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<ul id="toc-Crusader_kingdoms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Mamluk_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mamluk_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Mamluk rule </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mamluk_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ottoman_rule" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ottoman_rule"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Ottoman rule </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Ottoman_rule-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Ottoman rule subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Ottoman_rule-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maans_dynasty_(1517–1697)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maans_dynasty_(1517–1697)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Maans dynasty (1517–1697) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maans_dynasty_(1517–1697)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fakhreddine_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fakhreddine_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1.1 Fakhreddine II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fakhreddine_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shihab_dynasty_(1697–1842)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shihab_dynasty_(1697–1842)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Shihab dynasty (1697–1842) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shihab_dynasty_(1697–1842)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Emir_Bashir_II" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Emir_Bashir_II"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 Emir Bashir II </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Emir_Bashir_II-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sectarian_conflict:_European_powers_begin_to_intervene" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sectarian_conflict:_European_powers_begin_to_intervene"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Sectarian conflict: European powers begin to intervene </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sectarian_conflict:_European_powers_begin_to_intervene-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-El-Assaad_rule_(Al-Saghir_dynasty)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#El-Assaad_rule_(Al-Saghir_dynasty)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 El-Assaad rule (Al-Saghir dynasty) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-El-Assaad_rule_(Al-Saghir_dynasty)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Late_19th_century_to_early_20th_century" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Late_19th_century_to_early_20th_century"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5 Late 19th century to early 20th century </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Late_19th_century_to_early_20th_century-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Great_famine_in_Lebanon,_1915–1918" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Great_famine_in_Lebanon,_1915–1918"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.5.1 Great famine in Lebanon, 1915–1918 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Great_famine_in_Lebanon,_1915–1918-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-League_of_Nations_Mandate_(1920–1939)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#League_of_Nations_Mandate_(1920–1939)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 League of Nations Mandate (1920–1939) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-League_of_Nations_Mandate_(1920–1939)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-World_War_II_and_independence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#World_War_II_and_independence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 World War II and independence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-World_War_II_and_independence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Republic_of_Lebanon" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Republic_of_Lebanon"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 Republic of Lebanon </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Republic_of_Lebanon-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Republic of Lebanon subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Republic_of_Lebanon-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Independence_and_following_years" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Independence_and_following_years"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.1 Independence and following years </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Independence_and_following_years-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Economic_prosperity_and_growing_tensions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Economic_prosperity_and_growing_tensions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.2 Economic prosperity and growing tensions </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Economic_prosperity_and_growing_tensions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_Lebanese_Civil_War:_1975–1990" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_Lebanese_Civil_War:_1975–1990"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8.3 The Lebanese Civil War: 1975–1990 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-The_Lebanese_Civil_War:_1975–1990-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Second_Lebanese_Republic" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Second_Lebanese_Republic"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Second Lebanese Republic </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Second_Lebanese_Republic-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Second Lebanese Republic subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Second_Lebanese_Republic-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Cedar_Revolution_and_2006_War_(2005–2006)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cedar_Revolution_and_2006_War_(2005–2006)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.1 Cedar Revolution and 2006 War (2005–2006) </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cedar_Revolution_and_2006_War_(2005–2006)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Instability_and_Syrian_War_spillover" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Instability_and_Syrian_War_spillover"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.2 Instability and Syrian War spillover </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Instability_and_Syrian_War_spillover-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2019_Protests_due_to_liquidity_Crisis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2019_Protests_due_to_liquidity_Crisis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.3 2019 Protests due to liquidity Crisis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2019_Protests_due_to_liquidity_Crisis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-2020_meltdown_of_Banque_du_Liban" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#2020_meltdown_of_Banque_du_Liban"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.4 2020 meltdown of Banque du Liban </div> </a> <ul id="toc-2020_meltdown_of_Banque_du_Liban-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beirut_port_explosion_and_state_of_emergency" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beirut_port_explosion_and_state_of_emergency"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.5 Beirut port explosion and state of emergency </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beirut_port_explosion_and_state_of_emergency-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spillover_of_the_Israel–Hamas_war" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spillover_of_the_Israel–Hamas_war"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9.6 Spillover of the Israel–Hamas war </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spillover_of_the_Israel–Hamas_war-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Bibliography </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">History of Lebanon</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 37 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-37" aria-hidden="true" > 37 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%D9%8A%D8%AE_%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاريخ لبنان – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تاريخ لبنان" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_d%27El_L%C3%ADbanu" title="Historia d'El Líbanu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Historia d'El Líbanu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Livan_tarixi" title="Livan tarixi – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Livan tarixi" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD_%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%85%D1%8B" title="Ливан тарихы – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Ливан тарихы" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B2ria_del_L%C3%ADban" title="Història del Líban – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Història del Líban" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschichte_des_Libanon" title="Geschichte des Libanon – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Geschichte des Libanon" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_del_L%C3%ADbano" title="Historia del Líbano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Historia del Líbano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libanoko_historia" title="Libanoko historia – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Libanoko historia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE_%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86" title="تاریخ لبنان – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="تاریخ لبنان" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Histoire_du_Liban" title="Histoire du Liban – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Histoire du Liban" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Skiednis_fan_Libanon" title="Skiednis fan Libanon – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Skiednis fan Libanon" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EB%A0%88%EB%B0%94%EB%85%BC%EC%9D%98_%EC%97%AD%EC%82%AC" title="레바논의 역사 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="레바논의 역사" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BC%D5%AB%D5%A2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%AB_%D5%BA%D5%A1%D5%BF%D5%B4%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Լիբանանի պատմություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Լիբանանի պատմություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Povijest_Libanona" title="Povijest Libanona – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Povijest Libanona" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historio_di_Libano" title="Historio di Libano – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Historio di Libano" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%99%D7%A1%D7%98%D7%95%D7%A8%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%A9%D7%9C_%D7%9C%D7%91%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%9F" title="היסטוריה של לבנון – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="היסטוריה של לבנון" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98%E1%83%91%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1%E1%83%A2%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A0%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ლიბანის ისტორია – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ლიბანის ისტორია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_ya_Lebanoni" title="Historia ya Lebanoni – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Historia ya Lebanoni" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libano_istorija" title="Libano istorija – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Libano istorija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Libanon_t%C3%B6rt%C3%A9nelme" title="Libanon történelme – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Libanon történelme" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejarah_Lubnan" title="Sejarah Lubnan – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Sejarah Lubnan" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Geschiedenis_van_Libanon" title="Geschiedenis van Libanon – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Geschiedenis van Libanon" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%AC%E3%83%90%E3%83%8E%E3%83%B3%E3%81%AE%E6%AD%B4%E5%8F%B2" title="レバノンの歴史 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="レバノンの歴史" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ist%C3%B2ria_de_Liban" title="Istòria de Liban – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Istòria de Liban" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D9%84%D8%A8%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%86_%D8%AA%D8%A7%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AE" title="د لبنان تاریخ – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د لبنان تاریخ" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Historia_Libanu" title="Historia Libanu – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Historia Libanu" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hist%C3%B3ria_do_L%C3%ADbano" title="História do Líbano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="História do Líbano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%9B%D0%B8%D0%B2%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" 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.sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-list-title,html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle{background:transparent!important}html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sidebar:not(.notheme) .sidebar-title-with-pretitle a{color:var(--color-progressive)!important}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:none!important}}</style><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile vcard"><tbody><tr><th class="sidebar-title"><div class="sidebar-pretitle" style="margin: -0.2em 0; font-size:69%; font-weight:normal;">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:History_of_Lebanon" title="Category:History of Lebanon">a series</a> on the</div></th> </tr><tr> <th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style=""><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Lebanon</a></th> </tr><tr><td style="padding-bottom: 0.4em; border-bottom: 1px solid #ccc;"><a href="/wiki/File:1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg/150px-1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg/225px-1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg/300px-1856_Kiepert_Map_of_Lebanon_-_Geographicus_-_Lebanon-kiepert-1856.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="3675" /></a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Lebanese_history" title="Timeline of Lebanese history">Timeline</a></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Ancient_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Ancient Lebanon">Ancient</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Prehistory">Prehistory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>/<a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a> (2500–333 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Kingdom_of_Egypt" title="New Kingdom of Egypt">Egyptian rule</a> (1550–1077 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittites" title="Hittites">Hittite rule</a> (1600–1178 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Assyrian_rule" title="Phoenicia under Assyrian rule">Assyrian rule</a> (883–605 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Babylonian_rule" title="Phoenicia under Babylonian rule">Babylonian rule</a> (605–538 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Lebanon#Achaemenid_Empire" title="History of ancient Lebanon">Persian rule</a> (538–332 BC)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Classical</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Hellenistic_rule" title="Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule">Hellenistic rule</a> (332–64 BC)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Roman_rule" title="Phoenicia under Roman rule">Roman rule</a> (64 BC–646 AD)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byzantine%E2%80%93Sasanian_War_of_602%E2%80%93628" title="Byzantine–Sasanian War of 602–628">Sassanid interlude</a> (610s–628 AD)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Medieval</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> (636–661)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a> (661–750)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid Caliphate</a> (750–1258)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tulunids" title="Tulunids">Tulunids</a> (868–905)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hamdanid_dynasty" title="Hamdanid dynasty">Hamdanid dynasty</a> (890–1004)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> (909–1171)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ikhshidid_dynasty" title="Ikhshidid dynasty">Ikhshidid dynasty</a> (935–969)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mirdasid_dynasty" title="Mirdasid dynasty">Mirdasid dynasty</a> (1024–1080)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a> (1037–1194)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli"> County of Tripoli</a> (1099–1291)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem"> Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> (1099–1291)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zengid_dynasty" title="Zengid dynasty">Zengid dynasty</a> (1127–1250)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate_(Cairo)" class="mw-redirect" title="Mamluk Sultanate (Cairo)"> Mamluk Sultanate</a> (1291–1515)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assaf_dynasty" title="Assaf dynasty">Assafs</a> (1306–1591)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ma%27n_dynasty" title="Ma'n dynasty">Ma'anids</a> (1490–1697)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harfush_dynasty" title="Harfush dynasty">Harfushids</a> (1493–1860)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">Colonial</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon_under_Ottoman_rule" title="History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule">Ottoman rule</a> (1516–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Emirate of Mount Lebanon"> Emirate of Mount Lebanon</a> (1516–1840)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tripoli_Eyalet" title="Tripoli Eyalet"> Tripoli Eyalet</a> (1579–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidon_Eyalet" title="Sidon Eyalet"> Sidon Eyalet</a> (1660–1864)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty"> Shihabs</a> (1697–1842)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Assaad_Family" title="El Assaad Family">El Assaad Family</a> (1749–1957)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Qaim-Maqamate_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon">Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon</a> (1843-1861)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate</a> (1861–1918)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beirut_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beirut Vilayet">Beirut Vilayet</a> (1888–1917)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupied_Enemy_Territory_Administration" title="Occupied Enemy Territory Administration">Allied administration</a> (1918–1920)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">French rule</a> (1920–1943)</li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Republic of Lebanon</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div style="text-align:left"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chehabism" title="Chehabism">Chehabist era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palestinian_insurgency_in_South_Lebanon" title="Palestinian insurgency in South Lebanon">Palestinian insurgency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> (<a href="/wiki/Second_Lebanese_Republic" title="Second Lebanese Republic">Aftermath</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_Southern_Lebanon" title="Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon">Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">Syrian occupation of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanon_bombings_and_assassinations_(2004%E2%80%93present)#2005" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanon bombings and assassinations (2004–present)">2005 Lebanon bombings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedar_Revolution" title="Cedar Revolution">Cedar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006_Lebanon_War" title="2006 Lebanon War">2006 July War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2006%E2%80%9308_Lebanese_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2006–08 Lebanese protests">2006–08 political protests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2007_Lebanon_conflict" title="2007 Lebanon conflict">2007 North Lebanon conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2008_conflict_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 conflict in Lebanon">2008 conflict in Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War_spillover_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon">Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_presidential_crisis" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese presidential crisis">Lebanese presidential crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Israeli%E2%80%93Lebanese_Maritime_boundary_dispute" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli–Lebanese Maritime boundary dispute">Maritime boundary dispute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_liquidity_crisis" title="Lebanese liquidity crisis">Liquidity crisis</a> (<a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Lebanese_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2019–20 Lebanese protests">Reaction</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/2020_Beirut_explosion" title="2020 Beirut explosion">2020 Beirut explosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2024_Israeli_invasion_of_Lebanon" title="2024 Israeli invasion of Lebanon">Israeli invasion of Lebanon</a></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By city and region</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Beirut" title="History of Beirut">Beirut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Chouf_region" title="History of the Chouf region">Chouf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kfarsghab" title="History of Kfarsghab">Kfarsghab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sidon" title="History of Sidon">Sidon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kisrawan#History" title="Kisrawan">Kisrawan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tyre,_Lebanon" title="History of Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tripoli,_Lebanon" title="History of Tripoli, Lebanon">Tripoli</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed hlist"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="background:#eee; text-align:center;;color: var(--color-base)">By century</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1st_century_in_Lebanon" title="1st century in Lebanon">1st century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/2nd_century_in_Lebanon" title="2nd century in Lebanon">2nd century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/3rd_century_in_Lebanon" title="3rd century in Lebanon">3rd century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/4th_century_in_Lebanon" title="4th century in Lebanon">4th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/5th_century_in_Lebanon" title="5th century in Lebanon">5th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/6th_century_in_Lebanon" title="6th century in Lebanon">6th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/7th_century_in_Lebanon" title="7th century in Lebanon">7th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/8th_century_in_Lebanon" title="8th century in Lebanon">8th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/9th_century_in_Lebanon" title="9th century in Lebanon">9th century</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/10th_century_in_Lebanon" title="10th century in Lebanon">10th century</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/16px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/24px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/32px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Lebanon" title="Portal:Lebanon">Lebanon portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Lebanon" title="Template:History of Lebanon"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Lebanon" title="Template talk:History of Lebanon"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Lebanon" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Lebanon"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1246091330"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886047488"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks hlist"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-pretitle">Part of <a href="/wiki/Category:Lebanese_people" title="Category:Lebanese people">a series</a> of articles on</td></tr><tr><th class="sidebar-title-with-pretitle" style="font-size: 200%;"><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese people</a></th></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Arms_of_Lebanon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Arms_of_Lebanon.svg/90px-Arms_of_Lebanon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="90" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Arms_of_Lebanon.svg/135px-Arms_of_Lebanon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fd/Arms_of_Lebanon.svg/180px-Arms_of_Lebanon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="300" /></a><div class="sidebar-caption"><a href="/wiki/Emblem" title="Emblem">Emblem</a> of <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lebanese_cedar" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese cedar">Lebanese cedar</a>)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Lebanese people</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people" title="Lebanese people">Lebanese people</a> by <a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">religion</a>:</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Muslims" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese Muslims">Lebanese Muslims</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Shia_Muslims" title="Lebanese Shia Muslims">Shia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Sunni_Muslims" title="Lebanese Sunni Muslims">Sunni</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Druze" title="Lebanese Druze">Druze</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Christianity_in_Lebanon" title="Christianity in Lebanon">Lebanese Christians</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Maronite_Christians" title="Lebanese Maronite Christians">Maronite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Greek_Orthodox_Christians" title="Lebanese Greek Orthodox Christians">Greek Orthodox</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Melkite_Christians" title="Lebanese Melkite Christians">Melkite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Protestant_Christians" title="Lebanese Protestant Christians">Protestant</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Communities</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content">Native communities outside of Lebanon: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese people in Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Syria" title="Lebanese people in Syria">Syria</a></li></ul> <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_diaspora" title="Lebanese diaspora">Lebanese diaspora</a>: Europe <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Germany" title="Lebanese people in Germany">Germany</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_France" title="Lebanese people in France">France</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Lebanese people in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Sweden" title="Lebanese people in Sweden">Sweden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Greece" title="Lebanese people in Greece">Greece</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Spain" title="Lebanese people in Spain">Spain</a></li></ul> Overseas <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Americans" title="Lebanese Americans">United States</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Canadians" title="Lebanese Canadians">Canada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Australians" title="Lebanese Australians">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_New_Zealanders" title="Lebanese New Zealanders">New Zealand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Argentines" title="Lebanese Argentines">Argentina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Brazilians" title="Lebanese Brazilians">Brazil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_immigration_to_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese immigration to Mexico">Mexico</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Colombians" title="Lebanese Colombians">Colombia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Uruguayans" title="Lebanese Uruguayans">Uruguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Chileans" title="Lebanese Chileans">Chile</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Ecuador" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese people in Ecuador">Ecuador</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Venezuelan" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese Venezuelan">Venezuela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Haitians" title="Lebanese Haitians">Haiti</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Jamaicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese Jamaicans">Jamaica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_migration_to_Paraguay" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese migration to Paraguay">Paraguay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Ivory_Coast" title="Lebanese people in Ivory