 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">June 7,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=In+Troubled+Times%2C+This+Is+What+We+Do&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=14-15&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Frazier&rft.aufirst=Kendrick&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fsi%2Fshow%2Fin_troubled_times_this_is_what_we_do&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBakker2015" class="citation web cs1">Bakker, Gary (January 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/si/show/why_do_people_believe_in_gods">"Why Do People Believe in Gods?"</a>. <i>CSICOP</i>. Center for Inquiry. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151019031943/http://www.csicop.org/si/show/why_do_people_believe_in_gods">Archived</a> from the original on October 19, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">February 18,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=What%27s+The+Harm%3F&rft.atitle=counter&rft.aulast=Farley&rft.aufirst=Tim&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwhatstheharm.net%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Dawkins" title="Richard Dawkins">Richard Dawkins</a>, <i>The God Delusion</i>, Black Swan, 2007 (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-552-77429-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-552-77429-1">978-0-552-77429-1</a>).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-sfgatedawkins-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-sfgatedawkins_48-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/c/a/2006/10/15/RVGH2LN2021.DTL&type=books">Better living without God? – Religion is a dangerously irrational mirage, says Dawkins</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120525031459/http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=%2Fc%2Fa%2F2006%2F10%2F15%2FRVGH2LN2021.DTL&type=books">Archived</a> 2012-05-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/San_Francisco_Chronicle" title="San Francisco Chronicle">San Francisco Chronicle</a>, October 15, 2006</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLangone1995" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Langone" title="Michael Langone">Langone, Michael D.</a> (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=9xJDszg7cuwC&pg=PA5"><i>Recovery from Cults: Help for Victims of Psychological and Spiritual Abuse</i></a>. 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Hill">Hill, Sharon A.</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://doubtfulnews.com/2012/10/leo-igwe-partners-with-jref-to-respond-to-witchcraft-problem-in-africa/">"Leo Igwe partners with JREF to respond to witchcraft problem in Africa"</a>. <i>Doubtful News</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130315170947/http://doubtfulnews.com/2012/10/leo-igwe-partners-with-jref-to-respond-to-witchcraft-problem-in-africa/">Archived</a> from the original on March 15, 2013<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 4,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Skepticism+Reloaded&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=40-43&rft.date=2018&rft.aulast=Sarma&rft.aufirst=Amardeo&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ecso.org%2Fskepticism-reloaded%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson_NS-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_NS_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2008" class="citation cs2">Wilson, Richard (September 18, 2008), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.newstatesman.com/ideas/2008/09/evidence-sceptic-hiv-bogus">"Against the Evidence"</a>, <i><a href="/wiki/New_Statesman" title="New Statesman">New Statesman</a></i>, Progressive Media International, <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1364-7431">1364-7431</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141016192228/http://www.newstatesman.com/ideas/2008/09/evidence-sceptic-hiv-bogus">archived</a> from the original on October 16, 2014</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Statesman&rft.atitle=Against+the+Evidence&rft.date=2008-09-18&rft.issn=1364-7431&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Richard&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.newstatesman.com%2Fideas%2F2008%2F09%2Fevidence-sceptic-hiv-bogus&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson_fooled-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Wilson_fooled_58-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilson2008" class="citation book cs1">Wilson, Richard C. (2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ARNNLgAACAAJ"><i>Don't get fooled again: the sceptic's guide to life</i></a>. Icon. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84831-014-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84831-014-8"><bdi>978-1-84831-014-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Don%27t+get+fooled+again%3A+the+sceptic%27s+guide+to+life&rft.pub=Icon&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-1-84831-014-8&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Richard+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DARNNLgAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKennedy2003" class="citation journal cs1">Kennedy, J. E. (2003). 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Retrieved <span class="nowrap">May 24,</span> 2014</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Why+Is+There+a+Skeptical+Movement%3F&rft.pages=3&rft.pub=The+Skeptics+Society+website&rft.date=2013&rft.au=Daniel+Loxton&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.skeptic.com%2Fdownloads%2FWhy-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Daniel Loxton, Why Is There a Skeptical Movement? 2013 p. 24, reference 91</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Quackometer-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Quackometer_65-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndy_Lewis2009" class="citation news cs1">Andy Lewis (August 3, 2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.quackometer.net/blog/2009/08/dutch-sceptics-have-bogus-libel.html">"Dutch Sceptics Have 'Bogus' Libel Decision Overturned On Human Rights Grounds"</a>. 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The Skeptics Society website. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140626213613/http://www.skeptic.com/about_us/manifesto/">Archived</a> from the original on June 26, 2014<span class="reference-accessdate">. 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January 22, 2016. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160124024027/http://news.wbfo.org/post/merger-creates-largest-atheist-organization#stream/0">Archived</a> from the original on January 24, 2016<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 24,</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Merger+creates+largest+atheist+organization&rft.pub=WBFO&rft.date=2016-01-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.wbfo.org%2Fpost%2Fmerger-creates-largest-atheist-organization%23stream%2F0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGerbic2015" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_Gerbic" title="Susan Gerbic">Gerbic, Susan</a> (March 8, 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/wikapediatrician_susan_gerbic_discusses_her_guerrilla_skepticism_on_wikiped">"Wikapediatrician Susan Gerbic discusses her Guerrilla Skepticism on Wikipedia project"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Skeptical_Inquirer" title="Skeptical Inquirer">Skeptical Inquirer</a></i>. <a href="/wiki/Committee_for_Skeptical_Inquiry" title="Committee for Skeptical Inquiry">Committee for Skeptical Inquiry</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150830023844/http://www.csicop.org/specialarticles/show/wikapediatrician_susan_gerbic_discusses_her_guerrilla_skepticism_on_wikiped">Archived</a> from the original on August 30, 2015<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">January 13,</span> 2015</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Skeptical+Inquirer&rft.atitle=Wikapediatrician+Susan+Gerbic+discusses+her+Guerrilla+Skepticism+on+Wikipedia+project&rft.date=2015-03-08&rft.aulast=Gerbic&rft.aufirst=Susan&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.csicop.org%2Fspecialarticles%2Fshow%2Fwikapediatrician_susan_gerbic_discusses_her_guerrilla_skepticism_on_wikiped&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMatsakis2018" class="citation magazine cs1">Matsakis, Louise (July 25, 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/story/guerrilla-wikipedia-editors-who-combat-conspiracy-theories/">"The 'Guerrilla' Wikipedia Editors Who Combat Conspiracy Theories"</a>. <i><a href="/wiki/Wired_(magazine)" title="Wired (magazine)">Wired</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">July 25,</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=The+%27Guerrilla%27+Wikipedia+Editors+Who+Combat+Conspiracy+Theories&rft.date=2018-07-25&rft.aulast=Matsakis&rft.aufirst=Louise&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Fguerrilla-wikipedia-editors-who-combat-conspiracy-theories%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <p><b>Further reading</b> </p> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarroll2003" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Todd_Carroll" title="Robert Todd Carroll">Carroll, Robert Todd</a> (2003). <a href="/wiki/Skeptic%27s_Dictionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Skeptic's Dictionary"><i>The Skeptic's Dictionary: A Collection of Strange Beliefs, Amusing Deceptions, and Dangerous Delusions</i></a>. John Wiley & Sons. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-471-27242-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-471-27242-7"><bdi>978-0-471-27242-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Skeptic%27s+Dictionary%3A+A+Collection+of+Strange+Beliefs%2C+Amusing+Deceptions%2C+and+Dangerous+Delusions&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-471-27242-7&rft.aulast=Carroll&rft.aufirst=Robert+Todd&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner1957" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Gardner, Martin</a> (1957). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fadsfallaciesint00gard"><i>Fads and Fallacies in the Name of Science</i></a></span>. Dover Publications. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/fadsfallaciesint00gard/page/n384">373</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20394-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-20394-2"><bdi>978-0-486-20394-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fads+and+Fallacies+in+the+Name+of+Science&rft.pages=373&rft.pub=Dover+Publications&rft.date=1957&rft.isbn=978-0-486-20394-2&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ffadsfallaciesint00gard&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandi1982" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">Randi, James</a> (1982). <i>Flim-Flam! Psychics, ESP, Unicorns, and Other Delusions</i>. Prometheus Books. p. 342. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40946-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40946-1"><bdi>978-0-345-40946-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Flim-Flam%21+Psychics%2C+ESP%2C+Unicorns%2C+and+Other+Delusions&rft.pages=342&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.date=1982&rft.isbn=978-0-345-40946-1&rft.aulast=Randi&rft.aufirst=James&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRandiArthur_C._Clarke1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/James_Randi" title="James Randi">Randi, James</a>; Arthur C. Clarke (1997). <i>An Encyclopedia of Claims, Frauds, and Hoaxes of the Occult and Supernatural</i>. St. Martin's Griffin. p. 336. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-312-15119-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-312-15119-5"><bdi>978-0-312-15119-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Encyclopedia+of+Claims%2C+Frauds%2C+and+Hoaxes+of+the+Occult+and+Supernatural&rft.pages=336&rft.pub=St.+Martin%27s+Griffin&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-312-15119-5&rft.aulast=Randi&rft.aufirst=James&rft.au=Arthur+C.+Clarke&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSaganAnn_Druyan1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Sagan, Carl</a>; <a href="/wiki/Ann_Druyan" title="Ann Druyan">Ann Druyan</a> (1997). <i>The Demon-Haunted World: Science as a Candle in the Dark</i>. Ballantine Books. p. 349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40946-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-345-40946-1"><bdi>978-0-345-40946-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Demon-Haunted+World%3A+Science+as+a+Candle+in+the+Dark&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=Ballantine+Books&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-345-40946-1&rft.aulast=Sagan&rft.aufirst=Carl&rft.au=Ann+Druyan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShermer1997" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_Shermer" title="Michael Shermer">Shermer, Michael</a> (1997). <i>Why People Believe Weird Things</i>. St Martins Griffin and Company. p. 349. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7089-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8050-7089-7"><bdi>978-0-8050-7089-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Why+People+Believe+Weird+Things&rft.pages=349&rft.pub=St+Martins+Griffin+and+Company&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-8050-7089-7&rft.aulast=Shermer&rft.aufirst=Michael&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AScientific+skepticism" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_skepticism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Science#Scientific_scepticism" class="extiw" title="q:Science">Scientific skepticism</a></b></i>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://skepdic.com">The Skeptic's Dictionary</a> – Robert Todd Carroll, contains many articles on science, alternative medicine, pseudoscience, etc.