Coast">Ivory Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Senegal" title="Lebanese people in Senegal">Senegal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Sierra_Leone" title="Lebanese people in Sierra Leone">Sierra Leone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_South_Africa" title="Lebanese people in South Africa">South Africa</a></li></ul> Middle East <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Egypt" title="Lebanese people in Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Kuwait" title="Lebanese people in Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="Lebanese people in the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Qatar" title="Lebanese people in Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Lebanese people in Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_people_in_Iran" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese people in Iran">Iran</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Culture</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese culture">Lebanese culture</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Religion</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cultural_Property_of_Great_Importance" class="mw-redirect" title="Cultural Property of Great Importance">Cultural Heritage sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Lebanon" title="Architecture of Lebanon">Architecture</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_art" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Literature_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Literature of Lebanon">Literature</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Lebanon" title="Music of Lebanon">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Lebanon" title="Cinema of Lebanon">Cinema</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_cuisine" title="Lebanese cuisine">Cuisine</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Lebanon" title="Sport in Lebanon">Sport</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">History</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Lebanon" title="History of ancient Lebanon">History of ancient Lebanon</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Lebanese_history" title="Timeline of Lebanese history">Timeline of Lebanese history</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon_under_Ottoman_rule" title="History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule">Ottoman rule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">1860 conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/1958_Lebanon_crisis" title="1958 Lebanon crisis">1958 Lebanon crisis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/South_Lebanon_conflict_(1985%E2%80%932000)" title="South Lebanon conflict (1985–2000)">South Lebanon conflict</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taif_Agreement" title="Taif Agreement">Taif Agreement</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Language</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic" title="Arabic">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Arabic" title="Lebanese Arabic">Lebanese Arabic</a></li></ul></li></ul> <dl><dt>Foreign</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/French_language" title="French language">French</a> <dl><dd><a href="/wiki/French_language_in_Lebanon" title="French language in Lebanon">French language in Lebanon</a></dd></dl></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English</a></dd></dl></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="border-top:1px solid #aaa;;color: var(--color-base)">Politics</div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Lebanon" title="Politics of Lebanon">Lebanese politics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Presidents_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Presidents of Lebanon">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Lebanon">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Lebanon" title="List of political parties in Lebanon">List of political parties in Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Pact" title="National Pact">National Pact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_nationalism" title="Lebanese nationalism">Lebanese nationalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicianism" title="Phoenicianism">Phoenicianism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coat_of_arms_of_Lebanon" title="Coat of arms of Lebanon">Coat of arms of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Lebanon" title="Flag of Lebanon">Flag of Lebanon</a></li></ul></div></div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-below"> <img alt="flag" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/16px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="11" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/24px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Flag_of_Lebanon.svg/32px-Flag_of_Lebanon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="600" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Lebanon" title="Portal:Lebanon">Lebanon portal</a></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-navbar"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lebanese_people" title="Template:Lebanese people"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lebanese_people" title="Template talk:Lebanese people"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lebanese_people" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lebanese people"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table> The history of Lebanon covers the history of the modern Republic of <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> and the earlier emergence of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a> under the <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a>, as well as the previous history of <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">the region</a>, covered by the modern state. The modern <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">State of Lebanon</a> has existed within its current borders since 1920, when <a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a> was created under <a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">French and British mandate</a>, resulting from the dismemberment of the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> at the end of <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>. Before this date, the designation "Lebanon" concerned a territory with vaguely defined borders, encompassing the mountain range of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a> and its outskirts (mainly the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a> coast and the plains of <a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Bekaa</a> and <a href="/wiki/Akkar_District" title="Akkar District">Akkar</a>). The idea of an independent Lebanon, however, emerged during the end of the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Emirate" class="mw-redirect" title="Mount Lebanon Emirate">Mount Lebanon Emirate</a> where <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronite clerics</a> vowed for an independent nation. <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prehistory">Prehistory</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Prehistory">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ksar_Akil" title="Ksar Akil">Ksar Akil</a>, 10 kilometres (6.2 mi) northeast of <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>, is a large rock shelter below a steep <a href="/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone">limestone</a> cliff where excavations have shown occupational deposits reaching down to a depth of 23.6 metres (77 ft) with one of the longest sequences of <a href="/wiki/Paleolithic" title="Paleolithic">Paleolithic</a> <a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">flint</a> <a href="/wiki/Archaeological" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeological">archaeological</a> industry is a very well tained Upper <a href="/w/index.php?title=Levalloiso-Mousterian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Levalloiso-Mousterian (page does not exist)">Levalloiso-Mousterian</a> remains with long and triangular <a href="/wiki/Lithic_flake" title="Lithic flake">lithic flakes</a>. The level above this showed industries accounting for all six stages of the <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a>. An <a href="/wiki/Emireh_point" class="mw-redirect" title="Emireh point">Emireh point</a> was found at the first stage of this level (XXIV), at around 15.2 metres (50 ft) below datum with a complete <a href="/wiki/Skeleton" title="Skeleton">skeleton</a> of an eight-year-old modern human (called Egbert, now in the <a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Beirut" title="National Museum of Beirut">National Museum of Beirut</a> after being studied in <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">America</a>) was discovered at 11.6 metres (38 ft), cemented into <a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">breccia</a>. A fragment of a <a href="/wiki/Neanderthal" title="Neanderthal">Neanderthal</a> <a href="/wiki/Maxilla" title="Maxilla">maxilla</a> was also discovered in material from level XXVI or XXV, at around 15 metres (49 ft). Studies by Hooijer showed <a href="/wiki/Capra_(genus)" title="Capra (genus)">wild goat</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fallow_deer" title="Fallow deer">fallow deer</a> were dominant in the <a href="/wiki/Fauna" title="Fauna">fauna</a> along with the extinct <a href="/wiki/Narrow-nosed_rhinoceros" title="Narrow-nosed rhinoceros">narrow-nosed rhinoceros</a> in later Levalloiso-Mousterian levels.<a href="#cite_note-CopelandWescombe1965-1">[1]</a> It is believed to be one of the earliest known sites containing <a href="/wiki/Upper_Paleolithic" title="Upper Paleolithic">Upper Paleolithic</a> technologies. Artifacts recovered from the site include <a href="/wiki/Ksar_Akil_flake" title="Ksar Akil flake">Ksar Akil flakes</a>, the main type of tool found at the site, along with shells with holes and chipped edge modifications that are suggested to have been used as pendants or beads. These indicate that the inhabitants were among the first in Western Eurasia to use personal ornaments. Results from radiocarbon dating indicate that the early humans may have lived at the site approximately 45,000 years ago or earlier. The presence of personal ornaments at Ksar Akil is suggestive of <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_modernity" title="Behavioral modernity">modern human behavior</a>. The findings of ornaments at the site are contemporaneous with ornaments found at <a href="/wiki/Later_Stone_Age" class="mw-redirect" title="Later Stone Age">Late Stone Age</a> sites such as <a href="/wiki/Enkapune_Ya_Muto" title="Enkapune Ya Muto">Enkapune Ya Muto</a>.<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ancient_Near_East">Ancient Near East</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Ancient Near East">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Canaan" title="Canaan">Canaan</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Assyrian_rule" title="Phoenicia under Assyrian rule">Phoenicia under Assyrian rule</a></div> The earliest prehistoric cultures of Lebanon, such as the <a href="/wiki/Qaraoun_culture" title="Qaraoun culture">Qaraoun culture</a> gave rise to the civilization of the <a href="/wiki/Canaanite_civilization" class="mw-redirect" title="Canaanite civilization">Canaanite period</a>, when the region was populated by ancient peoples, cultivating land and living in sophisticated societies during the 2nd millennium BC. Northern Canaanites are mentioned in the Bible as well as in other Semitic records from that period. Canaanites were the creators of the oldest known 24-letter <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a>, a shortening of earlier 30-letter alphabets such as <a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a>. The Canaanite alphabet later developed into the <a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> one (with sister alphabets of Hebrew, Aramaic and Moabite), influencing the entire Mediterranean region. The coastal plain of <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> is the historic home of a string of coastal trading cities of Semitic culture, which the Greeks termed <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a>, whose maritime culture flourished there for more than 1,000 years. Ancient ruins in <a href="/wiki/Byblos" title="Byblos">Byblos</a>, Berytus (<a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>), <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sarepta" title="Sarepta">Sarepta</a> (Sarafand), and <a href="/wiki/Tyre_(Lebanon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tyre (Lebanon)">Tyre</a> show a civilized nation, with urban centres and sophisticated arts. Phoenicia was a cosmopolitan centre for many nations and cultures. Phoenician art, customs and religion reveal considerable <a href="/wiki/Mesopotamia" title="Mesopotamia">Mesopotamian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">Egyptian</a> influence. The sarcophagi of Sidonian kings <a href="/wiki/Sarcophagus_of_Eshmunazar_II" title="Sarcophagus of Eshmunazar II">Eshmunazzar II</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tabnit_sarcophagus" title="Tabnit sarcophagus">Tabnit</a> reveal that Phoenician royalty adopted Egyptian burial customs. Phoenician traders exported spices from <a href="/wiki/Arabian_Peninsula" title="Arabian Peninsula">Arabia</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Cinnamon" title="Cinnamon">cinnamon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Frankincense" title="Frankincense">frankincense</a>, to the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greeks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> This trade likely led to the transmission of the Phoenician alphabet to Greece. <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a> attests that the Phoenicians <blockquote>"introduced into Greece upon their arrival a great variety of arts, among the rest that of writing, whereof the Greeks till then had, as I think, been ignorant."<a href="#cite_note-The_Histories,_Book_V-6">[6]</a></blockquote>According to legend however, it is <a href="/wiki/Cadmus" title="Cadmus">Cadmus</a>, Prince of <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a>, who brought the alphabet with him to Greece in his search for his abducted sister <a href="/wiki/Europa_(consort_of_Zeus)" title="Europa (consort of Zeus)">Europa</a>. Cadmus ultimately settles in Greece and founds the city of <a href="/wiki/Thebes,_Greece" title="Thebes, Greece">Thebes</a>. <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Ancient Greek history</a> accepts the Phoenician origin of the Greek alphabet. According to <a href="/wiki/Herodotus" title="Herodotus">Herodotus</a>, <blockquote>"[the Greeks] originally they shaped their letters exactly like all the other Phoenicians, but afterwards, in course of time, they changed by degrees their language, and together with it the form likewise of their characters."<a href="#cite_note-The_Histories,_Book_V-6">[6]</a></blockquote>Herodotus attests the persistence of traces of the Phoenician alphabet in Greece on <a href="/wiki/Tripod" title="Tripod">tripods</a> in <a href="/wiki/Delphi" title="Delphi">Delphi</a> in what is now known as the 5th century BC.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The Phoenicians were equally reputed for their seafaring skills. They were allegedly the first to circumnavigate the African continent. Herodotus writes that Egyptian Pharaoh Necos, <blockquote>"[...] sent to sea a number of ships manned by Phoenicians, with orders to make for the Pillars of Hercules [the <a href="/wiki/Strait_of_Gibraltar" title="Strait of Gibraltar">Strait of Gibraltar</a>], and return to Egypt through them, and by the Mediterranean. The Phoenicians took their departure from Egypt by way of the Erythraean sea [the <a href="/wiki/Red_Sea" title="Red Sea">Red Sea</a>], and so sailed into the southern ocean. When autumn came, they went ashore, wherever they might happen to be, and having sown a tract of land with corn, waited until the grain was fit to cut. Having reaped it, they again set sail; and thus it came to pass that two whole years went by, and it was not till the third year that they doubled the Pillars of Hercules, and made good their voyage home. On their return, they declared — I for my part do not believe them, but perhaps others may - that in sailing round Libya [i.e., Africa] they had the sun upon their right hand. In this way was the extent of Libya first discovered."<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a></blockquote> The last phrase is usually regarded by modern historians as lending credibility to the Phoenician narrative, as they could not have otherwise known that the sun would be on their right hand side as they sailed southwards below the <a href="/wiki/Equator" title="Equator">Equator</a> line. The Phoenicians founded <a href="/wiki/List_of_Phoenician_cities" title="List of Phoenician cities">various colonies</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Mediterranean_Sea" title="Mediterranean Sea">Mediterranean</a>. The most famous of them are <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a> in today's <a href="/wiki/Tunisia" title="Tunisia">Tunisia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Libya" title="Tripoli, Libya">Tripoli</a> in today's <a href="/wiki/Libya" title="Libya">Libya</a>, Gadir (<a href="/wiki/C%C3%A1diz" title="Cádiz">Cadiz</a>) and <a href="/wiki/Barcelona" title="Barcelona">Barcelona</a> in today's <a href="/wiki/Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palermo" title="Palermo">Palermo</a> in today's <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lisbon" title="Lisbon">Lisbon</a> in today's <a href="/wiki/Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Phoenicia maintained an uneasy tributary relationship with the <a href="/wiki/Neo-Assyrian_Empire" title="Neo-Assyrian Empire">neo-Assyrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neo-Babylonian_Empire" title="Neo-Babylonian Empire">neo-Babylonian</a> empires during the 9th to 6th centuries BC. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Classical_Antiquity">Classical Antiquity</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Classical Antiquity">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Lebanon#Persian_Empire" title="History of ancient Lebanon">History of ancient Lebanon § Persian_Empire</a>, <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Hellenistic_rule" title="Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule">Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Roman_rule" title="Phoenicia under Roman rule">Phoenicia under Roman rule</a></div> After the gradual decline of their strength, the Phoenician <a href="/wiki/City-state" title="City-state">city-states</a> on the Lebanese coast were conquered outright in 539 BC by <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid</a> Persia under <a href="/wiki/Cyrus_the_Great" title="Cyrus the Great">Cyrus the Great</a>. Under <a href="/wiki/Darius_the_Great" title="Darius the Great">Darius I</a>, the area comprising Phoenicia, Canaan, Syria, and Cyprus was administered in a single satrapy and paid a yearly tribute of three hundred and fifty talents. By comparison, Egypt and Libya paid seven hundred talents.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> Many Phoenician colonies continued their independent existence—most notably <a href="/wiki/Carthage" title="Carthage">Carthage</a>. The Persians forced some of the population to migrate to Carthage, which remained a powerful nation until the <a href="/wiki/Second_Punic_War" title="Second Punic War">Second Punic War</a>. The Phoenicians of <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> showed greater solidarity with their former colony Carthage than loyalty towards Persian king <a href="/wiki/Cambyses_I" title="Cambyses I">Cambyses</a>, by refusing to sail against the former when ordered.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> The Phoenicians furnished the bulk of the Persian fleet during the <a href="/wiki/Greco-Persian_Wars" title="Greco-Persian Wars">Greco-Persian Wars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Herodotus considers them as "the best sailors" in the Persian fleet.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> Phoenicians under <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_I" title="Xerxes I">Xerxes I</a> were equally commended for their ingenuity in building the <a href="/wiki/Xerxes_Canal" title="Xerxes Canal">Xerxes Canal</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Nevertheless, they were harshly punished by the Persian king following the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Salamis" title="Battle of Salamis">Battle of Salamis</a>, which culminated in a defeat for the <a href="/wiki/Achaemenid_Empire" title="Achaemenid Empire">Achaemenid Empire</a>.<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> In 350 or 345 BC, a rebellion in Sidon led by <a href="/wiki/Tennes" title="Tennes">Tennes</a> was crushed by <a href="/wiki/Artaxerxes_III" title="Artaxerxes III">Artaxerxes III</a>. Its destruction was described by <a href="/wiki/Diodorus_Siculus" title="Diodorus Siculus">Diodorus Siculus</a>. After two centuries of Persian rule, the <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Macedonians" title="Ancient Macedonians">Macedonian</a> ruler <a href="/wiki/Alexander_the_Great" title="Alexander the Great">Alexander the Great</a>, during his war against Persia, attacked and <a href="/wiki/Siege_of_Tyre_(332_BC)" title="Siege of Tyre (332 BC)">burned Tyre</a>, the most prominent Phoenician city. He conquered what is now Lebanon and other nearby regions in 332 BC.<a href="#cite_note-books.google.nl-19">[19]</a> After Alexander's death the region was absorbed into the <a href="/wiki/Seleucid_Empire" title="Seleucid Empire">Seleucid Empire</a> and became known as <a href="/wiki/Coele-Syria" title="Coele-Syria">Coele-Syria</a>. In 64 BC, the region was conquered by a <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Roman</a> army under general <a href="/wiki/Pompey" title="Pompey">Pompey</a> and became a part of the Roman state. <a href="/wiki/Christianity" title="Christianity">Christianity</a> was introduced to the coastal plain of Lebanon from neighboring <a href="/wiki/Galilee" title="Galilee">Galilee</a>, already in the <a href="/wiki/1st_century_in_Lebanon" title="1st century in Lebanon">1st century</a>. The region, as with the rest of Syria and much of Anatolia, became a major center of Christianity. Mount Lebanon and its coastal plain became part of the <a href="/wiki/Diocese_of_the_East" title="Diocese of the East">Diocese of the East</a>, divided to provinces of <a href="/wiki/Phoenice_Paralia" class="mw-redirect" title="Phoenice Paralia">Phoenice Paralia</a> and <a href="/wiki/Phoenice_Libanensis" title="Phoenice Libanensis">Phoenice Libanensis</a> (which also extended over large parts of modern Syria). During the late <a href="/wiki/4th_century_in_Lebanon" title="4th century in Lebanon">4th</a> and early <a href="/wiki/5th_century_in_Lebanon" title="5th century in Lebanon">5th centuries in Lebanon</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Hermit" title="Hermit">hermit</a> named <a href="/wiki/Maron" title="Maron">Maron</a> established a monastic tradition, focused on the importance of <a href="/wiki/Monotheism" title="Monotheism">monotheism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Asceticism" title="Asceticism">asceticism</a>, near the mountain range of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a>. The monks who followed Maron spread his teachings among the native Lebanese Christians and remaining pagans in the mountains and coast of Lebanon. These Lebanese Christians came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christianity_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christianity in Lebanon">Maronites</a>, and moved into the mountains to avoid religious persecution by Roman authorities.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> During the frequent <a href="/wiki/Roman%E2%80%93Persian_Wars" title="Roman–Persian Wars">Roman–Persian Wars</a> that lasted for many centuries, the <a href="/wiki/Sasanian_Empire" title="Sasanian Empire">Sassanid Persians</a> occupied what is now Lebanon from 619 to 629.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Middle Ages">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islamic_rule">Islamic rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Islamic rule">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Bilad_al-Sham" title="Bilad al-Sham">Bilad al-Sham</a>, <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">Muslim conquest of the Levant</a>, <a href="/wiki/7th_century_in_Lebanon" title="7th century in Lebanon">7th century in Lebanon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/8th_century_in_Lebanon" title="8th century in Lebanon">8th century in Lebanon</a></div> During the <a href="/wiki/7th_century_in_Lebanon" title="7th century in Lebanon">7th century AD</a> the Muslim Arabs <a href="/wiki/Muslim_conquest_of_the_Levant" title="Muslim conquest of the Levant">conquered Syria</a> soon after the death of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>, establishing a new regime to replace the Romans (or <a href="/wiki/Byzantine_Empire" title="Byzantine Empire">Byzantines</a> as the Eastern Romans are sometimes called). Though Islam and the Arabic language were officially dominant under this new regime, the general populace still took time to convert from Christianity and the <a href="/wiki/Syriac_language" title="Syriac language">Syriac language</a>. In particular, the Maronite community clung to its faith and managed to maintain a large degree of autonomy despite the succession of rulers over Syria. Muslim influence increased greatly in the seventh century, when the nearby city Damascus, in modern-day Syria, was set as the capital of the <a href="/wiki/Umayyad_Caliphate" title="Umayyad Caliphate">Umayyad Caliphate</a>. During the reign of <a href="/wiki/Uthman" title="Uthman">Uthman</a>, who ruled the <a href="/wiki/Rashidun_Caliphate" title="Rashidun Caliphate">Rashidun Caliphate</a> between 644 and 656, Islam gained prominence in Damascus, primarily due to <a href="/wiki/Mu%27awiya_I" title="Mu'awiya I">Mu'awiya</a>, a relative of Uthman who served as the governor. Mu'awiya deployed forces to Lebanon's coastal region, where he expanded Islamic influence, resulting in conversions to Islam among the coastal residents. However, in the mountainous areas, the local population retained their Christian or other cultural traditions.<a href="#cite_note-:10-22">[22]</a> Moreover, both Christians and Jews were obliged to pay the <a href="/wiki/Jizya" title="Jizya">jizya</a>, or poll tax, to Islamic rulers. The collection of this tax from mountain Christians saw inconsistent enforcement until the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>, where it ceased under Latin rule. A revival occurred under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluks</a>, concluding with its abolition through an Ottoman edict in 1856.<a href="#cite_note-:4-23">[23]</a> After the Islamic conquest, Mediterranean trade faced a prolonged decline lasting three centuries, attributed to maritime conflicts between the Islamic caliphate and the Byzantines. The partially damaged ports, vital as naval strongholds for the caliphate, struggled to regain prosperity. Despite attempts involving military presence and new settlers, the cities of Tyre, Sidon, Beirut, and Tripoli likely sustained populations of only a few thousand each during the Umayyad and <a href="/wiki/Abbasid_Caliphate" title="Abbasid Caliphate">Abbasid</a> periods.<a href="#cite_note-:4-23">[23]</a> By 758, the Abbasid Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Mansur" title="Al-Mansur">al-Mansur</a> tasked the Arab <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhids</a> with the defense of the hills around Beirut. The <a href="/wiki/Buhturids" title="Buhturids">Tanukhids of Mount Lebanon</a> later evolved to become the first Druze Lords. In 845, tensions flared as Tanukhs clashed with Christians in <a href="/wiki/Kisrawan" title="Kisrawan">Kisrawan</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:4-23">[23]</a> In the 980s, the <a href="/wiki/Fatimid_Caliphate" title="Fatimid Caliphate">Fatimid Caliphate</a> gained dominance over Mount Lebanon. Under Fatimid rule, the region experienced a renaissance in Mediterranean trade along the Lebanese coast, stimulated by commercial connections with Byzantium and Italy. Consequently, Tripoli and Tyre thrived well into the 11th century, specializing in the export of products like cotton and silk textiles, sugar, and glassware.<a href="#cite_note-:4-23">[23]</a> In the 1020s, the <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> sect began to diverge from <a href="/wiki/Isma%27ilism" title="Isma'ilism">Isma’ili Shia Islam</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tanukhids" title="Tanukhids">Tanukhid</a> chiefs embraced the "Call," acknowledging Fatimid Caliph <a href="/wiki/Al-Hakim_bi-Amr_Allah" title="Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah">Al-Hakim bi-Amr Allah</a> as divine, thereby establishing the foundation of the sect in Mount Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-:4-23">[23]</a> The new faith gained followers in the southern portion of Lebanon. The Maronites and the Druze divided Lebanon until the modern era. The major cities on the coast, <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>, Beirut, and others, were directly administered by Muslim Caliphs. As a result, the people became increasingly absorbed by Arabic culture. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Crusader_kingdoms">Crusader kingdoms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Crusader kingdoms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Crusader_states" title="Crusader states">Crusader states</a>, <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a>, and <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a></div> Following the fall of Roman/Christian Anatolia to the Muslim <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_dynasty" title="Seljuk dynasty">Turks</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Seljuk_Empire" title="Seljuk Empire">Seljuk Empire</a> in the 11th century, the Romans in Constantinople appealed to the Pope in Rome for assistance. There resulted a series of wars known as the <a href="/wiki/Crusades" title="Crusades">Crusades</a>, launched by Latin Christians (of mainly French origin) in Western Europe to reclaim the former Roman territories in the Eastern Mediterranean, especially Syria and Palestine (the <a href="/wiki/Levant" title="Levant">Levant</a>). Lebanon stood in the main path of the <a href="/wiki/First_Crusade" title="First Crusade">First Crusade</a>'s advance on <a href="/wiki/Jerusalem" title="Jerusalem">Jerusalem</a> from Anatolia. Frankish nobles occupied areas within present-day Lebanon as part of the southeastern <a href="/wiki/Crusader_States" class="mw-redirect" title="Crusader States">Crusader States</a>. The southern half of present-day Lebanon formed the northern march of the <a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Jerusalem" title="Kingdom of Jerusalem">Kingdom of Jerusalem</a> (founded in 1099); the northern half became the heartland of the <a href="/wiki/County_of_Tripoli" title="County of Tripoli">County of Tripoli</a> (founded in 1109). Although <a href="/wiki/Saladin" title="Saladin">Saladin</a> eliminated Christian control of the <a href="/wiki/Holy_Land" title="Holy Land">Holy Land</a> around 1190, the Crusader states in Lebanon and Syria were better defended. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Liban_des_Croisades_vers_1180_EC.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Liban_des_Croisades_vers_1180_EC.jpg/220px-Liban_des_Croisades_vers_1180_EC.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="235" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Liban_des_Croisades_vers_1180_EC.jpg/330px-Liban_des_Croisades_vers_1180_EC.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Liban_des_Croisades_vers_1180_EC.jpg/440px-Liban_des_Croisades_vers_1180_EC.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1196" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption>A map of Mount Lebanon c. AD 1180</figcaption></figure> One of the most lasting effects of the Crusades in this region was the contact between the crusaders (mainly French) and the <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronites</a>. Unlike most other Christian communities in the region, who swore allegiance to <a href="/wiki/Constantinople" title="Constantinople">Constantinople</a> or other local patriarchs, the Maronites proclaimed allegiance to the Pope in Rome. As such the Franks saw them as Roman Catholic brethren. These initial contacts led to centuries of support for the Maronites from France and Italy, even after the later fall of the Crusader states in the region. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mamluk_rule">Mamluk rule</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Mamluk rule">edit</a>]</div> Muslim control of Lebanon was reestablished in the late 13th century under the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk_Sultanate" title="Mamluk Sultanate">Mamluk sultans of Egypt</a>, who reinstated Sunni Islamic dominance. Initially sacking Crusader towns and punishing perceived infidels and heretics in the mountains, the Mamluks later became more discerning in their actions. They demolished less fortified ports south of Sidon, and reconstructed Sidon, Beirut, and Tripoli. This resulted in the decline of Tyre while propelling Tripoli to prominence as the region's foremost port town. Now a provincial capital, Tripoli evolved into a center for Sunni religious education and became the primary hub for long-distance trade in Syria. The Mamluks also invested in <a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a> as an inland center.<a href="#cite_note-:4-23">[23]</a> Despite facing the devastating impact of the <a href="/wiki/Black_Death" title="Black Death">Black Death</a> in 1348–1349, which reduced the population by a third and curtailed economic activity for over two centuries, the Mamluks contributed to the enduring architectural legacy of the region, including the restoration of the Crusader <a href="/wiki/Citadel_of_Tripoli" title="Citadel of Tripoli">Citadel of Tripoli</a> and the construction of stone buildings and mosques.<a href="#cite_note-:4-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Ottoman_rule">Ottoman rule</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Ottoman rule">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/History_of_Lebanon_under_Ottoman_rule" title="History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule">History of Lebanon under Ottoman rule</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Ottoman Syria</a></div> Starting from the 13th century, the <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Turks" title="Ottoman Turks">Ottoman Turks</a> formed an empire which came to encompass the Balkans, Middle East and North Africa. The Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Selim_I" title="Selim I">Selim I</a> (1516–20), after defeating the Persians, conquered the <a href="/wiki/Mamluk" title="Mamluk">Mamluks</a>. His troops, invading Syria, destroyed Mamluk resistance in 1516 at <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Marj_Dabiq" title="Battle of Marj Dabiq">Marj Dabiq</a>, north of Aleppo.<a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a> Ottoman control was uncontested during the early modern period, but the Lebanese coast became important for its contacts and trades with the maritime republics of <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Venice" title="Republic of Venice">Venice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Republic_of_Genoa" title="Republic of Genoa">Genoa</a> other <a href="/wiki/Italy" title="Italy">Italian</a> city-states. (See also <a href="/wiki/Levantines_(Latin_Catholics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Levantines (Latin Catholics)">Levantines</a>) The mountainous territory of <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a> has long been a shelter for minority and persecuted groups, including its historic <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christianity_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christianity in Lebanon">Maronite</a> Christian majority and <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> communities. It was an autonomous region of the Ottoman Empire. During the conflict between the Mamluks and the Ottomans, the amirs of Lebanon linked their fate to that of <a href="/wiki/Janbirdi_al-Ghazali" title="Janbirdi al-Ghazali">Ghazali</a>, governor (pasha) of Damascus.<a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a> He won the confidence of the Ottomans by fighting on their side at Marj Dabiq and, apparently pleased with the behavior of the Lebanese amirs, introduced them to Salim I when he entered Damascus.<a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a> Salim I decided to grant the Lebanese amirs a semiautonomous status.<a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a> The Ottomans, through the two main feudal families, the <a href="/wiki/Maan_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Maan family">Maans</a> who were Druze and the <a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Chehabs</a> who were Sunni Muslim Arab converts to Maronite Christianity, ruled Lebanon until the middle of the nineteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a> During Ottoman rule the term <a href="/wiki/Syria_(region)" title="Syria (region)">Syria</a> was used to designate the approximate area including present-day Lebanon, Syria, Jordan, and Israel/Palestine.<a href="#cite_note-:0-24">[24]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maans_dynasty_(1517–1697)">Maans dynasty (1517–1697)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Maans dynasty (1517–1697)">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Maan_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Maan family">Maans</a> came to Lebanon in 1120.<a href="#cite_note-:1-25">[25]</a> They were a tribe and dynasty of <a href="/wiki/Qahtanite" title="Qahtanite">Qahtani Arabs</a> who settled on the southwestern slopes of the Lebanon Mountains and soon adopted the Druze religion.<a href="#cite_note-:1-25">[25]</a> Their authority began to rise with <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_ad-Din_I" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakhr ad-Din I">Fakhr ad-Din I</a>, who was permitted by Ottoman authorities to organize his own army, and reached its peak with <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_ad-Din_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakhr ad-Din II">Fakhr ad-Din II</a> (1570–1635).<a href="#cite_note-:1-25">[25]</a> (The existence of "Fakhr ad-Din I" has been questioned by some scholars.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a>) <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Fakhreddine_II">Fakhreddine II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Fakhreddine II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Emir_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_Ibn_Ma%27n_(_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_II)-2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Emir_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_Ibn_Ma%27n_%28_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_II%29-2.png/220px-Emir_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_Ibn_Ma%27n_%28_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_II%29-2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Emir_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_Ibn_Ma%27n_%28_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_II%29-2.png/330px-Emir_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_Ibn_Ma%27n_%28_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_II%29-2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/Emir_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_Ibn_Ma%27n_%28_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_II%29-2.png/440px-Emir_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_Ibn_Ma%27n_%28_Fa%E1%B8%ABereddin_II%29-2.png 2x" data-file-width="579" data-file-height="705" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fakhreddine_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Fakhreddine II">Fakhreddine II</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Fakhr_al-Din_II" title="Fakhr al-Din II">Fakhr al-Din II</a> was born in <a href="/wiki/Baakleen" title="Baakleen">Baakline</a> to a Druze family, his father died when he was 13, and his mother entrusted her son to another princely family, probably the Khazens (al-Khazin). In 1608, Fakhr-al-Din forged an alliance with the Italian <a href="/wiki/Grand_Duchy_of_Tuscany" title="Grand Duchy of Tuscany">Grand Duchy of Tuscany</a>. The alliance contained both a public economic section and a secret military one. Fakhr-al-Din's ambitions, popularity and unauthorized foreign contacts alarmed the Ottomans who authorized Hafiz Ahmed Pasha, Muhafiz of Damascus, to mount an attack on Lebanon in 1613 in order to reduce Fakhr-al-Din's growing power. Professor Abu-Husayn has made the Ottoman archives relevant to the emir's career available. Faced with Hafiz's army of 50,000 men, Fakhr-al-Din chose exile in Tuscany, leaving affairs in the hands of his brother Emir Yunis and his son Emir Ali Beg. They succeeded in mainlining most of the forts such as Banias (Subayba) and Niha which were a mainstay of Fakhr ad-Din's power. Before leaving, Fakhr ad-Din paid his standing army of soqbans (mercenaries) two years wages in order to secure their loyalty. Hosted in Tuscany by the Medici Family, Fakhr-al-Din was welcomed by the grand duke <a href="/wiki/Cosimo_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosimo II">Cosimo II</a>, who was his host and sponsor for the two years he spent at the court of the Medici. He spent a further three years as guest of the Spanish Viceroy of Sicily and then Naples, the Duke Osuna. Fakhr-al-Din had wished to enlist Tuscan or other European assistance in a "Crusade" to free his homeland from Ottoman domination, but was met with a refusal as Tuscany was unable to afford such an expedition. The prince eventually gave up the idea, realizing that Europe was more interested in trade with the Ottomans than in taking back the Holy Land. His stay nevertheless allowed him to witness Europe's cultural revival in the 17th century, and bring back some Renaissance ideas and architectural features. By 1618, political changes in the Ottoman sultanate had resulted in the removal of many of Fakhr-al-Din's enemies from power, allowing Fahkr-al-Din's return to Lebanon, whereupon he was able quickly to reunite all the lands of Lebanon beyond the boundaries of its mountains; and having revenge from Emir Yusuf Pasha ibn Siyfa, attacking his stronghold in Akkar, destroying his palaces and taking control of his lands, and regaining the territories he had to give up in 1613 in Sidon, Tripoli, Bekaa among others. Under his rule, printing presses were introduced and Jesuit priests and Catholic nuns encouraged to open schools throughout the land. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg/240px-DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg/360px-DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg/480px-DeirAlQamar-FakhredinePalace.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Fakhreddine_Palace" title="Fakhreddine Palace">Fakhreddine II Palace</a> in Deir el Qamar</figcaption></figure> In 1623, the prince angered the Ottomans by refusing to allow an army on its way back from the Persian front to winter in the Bekaa. This (and instigation by the powerful Janissary garrison in Damascus) led Mustafa Pasha, Governor of Damascus, to launch an attack against him, resulting in the <a href="/wiki/Battle_of_Anjar" title="Battle of Anjar">battle at Majdel Anjar</a> where Fakhr-al-Din's forces although outnumbered managed to capture the Pasha and secure the Lebanese prince and his allies a much needed military victory. The best source (in Arabic) for Fakhr ad-Din's career up to this point is a memoir signed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Khalidi_as-Safadi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Khalidi as-Safadi (page does not exist)">al-Khalidi as-Safadi</a>, who was not with the Emir in Europe but had access to someone who was, possibly Fakhr ad-Din himself. However, as time passed, the Ottomans grew increasingly uncomfortable with the prince's increasing powers and extended relations with Europe. In 1632, <a href="/wiki/Kuchuk_Ahmed_Pasha" class="mw-redirect" title="Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha">Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha</a> was named Muhafiz of Damascus, being a rival of Fakhr-al-Din and a friend of Sultan Murad IV, who ordered Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha and the sultanate's navy to attack Lebanon and depose Fakhr-al-Din. This time, the prince had decided to remain in Lebanon and resist the offensive, but the death of his son Emir Ali Beik in Wadi el-Taym was the beginning of his defeat. He later took refuge in Jezzine's grotto, closely followed by Kuchuk Ahmed Pasha. He surrendered to the Ottoman general Jaafar Pasha, whom he knew well, under circumstances that are not clear. Fakhr-al-Din was taken to Constantinople and kept in the Yedikule (Seven Towers) prison for two years. He was then summoned before the sultan. Fakhr-al-Din, and one or two of his sons, were accused of treason and executed there on 13 April 1635. There are unsubstantiated rumors that the younger of the two boys was spared and raised in the harem, later becoming Ottoman ambassador to India.<figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fakhreddine_toscany_druze_emir.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fakhreddine_toscany_druze_emir.jpg/220px-Fakhreddine_toscany_druze_emir.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="362" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c2/Fakhreddine_toscany_druze_emir.jpg/330px-Fakhreddine_toscany_druze_emir.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/c2/Fakhreddine_toscany_druze_emir.jpg 2x" data-file-width="377" data-file-height="620" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Fakhreddine while he was in Tuscany, stating "Faccardino grand emir dei Drusi" translated as "Fakhreddine: great emir of the Druze"</figcaption></figure> Although Fakhr ad-Din II's aspirations toward complete independence for Lebanon ended tragically, he greatly enhanced Lebanon's military and economic development.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Noted for religious tolerance, the Druze prince attempted to merge the country's different religious groups into one Lebanese community.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> In an effort to attain complete independence for Lebanon, he concluded a secret agreement with Ferdinand I, grand duke of <a href="/wiki/Tuscany" title="Tuscany">Tuscany</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Following his return from Tuscany, Fakhr ad-Din II, realizing the need for a strong and disciplined armed force, channeled his financial resources into building a regular army.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> This army proved itself in 1623, when Mustafa Pasha, the new governor of Damascus, underestimating the capabilities of the Lebanese army, engaged it in battle and was decisively defeated at Anjar in the Biqa Valley.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> In addition to building up the army, Fakhr ad-Din II, who became acquainted with Italian culture during his stay in Tuscany, initiated measures to modernize the country.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> After forming close ties and establishing diplomatic relations with Tuscany, he brought in architects, irrigation engineers, and agricultural experts from Italy in an effort to promote prosperity in the country.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> He also strengthened Lebanon's strategic position by expanding its territory, building forts as far away as Palmyra in Syria, and gaining control of Palestine.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Finally, the Ottoman sultan <a href="/wiki/Murad_IV" title="Murad IV">Murad IV</a> of Istanbul, wanting to thwart Lebanon's progress toward complete independence, ordered Kutshuk, then governor of Damascus, to attack the Lebanese ruler.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> This time Fakhr ad-Din was defeated, and he was executed in Istanbul in 1635. No significant Maan rulers succeeded Fakhr ad-Din II.<a href="#cite_note-:2-27">[27]</a> Fakhreddine is regarded by the Lebanese as the best leader and prince the country has ever seen. The Druze prince treated all the religions equally and was the one who formed Lebanon. Lebanon has achieved during Fakhreddine's reign enormous heights that the country had and would never witness again. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shihab_dynasty_(1697–1842)">Shihab dynasty (1697–1842)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Shihab dynasty (1697–1842)">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Shihab_dynasty" title="Shihab dynasty">Shihabs</a> succeeded the Maans in 1697<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> after the Battle of Ain Dara, a battle that changed the face of Lebanon when a clash between two Druze clans, the Qaysis and the Yemenis, broke out. The Druze Qaysis, then led by Ahmad Shihab, won, and expelled the Yemenis from Lebanon to Syria. This has led to an enormous decrease to the Druze population in Mount-Lebanon, who were a majority at the time and helped the Christians overcome the Druze demographically. This Qaysi "victory" gave the Shihab, who were Qaysis themselves and the allies of Lebanon, the rule over Mount-Lebanon. The Druze overlords voted for the Shihabs to rule Mount Lebanon and the Chouf by the threat of the Ottoman Empire who wanted the Sunnis to rule Lebanon.[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed">citation needed</a>] The Shihabs originally lived in the <a href="/wiki/Hauran" title="Hauran">Hawran</a> region of southwestern Syria and settled in <a href="/wiki/Wadi_al-Taym" title="Wadi al-Taym">Wadi al-Taym</a> in southern Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> During the <a href="/wiki/Russo-Turkish_War_(1768%E2%80%931774)" title="Russo-Turkish War (1768–1774)">Russo-Turkish War of 1768 to 1774</a>, responding to Admiral <a href="/wiki/Alexei_Grigoryevich_Orlov" title="Alexei Grigoryevich Orlov">Alexei Orlov</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Imperial_Russian_Navy" title="Imperial Russian Navy">Russian naval</a> <a href="/wiki/First_Archipelago_Expedition" class="mw-redirect" title="First Archipelago Expedition">First Archipelago Expedition</a> operating in the Mediterranean, local Lebanese authorities briefly attempted to place themselves under <a href="/wiki/Russian_Empire" title="Russian Empire">Russian</a> protection.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> The most prominent Shihab, <a href="/wiki/Bashir_Shihab_II" title="Bashir Shihab II">Bashir Shihab II</a>,<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> ruled as Emir of Mount Lebanon from 1789 to 1840. The <a href="/wiki/French_campaign_in_Egypt_and_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="French campaign in Egypt and Syria">events of 1799</a> tested his ability as a statesman when <a href="/wiki/Napoleon" title="Napoleon">Napoleon</a> besieged <a href="/wiki/Acre,_Israel" title="Acre, Israel">Acre</a>, a well-fortified coastal city in Palestine, about forty kilometers south of Tyre.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> Both Napoleon and Al Jazzar, the governor of Acre, requested assistance from the Shihab leader; Bashir, however, remained neutral, declining to assist either combatant.<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> Unable to conquer Acre, Napoleon returned to Egypt, and the death of Al Jazzar in 1804 removed Bashir's principal opponent in the area. The Shihabs were originally a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni Muslim</a> family, but converted to Christianity<a href="#cite_note-:3-28">[28]</a> in the late-18th century. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Emir_Bashir_II">Emir Bashir II</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Emir Bashir II">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BashirChehab.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/11/BashirChehab.jpg/220px-BashirChehab.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="307" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/11/BashirChehab.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="287" data-file-height="401" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Bashir_Shihab_II" title="Bashir Shihab II">Bashir Shihab II</a></figcaption></figure> In 1788 <a href="/wiki/Bashir_Shihab_II" title="Bashir Shihab II">Bashir Shihab II</a> (or Bachir in French sources) would rise to become the Emir. Born into poverty, he was elected emir upon the abdication of his predecessor, and would rule under Ottoman suzerainty, being appointed wali or governor of Mt Lebanon, the Biqa valley and Jabal Amil. Together this is about two thirds of modern-day Lebanon. He would reform taxes and attempt to break the feudal system, in order to undercut rivals, the most important of which was also named Bashir: Bashir Jumblatt, whose wealth and feudal backers equaled or exceeded Bashir II—and who had increasing support in the Druze community. In 1822 the Ottoman wali of Damascus went to war with Acre, which was allied with <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Pasha" title="Pasha">pasha</a> of Egypt. As part of this conflict one of the most remembered massacres of Maronite Christians by Druze forces occurred, forces that were aligned with the wali of Damascus. Jumblatt represented the increasingly disaffected Druze, who were both shut out from official power and angered at the growing ties with the Maronites by Bashir II, who was himself a Maronite Christian. Bashir II was overthrown as wali when he backed Acre, and fled to Egypt, later to return and organize an army. Jumblatt gathered the Druze factions together, and the war became sectarian in character: the Maronites backing Bashir II, the Druze backing Bashir Jumblatt. Jumblatt declared a rebellion, and between 1821 and 1825 there were massacres and battles, with the Maronites attempting to gain control of the Mt. Lebanon district, and the Druze gaining control over the Biqa valley. In 1825 Bashir II, helped by the Ottomans and the Jezzar, defeated his rival in the Battle of Simqanieh. Bashir Jumblatt died in Acre at the order of the Jezzar. Bashir II was not a forgiving man and repressed the Druze rebellion, particularly in and around Beirut. This made Bashir Chehab the only leader of Mount Lebanon. However, Bashir Chehab was depicted as a nasty leader because Bashir Jumblatt was his all-time friend and has saved his life when the Keserwan peasants tried to kill the prince, by sending 1000 of his men to save him. Also, days before the Battle of Simqania, Bashir Jumblatt had the chance to kill Bashir II when he was returning from Acre when he reportedly kissed the Jezzar's feet in order to help him against Jumblatt, but Bashir II reminded him of their friendship and told Jumblatt to "pardon when you can". The high morals of Jumblatt led him to pardon Bashir II, a decision he should have regretted. Bashir II, who had come to power through local politics and nearly fallen from power because of his increasing detachment from them, reached out for allies, allies who looked on the entire area as "the Orient" and who could provide trade, weapons and money, without requiring fealty and without, it seemed, being drawn into endless internal squabbles. He disarmed the Druze and allied with France, governing in the name of the Egyptian Pasha Muhammad Ali, who entered Lebanon and formally took overlordship in 1832. For the remaining 8 years, the sectarian and feudal rifts of the 1821–1825 conflict were heightened by the increasing economic isolation of the Druze, and the increasing wealth of the Maronites. During the nineteenth century the town of Beirut became the most important port of the region, supplanting Acre further to the south. This was mostly because Mount Lebanon became a centre of <a href="/wiki/Silk" title="Silk">silk</a> production for export to Europe. This industry made the region wealthy, but also dependent on links to Europe. Since most of the silk went to <a href="/wiki/Marseille" title="Marseille">Marseille</a>, the French began to have a great impact in the region. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sectarian_conflict:_European_powers_begin_to_intervene">Sectarian conflict: European powers begin to intervene</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Sectarian conflict: European powers begin to intervene">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Christian_Church_and_Druze_khalwa_in_Maaser_el_Chouf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Christian_Church_and_Druze_khalwa_in_Maaser_el_Chouf.jpg/220px-Christian_Church_and_Druze_khalwa_in_Maaser_el_Chouf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="149" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Christian_Church_and_Druze_khalwa_in_Maaser_el_Chouf.jpg/330px-Christian_Church_and_Druze_khalwa_in_Maaser_el_Chouf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e0/Christian_Church_and_Druze_khalwa_in_Maaser_el_Chouf.jpg/440px-Christian_Church_and_Druze_khalwa_in_Maaser_el_Chouf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1218" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Christian_Church" title="Christian Church">Christian Church</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Druze_Khalwa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Druze Khalwa (page does not exist)">Druze Khalwa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Chouf_District" title="Chouf District">Shuf Mountains</a>: Historically; the <a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Druze" title="Christianity and Druze">Druzes and the Christians</a> in the Shuf Mountains lived in complete harmony.<a href="#cite_note-Hobby_1985_53-30">[30]</a> </figcaption></figure> The discontent grew to open rebellion, fed by both Ottoman and British money and support: Bashir II fled, the Ottoman Empire reasserted control and Mehmed Hüsrev Pasha, whose sole term as Grand Vizier ran from 1839 to 1841, appointed another member of the Shihab family, who styled himself Bashir III. Bashir III, coming on the heels of a man who by guile, force and diplomacy had dominated Mt Lebanon and the Biqa for 52 years, did not last long. In 1841 conflicts between the impoverished Druze and the Maronite Christians exploded: There was a massacre of Christians by the Druze at Deir al Qamar, and the fleeing survivors were slaughtered by Ottoman regulars. The Ottomans attempted to create peace by dividing Mt Lebanon into a Christian district and a Druze district, but this would merely create geographic powerbases for the warring parties, and it plunged the region back into civil conflict which included not only the sectarian warfare but a Maronite revolt against the Feudal class, which ended in 1858 with the overthrow of the old feudal system of taxes and levies. The situation was unstable: the Maronites lived in the large towns, but these were often surrounded by Druze villages living as perioikoi. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:18620eventsChristianrefugees.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/18620eventsChristianrefugees.jpg/220px-18620eventsChristianrefugees.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/18620eventsChristianrefugees.jpg/330px-18620eventsChristianrefugees.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/18620eventsChristianrefugees.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption>Christian refugees during the <a href="/wiki/1860_civil_conflict_in_Mount_Lebanon_and_Damascus" title="1860 civil conflict in Mount Lebanon and Damascus">1860 strife between Druze and Maronites in Lebanon</a></figcaption></figure> The relationship between the <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> and <a href="/wiki/Christians" title="Christians">Christians</a> has been characterized by <a href="/wiki/Harmony" title="Harmony">harmony</a> and peaceful <a href="/wiki/Plurinationalism" title="Plurinationalism">coexistence</a>,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a><a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a><a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a><a href="#cite_note-Hobby_1985_53-30">[30]</a> with amicable relations between the two groups prevailing throughout history, with the exception of some periods, including <a href="/wiki/1860_Mount_Lebanon_civil_war" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 Mount Lebanon civil war">1860 Mount Lebanon civil war</a>.