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skeptic.com/about_us/manifesto.html">A skeptical manifesto</a> – Michael Shermer, a philosophical analysis of scientific skepticism</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://skepticalinquirer.org/2001/07/proper-criticism/">Proper Criticism</a> – Ray Hyman, suggestions to upgrade the quality of scientific skepticism</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Sagan" title="Carl Sagan">Carl Sagan</a>'s <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.xenu.net/archive/baloney_detection.html">Baloney Detection Kit</a>. Operation Clambake. 1998. Based on the book "<i><a href="/wiki/The_Demon_Haunted_World" class="mw-redirect" title="The Demon Haunted World">The Demon Haunted World: Science as a candle in the dark</a></i>". (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-345-40946-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-345-40946-9">0-345-40946-9</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theness.com/articles.asp">New England Skeptical Society Newsletter Articles</a> – includes articles on such topics as Homeopathy, Intelligent Design, and other pseudoscientific topics<sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged April 2016">dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.faqs.org/faqs/skeptic-faq">sci.skeptic FAQ</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.skeptic.com/downloads/Why-Is-There-a-Skeptical-Movement.pdf">Why Is There A Skeptical Movement?</a> – Daniel Loxton, contains an overview of the history (and pre-history) of the skeptical movement as well as the principles underlying scientific skepticism.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Philosophy of science"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Philosophy_of_science" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Concepts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophical_analysis" title="Philosophical analysis">Analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Analytic%E2%80%93synthetic_distinction" title="Analytic–synthetic distinction">Analytic–synthetic distinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/A_priori_and_a_posteriori" title="A priori and a posteriori"><i>A priori</i> and <i>a posteriori</i></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Causality" title="Causality">Causality</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mill%27s_Methods" title="Mill's Methods">Mill's Methods</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensurability_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Commensurability (philosophy of science)">Commensurability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Construct_(philosophy)" title="Construct (philosophy)">Construct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Correlation" title="Correlation">Correlation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Correlation_function" title="Correlation function">function</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Creative_synthesis" title="Creative synthesis">Creative synthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empirical_evidence" title="Empirical evidence">Empirical evidence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Experiment" title="Experiment">Experiment</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Design_of_experiments" title="Design of experiments">design</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Explanatory_power" title="Explanatory power">Explanatory power</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fact" title="Fact">Fact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Falsifiability" title="Falsifiability">Falsifiability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_method" title="Feminist method">Feminist method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_contextualism" title="Functional contextualism">Functional contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothesis" title="Hypothesis">Hypothesis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_hypothesis" title="Alternative hypothesis">alternative</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Null_hypothesis" title="Null hypothesis">null</a></li></ul></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Ignoramus_et_ignorabimus" title="Ignoramus et ignorabimus">Ignoramus et ignorabimus</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductive_reasoning" title="Inductive reasoning">Inductive reasoning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertheoretic_reduction" title="Intertheoretic reduction">Intertheoretic reduction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquiry" title="Inquiry">Inquiry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nature_(philosophy)" title="Nature (philosophy)">Nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Objectivity_(philosophy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Objectivity (philosophy)">Objectivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Observation" title="Observation">Observation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm" title="Paradigm">Paradigm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_evidence" title="Scientific evidence">Scientific evidence</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evidence-based_practice" title="Evidence-based practice">Evidence-based practice</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_law" title="Scientific law">Scientific law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">Scientific method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_pluralism" title="Scientific pluralism">Scientific pluralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_Revolution" title="Scientific Revolution">Scientific Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testability" title="Testability">Testability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory" title="Theory">Theory</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Theory_choice" title="Theory choice">choice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theory-ladenness" title="Theory-ladenness">ladenness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_theory" title="Scientific theory">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underdetermination" title="Underdetermination">Underdetermination</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variable_and_attribute_(research)" title="Variable and attribute (research)">Variable</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Control_variable" title="Control variable">control</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_variables" title="Dependent and independent variables">dependent and independent</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Index_of_philosophy_of_science_articles" title="Index of philosophy of science articles">more...