<a href="#cite_note-google-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> In 1860, this would boil back into full scale <a href="/wiki/1860_Druze-Christian_conflict_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="1860 Druze-Christian conflict in Lebanon">sectarian war</a>, when the Maronites began openly opposing the power of the Ottoman Empire. Another destabilizing factor was France's support for the Maronite Christians against the Druze which in turn led the British to back the Druze, exacerbating religious and economic tensions between the two communities. The Druze took advantage of this and began burning Maronite villages. The Druze had grown increasingly resentful of the favoring of the Maronites by Bashir II, and were backed by the Ottoman Empire and the wali of Damascus in an attempt to gain greater control over Lebanon; the Maronites were backed by the French, out of both economic and political expediency. The Druze began a military campaign that included the burning of villages and massacres, while Maronite irregulars retaliated with attacks of their own. However, the Maronites were gradually pushed into a few strongholds and were on the verge of military defeat when the <a href="/wiki/Concert_of_Europe" title="Concert of Europe">Concert of Europe</a> intervened<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a> and established a commission to determine the outcome.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> The French forces deployed there were then used to enforce the final decision. The French accepted the Druze as having established control and the Maronites were reduced to a semi-autonomous region around <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a>, without even direct control over Beirut itself. The Province of Lebanon would be controlled by the Maronites, but the entire area was placed under direct rule of the governor of Damascus, and carefully watched by the Ottoman Empire. The long siege of <a href="/wiki/Deir_al-Qamar" title="Deir al-Qamar">Deir al-Qamar</a> found a Maronite garrison holding out against Druze forces backed by Ottoman soldiers; the area in every direction was despoiled by the besiegers. In July 1860, with European intervention threatening, the Turkish government tried to quiet the strife, but Napoleon III of France sent 7,000 troops to Beirut and helped impose a partition: The Druze control of the territory was recognized as the fact on the ground, and the Maronites were forced into an enclave, arrangements ratified by the Concert of Europe in 1861. They were confined to a mountainous district, cut off from both the Biqa and Beirut, and faced with the prospect of ever-growing poverty. Resentments and fears would brood, ones which would resurface in the coming decades. <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LebaneseFighters.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/LebaneseFighters.jpg/220px-LebaneseFighters.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/LebaneseFighters.jpg/330px-LebaneseFighters.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/da/LebaneseFighters.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="402" /></a><figcaption>Lebanese soldiers, 1861–1914</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Youssef_Bey_Karam" title="Youssef Bey Karam">Youssef Bey Karam</a>,<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> a Lebanese nationalist played an influential role in Lebanon's independence during this era. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="El-Assaad_rule_(Al-Saghir_dynasty)">El-Assaad rule (Al-Saghir dynasty)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: El-Assaad rule (Al-Saghir dynasty)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/El_Assaad_Family" title="El Assaad Family">El Assaad Family</a></div> the El-Assaad dynasty that ruled most of South Lebanon for three centuries and whose lineage defended the local people of the <a href="/wiki/Jabal_Amel" class="mw-redirect" title="Jabal Amel">Jabal Amel</a> (Mount Amel) principality – today <a href="/wiki/Southern_Lebanon" title="Southern Lebanon">southern Lebanon</a> – for 36 generations, they also held influence in <a href="/wiki/Balqa_(region)" title="Balqa (region)">Balqa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Jordan" title="Jordan">Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Nablus" title="Nablus">Nablus</a> in Palestine, and <a href="/wiki/Homs" title="Homs">Homs</a> in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a> during Ottomans rule. Key figures in their history include Sheikh al Mashayekh (Chief of Chiefs) Nasif al-Nassar ibn al-Waeli,<a href="#cite_note-39">[39]</a> who governed during the Arab caliphate, and Sabib Pasha El-Assaad,<a href="#cite_note-40">[40]</a> who navigated Ottoman conquests. Ali Bek El-Assaad ruled over Belad Bechara, a part of Jabal Amel, while Ali Nassrat Bek served as an Advisor of the Court and held a superior position in the Ottoman Empire's Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Moustafa Nassar Bek El-Assaad served as the Supreme Court President of Lebanon during the colonial French administration, and Hassib Bek, also a supreme court Judge, played a significant role in legal proceedings across the Levant.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a><a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> The El-Assaads are considered as "Bakaweit" (title of nobility plural of "Bek" granted to a few wealthy families in Lebanon in the early 18th century), and previously considered princes, however titles have changed over time.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a><a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> During the El-Assaad era, provincial governors operated with the consent of local clans. In exchange for their protection and support of trade against external threats, these governors were granted Khuwwa, a voluntary crop-sharing system. This arrangement ensured the preservation for the freedom of individuals against imperial taxation regimes. However, as domestic ideological conflicts, foreign interventions, and corruption escalated, the El-Assaad regime struggled to maintain its control, leading to a rapid deterioration of stability and governance.<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> When the 1858 Ottoman land reforms led to the accumulated ownership of large tracts of land by only a few families on the expense of the peasants, the El-Assaad descendants of the rural Ali al-Saghir dynasty expanded their <a href="/wiki/Fief" title="Fief">fief</a> holdings as the provincial leaders in Jabal Amel.<a href="#cite_note-46">[46]</a><a href="#cite_note-47">[47]</a> In December 1831 Tyre fell under the rule of <a href="/wiki/Muhammad_Ali_of_Egypt" title="Muhammad Ali of Egypt">Muhammad Ali Pasha</a> of Egypt, after an army led by his son <a href="/wiki/Ibrahim_Pasha_of_Egypt" title="Ibrahim Pasha of Egypt">Ibrahim Pasha</a> had entered Jaffa and Haifa without resistance.<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> Two years later, Shiite forces under Hamad al-Mahmud from the Ali al-Saghir dynasty rebelled against the occupation. They were supported by the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> and <a href="/wiki/Austria-Hungary" title="Austria-Hungary">Austria-Hungary</a>: Tyre was captured on 24 September 1839 after allied naval bombardments.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> For their fight against the Egyptian invaders, al-Mahmud and his successor Ali El-Assaad – a relative – were rewarded by the Ottoman rulers with the restoration of Shiite autonomy in Jabal Amel. However, in Tyre it was the Mamluk family that gained a dominant position. Its head Jussuf Aga ibn Mamluk was reportedly a son of the anti-Shiite Jazzar Pasha. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Late_19th_century_to_early_20th_century">Late 19th century to early 20th century</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Late 19th century to early 20th century">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maronite_from_Lebanon,_Inhabitant_of_Je%C3%AFbel,_Christian_Woman_from_Lebanon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Maronite_from_Lebanon%2C_Inhabitant_of_Je%C3%AFbel%2C_Christian_Woman_from_Lebanon.jpg/220px-Maronite_from_Lebanon%2C_Inhabitant_of_Je%C3%AFbel%2C_Christian_Woman_from_Lebanon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="270" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Maronite_from_Lebanon%2C_Inhabitant_of_Je%C3%AFbel%2C_Christian_Woman_from_Lebanon.jpg/330px-Maronite_from_Lebanon%2C_Inhabitant_of_Je%C3%AFbel%2C_Christian_Woman_from_Lebanon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/a2/Maronite_from_Lebanon%2C_Inhabitant_of_Je%C3%AFbel%2C_Christian_Woman_from_Lebanon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="504" /></a><figcaption>Lebanese dress from the late 19th century.</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Maronite" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite">Maronite</a> <a href="/wiki/Catholic" class="mw-redirect" title="Catholic">Catholics</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Druze" title="Druze">Druze</a> founded modern <a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> in the early eighteenth century, through the ruling and social system known as the "<a href="/wiki/Christianity_and_Druze" title="Christianity and Druze">Maronite-Druze dualism</a>" in <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Deeb_2013-50">[50]</a> The remainder of the 19th century saw a relative period of stability, as Muslim, Druze and Maronite groups focused on economic and cultural development which saw the founding of the <a href="/wiki/American_University_of_Beirut" title="American University of Beirut">American University of Beirut</a> and a flowering of literary and political activity associated with the attempts to liberalize the Ottoman Empire. Late in the century there was a short Druze uprising over the extremely harsh government and high taxation rates, but there was far less of the violence that had scalded the area earlier in the century. In the approach to World War I, Beirut became a center of various reforming movements, and would send delegates to the Arab Syrian conference and Franco-Syrian conference held in Paris. There was a complex array of solutions, from pan-Arab nationalism, to separatism for Beirut, and several status quo movements that sought stability and reform within the context of Ottoman government. The Young Turk revolution brought these movements to the front, hoping that the reform of Ottoman Empire would lead to broader reforms. The outbreak of hostilities changed this, as Lebanon was to feel the weight of the conflict in the Middle East more heavily than most other areas occupied by the Syrians. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Great_famine_in_Lebanon,_1915–1918">Great famine in Lebanon, 1915–1918</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Great famine in Lebanon, 1915–1918">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine of Mount Lebanon</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">They lost so many loved ones during that time. My father once said that the rich families survived as they were able to bribe and get supplies on the black market. It was the unemployed, the middle class and the poor that were dying in the streets.<div class="templatequotecite">— <cite>Teresa Michel, son of famine survivors<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a></cite></div></blockquote> About half the population of the Mount Lebanon subdivision, overwhelmingly Maronites, starved to death (200,000 killed out of 400,000 of the total populace) throughout the years of 1915–1918 during what is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine of Mount Lebanon</a>,<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> as a consequence of a mixed combination of crop failure, punitive governance practices, naval blockade of the coast by the Allies, and an Ottoman military ban on exports from Syria into Lebanon, during <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> Dead bodies were piled in the streets and starving Lebanese civilians were reported to be eating street animals while some even resorted to cannibalism.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="League_of_Nations_Mandate_(1920–1939)">League of Nations Mandate (1920–1939)</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: League of Nations Mandate (1920–1939)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon">French Mandate for Syria and the Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg/220px-French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg/330px-French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4a/French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg/440px-French_Mandate_for_Syria_and_the_Lebanon_map_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="922" data-file-height="762" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a> (green) in the <a href="/wiki/Mandate_of_Syria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mandate of Syria">Mandate of Syria</a></figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:311px;max-width:311px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:152px;max-width:152px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Carte_du_Liban_d%27apres_les_reconnaissances_de_la_Brigade_Topographique_du_Corps_Expeditionnaire_de_Syrie_en_1860-1861.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Carte_du_Liban_d%27apres_les_reconnaissances_de_la_Brigade_Topographique_du_Corps_Expeditionnaire_de_Syrie_en_1860-1861.jpg/150px-Carte_du_Liban_d%27apres_les_reconnaissances_de_la_Brigade_Topographique_du_Corps_Expeditionnaire_de_Syrie_en_1860-1861.jpg" decoding="async" width="150" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Carte_du_Liban_d%27apres_les_reconnaissances_de_la_Brigade_Topographique_du_Corps_Expeditionnaire_de_Syrie_en_1860-1861.jpg/225px-Carte_du_Liban_d%27apres_les_reconnaissances_de_la_Brigade_Topographique_du_Corps_Expeditionnaire_de_Syrie_en_1860-1861.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/Carte_du_Liban_d%27apres_les_reconnaissances_de_la_Brigade_Topographique_du_Corps_Expeditionnaire_de_Syrie_en_1860-1861.jpg/300px-Carte_du_Liban_d%27apres_les_reconnaissances_de_la_Brigade_Topographique_du_Corps_Expeditionnaire_de_Syrie_en_1860-1861.jpg 2x" data-file-width="8440" data-file-height="11302" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">1862 map drawn by the French expedition of <a href="/wiki/Charles-Marie-Napol%C3%A9on_de_Beaufort_d%27Hautpoul" title="Charles-Marie-Napoléon de Beaufort d'Hautpoul">Beaufort d'Hautpoul</a><a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a></div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:155px;max-width:155px"><div class="thumbimage"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution_with_Mount_Lebanon_1862-1917_borders_shown.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution_with_Mount_Lebanon_1862-1917_borders_shown.svg/153px-Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution_with_Mount_Lebanon_1862-1917_borders_shown.svg.png" decoding="async" width="153" height="197" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution_with_Mount_Lebanon_1862-1917_borders_shown.svg/230px-Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution_with_Mount_Lebanon_1862-1917_borders_shown.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/72/Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution_with_Mount_Lebanon_1862-1917_borders_shown.svg/306px-Lebanon_religious_groups_distribution_with_Mount_Lebanon_1862-1917_borders_shown.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="2700" data-file-height="3484" /></a></div><div class="thumbcaption">Black dashed line shows the borders of the 1861–1918 <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate</a></div></div></div><div class="trow" style="display:flex"><div class="thumbcaption">The first map, drawn by the French in 1862, was used as a template for the 1920 borders of <a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">Greater Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> The second map shows the borders of the 1861–1918 <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate</a>, overlaid on a map of modern day Lebanon showing religious groups distribution</div></div></div></div> Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire after <a href="/wiki/World_War_I" title="World War I">World War I</a>, the <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations" title="League of Nations">League of Nations</a> mandated the five provinces that make up present-day Lebanon to the direct control of France. Initially the division of the Arabic-speaking areas of the Ottoman Empire were to be divided by the <a href="/wiki/Sykes%E2%80%93Picot_Agreement" title="Sykes–Picot Agreement">Sykes–Picot Agreement</a>; however, the final disposition was at the <a href="/wiki/San_Remo_conference" title="San Remo conference">San Remo conference</a> of 1920, whose determinations on the mandates, their boundaries, purposes and organization was ratified by the League in 1921 and put into effect in 1922. According to the agreements reached at San Remo, France had its control over what was termed <a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Syria" title="Ottoman Syria">Syria</a> recognised, the French having taken Damascus in 1920. Like all formerly Ottoman areas, Syria was a <a href="/wiki/League_of_Nations_mandate#Class_A_mandates" title="League of Nations mandate">Class A Mandate</a>, deemed to "... have reached a stage of development where their existence as independent nations can be provisionally recognized subject to the rendering of administrative advice and assistance by a Mandatory until such time as they are able to stand alone. The wishes of these communities must be a principal consideration in the selection of the Mandatory." The entire French mandate area was termed "Syria" at the time, including the administrative districts along the Mediterranean coast. Wanting to maximize the area under its direct control, contain an Arab Syria centered on Damascus, and ensure a defensible border, France moved the Lebanon-Syrian border to the <a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a>, east of the <a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Beqaa Valley</a>, territory which had historically belonged to the province of Damascus for hundreds of years, and was far more attached to Damascus than Beirut by culture and influence. This doubled the territory under the control of Beirut, at the expense of what would become the state of <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebanese_French_flag.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lebanese_French_flag.svg/150px-Lebanese_French_flag.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="100" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lebanese_French_flag.svg/225px-Lebanese_French_flag.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Lebanese_French_flag.svg/300px-Lebanese_French_flag.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="744" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>Flag of Greater Lebanon during the French mandate (1920–1943)</figcaption></figure>On October 27, 1919, the Lebanese delegation led by <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christianity_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christianity in Lebanon">Maronite</a> Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Elias_Peter_Hoayek" title="Elias Peter Hoayek">Elias Peter Hoayek</a> presented the Lebanese aspirations in a memorandum to the <a href="/wiki/Paris_Peace_Conference,_1919" class="mw-redirect" title="Paris Peace Conference, 1919">Paris Peace Conference</a>. This included a significant extension of the frontiers of the Lebanon Mutasarrifate,<a href="#cite_note-Salibi26-57">[57]</a> arguing that the additional areas constituted natural parts of Lebanon, despite the fact that the Christian community would not be a clear majority in such an enlarged state.<a href="#cite_note-Salibi26-57">[57]</a> The quest for the annexation of agricultural lands in the Bekaa and Akkar was fueled by existential fears following the death of nearly half of the <a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate</a> population in the <a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Great Famine of Mount Lebanon">Great Famine</a>; the Maronite church and the secular leaders sought a state that could better provide for its people.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> The areas to be added to the Mutasarrifate included the coastal towns of Beirut, <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon" title="Tripoli, Lebanon">Tripoli</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tyre,_Lebanon" title="Tyre, Lebanon">Tyre</a> and their respective hinterlands, all of which belonged to the <a href="/wiki/Beirut_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Beirut Vilayet">Beirut Vilayet</a>, together with four <a href="/wiki/Kaza" title="Kaza">Kazas</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Syria_Vilayet" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria Vilayet">Syria Vilayet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Baalbek" title="Baalbek">Baalbek</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Bekaa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Rashaya" title="Rashaya">Rashaya</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hasbaya" title="Hasbaya">Hasbaya</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Salibi26-57">[57]</a> As a consequence of this also, the demographics of Lebanon were profoundly altered, as the added territory contained people who were predominantly Muslim or Druze: Lebanese Christians, of which the Maronites were the largest subgrouping, now constituted barely more than 50% of the population, while <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni Muslims</a> in Lebanon saw their numbers increase eightfold, and the <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in Lebanon">Shi'ite Muslims</a> fourfold. <a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Lebanon" title="Constitution of Lebanon">Modern Lebanon's constitution</a>, drawn up in 1926, specified a balance of power between the various religious groups, but France designed it to guarantee the political dominance of its Christian allies. The president was required to be a Christian (in practice, a Maronite), the prime minister a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni Muslim</a>. On the basis of the 1932 census, parliament seats were divided according to a six-to-five Christian/Muslim ratio. The constitution gave the president veto power over any legislation approved by parliament, virtually ensuring that the 6:5 ratio would not be revised in case the population distribution changed. By 1960, Muslims were thought to constitute a majority of the population, which contributed to Muslim unrest regarding the political system. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="World_War_II_and_independence">World War II and independence</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: World War II and independence">edit</a>]</div> During <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> when the <a href="/wiki/Vichy_France" title="Vichy France">Vichy government</a> assumed power over French territory in 1940, General <a href="/wiki/Henri_Dentz" title="Henri Dentz">Henri Fernand Dentz</a> was appointed as high commissioner of Lebanon. This new turning point led to the resignation of Lebanese president <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Edd%C3%A9" title="Émile Eddé">Émile Eddé</a> on April 4, 1941. After five days, Dentz appointed <a href="/wiki/Alfred_Naqqache" title="Alfred Naqqache">Alfred Naqqache</a> for a presidency period that lasted only three months. The Vichy authorities allowed <a href="/wiki/Nazi_Germany" title="Nazi Germany">Nazi Germany</a> to move aircraft and supplies through Syria to Iraq where they were used against British forces. Britain, fearing that Nazi Germany would gain full control of Lebanon and Syria by pressure on the weak Vichy government, <a href="/wiki/Syria%E2%80%93Lebanon_Campaign" class="mw-redirect" title="Syria–Lebanon Campaign">sent its army into Syria and Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> After the fighting ended in Lebanon, General <a href="/wiki/Charles_de_Gaulle" title="Charles de Gaulle">Charles de Gaulle</a> visited the area. Under various political pressures from both inside and outside Lebanon, de Gaulle decided to recognize the independence of Lebanon. On November 26, 1941, General <a href="/wiki/Georges_Catroux" title="Georges Catroux">Georges Catroux</a> announced that Lebanon would become independent under the authority of the Free French government. <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lebanese_flag.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lebanese_flag.JPG/200px-Lebanese_flag.JPG" decoding="async" width="200" height="123" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Lebanese_flag.JPG/300px-Lebanese_flag.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/35/Lebanese_flag.JPG 2x" data-file-width="399" data-file-height="245" /></a><figcaption>Flag as drawn and approved by the members of the Lebanese parliament during the declaration of independence in 1943</figcaption></figure> Elections were held in 1943 and on November 8, 1943, the new Lebanese government unilaterally abolished the mandate. The French reacted by throwing the new government into prison. In the face of international pressure, the French released the government officials on November 22, 1943, and accepted the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Independence_Day" title="Lebanese Independence Day">independence of Lebanon</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Republic_of_Lebanon">Republic of Lebanon</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Republic of Lebanon">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Independence_and_following_years">Independence and following years</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Independence and following years">edit</a>]</div> The allies kept the region under control until the end of World War II. The last French troops withdrew in 1946. Lebanon's history since independence has been marked by alternating periods of political stability and turmoil interspersed with prosperity built on Beirut's position as a freely trading regional center for finance and trade. Beirut became a prime location for institutions of international commerce and finance, as well as wealthy tourists, and enjoyed a reputation as the "Paris of the Middle East" until the outbreak of the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a>. In the aftermath of the <a href="/wiki/1948_Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_War" title="1948 Arab–Israeli War">1948 Arab–Israeli War</a>, Lebanon became home to more than 110,000 <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_refugee_camps" title="Palestinian refugee camps">Palestinian refugees</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Straatbeeld_in_Beiroet,_Bestanddeelnr_255-6176.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Straatbeeld_in_Beiroet%2C_Bestanddeelnr_255-6176.jpg/220px-Straatbeeld_in_Beiroet%2C_Bestanddeelnr_255-6176.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Straatbeeld_in_Beiroet%2C_Bestanddeelnr_255-6176.jpg/330px-Straatbeeld_in_Beiroet%2C_Bestanddeelnr_255-6176.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/db/Straatbeeld_in_Beiroet%2C_Bestanddeelnr_255-6176.jpg/440px-Straatbeeld_in_Beiroet%2C_Bestanddeelnr_255-6176.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2593" data-file-height="2589" /></a><figcaption>Beirut in 1950</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Economic_prosperity_and_growing_tensions">Economic prosperity and growing tensions</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Economic prosperity and growing tensions">edit</a>]</div> In 1958, during the last months of President <a href="/wiki/Camille_Chamoun" title="Camille Chamoun">Camille Chamoun</a>'s term, <a href="/wiki/Lebanon_crisis_of_1958" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanon crisis of 1958">an insurrection</a> broke out, and 5,000 <a href="/wiki/United_States_Marines" class="mw-redirect" title="United States Marines">United States Marines</a> were <a href="/wiki/Operation_Blue_Bat" class="mw-redirect" title="Operation Blue Bat">briefly dispatched</a> to Beirut on July 15 in response to an appeal by the government. After the crisis, a new government was formed, led by the popular former general <a href="/wiki/Fuad_Chehab" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuad Chehab">Fuad Chehab</a>. During the 1960s, Lebanon enjoyed a period of relative calm, with Beirut-focused tourism and banking sector-driven prosperity. Lebanon reached the peak of its economic success in the mid–1960s—the country was seen as a bastion of economic strength by the oil-rich <a href="/wiki/Persian_Gulf" title="Persian Gulf">Persian Gulf</a> Arab states, whose funds made Lebanon one of the world's fastest growing economies. This period of economic stability and prosperity was brought to an abrupt halt with the collapse of <a href="/wiki/Yousef_Beidas" title="Yousef Beidas">Yousef Beidas</a>' <a href="/wiki/Intra_Bank" title="Intra Bank">Intra Bank</a>, the country's largest bank and financial backbone, in 1966. Additional Palestinian refugees arrived after the <a href="/wiki/Six-Day_War" title="Six-Day War">1967 Arab–Israeli War</a>. Following their defeat in the <a href="/wiki/Black_September_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Black September in Jordan">Jordanian civil war</a>, thousands of Palestinian militiamen regrouped in Lebanon, led by <a href="/wiki/Yasser_Arafat" title="Yasser Arafat">Yasser Arafat</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a>, with the intention of replicating the modus operandi of attacking Israel from a politically and militarily weak neighbour. Starting in 1968, Palestinian militants of various affiliations began to use southern Lebanon as a launching pad for attacks on Israel. Two of these attacks led to a watershed event in Lebanon's inchoate civil war. In July 1968, a faction of <a href="/wiki/George_Habash" title="George Habash">George Habash</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Popular_Front_for_the_Liberation_of_Palestine" title="Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine">Popular Front for the Liberation of Palestine</a> (PFLP) <a href="/wiki/El_Al_Flight_426_hijacking" title="El Al Flight 426 hijacking">hijacked an Israeli El Al civilian plane</a> en route to Algiers; in December, two PFLP gunmen <a href="/wiki/El_Al_Flight_253_attack" title="El Al Flight 253 attack">shot at an El Al plane in Athens</a>, resulting in the death of an Israeli. As a result, two days later, <a href="/wiki/1968_Israeli_raid_on_Lebanon" title="1968 Israeli raid on Lebanon">an Israeli commando flew into Beirut's international airport</a> and destroyed more than a dozen civilian airliners belonging to various Arab carriers. Israel defended its actions by informing the Lebanese government that it was responsible for encouraging the PFLP. The retaliation, which was intended to encourage a Lebanese government crackdown on Palestinian militants, instead polarized Lebanese society on the Palestinian question, deepening the divide between pro- and anti-Palestinian factions, with the Muslims leading the former grouping and Maronites primarily constituting the latter. This dispute reflected increasing tensions between Christian and Muslim communities over the distribution of political power, and would ultimately foment the outbreak of civil war in 1975. In the interim, while armed Lebanese forces under the Maronite-controlled government sparred with Palestinian fighters, Egyptian leader <a href="/wiki/Gamal_Abdel_Nasser" title="Gamal Abdel Nasser">Gamal Abd al-Nasser</a> helped to negotiate the 1969 "<a href="/wiki/Cairo_Agreement_(1969)" title="Cairo Agreement (1969)">Cairo Agreement</a>" between Arafat and the Lebanese government, which granted the PLO autonomy over Palestinian refugee camps and access routes to northern Israel in return for PLO recognition of Lebanese sovereignty. The agreement incited Maronite frustration over what were perceived as excessive concessions to the Palestinians, and pro-Maronite paramilitary groups were subsequently formed to fill the vacuum left by government forces, which were now required to leave the Palestinians alone. Notably, the <a href="/wiki/Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Phalange</a>, a Maronite militia, rose to prominence around this time, led by members of the <a href="/wiki/Gemayel_family" title="Gemayel family">Gemayel family</a>.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a> In September 1970 <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_Franjieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Suleiman Franjieh">Suleiman Franjieh</a>, who had left the country briefly for <a href="/wiki/Latakia" title="Latakia">Latakia</a> in the 1950s after being accused of killing hundreds of people including other Maronites, was elected president by a very narrow vote in parliament. In November, his personal friend <a href="/wiki/Hafez_al-Assad" title="Hafez al-Assad">Hafiz al-Assad</a>, who had received him during his exile, seized power in <a href="/wiki/Syria" title="Syria">Syria</a>. Later, in 1976, Franjieh would invite the Syrians into Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> For its part, the PLO used its new privileges to establish an effective "mini-state" in southern Lebanon, and to ramp up its attacks on settlements in northern Israel. Compounding matters, Lebanon received an influx of armed Palestinian militants, including Arafat and his <a href="/wiki/Fatah" title="Fatah">Fatah</a> movement, fleeing the 1970 Jordanian crackdown. The PLO's "vicious terrorist attacks in Israel"<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> dating from this period were countered by Israeli bombing raids in southern Lebanon, where "150 or more towns and villages...have been repeatedly savaged by the Israeli armed forces since 1968," of which the village of <a href="/wiki/Khiyam" class="mw-redirect" title="Khiyam">Khiyam</a> is probably the best-known example.<a href="#cite_note-63">[63]</a> Palestinian attacks claimed 106 lives in northern Israel from 1967, according to official <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">IDF</a> statistics, while the Lebanese army had recorded "1.4 Israeli violations of Lebanese territory per day from 1968–74"<a href="#cite_note-64">[64]</a> Where Lebanon had no conflict with Israel during the period 1949–1968, after 1968 Lebanon's southern border began to experience an escalating cycle of attack and retaliation, leading to the chaos of the civil war, foreign invasions and international intervention. The consequences of the PLO's arrival in Lebanon continue to this day. In 1974, the <a href="/wiki/Amal_Movement" title="Amal Movement">Amal Movement</a>, a Shi’ite political party and former militia was founded by <a href="/wiki/Musa_al-Sadr" title="Musa al-Sadr">Musa al-Sadr</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hussein_el-Husseini" title="Hussein el-Husseini">Hussein el-Husseini</a>.<a href="#cite_note-65">[65]</a> Its goals were geared towards improving the social and political conditions of Lebanon's poor population. Although its primary focus was on the Shi'ite community, the movement operated as a secular entity and enjoyed the support of other communities.<a href="#cite_note-:102-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="The_Lebanese_Civil_War:_1975–1990">The Lebanese Civil War: 1975–1990</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: The Lebanese Civil War: 1975–1990">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1976a.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1976a.gif/200px-Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1976a.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/9e/Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1976a.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="261" /></a><figcaption>Map showing power balance in Lebanon, 1976: Dark Green – controlled by Syria; Purple – controlled by <a href="/wiki/Maronites" title="Maronites">Maronite</a> groups; Light Green – controlled by <a href="/wiki/Palestinians_in_Lebanon" title="Palestinians in Lebanon">Palestinian militias</a></figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a> had its origin in the conflicts and political compromises of Lebanon's post-Ottoman period and was exacerbated by the nation's changing demographic trends, inter-religious strife, and proximity to Syria, the <a href="/wiki/Palestine_Liberation_Organization" title="Palestine Liberation Organization">Palestine Liberation Organization</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a>. By 1975, Lebanon was a religiously and ethnically diverse country with most dominant groups of <a href="/wiki/Maronite_Christianity_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite Christianity in Lebanon">Maronite Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Eastern_Orthodox_Christianity_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Eastern Orthodox Christianity in Lebanon">Eastern Orthodox Christians</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni Muslims</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in Lebanon">Shia Muslims</a>; with significant minorities of Druze, <a href="/wiki/Kurds_in_Lebanon" title="Kurds in Lebanon">Kurds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Armenians_in_Lebanon" title="Armenians in Lebanon">Armenians</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Palestinians_in_Lebanon" title="Palestinians in Lebanon">Palestinian</a> refugees and their descendants. Events and political movements that contributed to Lebanon's violent implosion include, among others, the emergence of <a href="/wiki/Arab_nationalism" title="Arab nationalism">Arab nationalism</a>, <a href="/wiki/Arab_socialism" title="Arab socialism">Arab socialism</a> in the context of the <a href="/wiki/Cold_War" title="Cold War">Cold War</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Arab%E2%80%93Israeli_conflict" title="Arab–Israeli conflict">Arab–Israeli conflict</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ba%27athism" title="Ba'athism">Ba'athism</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Iranian_Revolution" class="mw-redirect" title="Iranian Revolution">Iranian Revolution</a>, <a href="/wiki/Palestinian_militants" class="mw-redirect" title="Palestinian militants">Palestinian militants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Black_September_in_Jordan" class="mw-redirect" title="Black September in Jordan">Black September in Jordan</a>, <a href="/wiki/Islamic_fundamentalism" title="Islamic fundamentalism">Islamic fundamentalism</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Iran%E2%80%93Iraq_War" title="Iran–Iraq War">Iran–Iraq War</a>. In all, it is estimated that more than 100,000 were killed, and another 100,000 handicapped by injuries, during Lebanon's 16-year war. Up to one-fifth of the pre-war resident population, or about 900,000 people, were displaced from their homes, of whom perhaps a quarter of a million emigrated permanently.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a> Thousands of people lost limbs during many stages of planting of land-mines. The War can be divided broadly into several periods: The initial outbreak in the mid–1970s, the Syrian and then Israeli intervention of the late 1970s, escalation of the PLO-Israeli conflict in the early 1980s, the 1982 Israeli invasion, a brief period of multinational involvement, and finally resolution which took the form of Syrian occupation. Constitutionally guaranteed Christian control of the government had come under increasing fire from Muslims and leftists, leading them to join forces as the National Movement in 1969, which called for the taking of a new census and the subsequent drafting of a new governmental structure that would reflect the census results. Political tension became military conflict, with full-scale civil war in April 1975. The leadership called for Syrian intervention in 1976, leading to the presence of Syrian troops in Lebanon, and an Arab summit in 1976 was called to stop the crisis. In the south, military exchanges between Israel and the <a href="/wiki/PLO" class="mw-redirect" title="PLO">PLO</a> led Israel to support <a href="/wiki/Saad_Haddad" title="Saad Haddad">Saad Haddad</a>'s <a href="/wiki/South_Lebanon_Army" title="South Lebanon Army">South Lebanon Army</a> (SLA) in an effort to establish a security belt along Israel's northern border, an effort which intensified in 1977 with the election of new Israeli prime minister <a href="/wiki/Menachem_Begin" title="Menachem Begin">Menachem Begin</a>. In March 1978 Israel invaded Lebanon in response to Fatah attacks in Israel. During Fatah attack also known as <a href="/wiki/Coastal_Road_massacre" class="mw-redirect" title="Coastal Road massacre">Coastal Road Massacre</a>, Palestinian terrorists hijacked a bus on the Coastal Highway of Israel and murdered its occupants; 38 Israeli civilians, including 13 children. Eventually, Israel took control of most of the area south of the <a href="/wiki/Litani_River" title="Litani River">Litani River</a>. It resulted in the evacuation of at least 100,000 Lebanese,<a href="#cite_note-68">[68]</a> as well as approximately 2,000 deaths.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1983a.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1983a.gif/200px-Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1983a.gif" decoding="async" width="200" height="215" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/ac/Civil_war_Lebanon_map_1983a.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="243" data-file-height="261" /></a><figcaption>Map showing power balance in Lebanon, 1983: Green – controlled by Syria, purple – controlled by Christian groups, yellow – controlled by Israel, blue – controlled by the United Nations</figcaption></figure> The <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a> passed Resolution 425 calling for an immediate Israeli withdrawal and creating the <a href="/wiki/UN_Interim_Force_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Interim Force in Lebanon">UN Interim Force in Lebanon</a> (UNIFIL), charged with maintaining peace. Israeli forces withdrew later in 1978, leaving an SLA-controlled border strip as a protective buffer against PLO cross-border attacks. In addition to the fighting between religious groups, there was rivalry between Maronite groups. In June 1978 one of <a href="/wiki/Suleiman_Franjieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Suleiman Franjieh">Suleiman Franjieh</a>'s sons, <a href="/wiki/Tony_Franjieh" class="mw-redirect" title="Tony Franjieh">Tony</a>, was killed along with his wife and infant daughter in a nighttime attack on their town, reportedly by <a href="/wiki/Bashir_Gemayel" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashir Gemayel">Bashir Gemayel</a>, <a href="/wiki/Samir_Geagea" title="Samir Geagea">Samir Geagea</a>, and their Phalangist forces.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a> Concurrently, tension between Syria and <a href="/wiki/Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Phalange</a> increased Israeli support for the Maronite group and led to direct Israeli-Syrian exchanges in April 1981, leading to American diplomatic intervention. <a href="/wiki/Philip_Habib" class="mw-redirect" title="Philip Habib">Philip Habib</a> was dispatched to the region to head off further escalation, which he successfully did via an agreement concluded in May. Intra-Palestinian fighting and PLO-Israeli conflict continued, and July 24, 1981, Habib brokered a cease-fire agreement with the PLO and Israel: the two sides agreed to cease hostilities in Lebanon proper and along the Israeli border with Lebanon. After continued PLO-Israeli exchanges, Israel invaded Lebanon on June 6 in <a href="/wiki/1982_Lebanon_War" title="1982 Lebanon War">Operation Peace for Galilee</a>. By June 15, Israeli units were entrenched outside Beirut and <a href="/wiki/Yassir_Arafat" class="mw-redirect" title="Yassir Arafat">Yassir Arafat</a> attempted through negotiations to evacuate the PLO. It is estimated<a href="#cite_note-Race-71">[71]</a> that during the entire campaign, approximately 20,000 were killed on all sides, including many civilians. These figures do not include the <a href="/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" title="Sabra and Shatila massacre">Sabra and Shatila massacre</a>, in which between 700-3500 Palestinians were killed.<a href="#cite_note-Race-71">[71]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Multinational_Force_in_Lebanon" title="Multinational Force in Lebanon">multinational force</a> composed of U.S. Marines and French and Italian units arrived to ensure the departure of the PLO and protect civilians. Nearly 15,000 Palestinian militants were evacuated by September 1. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Green_Line,_Beirut_1982.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg/220px-Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg/330px-Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg/440px-Green_Line%2C_Beirut_1982.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1065" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Green_Line_(Lebanon)" title="Green Line (Lebanon)">Green Line</a> that separated West and East Beirut, 1982</figcaption></figure> Although <a href="/wiki/Bashir_Gemayel" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashir Gemayel">Bashir Gemayel</a> did not cooperate with the Israelis publicly, his long history of tactical collaboration with Israel counted against him in the eyes of many Lebanese, especially Muslims. Although the only announced candidate for the presidency of the republic, the National Assembly elected him by the second-narrowest margin in Lebanese history (57 votes out of 92) on August 23, 1982; most Muslim members of the Assembly boycotted the vote. Nine days before he was due to take office, Gemayel was assassinated along with twenty-five others in an explosion at the Kataeb party headquarters in Beirut's Christian neighborhood of Achrafieh on September 14, 1982.<figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bachir_With_Philipe_Habib.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bachir_With_Philipe_Habib.jpg/220px-Bachir_With_Philipe_Habib.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="163" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bachir_With_Philipe_Habib.jpg/330px-Bachir_With_Philipe_Habib.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f1/Bachir_With_Philipe_Habib.jpg/440px-Bachir_With_Philipe_Habib.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2500" data-file-height="1854" /></a><figcaption>Bachir Gemayel with Philipe Habib</figcaption></figure> Phalangists entered Palestinian camps on September 16 at 6:00 PM and remained until the morning of September 19, massacring 700-3500 Palestinians,<a href="#cite_note-Race-71">[71]</a> "none apparently members of any PLO unit".<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a> This attack, known as the <a href="/wiki/Sabra_and_Shatila_massacre" title="Sabra and Shatila massacre">Sabra and Shatila massacre</a>, was enabled by an Israeli advance in West Beirut which was in breach of a ceasefire agreement.<a href="#cite_note-Anziska-73">[73]</a> It is believed that the Phalangists considered it retaliation for Gemayel's assassination and for the <a href="/wiki/Damour_massacre" title="Damour massacre">Damour massacre</a> which PLO fighters had committed earlier in a Christian town.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> Bachir Gemayel was succeeded as president by his older brother Amine Gemayel, who served from 1982 to 1988. Rather different in temperament, Amine Gemayel was widely regarded as lacking the charisma and decisiveness of his brother, and many of the latter's followers were dissatisfied. <a href="/wiki/Amine_Gemayel" title="Amine Gemayel">Amine Gemayel</a> focused on securing the withdrawal of Israeli and Syrian forces. A May 17, 1983, agreement among Lebanon, Israel, and the United States arranged an Israeli withdrawal conditional on the departure of Syrian troops. Syria opposed the agreement and declined to discuss the withdrawal of its troops, effectively stalemating further progress. In 1983 the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">IDF</a> withdrew southward and left the Chouf, and would remain only in the "security zone" until the year 2000. That led to the <a href="/wiki/Mountain_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Mountain War">Mountain War</a> between the Druze <a href="/wiki/Progressive_Socialist_Party" title="Progressive Socialist Party">Progressive Socialist Party</a> and the Maronite <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Forces" title="Lebanese Forces">Lebanese Forces</a>. The PSP won the decisive battle that occurred in the <a href="/wiki/Chouf_District" title="Chouf District">Chouf</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aley_District" title="Aley District">Aley District</a> and inflected heavy losses to the LF. The result was the expulsion of the Christians from the Southern Mount Lebanon. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beirutbarr.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Beirutbarr.jpg/220px-Beirutbarr.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Beirutbarr.jpg/330px-Beirutbarr.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cc/Beirutbarr.jpg/440px-Beirutbarr.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="2131" /></a><figcaption>Explosion at the Marine barracks seen from afar</figcaption></figure> Intense attacks against U.S. and Western interests, including <a href="/wiki/April_1983_United_States_Embassy_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="April 1983 United States Embassy bombing">two truck bombings of the US Embassy</a> in 1983 and 1984 and the landmark <a href="/wiki/1983_Beirut_barracks_bombing" class="mw-redirect" title="1983 Beirut barracks bombing">attacks on the U.S. Marine and French parachute regiment barracks</a> on October 23, 1983, led to an American withdrawal. The virtual collapse of the Lebanese Army in the <a href="/wiki/February_6_Intifada" title="February 6 Intifada">6 February 1984 Intifada</a> in Beirut, led by the PSP and Amal, the two main allies, was a major blow to the government. On March 5, as a result of the Intifada and the Mountain War, the Lebanese Government canceled the 17 May 1983 agreement. The US Marines departed a few weeks later. Between 1985 and 1989, heavy fighting took place in the "<a href="/wiki/War_of_the_Camps" title="War of the Camps">War of the Camps</a>". The <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in Lebanon">Shi'a Muslim</a> <a href="/wiki/Amal_Movement" title="Amal Movement">Amal</a> militia sought to rout the Palestinians from Lebanese strongholds. Combat returned to Beirut in 1987, with Palestinians, leftists and Druze fighters allied against Amal. After winning the battle, the PSP controlled West Beirut. The Syrians then entered Beirut. This combat was fueled by the Syrians in order to take control of Beirut by taking as a pretext of stopping the fights between the brothers, the PSP and Amal. Violent confrontation flared up again in Beirut in 1988 between Amal and <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a>. Meanwhile, on the political front, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Rashid_Karami" title="Rashid Karami">Rashid Karami</a>, head of a government of national unity set up after the failed peace efforts of 1984, was assassinated on June 1, 1987. President Gemayel's term of office expired in September 1988. Before stepping down, he appointed another Maronite Christian, <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Lebanon">Lebanese Armed Forces</a> Commanding General <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aoun" title="Michel Aoun">Michel Aoun</a>, as acting prime minister, as was his right under the Lebanese constitution of 1943. This action was highly controversial. Muslim groups rejected the move and pledged support to <a href="/wiki/Selim_Hoss" class="mw-redirect" title="Selim Hoss">Selim al-Hoss</a>, a <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni</a> who had succeeded Karami. Lebanon was thus divided between a Christian government in East Beirut and a Muslim government in West Beirut, with no president. In February 1989, General Aoun launched the "War of liberation", a war against the Syrian Armed Forces in Lebanon. His campaign was partially supported by a few foreign nations but the method and approach was disputed within the Christian community. This led to the Lebanese forces to abstain from the Syrian attack against Aoun. In October 1990, the Syrian air force, backed by the US and pro-Syrian Lebanese groups (including Hariri, Joumblatt, Berri, Geagea and Lahoud) attacked the Presidential Palace at B'abda and forced Aoun to take refuge in the French embassy in Beirut and later go into exile in <a href="/wiki/Paris" title="Paris">Paris</a>. October 13, 1990, is regarded as the date the civil war ended, and Syria is widely recognized as playing a critical role in its end.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Taif_Agreement" title="Taif Agreement">Taif Agreement</a> of 1989 marked the beginning of the end of the war, and was ratified on November 4. President <a href="/wiki/Rene_Mouawad" class="mw-redirect" title="Rene Mouawad">Rene Mouawad</a> was elected the following day, but was assassinated in a <a href="/wiki/Car_bomb" title="Car bomb">car bombing</a> in Beirut on November 22 as his motorcade returned from Lebanese independence day ceremonies. He was succeeded by <a href="/wiki/Elias_Hrawi" title="Elias Hrawi">Elias Hrawi</a>, who remained in office until 1998. In August 1990, the parliament and the new president agreed on constitutional amendments embodying some of the political reforms envisioned at Taif. The National Assembly expanded to 128 seats and was divided equally between Christians and Muslims. In March 1991, parliament passed an amnesty law that pardoned most political crimes prior to its enactment, excepting crimes perpetrated against foreign diplomats or certain crimes referred by the cabinet to the Higher Judicial Council. In May 1991, the militias (with the important exception of Hizballah) were dissolved, and the <a href="/wiki/Military_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Military of Lebanon">Lebanese Armed Forces</a> began to slowly rebuild themselves as Lebanon's only major non-sectarian institution. Some violence still occurred. In late December 1991 a car bomb (estimated to carry 100 kg (220 lb) of TNT) exploded in the Muslim neighborhood of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Basta,_Lebanon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Basta, Lebanon (page does not exist)">Basta</a>. At least thirty people were killed, and 120 wounded, including former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Shafik_Wazzan" title="Shafik Wazzan">Shafik Wazzan</a>, who was riding in a bulletproof car. It was the deadliest car bombing in Lebanon since June 18, 1985, when an explosion in the northern Lebanese port of <a href="/wiki/Tripoli,_Lebanon" title="Tripoli, Lebanon">Tripoli</a> killed sixty people and wounded 110. The last of the Westerners kidnapped by Hezbollah during the mid–1980s were released in May 1992. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Second_Lebanese_Republic">Second Lebanese Republic</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Second Lebanese Republic">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Israeli_occupation_of_Southern_Lebanon" title="Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon">Israeli occupation of Southern Lebanon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">Syrian occupation of Lebanon</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Second_Lebanese_Republic" title="Second Lebanese Republic">Second Lebanese Republic</a></div> Since the end of the war, the Lebanese have conducted several elections, most of the militias have been weakened or disbanded, and the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Armed_Forces" title="Lebanese Armed Forces">Lebanese Armed Forces</a> (LAF) have extended central government authority over about two-thirds of the country. Only Hezbollah retained its weapons, and was supported by the Lebanese parliament in doing so, as they had defended Lebanon against the Israeli occupation. Syria on the other hand kept its military presence in most of Lebanon, also holding various government institutions in the country, strengthening its occupation. The Israeli forces finally withdrew from south of Lebanon in May 2000, though the Syrian occupation of most Lebanon still continued. By early November 1992, a new parliament had been elected, and Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Rafiq_Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafiq Hariri">Rafiq Hariri</a> had formed a cabinet, retaining for himself the finance portfolio. The formation of a government headed by a successful billionaire businessman was widely seen as a sign that Lebanon would make a priority of rebuilding the country and reviving the economy. <a href="/wiki/Solidere" title="Solidere">Solidere</a>, a private real estate company set up to rebuild downtown Beirut, was a symbol of Hariri's strategy to link economic recovery to private sector investment. After the election of then-commander of the Lebanese Armed Forces <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Lahoud" title="Émile Lahoud">Émile Lahoud</a> as president in 1998 following Hrawi's extended term as president, <a href="/wiki/Salim_al-Hoss" class="mw-redirect" title="Salim al-Hoss">Salim al-Hoss</a> again served as <a href="/wiki/Prime_minister" title="Prime minister">prime minister</a>. Hariri returned to office as prime minister in November 2000. Although problems with basic infrastructure and government services persist, and Lebanon is now highly indebted, much of the civil war damage has been repaired throughout the country, and many foreign investors and tourists have returned. Postwar social and political instability, fueled by economic uncertainty and the collapse of the Lebanese currency, led to the resignation of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Omar_Karami" title="Omar Karami">Omar Karami</a>, also in May 1992, after less than 2 years in office. He was replaced by former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Rachid_Solh" title="Rachid Solh">Rachid Solh</a>, who was widely viewed as a caretaker to oversee Lebanon's first parliamentary elections in 20 years. If Lebanon has in part recovered over the past decade from the catastrophic damage to infrastructure of its long civil war, the social and political divisions that gave rise to and sustained that conflict remain largely unresolved. Parliamentary and more recently municipal elections have been held with fewer irregularities and more popular participation than in the immediate aftermath of the conflict, and Lebanese civil society generally enjoys significantly more freedoms than elsewhere in the Arab world. However, there are continuing sectarian tensions and unease about Syrian and other external influences. <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Elie_Hobeika.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Elie_Hobeika.jpg/170px-Elie_Hobeika.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="216" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Elie_Hobeika.jpg/255px-Elie_Hobeika.