</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Theories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coherentism" title="Coherentism">Coherentism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Confirmation_holism" title="Confirmation holism">Confirmation holism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_empiricism" title="Constructive empiricism">Constructive empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructive_realism" title="Constructive realism">Constructive realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constructivist_epistemology" class="mw-redirect" title="Constructivist epistemology">Constructivist epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conventionalism" title="Conventionalism">Conventionalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deductive-nomological_model" title="Deductive-nomological model">Deductive-nomological model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemological_anarchism" class="mw-redirect" title="Epistemological anarchism">Epistemological anarchism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionism" title="Evolutionism">Evolutionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fallibilism" title="Fallibilism">Fallibilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundationalism" title="Foundationalism">Foundationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypothetico-deductive_model" title="Hypothetico-deductive model">Hypothetico-deductive model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inductionism" title="Inductionism">Inductionism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Instrumentalism" title="Instrumentalism">Instrumentalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Model-dependent_realism" title="Model-dependent realism">Model-dependent realism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Naturalism_(philosophy)" title="Naturalism (philosophy)">Naturalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physicalism" title="Physicalism">Physicalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Reductionism" title="Reductionism">Reductionism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Determinism" title="Determinism">Determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pragmatism" title="Pragmatism">Pragmatism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rationalism" title="Rationalism">Rationalism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Received_view_of_theories" title="Received view of theories">Received view</a> / <a href="/wiki/Semantic_view_of_theories" title="Semantic view of theories">Semantic view of theories</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_essentialism" title="Scientific essentialism">Scientific essentialism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_formalism" title="Scientific formalism">Scientific formalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_realism" title="Scientific realism">Scientific realism</a> / <a href="/wiki/Anti-realism" title="Anti-realism">Anti-realism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Scientific skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Structuralism_(philosophy_of_science)" title="Structuralism (philosophy of science)">Structuralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Uniformitarianism" title="Uniformitarianism">Uniformitarianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Verificationism" title="Verificationism">Verificationism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vitalism" title="Vitalism">Vitalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Philosophy of...</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_biology" title="Philosophy of biology">Biology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_chemistry" title="Philosophy of chemistry">Chemistry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_physics" title="Philosophy of physics">Physics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_space_and_time" title="Philosophy of space and time">Space and time</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Social science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_archaeology" title="Philosophy of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_economics" class="mw-redirect" title="Philosophy of economics">Economics‎</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_geography" title="Philosophy of geography">Geography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_history" title="Philosophy of history">History</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_linguistics" title="Philosophy of linguistics">Linguistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_psychology" title="Philosophy of psychology">Psychology</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Descriptive_research" title="Descriptive research">Descriptive science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemology" title="Epistemology">Epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Exact_sciences" title="Exact sciences">Exact sciences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Faith_and_rationality" title="Faith and rationality">Faith and rationality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hard_and_soft_science" title="Hard and soft science">Hard and soft science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-science" title="Non-science">Non-science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normative_science" title="Normative science">Normative science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Protoscience" title="Protoscience">Protoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Questionable_cause" title="Questionable cause">Questionable cause</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Relationship between religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">Rhetoric of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">Sociology of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_philosophers_of_science" title="List of philosophers of science">Philosophers of science</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Precursors" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Precursors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Roger_Bacon" title="Roger Bacon">Roger Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Francis_Bacon" title="Francis Bacon">Francis Bacon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auguste_Comte" title="Auguste Comte">Auguste