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Elie_Hobeika.jpg/340px-Elie_Hobeika.jpg 2x" data-file-width="870" data-file-height="1104" /></a><figcaption>Portrait of Elie Hobeika</figcaption></figure> In the late 1990s, the government took action against <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni Muslim</a> extremists in the north who had attacked its soldiers, and it continues to move against groups such as Asbat al-Ansar, which has been accused of being partnered with <a href="/wiki/Osama_bin_Laden" title="Osama bin Laden">Osama bin Laden</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Al-Qaeda" title="Al-Qaeda">al-Qaida</a> network. On January 24, 2002, <a href="/wiki/Elie_Hobeika" title="Elie Hobeika">Elie Hobeika</a>, another former Lebanese Forces figure associated with the Sabra and Shatilla massacres who later served in three cabinets and the parliament, was assassinated in a car bombing in Beirut. During Lebanon's civil war, Syria's <a href="/wiki/Syrian_occupation_of_Lebanon" title="Syrian occupation of Lebanon">troop deployment</a> in Lebanon was legitimized by the Lebanese Parliament in the <a href="/wiki/Taif_Agreement" title="Taif Agreement">Taif Agreement</a>, supported by the Arab League, and is given a major share of the credit for finally bringing the civil war to an end in October 1990. In the ensuing fifteen years, Damascus and Beirut justified Syria's continued military presence in Lebanon by citing the continued weakness of a Lebanese armed forces faced with both internal and external security threats, and the agreement with the Lebanese Government to implement all of the constitutional reforms in the <a href="/wiki/Taif_Agreement" title="Taif Agreement">Taif Agreement</a>. Under Taif, the <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> militia was eventually to be dismantled, and the LAF allowed to deploy along the border with Israel. Lebanon was called on to deploy along its southern border by <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1391" class="extiw" title="wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1391">UN Security Council Resolution 1391</a>, urged to do so by UN Resolution <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1496" class="extiw" title="wikisource:UN Security Council Resolution 1496">UN Security Council Resolution 1496</a>, and deployment was demanded by <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1559">UN Security Council Resolution 1559</a>. The Syrian military and intelligence presence in Lebanon was criticised by some on Lebanon's right-wing inside and outside of the country, others believed it helped to prevent renewed civil war and discourage Israeli aggression, and others believed its presence and influence was helpful for Lebanese stability and peace but should be scaled back.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> Major powers <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> and France rejected Syrian reasoning that they were in Lebanon by the consent of the Lebanese government. They insist that the latter had been co-opted and that in fact Lebanon's Government was a Syrian puppet.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> Up to 2005, 14–15,000 Syrian troops (down from 35,000)<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> remained in position in many areas of Lebanon, although the <a href="/wiki/Taif_Agreement" title="Taif Agreement">Taif</a> called for an agreement between the Syrian and Lebanese Governments by September 1992 on their redeployment to Lebanon's Bekaa Valley. Syria's refusal to exit Lebanon following Israel's 2000 withdrawal from south Lebanon first raised criticism among the Lebanese <a href="/wiki/Maronite" class="mw-redirect" title="Maronite">Maronite</a> Christians<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> and Druze, who were later joined by many of Lebanon's <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni Muslims</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Lebanon's <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in Lebanon">Shiites</a>, on the other hand, have long supported the Syrian presence, as has the Hezbollah militia group and political party. The <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">U.S.</a> began applying pressure on Syria to end its occupation and cease interfering with internal Lebanese matters.<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> In 2004, many believe Syria pressured Lebanese MPs to back a constitutional amendment to revise term limitations and allow Lebanon's two term pro-Syrian president <a href="/wiki/%C3%89mile_Lahoud" title="Émile Lahoud">Émile Lahoud</a> to run for a third time. France, <a href="/wiki/Germany" title="Germany">Germany</a> and the <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a>, along with many Lebanese politicians joined the U.S. in denouncing alleged Syrian interference.<a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a> On September 2, 2004, the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council">UN Security Council</a> adopted <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1559">UN Security Council Resolution 1559</a>, authored by France and the U.S. in an uncommon show of cooperation. The resolution called "upon all remaining foreign forces to withdraw from Lebanon" and "for the disbanding and disarmament of all Lebanese and non-Lebanese militias". <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Shebaa_Farms.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Shebaa_Farms.jpg/220px-Shebaa_Farms.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="336" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Shebaa_Farms.jpg/330px-Shebaa_Farms.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2d/Shebaa_Farms.jpg/440px-Shebaa_Farms.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1220" /></a><figcaption>Map of the Shebaa farms</figcaption></figure> On May 25, 2000, Israel completed its withdrawal from the south of Lebanon in accordance with <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_425" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 425">UN Security Council Resolution 425</a>.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> A 50-square-kilometre piece of mountain terrain, commonly referred to as the <a href="/wiki/Shebaa_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Shebaa farms">Shebaa farms</a>, remains under the control of Israel. The UN has certified Israel's pullout,<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> and regards the Shebaa Farms as occupied Syrian territory, while Lebanon and Syria have stated they regard the area as Lebanese territory.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> The January 20, 2005, UN Secretary-General's report on Lebanon stated: "The continually asserted position of the Government of Lebanon that the Blue Line is not valid in the Shab'a farms area is not compatible with Security Council resolutions. The Council has recognized the Blue Line as valid for purposes of confirming Israel's withdrawal pursuant to resolution 425 (1978). The Government of Lebanon should heed the Council's repeated calls for the parties to respect the Blue Line in its entirety."<a href="#cite_note-un.org-86">[86]</a> In Resolution 425, the UN had set a goal of assisting the Lebanese government in a "return of its effective authority in the area", which would require an official Lebanese army presence there. Further, <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1559">UN Security Council Resolution 1559</a> requires the dismantling of the Hezbollah militia. Yet, Hezbollah remains deployed along the <a href="/wiki/Blue_Line_(Lebanon)" class="mw-redirect" title="Blue Line (Lebanon)">Blue Line</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Both Hezbollah and Israel have violated the Blue Line more than once, according to the UN.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> The most common pattern of violence have been border incursions by the Hezbollah into the Shebaa Farms area, and then Israeli air strikes into southern Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> The UN Secretary-General has urged "all governments that have influence on Hezbollah to deter it from any further actions which could increase the tension in the area".<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> Staffan de Misura, Personal Representative of the Secretary-General for Southern Lebanon stated that he was "deeply concerned that air violations by Israel across the Blue Line during altercations with Hezbollah are continuing to take place",<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> calling "upon the Israeli authorities to cease such violations and to fully respect the Blue Line".<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> In 2001 de Misura similarly expressed his concern to Lebanon's prime minister for allowing Hezbollah to violate the Blue Line, saying it was a "clear infringement" of UN Resolution 425, under which the UN certified Israel's withdrawal from south Lebanon as complete.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> On January 28, 2005, <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1583" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1583">UN Security Council Resolution 1583</a> called upon the Government of Lebanon to fully extend and exercise its sole and effective authority throughout the south, including through the deployment of sufficient numbers of Lebanese armed and security forces, to ensure a calm environment throughout the area, including along the Blue Line, and to exert control over the use of force on its territory and from it.<a href="#cite_note-un.org-86">[86]</a> On January 23, 2006, The UN Security Council called on the Government of Lebanon to make more progress in controlling its territory and disbanding militias, while also calling on Syria to cooperate with those efforts. In a statement read out by its January President, <a href="/wiki/Augustine_Mahiga" title="Augustine Mahiga">Augustine Mahiga</a> of Tanzania, the council also called on Syria to take measures to stop movements of arms and personnel into Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> On September 3, 2004, the <a href="/wiki/National_Assembly" title="National Assembly">National Assembly</a> voted 96–29 to amend the constitution to allow the pro-Syrian president, Émile Lahoud, three more years in office by extending a <a href="/wiki/Statute_of_limitations" title="Statute of limitations">statute of limitations</a> to nine years. Many regarded this as a second time Syria had pressured Lebanon's Parliament to amend the constitution in a way that favored Lahoud (the first allowing for his election in 1998 immediately after he had resigned as commander-in-chief of the LAF.)<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Three cabinet ministers were absent from the vote and later resigned. The USA charged that Syria exercised pressure against the National Assembly to amend the constitution, and many of the Lebanese rejected it, saying that it was considered as contradictive to the constitution and its principles.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Including these is the Maronite Patriarch <a href="/wiki/Nasrallah_Boutros_Sfeir" title="Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir">Mar Nasrallah Boutros Sfeir</a>—the most eminent religious figure for Maronites—and the Druze leader <a href="/wiki/Walid_Jumblatt" title="Walid Jumblatt">Walid Jumblatt</a>. To the surprise of many, <a href="/wiki/List_of_Prime_Ministers_of_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Prime Ministers of Lebanon">Prime Minister</a> <a href="/wiki/Rafiq_Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafiq Hariri">Rafiq Hariri</a>, who had vehemently opposed this amendment, appeared to have finally accepted it, and so did most of his party. However, he ended up resigning in protest against the amendment. He was assassinated soon afterwards, triggering the <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Revolution" title="Cedar Revolution">Cedar Revolution</a>. This amendment comes in discordance with the <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1559">UN Security Council Resolution 1559</a>, which called for a new presidential election in Lebanon. On October 1, 2004, one of the main dissenting voices to Émile Lahoud's term extension, the newly resigned Druze ex-minister <a href="/wiki/Marwan_Hamadeh" title="Marwan Hamadeh">Marwan Hamadeh</a> was the target of a car bomb attack as his vehicle slowed to enter his Beirut home. Mr. Hamadeh and his bodyguard were wounded and his driver killed in the attack. Druze leader <a href="/wiki/Walid_Jumblatt" title="Walid Jumblatt">Walid Jumblatt</a> appealed for calm, but said the car bomb was a clear message for the opposition.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> <a href="/wiki/UN_Secretary_General" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Secretary General">UN Secretary General</a> <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a> expressed his serious concern over the attack.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a> On October 7, 2004, UN Secretary General <a href="/wiki/Kofi_Annan" title="Kofi Annan">Kofi Annan</a> reported to the Security Council that Syria had failed to withdraw its forces from Lebanon. Mr. Annan concluded his report saying that "It is time, 14 years after the end of hostilities and four years after the Israeli withdrawal from Lebanon, for all parties concerned to set aside the remaining vestiges of the past. The withdrawal of foreign forces and the disbandment and disarmament of militias would, with finality, end that sad chapter of Lebanese history.".<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> On October 19, 2004, following the UN Secretary General's report, the UN Security Council voted unanimously (meaning that it received the backing of Algeria, the only Arab member of the Security Council) to put out a statement calling on Syria to pull its troops out of Lebanon, in accordance with <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1559">Resolution 1559</a>.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Rafik_hariri_memorial_shrine.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Rafik_hariri_memorial_shrine.jpg/220px-Rafik_hariri_memorial_shrine.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Rafik_hariri_memorial_shrine.jpg/330px-Rafik_hariri_memorial_shrine.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Rafik_hariri_memorial_shrine.jpg/440px-Rafik_hariri_memorial_shrine.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a><figcaption>The funeral of the assassinated Prime Minister Rafiq Hariri</figcaption></figure> On October 20, 2004, Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Rafiq_Hariri" class="mw-redirect" title="Rafiq Hariri">Rafiq Hariri</a> resigned; the next day former prime minister and loyal supporter of Syria <a href="/wiki/Omar_Karami" title="Omar Karami">Omar Karami</a> was appointed prime minister.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> On February 14, 2005, former prime minister Hariri <a href="/wiki/Assassination_of_Rafic_Hariri" title="Assassination of Rafic Hariri">was assassinated in a car-bomb attack which killed 21 and wounded 100</a>. On February 21, 2005, tens of thousand Lebanese protestors held a rally at the site of the assassination calling for the withdrawal of Syria's peacekeeping forces and blaming Syria and the pro-Syrian president Lahoud for the murder.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Hariri's murder triggered increased international pressure on Syria. In a joint statement U.S. President <a href="/wiki/George_W._Bush" title="George W. Bush">Bush</a> and French president <a href="/wiki/Jacques_Chirac" title="Jacques Chirac">Chirac</a> condemned the killing and called for full implementation of <a href="/wiki/UN_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" class="mw-redirect" title="UN Security Council Resolution 1559">UNSCR 1559</a>. UN Secretary-General Kofi Annan announced that he was sending a team led by Ireland's deputy police commissioner, <a href="/wiki/Peter_FitzGerald_(Garda_S%C3%ADoch%C3%A1na)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter FitzGerald (Garda Síochána)">Peter FitzGerald</a>, to investigate the assassination.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> And while <a href="/wiki/Arab_League" title="Arab League">Arab League</a> head <a href="/wiki/Amr_Moussa" title="Amr Moussa">Amr Moussa</a> declared that Syrian president <a href="/wiki/Bashar_Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashar Assad">Assad</a> promised him a phased withdrawal over a two-year period, the Syrian Information Minister <a href="/wiki/Mahdi_Dakhlallah" title="Mahdi Dakhlallah">Mahdi Dakhlallah</a> said Mr Moussa had misunderstood the Syrian leader. Mr Dakhlallah said that Syria will merely move its troops to eastern Lebanon. Russia,<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Germany,<a href="#cite_note-dailystar.com.lb-106">[106]</a> and Saudi Arabia<a href="#cite_note-dailystar.com.lb-106">[106]</a> all called for Syrian troops to leave. Local Lebanese pressure mounted as well. As daily protests against the Syrian occupation grew to 25,000, a series of dramatic events occurred. Massive protests such as these had been quite uncommon in the Arab world, and while in the 90s most anti-Syrian demonstrators were predominantly Christian, the new demonstrations were Christian and <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni</a>.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> On February 28 the government of pro-Syrian prime minister <a href="/wiki/Omar_Karami" title="Omar Karami">Omar Karami</a> resigned, calling for a new election to take place. Mr Karami said in his announcement: "I am keen the government will not be a hurdle in front of those who want the good for this country." The tens of thousands gathered at Beirut's Martyrs' Square cheered the announcement, then chanted "Karami has fallen, your turn will come, Lahoud, and yours, Bashar".<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Opposition MPs were also not satisfied with Karami's resignation, and kept pressing for full Syrian withdrawal. Former minister and MP <a href="/wiki/Marwan_Hamadeh" title="Marwan Hamadeh">Marwan Hamadeh</a>, who survived a similar car bomb attack on October 1, 2004, said "I accuse this government of incitement, negligence and shortcomings at the least, and of covering up its planning at the most... if not executing". Two days later Syrian leader <a href="/wiki/Bashar_Assad" class="mw-redirect" title="Bashar Assad">Bashar Assad</a> announced that his troops will leave Lebanon completely "in the next few months". Responding to the announcement, opposition leader Walid Jumblatt said that he wanted to hear more specifics from Damascus about any withdrawal: "It's a nice gesture but 'next few months' is quite vague—we need a clear-cut timetable".<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> On March 5 Syrian leader Assad declared in a televised speech that Syria would withdraw its forces to the <a href="/wiki/Bekaa_Valley" class="mw-redirect" title="Bekaa Valley">Bekaa Valley</a> in eastern Lebanon, and then to the border between Syria and Lebanon. Assad did not provide a timetable for a complete withdrawal of Syrian forces from Lebanon—14,000 soldiers and intelligence agents.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> Meanwhile, Hezbollah leader Nasrallah called for a "massive popular gathering" on Tuesday against UN Resolution 1559 saying "The resistance will not give up its arms ... because Lebanon needs the resistance to defend it", and added "all the articles of UN resolution give free services to the Israeli enemy who should have been made accountable for his crimes and now finds that he is being rewarded for his crimes and achieves all its demands".<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a> In opposition to Nasrallah's call, Monday, March 7 saw at least 70,000 people—with some estimates putting the number at twice as high—gathered at central Martyrs' Square to demand that Syria leave completely.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> The following day a pro-Syrian demonstration set a new record when Hezbollah amassed 400,000–500,000 protestors at Riad Solh square in Beirut, most of them bussed in from the heavily <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in Lebanon">Shi'ite</a> south Lebanon and eastern Beka'a valley. The show of power demonstrated Hezbollah's influence, wealth and organization as the sole Lebanese party allowed to hold a militia by Syria. In his speech Nasrallah blasted UN Security-Council Resolution 1559, which calls for Hezbollah's militia to be disbanded, as foreign intervention. Nasrallah also reiterated his earlier calls for the destruction of Israel saying "To this enemy we say again: There is no place for you here and there is no life for you among us. Death to Israel!". Though Hezbollah organized a very successful rally, opposition leaders were quick to point out that Hezbollah had active support from Lebanon's government and Syria. While the pro-democracy rallies had to deal with road blocks forcing protestors to either turn back or march long distances to Martyr's Square, Hezbollah was able to bus people directly to Riad Solh square. Dory Chamoun, an opposition leader, pointed out that "the difference is that in our demonstrations, people arrive voluntarily and on foot, not in buses". Another opposition member said the pro-Syrian government pressured people to turn out and some reports said Syria had bused in people from across the border. But on a mountain road leading to Beirut, only one bus with a Syrian license plate was spotted in a convoy of pro-Syrian supporters heading to the capital and Hezbollah officials denied the charges.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Opposition MP <a href="/wiki/Akram_Chehayeb" title="Akram Chehayeb">Akram Chehayeb</a> said "That is where the difference between us and them lies: They asked these people to come and they brought them here, whereas the opposition's supporters come here on their own. Our protests are spontaneous. We have a cause. What is theirs?".<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cedar_Revolution_Demonstrators.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Cedar_Revolution_Demonstrators.jpg/220px-Cedar_Revolution_Demonstrators.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Cedar_Revolution_Demonstrators.jpg/330px-Cedar_Revolution_Demonstrators.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f3/Cedar_Revolution_Demonstrators.jpg/440px-Cedar_Revolution_Demonstrators.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption>Anti-Syrian protesters heading to Martyrs' Square in Beirut on foot and in vehicles, 13 March 2005</figcaption></figure> One month after Hariri's murder, an enormous anti-Syrian rally gathered at Martyr's Square in Beirut. Multiple news agencies estimated the crowd at between 800,000 and 1 million—a show of force for the <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunni Muslim</a>, Christian and Druze communities. The rally was double the size of the mostly <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in Lebanon">Shi'ite</a> pro-Syrian one organized by Hezbollah the previous week.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> When Hariri's sister took a pro-Syrian line saying that Lebanon should "stand by Syria until its land is liberated and it regains its sovereignty on the<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> occupied Golan Heights" the crowd jeered her.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> This sentiment was prevalent among the rally participants who opposed Hezbollah's refusal to disarm based on the claim that Lebanese and Syrian interests are linked.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cedar_Revolution_and_2006_War_(2005–2006)">Cedar Revolution and 2006 War (2005–2006)</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Cedar Revolution and 2006 War (2005–2006)">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Revolution" title="Cedar Revolution">Cedar Revolution</a></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/2005_Lebanon_bombings" class="mw-redirect" title="2005 Lebanon bombings">2005 Lebanon bombings</a> and <a href="/wiki/2006_Lebanon_War" title="2006 Lebanon War">2006 Lebanon War</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Jamil_Al_Sayyed" title="Jamil Al Sayyed">Jamil Al Sayyed</a>, a Syrian ally in the Lebanese security forces, resigned on 25 April, just a day before the final Syrian troops pulled out of Lebanon. On 26 April 2005, the last 250 Syrian troops left Lebanon. During the departure ceremonies, Ali Habib, Syria's chief of staff, said that Syria's president had decided to recall his troops after the Lebanese army had been "rebuilt on sound national foundations and became capable of protecting the state." UN forces led by Senegalese Mouhamadou Kandji and guided by Lebanese Imad Anka were sent to Lebanon to verify the military withdrawal which was mandated by Security Council resolution 1559. Following the Syrian withdrawal a series of assassinations of Lebanese politicians and journalists with the anti-Syrian camp had begun. Many bombings have occurred to date and have triggered condemnations from the UN Security Council and UN Secretary General.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-119">[119]</a> Eight months after Syria withdrew from Lebanon under intense domestic and international outrage over the assassination of Lebanese prime minister Rafiq Hariri the UN investigation has yet to be completed. While UN investigator <a href="/wiki/Detlev_Mehlis" title="Detlev Mehlis">Detlev Mehlis</a> has pointed the finger at Syria's intelligence apparatus in Lebanon he has yet to be allowed full access to Syrian officials who are suspected by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_International_Independent_Investigation_Commission" title="United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission">United Nations International Independent Investigation Commission</a> (UNIIIC) as being behind the assassination.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> In its latest report UNIIIC said it had "credible information" that Syrian officials had arrested and threatened close relatives of a witness who recanted testimony he had previously given the commission, and that two Syrian suspects it questioned indicated that all Syrian intelligence documents on Lebanon had been burned.<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> A campaign of bomb attacks against politicians, journalists and even civilian neighborhoods associated with the anti-Syrian camp has provoked much negative attention for Syria in the UN<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-119">[119]</a> and elsewhere. On December 15, 2005, the UN Security Council extended the mandate of the UNIIIC. On December 30, 2005, Syria's former vice-president, <a href="/wiki/Abdul_Halim_Khaddam" title="Abdul Halim Khaddam">Abdul Halim Khaddam</a>, said that "Hariri received many threats" from Syria's President Bashar Al-Assad.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Prior to Syria's withdrawal from Lebanon Mr Khaddam was in charge of Syria's Lebanon policy and mainly responsible for Syria's abuse of Lebanon's resources. Many believe that Khaddam seized the opportunity to clear his history of corruption and blackmail. Parliament voted for the release of the former <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Forces" title="Lebanese Forces">Lebanese Forces</a> warlord <a href="/wiki/Samir_Geagea" title="Samir Geagea">Samir Geagea</a> in the first session since election were held in the spring of 2005. Geagea was the only leader during the civil war to be charged with crimes related to that conflict. With the return of <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aoun" title="Michel Aoun">Michel Aoun</a>, the climate was right to try to heal wounds to help unite the country after former prime minister Rafik Hariri was assassinated on 14 February 2005. Geagea was released on 26 July 2005 and left immediately for an undisclosed European nation to undergo medical examinations and convalesce. During the Cedar Revolution Hezbollah organized a series of pro-Syrian rallies. Hezbollah became a part of the Lebanese government following the 2005 elections but is at a crossroads regarding the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Security_Council_Resolution_1559" title="United Nations Security Council Resolution 1559">UNSCR 1559</a> call for its militia to be dismantled. On 21 November 2005, Hezbollah launched an attack along the entire border with Israel, the heaviest in the five and a half years since Israel's withdrawal. The barrage was supposed to provide tactical cover for an attempt by a squad of Hezbollah special forces to abduct Israeli troops in the Israeli side of the village of <a href="/wiki/Al-Ghajar" class="mw-redirect" title="Al-Ghajar">Al-Ghajar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a> The attack failed when an ambush by the IDF <a href="/wiki/Paratroopers" class="mw-redirect" title="Paratroopers">Paratroopers</a> killed 4 Hezbollah members and scattered the rest.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> The UN Security Council accused Hezbollah of initiating the hostilities.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg/300px-Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="200" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg/450px-Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5d/Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg/600px-Bombed_commercial_centre.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1800" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A building in <a href="/wiki/Ghazieh" title="Ghazieh">Ghazieh</a>, near <a href="/wiki/Sidon" title="Sidon">Sidon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ghaziyeh_airstrikes" title="Ghaziyeh airstrikes">bombed</a> by the <a href="/wiki/Israeli_Air_Force" title="Israeli Air Force">Israeli Air Force</a> (IAF), 20 July 2006</figcaption></figure> On 27 December 2005, <a href="/wiki/Katyusha_rocket_launcher" title="Katyusha rocket launcher">Katyusha rockets</a> fired from Hezbollah territory smashed into houses in the Israeli village of <a href="/wiki/Kiryat_Shmona" title="Kiryat Shmona">Kiryat Shmona</a> wounding three people.<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> UN Secretary General Kofi Annan called on the Lebanese Government "to extend its control over all its territory, to exert its monopoly on the use of force, and to put an end to all such attacks".<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Lebanese Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fuad_Saniora" class="mw-redirect" title="Fuad Saniora">Fuad Saniora</a> denounced the attack as "aimed at destabilizing security and diverting attention from efforts exerted to solve the internal issues prevailing in the country".<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> On December 30, 2005, the Lebanese army dismantled two other Katyusha rockets found in the border town of <a href="/wiki/Naqoura" title="Naqoura">Naqoura</a>, an action suggesting increased vigilance following PM Saniora's angry remarks. In a new statement Saniora also rejected claims by Al-Qaeda that it was responsible for the attack and insisted again that it was a domestic action challenging his government's authority.