Comte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Poincar%C3%A9" title="Henri Poincaré">Henri Poincaré</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Pierre Duhem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Steiner" title="Rudolf Steiner">Rudolf Steiner</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Pearson" title="Karl Pearson">Karl Pearson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles_Sanders_Peirce" title="Charles Sanders Peirce">Charles Sanders Peirce</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Windelband" title="Wilhelm Windelband">Wilhelm Windelband</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alfred_North_Whitehead" title="Alfred North Whitehead">Alfred North Whitehead</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bertrand_Russell" title="Bertrand Russell">Bertrand Russell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Otto_Neurath" title="Otto Neurath">Otto Neurath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/C._D._Broad" title="C. D. Broad">C. D. Broad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Polanyi" title="Michael Polanyi">Michael Polanyi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Reichenbach" title="Hans Reichenbach">Hans Reichenbach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Carnap" title="Rudolf Carnap">Rudolf Carnap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Karl_Popper" title="Karl Popper">Karl Popper</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Gustav_Hempel" title="Carl Gustav Hempel">Carl Gustav Hempel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Willard_Van_Orman_Quine" title="Willard Van Orman Quine">W. V. O. Quine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Kuhn" title="Thomas Kuhn">Thomas Kuhn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Imre_Lakatos" title="Imre Lakatos">Imre Lakatos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paul_Feyerabend" title="Paul Feyerabend">Paul Feyerabend</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ian_Hacking" title="Ian Hacking">Ian Hacking</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bas_van_Fraassen" title="Bas van Fraassen">Bas van Fraassen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larry_Laudan" title="Larry Laudan">Larry Laudan</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Philosophy_of_science" title="Category:Philosophy of science">Category</a></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/18px-Socrates.png" decoding="async" width="18" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Socrates.png/27px-Socrates.png 1.5x, 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skepticism">Religious</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skeptical philosophies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Academic_Skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Academic Skepticism">Academic Skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aj%C3%B1ana" title="Ajñana">Ajñana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cartesian_doubt" title="Cartesian doubt">Cartesian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charvaka" title="Charvaka">Charvaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humeanism" title="Humeanism">Humeanism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrhonism" title="Pyrrhonism">Pyrrhonism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solipsism" title="Solipsism">Solipsism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skeptical philosophers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pyrrho" title="Pyrrho">Pyrrho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timon_of_Phlius" title="Timon of Phlius">Timon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arcesilaus" title="Arcesilaus">Arcesilaus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lacydes_of_Cyrene" title="Lacydes of Cyrene">Lacydes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carneades" title="Carneades">Carneades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clitomachus_(philosopher)" title="Clitomachus (philosopher)">Clitomachus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philo_of_Larissa" title="Philo of Larissa">Philo of Larissa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cicero" title="Cicero">Cicero</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aenesidemus" title="Aenesidemus">Aenesidemus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Agrippa_the_Skeptic" title="Agrippa the Skeptic">Agrippa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sextus_Empiricus" title="Sextus Empiricus">Sextus Empiricus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michel_De_Montaigne" class="mw-redirect" title="Michel De Montaigne">Montaigne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/David_Hume" title="David Hume">David Hume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Skeptical scenarios</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Acatalepsy" title="Acatalepsy">Acatalepsy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brain_in_a_vat" title="Brain in a vat">Brain in a vat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dream_argument" title="Dream argument">Dream argument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evil_demon" title="Evil demon">Evil genius</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Five-minute_hypothesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Five-minute hypothesis">Five-minute hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/M%C3%BCnchhausen_trilemma" title="Münchhausen trilemma">Münchhausen trilemma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_the_criterion" title="Problem of the criterion">Problem of the criterion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Problem_of_induction" title="Problem of induction">Problem of induction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Simulation_hypothesis" title="Simulation hypothesis">Simulation hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wax_argument" title="Wax argument">Wax argument</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Responses</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Here_is_one_hand" title="Here is one hand">Here is one hand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semantic_externalism" title="Semantic externalism">Semantic externalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reliabilism" title="Reliabilism">Process reliabilism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epistemic_closure" title="Epistemic closure">Epistemic closure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Contextualism" title="Contextualism">Contextualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relativism" title="Relativism">Relativism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Lists_about_skepticism" class="mw-redirect" title="Lists about skepticism">Lists</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_books_about_skepticism" title="List of books about skepticism">List of books about skepticism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientific_skeptics" title="List of scientific skeptics">List of scientific skeptics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_conferences" title="List of skeptical conferences">List of skeptical conferences</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_magazines" title="List of skeptical magazines">List of skeptical magazines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_organizations" title="List of skeptical organizations">List of skeptical organizations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_skeptical_podcasts" title="List of skeptical podcasts">List of skeptical podcasts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Science_and_technology_studies" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a 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0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_science" title="Economics of science">Economics of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Economics_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Economics of scientific knowledge">Economics of scientific knowledge</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History" title="History">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_and_philosophy_of_science" title="History and philosophy of science">History and philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science" title="History of science">History of science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_science_and_technology" title="History of science and technology">and technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_technology" title="History of technology">History of technology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy">Philosophy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthropocene" title="Anthropocene">Anthropocene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">Antipositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Empiricism" title="Empiricism">Empiricism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fuzzy_logic" title="Fuzzy logic">Fuzzy logic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-Luddism" title="Neo-Luddism">Neo-Luddism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_science" title="Philosophy of science">Philosophy of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_social_science" title="Philosophy of social science">Philosophy of social science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Philosophy_of_technology" title="Philosophy of technology">Philosophy of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Positivism" title="Positivism">Positivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Postpositivism" title="Postpositivism">Postpositivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relationship_between_religion_and_science" title="Relationship between religion and science">Religion and science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientism" title="Scientism">Scientism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_constructivism" title="Social constructivism">Social constructivism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_epistemology" title="Social epistemology">Social epistemology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transhumanism" title="Transhumanism">Transhumanism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sociology" title="Sociology">Sociology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Actor%E2%80%93network_theory" title="Actor–network theory">Actor–network theory</a></li> <li>Social <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Social_construction_of_technology" title="Social construction of technology">construction of technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Social_shaping_of_technology" title="Social shaping of technology">shaping of technology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_knowledge" title="Sociology of knowledge">Sociology of knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_knowledge" title="Sociology of scientific knowledge">scientific</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_scientific_ignorance" title="Sociology of scientific ignorance">Sociology of scientific ignorance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociology_of_the_history_of_science" title="Sociology of the history of science">Sociology of the history of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnology" title="Sociotechnology">Sociotechnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strong_programme" title="Strong programme">Strong programme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Science_studies" title="Science studies">Science<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiscience" title="Antiscience">Antiscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bibliometrics" title="Bibliometrics">Bibliometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boundary-work" title="Boundary-work">Boundary-work</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consilience" title="Consilience">Consilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_science" title="Criticism of science">Criticism of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demarcation_problem" title="Demarcation problem">Demarcation problem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_hermeneutic" title="Double hermeneutic">Double hermeneutic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logology_(science)" title="Logology (science)">Logology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mapping_controversies" title="Mapping controversies">Mapping controversies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metascience" title="Metascience">Metascience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradigm_shift" title="Paradigm shift">Paradigm shift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Black_swan_events" class="mw-redirect" title="Black swan events">black swan events</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudoscience" title="Pseudoscience">Pseudoscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychology_of_science" title="Psychology of science">Psychology of science</a></li> <li>Science <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Citizen_science" title="Citizen science">citizen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_communication" title="Science communication">communication</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_education" title="Science education">education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normal_science" title="Normal science">normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neo-colonial_science" title="Neo-colonial science">Neo-colonial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Post-normal_science" title="Post-normal science">post-normal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhetoric_of_science" title="Rhetoric of science">rhetoric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_wars" title="Science wars">wars</a></li></ul></li> <li>Scientific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_community" title="Scientific community">community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_consensus" title="Scientific consensus">consensus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_controversy" title="Scientific controversy">controversy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_dissent" title="Scientific dissent">dissent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_enterprise" title="Scientific enterprise">enterprise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_literacy" title="Scientific literacy">literacy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_method" title="Scientific method">method</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_misconduct" title="Scientific misconduct">misconduct</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientific_priority" title="Scientific priority">priority</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">skepticism</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientocracy" title="Scientocracy">Scientocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scientometrics" title="Scientometrics">Scientometrics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Science_of_team_science" title="Science of team science">Team science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_knowledge" title="Traditional knowledge">Traditional knowledge</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_ecological_knowledge" title="Traditional ecological knowledge">ecological</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unity_of_science" title="Unity of science">Unity of science</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_science" title="Women in science">Women in science</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_STEM_fields" title="Women in STEM fields">STEM</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Technology" title="Technology">Technology<br />studies</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Co-production_(society)" class="mw-redirect" title="Co-production (society)">Co-production</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyborg_anthropology" title="Cyborg anthropology">Cyborg anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Design_studies" title="Design studies">Design studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dematerialization_(products)" title="Dematerialization (products)">Dematerialization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_anthropology" title="Digital anthropology">Digital anthropology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Digital_media_use_and_mental_health" title="Digital media use and mental health">Digital media use and mental health</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_adopter" title="Early adopter">Early adopter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Engineering_studies" title="Engineering studies">Engineering studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Financial_technology" class="mw-redirect" title="Financial technology">Financial technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hype_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Hype cycle">Hype cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Innovation" title="Innovation">Innovation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Diffusion_of_innovations" title="Diffusion of innovations">diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disruptive_innovation" title="Disruptive innovation">disruptive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_model_of_innovation" title="Linear model of innovation">linear model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_innovation_system" title="Technological innovation system">system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/User_innovation" title="User innovation">user</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leapfrogging" title="Leapfrogging">Leapfrogging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Normalization_process_theory" title="Normalization process theory">Normalization process theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Media_studies" title="Media studies">Media studies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reverse_salient" title="Reverse salient">Reverse salient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skunkworks_project" title="Skunkworks project">Skunkworks project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sociotechnical_system" title="Sociotechnical system">Sociotechnical system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technical_change" title="Technical change">Technical change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technocracy" title="Technocracy">Technocracy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technoscience" title="Technoscience">Technoscience</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Feminist_technoscience" title="Feminist technoscience">feminist</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technological <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technological_change" title="Technological change">change</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_convergence" title="Technological convergence">convergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_determinism" title="Technological determinism">determinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_revolution" title="Technological revolution">revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technological_transitions" title="Technological transitions">transitions</a></li></ul></li> <li>Technology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Technology_and_society" title="Technology and society">and society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Criticism_of_technology" title="Criticism of technology">criticism of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_dynamics" title="Technology dynamics">dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theories_of_technology" title="Theories of technology">theories of</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Technology_transfer" title="Technology transfer">transfer</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_engineering" title="Women in engineering">Women in engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Policy" title="Policy">Policy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group 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