<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> The <a href="/wiki/2006_Lebanon_War" title="2006 Lebanon War">2006 Lebanon War</a> was a 34-day <a href="/wiki/War" title="War">military conflict</a> in Lebanon and northern Israel. The principal parties were Hezbollah <a href="/wiki/Paramilitary" title="Paramilitary">paramilitary</a> forces and the <a href="/wiki/Israel_Defense_Forces" title="Israel Defense Forces">Israeli military</a>. The conflict started on 12 July 2006, and continued until a <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>-brokered <a href="/wiki/Ceasefire" title="Ceasefire">ceasefire</a> went into effect in the morning on 14 August 2006, though it formally ended on 8 September 2006 when Israel lifted its naval <a href="/wiki/Blockade" title="Blockade">blockade</a> of Lebanon. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Instability_and_Syrian_War_spillover">Instability and Syrian War spillover</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Instability and Syrian War spillover">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War_spillover_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon">Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon</a> and <a href="/wiki/2011_Lebanese_protests" title="2011 Lebanese protests">2011 Lebanese protests</a></div> In 2007, the <a href="/wiki/Nahr_al-Bared" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahr al-Bared">Nahr al-Bared</a> refugee camp became the center of the <a href="/wiki/2007_Lebanon_conflict" title="2007 Lebanon conflict">2007 Lebanon conflict</a> between the Lebanese Army and <a href="/wiki/Fatah_al-Islam" title="Fatah al-Islam">Fatah al-Islam</a>. At least 169 soldiers, 287 insurgents and 47 civilians were killed in the battle. Funds for the reconstruction of the area have been slow to materialize.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> Between 2006 and 2008, <a href="/wiki/2006%E2%80%932008_Lebanese_political_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2006–2008 Lebanese political protests">a series of protests</a> led by groups opposed to the pro-Western Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Fouad_Siniora" title="Fouad Siniora">Fouad Siniora</a> demanded the creation of a national unity government, over which the mostly Shia opposition groups would have veto power. When Émile Lahoud's presidential term ended in October 2007, the opposition refused to vote for a successor unless a power-sharing deal was reached, leaving Lebanon without a president. On 9 May 2008, Hezbollah and <a href="/wiki/Amal_Movement" title="Amal Movement">Amal</a> forces, sparked by a government declaration that Hezbollah's communications network was illegal, seized western Beirut,<a href="#cite_note-Global_Politician-131">[131]</a> leading to the <a href="/wiki/2008_conflict_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="2008 conflict in Lebanon">2008 conflict in Lebanon</a>.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> The Lebanese government denounced the violence as a coup attempt.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> At least 62 people died in the resulting clashes between pro-government and opposition militias.<a href="#cite_note-Doha_NYT-134">[134]</a> On 21 May 2008, the signing of the <a href="/wiki/Doha_Agreement_(2008)" title="Doha Agreement (2008)">Doha Agreement</a> ended the fighting.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Politician-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-Doha_NYT-134">[134]</a> As part of the accord, which ended 18 months of political paralysis,<a href="#cite_note-Doha-135">[135]</a> <a href="/wiki/Michel_Suleiman" title="Michel Suleiman">Michel Suleiman</a> became president and a national unity government was established, granting a veto to the opposition.<a href="#cite_note-Global_Politician-131">[131]</a> The agreement was a victory for opposition forces, as the government caved in to all their main demands.<a href="#cite_note-Doha_NYT-134">[134]</a> In early January 2011, the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_government_of_November_2009" class="mw-redirect" title="Lebanese government of November 2009">national unity government</a> collapsed due to growing tensions stemming from the <a href="/wiki/Special_Tribunal_for_Lebanon" title="Special Tribunal for Lebanon">Special Tribunal for Lebanon</a>, which was expected to indict Hezbollah members for the Hariri assassination.<a href="#cite_note-BBC_collapse-136">[136]</a> The parliament elected <a href="/wiki/Najib_Mikati" title="Najib Mikati">Najib Mikati</a>, the candidate for the Hezbollah-led <a href="/wiki/March_8_Alliance" title="March 8 Alliance">March 8 Alliance</a>, Prime Minister of Lebanon, making him responsible for forming a new government.<a href="#cite_note-NYT_collapse-137">[137]</a> Hezbollah leader <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Nasrallah" title="Hassan Nasrallah">Hassan Nasrallah</a> insists that Israel was responsible for the assassination of Hariri.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a> A report leaked by the <a href="/wiki/Al_Akhbar_(Lebanon)" title="Al Akhbar (Lebanon)">Al-Akhbar</a> newspaper in November 2010 stated that Hezbollah has drafted plans for a takeover of the country if the Special Tribunal for Lebanon issues an indictment against its members.<a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> In 2012, the <a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War">Syrian Civil War</a> threatened to spill over in Lebanon, causing more <a href="/wiki/Syrian_civil_war_spillover_in_Lebanon" title="Syrian civil war spillover in Lebanon">incidents of sectarian violence</a> and armed clashes between <a href="/wiki/Sunni_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunni Islam in Lebanon">Sunnis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Shia_Islam_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Shia Islam in Lebanon">Alawites</a> in Tripoli.<a href="#cite_note-141">[141]</a> As of 6 August 2013, more than 677,702 Syrian refugees are in Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-refugees-142">[142]</a> As the number of Syrian refugees increases, the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Forces" title="Lebanese Forces">Lebanese Forces Party</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Kataeb_Party" title="Kataeb Party">Kataeb Party</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Free_Patriotic_Movement" title="Free Patriotic Movement">Free Patriotic Movement</a> fear the country's sectarian based political system is being undermined.<a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2019_Protests_due_to_liquidity_Crisis">2019 Protests due to liquidity Crisis</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: 2019 Protests due to liquidity Crisis">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mohammed_al_Amin_20.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Mohammed_al_Amin_20.jpg/220px-Mohammed_al_Amin_20.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Mohammed_al_Amin_20.jpg/330px-Mohammed_al_Amin_20.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/37/Mohammed_al_Amin_20.jpg/440px-Mohammed_al_Amin_20.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Protesters in <a href="/wiki/Beirut" title="Beirut">Beirut</a>. <a href="/wiki/Mohammad_Al-Amin_Mosque" title="Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque">Mohammad Al-Amin Mosque</a>, 20 October 2019</figcaption></figure> In October 2019 <a href="/wiki/2019%E2%80%9320_Lebanese_protests" class="mw-redirect" title="2019–20 Lebanese protests">a series of country-wide protests began</a> in response to many of the government's failures and malfeasances. In the months leading up to the protests there was an <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_liquidity_crisis" title="Lebanese liquidity crisis">ever deepening foreign reserves liquidity crisis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> Days before protests broke out, a series of about 100 major wildfires in Chouf, Khroub and other Lebanese areas displaced hundreds of people and caused enormous damage to Lebanese wildlife. The Lebanese government failed to deploy its firefighting equipment due to lack of maintenance and misappropriation of funds. Lebanon had to rely on aid from neighboring Cyprus, Jordan, Turkey and Greece.<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a><a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> In November 2019, commercial banks responded to the liquidity crises by imposing illegal capital controls to protect themselves, despite there being no official law by the BDL regarding banking controls.<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a> The protests created a political crisis in Lebanon, with Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Saad_Hariri" title="Saad Hariri">Saad Hariri</a> tendering his resignation and echoing protesters' demands for a government of <a href="/wiki/Independent_politician" title="Independent politician">independent</a> specialists.<a href="#cite_note-150">[150]</a> A <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Hassan_Diab" title="Cabinet of Hassan Diab">cabinet</a> headed by <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Diab" title="Hassan Diab">Hassan Diab</a> was formed in 2020. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="2020_meltdown_of_Banque_du_Liban">2020 meltdown of Banque du Liban</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: 2020 meltdown of Banque du Liban">edit</a>]</div> Concurrently with the <a href="/wiki/COVID-19_pandemic" title="COVID-19 pandemic">COVID–19 pandemic</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Banque_du_Liban" title="Banque du Liban">Banque du Liban</a> (BdL) in March 2020 defaulted on $90 billion of <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_debt_obligations" class="mw-redirect" title="Sovereign debt obligations">sovereign debt obligations</a>, triggering a collapse in the value of the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_pound" title="Lebanese pound">Lebanese pound</a>.<a href="#cite_note-default-151">[151]</a><a href="#cite_note-ftimf-152">[152]</a> The decision was taken unanimously at a cabinet meeting under the chairmanship of <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Diab" title="Hassan Diab">Hassan Diab</a> on 7 March. That in turn caused the complex and opaque <a href="/wiki/Financial_engineering" title="Financial engineering">financial engineering</a> with which the BdL maintained the nation's tenuous stability to crash and burn.<a href="#cite_note-ftimf-152">[152]</a> Simultaneously, commercial banks imposed "informal capital controls limiting the amount of dollars depositors can withdraw as well as transfers abroad."<a href="#cite_note-default-151">[151]</a> <a href="/wiki/Capital_controls" class="mw-redirect" title="Capital controls">Capital controls</a> were expected to remain in place until at least 2025.<a href="#cite_note-default-151">[151]</a> It was remarked at the time that Lebanon, whose population is under 7 million, "produces little and imports about 80 percent of the goods it consumes."<a href="#cite_note-default-151">[151]</a> Debt servicing had consumed 30 percent of recent budgets.<a href="#cite_note-default-151">[151]</a> On 25 June the <a href="/wiki/IMF" class="mw-redirect" title="IMF">IMF</a> estimated the losses at $49 billion, equivalent "to 91 per cent of Lebanon’s total economic output in 2019, according to <a href="/wiki/World_Bank" title="World Bank">World Bank</a> figures... almost equal to the total of value of the deposits held by the Banque du Liban from the country’s commercial banks."<a href="#cite_note-ftimf-152">[152]</a> The government of Lebanon concurred with the IMF estimates.<a href="#cite_note-ftimf-152">[152]</a> The value of the pound, which had been artificially pegged at <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_pound" title="Lebanese pound">£L</a>1,507.5 per U.S. dollar by the BdL, traded on the informal market in June 2020 at £L5,000 to the dollar, and concurrently the BdL welcomed in an official publication the involvement of the IMF.<a href="#cite_note-ftimf-152">[152]</a> It came to light in an audit of 2018 BdL finances whose results were revealed on 23 July that the governor of the BdL, <a href="/wiki/Riad_Salameh" title="Riad Salameh">Riad Salameh</a>, had fictionalized assets, used <a href="/wiki/Creative_accounting" title="Creative accounting">creative accounting</a> and cooked the books.<a href="#cite_note-lcbrr-153">[153]</a> Two days earlier the government had announced its contract with New York-based <a href="/wiki/Alvarez_%26_Marsal" class="mw-redirect" title="Alvarez & Marsal">Alvarez & Marsal</a> to conduct "a forensic audit" of BdL finances.<a href="#cite_note-forensic-154">[154]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Beirut_port_explosion_and_state_of_emergency">Beirut port explosion and state of emergency</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Beirut port explosion and state of emergency">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aftermath_of_the_2020_Beirut_explosions_august_10_2020_6.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Aftermath_of_the_2020_Beirut_explosions_august_10_2020_6.jpg/220px-Aftermath_of_the_2020_Beirut_explosions_august_10_2020_6.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Aftermath_of_the_2020_Beirut_explosions_august_10_2020_6.jpg/330px-Aftermath_of_the_2020_Beirut_explosions_august_10_2020_6.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Aftermath_of_the_2020_Beirut_explosions_august_10_2020_6.jpg/440px-Aftermath_of_the_2020_Beirut_explosions_august_10_2020_6.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1152" data-file-height="864" /></a><figcaption>Aftermath of the 4 August 2020 Beirut explosion</figcaption></figure> On 4 August 2020, the <a href="/wiki/2020_Beirut_explosion" title="2020 Beirut explosion">Beirut explosion</a> occurred in the port sector of the city, destroying hectares of buildings and killing over 200 people. It was felt throughout the country. 4 days later on 8 August, a peaceful protest was organized starting from the port of Beirut and destined for the parliament building.<a href="#cite_note-155">[155]</a> The demonstrators were faced with brutal, deadly, and extreme excessive force including the use of live-ammunition by the security apparatus to oppress and subdue demonstrators. 728 demonstrators were injured during the 8 August protests and at least 153 injuries were severe enough to be treated in surrounding hospitals.<a href="#cite_note-156">[156]</a> Amid much popular unrest, the entire <a href="/wiki/Cabinet_of_Hassan_Diab" title="Cabinet of Hassan Diab">cabinet of Hassan Diab</a> resigned on 10 August, and a state of emergency, which gave "the army broad powers to prevent gatherings, censor media and arrest anyone deemed to be a security threat", was declared on 13 August by the caretaker government. On 14 August, Hezbollah leader <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Nasrallah" title="Hassan Nasrallah">Hassan Nasrallah</a> "referred to the possibility of civil war" were the anti-government protestors to force an early election. Meanwhile, <a href="/wiki/Iran" title="Iran">Iranian</a> foreign minister <a href="/wiki/Javad_Zarif" class="mw-redirect" title="Javad Zarif">Javad Zarif</a> complained about the presence of "French and <a href="/wiki/United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">British</a> warships that were deployed to assist in the delivery of medical assistance and other aid."<a href="#cite_note-lpmm-157">[157]</a><a href="#cite_note-lfcgm-158">[158]</a> Also on 14 August, the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Office_for_the_Coordination_of_Humanitarian_Affairs" title="United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs">United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs</a> (UNOCHA) launched a $565 million appeal for donors of aid to victims of the explosion. The UN effort was to focus on: meals, first aid, shelters, and repair of schools.<a href="#cite_note-emlap-159">[159]</a> Following the resignation of Prime Minister <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Diab" title="Hassan Diab">Hassan Diab</a> in August 2020, both <a href="/wiki/Mustapha_Adib_(diplomat)" title="Mustapha Adib (diplomat)">Mustafa Adib</a> and <a href="/wiki/Saad_Hariri" title="Saad Hariri">Saad Hariri</a> failed to form a government. <a href="/wiki/Najib_Mikati" title="Najib Mikati">Najib Mikati</a> was designated to fill the role on 26 July 2021.<a href="#cite_note-160">[160]</a> He received 72 votes out of 128 MPs.<a href="#cite_note-161">[161]</a> On September 10, 2021, Mikati was able to form a government.<a href="#cite_note-162">[162]</a> He announced that he wanted to ask for help from Arab countries to try to get Lebanon out of the crisis it is going through.<a href="#cite_note-163">[163]</a> On 14 October 2021, <a href="/wiki/2021_Beirut_clashes" title="2021 Beirut clashes">clashes erupted in Beirut</a> between the Christian militia <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Forces" title="Lebanese Forces">Lebanese Forces</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> fighters supported by the <a href="/wiki/Amal_Movement" title="Amal Movement">Amal Movement</a>.<a href="#cite_note-164">[164]</a> In May 2022, Lebanon held its first <a href="/wiki/2022_Lebanese_general_election" title="2022 Lebanese general election">election</a> since a painful economic crisis dragged it to the brink of becoming a <a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">failed state</a>. Lebanon's crisis has been so severe that more than 80 percent of the population is now considered poor by the <a href="/wiki/United_Nations" title="United Nations">United Nations</a>. In the election Iran-backed Shia Muslim <a href="/wiki/Hezbollah" title="Hezbollah">Hezbollah</a> movement and its allies lost their parliamentary majority. Hezbollah did not lose any of its seats, but its allies lost seats. Hezbollah's ally, President <a href="/wiki/Michel_Aoun" title="Michel Aoun">Michel Aoun's</a> <a href="/wiki/Free_Patriotic_Movement" title="Free Patriotic Movement">Free Patriotic Movement</a>, was no longer the biggest Christian party after the election. A rival Christian party, led by <a href="/wiki/Samir_Geagea" title="Samir Geagea">Samir Geagea</a>, with close ties to Saudi Arabia, the <a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Forces" title="Lebanese Forces">Lebanese Forces</a> (LF), made gains. Sunni <a href="/wiki/Future_Movement" title="Future Movement">Future Movement</a>, led by former prime minister <a href="/wiki/Saad_Hariri" title="Saad Hariri">Saad Hariri</a>, did not participate the election, leaving a political vacuum to other Sunni politicians to fill.<a href="#cite_note-165">[165]</a><a href="#cite_note-166">[166]</a><a href="#cite_note-167">[167]</a> As of 2023, some consider Lebanon to have become a <a href="/wiki/Failed_state" title="Failed state">failed state</a>, suffering from chronic poverty, economic mismanagement and a banking collapse.<a href="#cite_note-168">[168]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Spillover_of_the_Israel–Hamas_war">Spillover of the Israel–Hamas war</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Spillover of the Israel–Hamas war">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Spillover_of_the_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" class="mw-redirect" title="Spillover of the Israel–Hamas war">Spillover of the Israel–Hamas war</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israel%E2%80%93Hezbollah_conflict_(2023%E2%80%93present)" title="Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)">Israel–Hezbollah conflict (2023–present)</a></div> The <a href="/wiki/2023_Israel%E2%80%93Hamas_war" class="mw-redirect" title="2023 Israel–Hamas war">Israel–Hamas war</a> sparked a renewed Israel–Hezbollah conflict. On October 8th 2023, Hezbollah began launching rockets at northern israel, displacing over 60,000 Israelis.<a href="#cite_note-169">[169]</a> Hezbollah has said it will not stop attacking Israel until Israel ceases <a href="/wiki/Israeli_bombing_of_the_Gaza_Strip" title="Israeli bombing of the Gaza Strip">its attacks</a> and <a href="/wiki/Israeli_invasion_of_the_Gaza_Strip" title="Israeli invasion of the Gaza Strip">military operations in Gaza</a>,<a href="#cite_note-170">[170]</a> where more than 1,600 Israelis and 40,000 Palestinians have been killed.<a href="#cite_note-171">[171]</a> with the Israeli <a href="/wiki/2024_Lebanon_pager_explosions" class="mw-redirect" title="2024 Lebanon pager explosions">explosion of Hezbollah pagers and walkie talkies</a> in September 2024,<a href="#cite_note-172">[172]</a> the conflict escalated severely,<a href="#cite_note-173">[173]</a> with the <a href="/wiki/September_2024_Lebanon_strikes" class="mw-redirect" title="September 2024 Lebanon strikes">23 September 2024 Israeli airstrikes on Lebanon</a> killing at least 569 over September 23 and 24, and sparking a mass evacuation of Southern Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-174">[174]</a> On 27 September 2024, <a href="/wiki/Hassan_Nasrallah" title="Hassan Nasrallah">Hassan Nasrallah</a>, the longtime leader of Hezbollah, was killed in a massive Israeli air attack on Beirut. Nasrallah was often described as the most powerful person in Lebanon.<a href="#cite_note-175">[175]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239009302">.mw-parser-output .portalbox{padding:0;margin:0.5em 0;display:table;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:175px;list-style:none}.mw-parser-output .portalborder{border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa)}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-entry{display:table-row;font-size:85%;line-height:110%;height:1.9em;font-style:italic;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-image{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em;vertical-align:middle;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .portalbox-link{display:table-cell;padding:0.2em 0.2em 0.2em 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/31px-P_history.svg.png" decoding="async" width="31" height="28" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/47px-P_history.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/P_history.svg/62px-P_history.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="360" /><a href="/wiki/Portal:History" title="Portal:History">History portal</a></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaeology_of_Lebanon" title="Archaeology of Lebanon">Archaeology of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Lebanon" title="Constitution of Lebanon">Constitution of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Lebanon" title="Foreign relations of Lebanon">Foreign relations of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Middle_East" title="History of the Middle East">History of the Middle East</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">History of Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">History of Syria</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Lebanese Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_diaspora" title="Lebanese diaspora">Lebanese diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Lebanon" title="Politics of Lebanon">Politics of Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_Lebanese_history" title="Timeline of Lebanese history">Timeline of Lebanese history</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-CopelandWescombe1965-1"><a href="#cite_ref-CopelandWescombe1965_1-0">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFLorraine_CopelandP._Wescombe1965" class="citation book cs1">Lorraine Copeland; P. Wescombe (1965). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20111224033744/http://books.google.com/books?id=6YsRRwAACAAJ">Inventory of Stone-Age sites in Lebanon, p. 73-75 and see fig. XVII on p. 163 for drawing by Peter. J. Wescombe of the javelin found at Beirut VI</a>. Imprimerie Catholique. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=6YsRRwAACAAJ">the original</a> on December 24, 2011. Retrieved 21 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventory+of+Stone-Age+sites+in+Lebanon%2C+p.+73-75+and+see+fig.+XVII+on+p.+163+for+drawing+by+Peter.+J.+Wescombe+of+the+javelin+found+at+Beirut+VI&rft.pub=Imprimerie+Catholique&rft.date=1965&rft.au=Lorraine+Copeland&rft.au=P.+Wescombe&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D6YsRRwAACAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKuhnStinerReeseGüleç2001" class="citation journal cs1">Kuhn, Steven; Stiner, MC; Reese, DS; Güleç, E (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC34721">"Ornaments of the earliest Upper Paleolithic: New insights from the Levant"</a>. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 98 (13): 7641–6. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2001PNAS...98.7641K">2001PNAS...98.7641K</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1073%2Fpnas.121590798">10.1073/pnas.121590798</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC34721">34721</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11390976">11390976</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+National+Academy+of+Sciences&rft.atitle=Ornaments+of+the+earliest+Upper+Paleolithic%3A+New+insights+from+the+Levant&rft.volume=98&rft.issue=13&rft.pages=7641-6&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34721%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F11390976&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1073%2Fpnas.121590798&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2001PNAS...98.7641K&rft.aulast=Kuhn&rft.aufirst=Steven&rft.au=Stiner%2C+MC&rft.au=Reese%2C+DS&rft.au=G%C3%BCle%C3%A7%2C+E&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC34721&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDouka" class="citation web cs1">Douka, Katerina. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://oxford.academia.edu/KaterinaDouka/Papers/372932/Douka_K._2011._An_Upper_Palaeolithic_shell_scraper_from_Ksar_Akil_Lebanon_._Journal_of_Archaeological_Science_38_2_429-437">"Douka, K. 2011. An Upper Palaeolithic shell scraper from Ksar Akil (Lebanon). Journal of Archaeological Science 38 (2):429-437"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120314004323/http://oxford.academia.edu/KaterinaDouka/Papers/372932/Douka_K._2011._An_Upper_Palaeolithic_shell_scraper_from_Ksar_Akil_Lebanon_._Journal_of_Archaeological_Science_38_2_429-437">Archived</a> from the original on 2012-03-14. Retrieved 2017-12-03.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Douka%2C+K.+2011.+An+Upper+Palaeolithic+shell+scraper+from+Ksar+Akil+%28Lebanon%29.+Journal+of+Archaeological+Science+38+%282%29%3A429-437&rft.aulast=Douka&rft.aufirst=Katerina&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Foxford.academia.edu%2FKaterinaDouka%2FPapers%2F372932%2FDouka_K._2011._An_Upper_Palaeolithic_shell_scraper_from_Ksar_Akil_Lebanon_._Journal_of_Archaeological_Science_38_2_429-437&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20191015120804/https://www.pnas.org/content/98/13/7641.full">"Kuhn, Steven L., Stiner, Mary C., Reese, David S., Güleç, Erksin., Ornaments of the earliest Upper Paleolithic: New insights from the Levant, Edited by Henry C. 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Retrieved 2021-07-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon%3A+a+country+study&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=12&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44356055&rft.aulast=McGowan&rft.aufirst=Afaf+Sabeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2F88600488%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> Salibi, Kemal: "The Secret of the House of Ma’n", International Journal of Middle East Studies, Vol. 4 (1973), pp 272-287 </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-5">f</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-6">g</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-7">h</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-8">i</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_27-9">j</a> <img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGowan1989" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McGowan, Afaf Sabeh (1989). Collelo, Thomas (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/88600488/">Lebanon: a country study</a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. pp. 12–13. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44356055">44356055</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190420165415/https://www.loc.gov/item/88600488/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2021-07-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon%3A+a+country+study&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=12-13&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44356055&rft.aulast=McGowan&rft.aufirst=Afaf+Sabeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2F88600488%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:3-28">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:3_28-5">f</a> <img alt="Public Domain" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/12px-PD-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="12" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/18px-PD-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/6/62/PD-icon.svg/24px-PD-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="196" data-file-height="196" /> This article incorporates text from this source, which is in the <a href="/wiki/Public_domain" title="Public domain">public domain</a>: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcGowan1989" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">McGowan, Afaf Sabeh (1989). "The Shihabs, 1697-1842". In Collelo, Thomas (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.loc.gov/item/88600488/">Lebanon: a country study</a>. Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Federal_Research_Division" title="Federal Research Division">Federal Research Division</a>, <a href="/wiki/Library_of_Congress" title="Library of Congress">Library of Congress</a>. pp. 13–14. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/44356055">44356055</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190420165415/https://www.loc.gov/item/88600488/">Archived</a> from the original on 2019-04-20. Retrieved 2021-07-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Shihabs%2C+1697-1842&rft.btitle=Lebanon%3A+a+country+study&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=13-14&rft.pub=Federal+Research+Division%2C+Library+of+Congress&rft.date=1989&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F44356055&rft.aulast=McGowan&rft.aufirst=Afaf+Sabeh&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.loc.gov%2Fitem%2F88600488%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKobishchanov2020" class="citation book cs1">Kobishchanov, Taras Y. (19 October 2020). "On the eve of colonialism: Arab rulers and Russian authorities at the last third of the 18th century". In Michalak-Pikulska, Barbara; Piela, Marek; Majtczak, Tomasz (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ckwvEAAAQBAJ">Oriental Languages and Civilizations</a>. Kraków: Wydawnictwo Uniwersytetu Jagiellońskego (published 2020). p. 235. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9788323371274" title="Special:BookSources/9788323371274"><bdi>9788323371274</bdi></a>. Retrieved 27 January 2022. <q>On June 28, 1772 the emir of Mount Lebanon Yusuf Shihab (1752–1790) announced the transition to the Russian 'protectorate' and the consent to pay an annual tribute [...]. [...] The mutual rapprochement was interrupted by the armistice between Russia and the Ottoman Empire concluded on May 20, 1772 in Focsani. [...] on January 1 of 1774 on the eve of the departure of Russian ships from Beirut, the emir of Mount Lebanon appealed to count Orlov with a petition to extend the subjection of the empress Catherine II to him.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+eve+of+colonialism%3A+Arab+rulers+and+Russian+authorities+at+the+last+third+of+the+18th+century&rft.btitle=Oriental+Languages+and+Civilizations&rft.place=Krak%C3%B3w&rft.pages=235&rft.pub=Wydawnictwo+Uniwersytetu+Jagiello%C5%84skego&rft.date=2020-10-19&rft.isbn=9788323371274&rft.aulast=Kobishchanov&rft.aufirst=Taras+Y.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DckwvEAAAQBAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hobby_1985_53-30">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hobby_1985_53_30-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hobby_1985_53_30-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHobby1985" class="citation book cs1">Hobby (1985). Near East/South Asia Report. Foreign Broadcast Information Service. p. 53. <q>the Druzes and the Christians in the Shuf Mountains in the past lived in complete harmony..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Near+East%2FSouth+Asia+Report&rft.pages=53&rft.pub=Foreign+Broadcast+Information+Service&rft.date=1985&rft.au=Hobby&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHazran2013" class="citation book cs1">Hazran, Yusri (2013). The Druze Community and the Lebanese State: Between Confrontation and Reconciliation. Routledge. p. 32. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781317931737" title="Special:BookSources/9781317931737"><bdi>9781317931737</bdi></a>. <q>the Druze had been able to live in harmony with the Christian</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Druze+Community+and+the+Lebanese+State%3A+Between+Confrontation+and+Reconciliation&rft.pages=32&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9781317931737&rft.aulast=Hazran&rft.aufirst=Yusri&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFArtzi1984" class="citation book cs1">Artzi, Pinḥas (1984). Confrontation and Coexistence. Bar-Ilan University Press. p. 166. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9789652260499" title="Special:BookSources/9789652260499"><bdi>9789652260499</bdi></a>. <q>.. Europeans who visited the area during this period related that the Druze "love the Christians more than the other believers," and that they "hate the Turks, the Muslims and the Arabs [Bedouin] with an intense hatred.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Confrontation+and+Coexistence&rft.pages=166&rft.pub=Bar-Ilan+University+Press&rft.date=1984&rft.isbn=9789652260499&rft.aulast=Artzi&rft.aufirst=Pin%E1%B8%A5as&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCHURCHILL1862" class="citation book cs1">CHURCHILL (1862). The Druzes and the Maronites. Montserrat Abbey Library. p. 25. <q>..the Druzes and Christians lived together in the most perfect harmony and good-will..</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Druzes+and+the+Maronites&rft.pages=25&rft.pub=Montserrat+Abbey+Library&rft.date=1862&rft.au=CHURCHILL&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-google-34"><a href="#cite_ref-google_34-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFawaz1994" class="citation book cs1">Fawaz, L.T. (1994). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_nE7RjS91_E4C">An Occasion for War: Civil Conflict in Lebanon and Damascus in 1860</a>. <a href="/wiki/University_of_California_Press" title="University of California Press">University of California Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520087828" title="Special:BookSources/9780520087828"><bdi>9780520087828</bdi></a>. Retrieved 2015-04-16.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Occasion+for+War%3A+Civil+Conflict+in+Lebanon+and+Damascus+in+1860&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1994&rft.isbn=9780520087828&rft.aulast=Fawaz&rft.aufirst=L.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbub_gb_nE7RjS91_E4C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVocke1978" class="citation book cs1">Vocke, Harald (1978). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Fvu6AAAAIAAJ&q=The+Lebanese+war:+its+origins+and+political+dimensions">The Lebanese war: its origins and political dimensions</a>. C. Hurst. p. 10. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-903983-92-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-903983-92-3"><bdi>0-903983-92-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lebanese+war%3A+its+origins+and+political+dimensions&rft.pages=10&rft.pub=C.+Hurst&rft.date=1978&rft.isbn=0-903983-92-3&rft.aulast=Vocke&rft.aufirst=Harald&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DFvu6AAAAIAAJ%26q%3DThe%2BLebanese%2Bwar%3A%2Bits%2Borigins%2Band%2Bpolitical%2Bdimensions&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a> White (1899) </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Shehadi (1992) </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190329220258/https://www.ehdenfamilytree.org/getperson.php?personID=I1&tree=ehden">"Youssef Bey Karam on Ehden Family Tree website"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ehdenfamilytree.org/getperson.php?personID=I1&tree=ehden">the original</a> on 2019-03-29. Retrieved 2019-04-10.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Youssef+Bey+Karam+on+Ehden+Family+Tree+website&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ehdenfamilytree.org%2Fgetperson.php%3FpersonID%3DI1%26tree%3Dehden&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilipp2013" class="citation book cs1">Philipp, Thomas (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3zxvmFe9ktMC&pg=PA64">Acre: The Rise and Fall of a Palestinian City, 1730–1831</a>. Columbia University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780231506038" title="Special:BookSources/9780231506038"><bdi>9780231506038</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Acre%3A+The+Rise+and+Fall+of+a+Palestinian+City%2C+1730%E2%80%931831&rft.pub=Columbia+University+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780231506038&rft.aulast=Philipp&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3zxvmFe9ktMC%26pg%3DPA64&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Taylor_&_Francis,_Ltd" class="citation journal cs1">M. Firro, Kais (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284474">"The Shi'is in Lebanon: Between Communal 'Asabiyya and Arab Nationalism, 1908-21"</a>. Middle Eastern Studies. 42 (4): 535–550. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00263200600642175">10.1080/00263200600642175</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4284474">4284474</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144197971">144197971</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+Eastern+Studies&rft.atitle=The+Shi%27is+in+Lebanon%3A+Between+Communal+%27Asabiyya+and+Arab+Nationalism%2C+1908-21&rft.volume=42&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=535-550&rft.date=2006&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144197971%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4284474%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00263200600642175&rft.aulast=M.+Firro&rft.aufirst=Kais&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4284474&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGharbieh1996" class="citation thesis cs1">Gharbieh, Hussein M (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1521/">Political awareness of the Shi'ites in Lebanon : the role of Sayyid #Abd al-Husain Sharaf al-Din and Sayyid Musa al-Sadr</a>. Durham Theses, Durham University (Doctoral). Durham University. pp. 3–293.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Political+awareness+of+the+Shi%27ites+in+Lebanon+%3A+the+role+of+Sayyid+%23Abd+al-Husain+Sharaf+al-Din+and+Sayyid+Musa+al-Sadr&rft.inst=Durham+University&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Gharbieh&rft.aufirst=Hussein+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetheses.dur.ac.uk%2F1521%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNucho1972" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Nucho, Emile N. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230412082729/https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/96773821">"The Shi'i Matawila of Lebanon: A Study of their Political Development in Historical Perspective"</a>. McGill University. Institute of Islamic Studies (1): 15,134. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/96773821">the original</a> on 2023-04-12. Retrieved 2021-01-17.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McGill+University&rft.atitle=The+Shi%27i+Matawila+of+Lebanon%3A+A+Study+of+their+Political+Development+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.volume=Institute+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15%2C134&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Nucho&rft.aufirst=Emile+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F96773821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGharbieh1996" class="citation thesis cs1">Gharbieh, Hussein M (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1521/">Political awareness of the Shi'ites in Lebanon : the role of Sayyid #Abd al-Husain Sharaf al-Din and Sayyid Musa al-Sadr</a>. Durham Theses, Durham University (Doctoral). pp. 3–293. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230718181548/http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1521/">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-18. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Political+awareness+of+the+Shi%27ites+in+Lebanon+%3A+the+role+of+Sayyid+%23Abd+al-Husain+Sharaf+al-Din+and+Sayyid+Musa+al-Sadr&rft.date=1996&rft.aulast=Gharbieh&rft.aufirst=Hussein+M&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fetheses.dur.ac.uk%2F1521%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNucho1972" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-long-vol">Nucho, Emile N. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/96773821">"The Shi'i Matawila of Lebanon: A Study of their Political Development in Historical Perspective"</a>. McGill University. Institute of Islamic Studies (1): 15,134.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=McGill+University&rft.atitle=The+Shi%27i+Matawila+of+Lebanon%3A+A+Study+of+their+Political+Development+in+Historical+Perspective&rft.volume=Institute+of+Islamic+Studies&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15%2C134&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Nucho&rft.aufirst=Emile+N.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fcore.ac.uk%2Fdownload%2Fpdf%2F96773821&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988">[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot">permanent dead link</a>‍] </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGrimblat1988" class="citation journal cs1">Grimblat, Francis (1988). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.jstor.org/stable/25730511">"LA Communauté Chiite Libanaise et Le Mouvement National Palestinien 1967–1986"</a>. Guerres Mondiales et Conflits Contemporains. 151 (151): 71–91. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/25730511">25730511</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230210013338/https://www.jstor.org/stable/25730511">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-02-10. Retrieved 2021-04-09.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Guerres+Mondiales+et+Conflits+Contemporains&rft.atitle=LA+Communaut%C3%A9+Chiite+Libanaise+et+Le+Mouvement+National+Palestinien+1967%E2%80%931986&rft.volume=151&rft.issue=151&rft.pages=71-91&rft.date=1988&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25730511%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Grimblat&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F25730511&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAbisaabAbisaab2017" class="citation book cs1">Abisaab, Rula Jurdi; Abisaab, Malek (2017). The Shi'ites of Lebanon: Modernism, Communism, and Hizbullah's Islamists. New York: <a href="/wiki/Syracuse_University_Press" title="Syracuse University Press">Syracuse University Press</a>. pp. 9–11, 16–17, 24, 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780815635093" title="Special:BookSources/9780815635093"><bdi>9780815635093</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Shi%27ites+of+Lebanon%3A+Modernism%2C+Communism%2C+and+Hizbullah%27s+Islamists&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=9-11%2C+16-17%2C+24%2C+107&rft.pub=Syracuse+University+Press&rft.date=2017&rft.isbn=9780815635093&rft.aulast=Abisaab&rft.aufirst=Rula+Jurdi&rft.au=Abisaab%2C+Malek&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1521/1/1521.pdf?EThOS%20(BL)">http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1521/1/1521.pdf?EThOS%20(BL)</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201117165656/http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/1521/1/1521.pdf?EThOS%20(BL)">Archived</a> 2020-11-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a> |page= 43,44,45,46| </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAksan2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Virginia_H._Aksan" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia H. Aksan">Aksan, Virginia</a> (2014). Ottoman Wars, 1700–1870: An Empire Besieged. New York: Routledge. pp. 370–371. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780582308077" title="Special:BookSources/9780582308077"><bdi>9780582308077</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Ottoman+Wars%2C+1700%E2%80%931870%3A+An+Empire+Besieged&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=370-371&rft.pub=Routledge&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=9780582308077&rft.aulast=Aksan&rft.aufirst=Virginia&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFarah2000" class="citation book cs1">Farah, Caesar E. (2000). Politics of Interventionism in Ottoman Lebanon, 1830–61. Oxford / London: I.B.Tauris / Centre for Lebanese Studies. p. 42. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1860640568" title="Special:BookSources/978-1860640568"><bdi>978-1860640568</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Politics+of+Interventionism+in+Ottoman+Lebanon%2C+1830%E2%80%9361&rft.place=Oxford+%2F+London&rft.pages=42&rft.pub=I.B.Tauris+%2F+Centre+for+Lebanese+Studies&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=978-1860640568&rft.aulast=Farah&rft.aufirst=Caesar+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Deeb_2013-50"><a href="#cite_ref-Deeb_2013_50-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDeeb2013" class="citation book cs1">Deeb, Marius (2013). Syria, Iran, and Hezbollah: The Unholy Alliance and Its War on Lebanon. Hoover Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780817916664" title="Special:BookSources/9780817916664"><bdi>9780817916664</bdi></a>. <q>the Maronites and the Druze, who founded Lebanon in the early eighteenth century.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Syria%2C+Iran%2C+and+Hezbollah%3A+The+Unholy+Alliance+and+Its+War+on+Lebanon&rft.pub=Hoover+Press&rft.date=2013&rft.isbn=9780817916664&rft.aulast=Deeb&rft.aufirst=Marius&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenational.ae/world/lebanon-s-dark-days-of-hunger-the-great-famine-of-1915-18-1.70379?videoId=5587173110001">"Lebanon's dark days of hunger: The Great Famine of 1915-18"</a>. 14 April 2015. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20171006161936/https://www.thenational.ae/world/lebanon-s-dark-days-of-hunger-the-great-famine-of-1915-18-1.70379?videoId=5587173110001">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2017. Retrieved 6 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Lebanon%27s+dark+days+of+hunger%3A+The+Great+Famine+of+1915-18&rft.date=2015-04-14&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.thenational.ae%2Fworld%2Flebanon-s-dark-days-of-hunger-the-great-famine-of-1915-18-1.70379%3FvideoId%3D5587173110001&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> Harris 2012, p.174 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTanielian2018" class="citation book cs1">Tanielian, Melanie Schulze (2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=28143">Charity of War: Famine, Humanitarian Aid and World War I in the Middle East</a>. Stanford University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781503603523" title="Special:BookSources/9781503603523"><bdi>9781503603523</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230713003402/http://www.sup.org/books/title/?id=28143">Archived</a> from the original on 2023-07-13. Retrieved 2017-11-14.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Charity+of+War%3A+Famine%2C+Humanitarian+Aid+and+World+War+I+in+the+Middle+East&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=2018&rft.isbn=9781503603523&rft.aulast=Tanielian&rft.aufirst=Melanie+Schulze&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sup.org%2Fbooks%2Ftitle%2F%3Fid%3D28143&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBBC_staff2014" class="citation news cs1">BBC staff (26 November 2014). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30098000">"Six unexpected WW1 battlegrounds"</a>. BBC News. BBC. BBC News Services. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170803005322/http://www.bbc.com/news/magazine-30098000">Archived</a> from the original on 3 August 2017. Retrieved 24 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Six+unexpected+WW1+battlegrounds&rft.date=2014-11-26&rft.au=BBC+staff&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.bbc.com%2Fnews%2Fmagazine-30098000&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFirro2003" class="citation book cs1">Firro, Kais (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zRwOcE9wJAQC&pg=PA18">Inventing Lebanon: Nationalism and the State Under the Mandate, Kais Firro, p18</a>. Bloomsbury Academic. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781860648571" title="Special:BookSources/9781860648571"><bdi>9781860648571</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Inventing+Lebanon%3A+Nationalism+and+the+State+Under+the+Mandate%2C+Kais+Firro%2C+p18&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Academic&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9781860648571&rft.aulast=Firro&rft.aufirst=Kais&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzRwOcE9wJAQC%26pg%3DPA18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHakim2013" class="citation book cs1">Hakim, Carol (19 January 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=W3asKDHYERwC&dq=carte+du+liban+d%27apres+les+reconnaissances+de+la+brigade+topographique&pg=PA287">The Origins of the Lebanese National Idea: 1840-1920, Carol Hakim, p287</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780520273412" title="Special:BookSources/9780520273412"><bdi>9780520273412</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Origins+of+the+Lebanese+National+Idea%3A+1840-1920%2C+Carol+Hakim%2C+p287&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=2013-01-19&rft.isbn=9780520273412&rft.aulast=Hakim&rft.aufirst=Carol&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DW3asKDHYERwC%26dq%3Dcarte%2Bdu%2Bliban%2Bd%2527apres%2Bles%2Breconnaissances%2Bde%2Bla%2Bbrigade%2Btopographique%26pg%3DPA287&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Salibi26-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Salibi26_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salibi26_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Salibi26_57-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFSalibi1990">Salibi 1990</a>, p. 26: "Since the turn of the century, however, the Maronites had pressed for the extension of this small Lebanese territory to what they argued were its natural and historical boundaries: it would then include the coastal towns of Tripoli, Beirut, Sidon and Tyre and their respective hinterlands, which belonged to the Vilayet of Beirut; and the fertile valley of the Bekaa (the four Kazas, or administrtative districts, of Baalbek, the Bekaa, Rashayya and Hasbayya), which belonged to the Vilayet of Damascus. According to the Maronite argument, this 'Greater Lebanon' had always had a special social and historical character, different from that of its surroundings, which made it necessary and indeed imperative for France to help establish it as an independent state. While France had strong sympathies for the Maronites, the French government did not support their demands without reserve. In Mount Lebanon, the Maronites had formed a clear majority of the population. In a 'Greater Lebanon', they were bound to be outnumbered by the Muslims of the coastal towns and their hinterlands, and by those of the Bekaa valley; and all the Christian communities together, in a 'Greater Lebanon', could at best amount to a bare majority. The Maronites, however, were insistent in their demands. Their secular and clerical leaders had pressed for them during the war years among the Allied powers, not excluding the United States." </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> Harris 2012, pp. 173–174 </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> David Sutton, Syria and Lebanon 1941: The Allied Fight Against the Vichy French (Bloomsbury Publishing, 2022). </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a> Smith (2006) pp. 310, 353. </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDalrymple1997" class="citation book cs1">Dalrymple, William (1997). From the Holy Mountain: A Journey Among the Christians of the Middle East. Vintage Books (Random House). p. 252. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0006547745" title="Special:BookSources/0006547745"><bdi>0006547745</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=From+the+Holy+Mountain%3A+A+Journey+Among+the+Christians+of+the+Middle+East&rft.pages=252&rft.pub=Vintage+Books+%28Random+House%29&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0006547745&rft.aulast=Dalrymple&rft.aufirst=William&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jHGYvr7rkrsC">Reprint (possibly with different page numbers).</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> Chomsky (1999), p. 184 </li> <li id="cite_note-63"><a href="#cite_ref-63">^</a> Chomsky (1999), p. 191, quoting Guardian correspondent Irene Beeson </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a> Chomsky (1999), p. 74, citing Ha'aretz, June 22, 1982, and p. 191, citing The New York Times, October 2, 1977. </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarris2015" class="citation book cs1">Harris, William W. (2015). Lebanon: A History, 600-2011. Studies in Middle Eastern history (Oxford University Press ed.). New York, N.Y: Oxford University Press. pp. 232, 247. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518111-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-518111-1"><bdi>978-0-19-518111-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon%3A+A+History%2C+600-2011&rft.place=New+York%2C+N.Y&rft.series=Studies+in+Middle+Eastern+history&rft.pages=232%2C+247&rft.edition=Oxford+University+Press&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-19-518111-1&rft.aulast=Harris&rft.aufirst=William+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:102-66"><a href="#cite_ref-:102_66-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNajemAmoreAbu_Khalil2021" class="citation book cs1">Najem, Tom; Amore, Roy C.; Abu Khalil, As'ad (2021). 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Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://weekly.ahram.org.eg/2004/707/re1.htm">the original</a> on 2007-04-13. Retrieved 2007-04-02.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Al-Ahram+Weekly+%26%23124%3B+Region+%26%23124%3B+the+limits+of+loyalty&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fweekly.ahram.org.eg%2F2004%2F707%2Fre1.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> The limits of loyalty from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Aharam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Aharam (page does not exist)">Al-Aharam</a> weekly.com, retrieved at April 2, 2007. </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> The quote is: "The police state ... has proven its efficiency in targeting one of the symbols of the nation... 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Reuters. 26 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Reuters&rft.atitle=Israel+rejects+US-backed+Lebanon+ceasefire+plan%2C+hits+Beirut+again&rft.date=2024-09-26&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.reuters.com%2Fworld%2Fmiddle-east%2Flebanese-prime-minister-believes-ceasefire-between-israel-hezbollah-possible-2024-09-26%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-174"><a href="#cite_ref-174">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/liveblog/2024/9/24/israel-attacks-lebanon-live-global-calls-for-restraint-as-492-killed">"Israel bombs Lebanon updates: Hezbollah responds as Israeli raids kill 569"</a>. Al Jazeera. 24 September 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Israel+bombs+Lebanon+updates%3A+Hezbollah+responds+as+Israeli+raids+kill+569&rft.date=2024-09-24&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2Fliveblog%2F2024%2F9%2F24%2Fisrael-attacks-lebanon-live-global-calls-for-restraint-as-492-killed&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-175"><a href="#cite_ref-175">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFStaff" class="citation news cs1">Staff, Al Jazeera. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aljazeera.com/news/2024/9/28/hassan-nasrallah-hezbollah-leader-killed-in-beirut-in-israeli-strike">"Who was Hassan Nasrallah, Hezbollah leader killed in Israeli strike?"</a>. Al Jazeera.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Al+Jazeera&rft.atitle=Who+was+Hassan+Nasrallah%2C+Hezbollah+leader+killed+in+Israeli+strike%3F&rft.aulast=Staff&rft.aufirst=Al+Jazeera&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.aljazeera.com%2Fnews%2F2024%2F9%2F28%2Fhassan-nasrallah-hezbollah-leader-killed-in-beirut-in-israeli-strike&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Bibliography">Bibliography</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=History_of_Lebanon&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Bibliography">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235611614">.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);margin:0.5em 0;padding:0.2em;line-height:1.5em;font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-header{text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-listen-to{font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-files{text-align:center;margin-top:10px;margin-bottom:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-icon{float:left;margin-left:5px;margin-top:10px}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer{margin-left:60px;margin-top:10px;font-size:95%;line-height:1.4em}.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia-footer{margin-top:10px;text-align:center}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .spoken-wikipedia{width:20em;float:right;clear:right;margin-left:1em}}</style><div class="spoken-wikipedia noprint haudio"><div class="spoken-wikipedia-header">Listen to this article (3 parts, 1 hour and 13 minutes)</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-files"> <ol><li><audio id="mwe_player_0" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="1246" data-mwtitle="Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_1.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/33/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_1.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/3/33/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_1.ogg/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_1.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></li> <li><audio id="mwe_player_1" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="1340" data-mwtitle="Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_2.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/40/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_2.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/4/40/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_2.ogg/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_2.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></li> <li><audio id="mwe_player_2" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="180" style="width:180px;" data-durationhint="1789" data-mwtitle="Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_3.ogg" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/ca/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_3.ogg" type="audio/ogg; codecs="vorbis"" data-width="0" data-height="0" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/c/ca/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_3.ogg/Wikipedia_-_History_of_Lebanon_-_Part_3.ogg.mp3" type="audio/mpeg" data-transcodekey="mp3" data-width="0" data-height="0" /></audio></li></ol> </div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-icon"><img alt="Spoken Wikipedia icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/45px-Sound-icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="45" height="34" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/68px-Sound-icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/47/Sound-icon.svg/90px-Sound-icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="96" /></div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-disclaimer">These audio files were created from a revision of this article dated 31 March 2008 (2008-03-31), and do not reflect subsequent edits.</div><div class="spoken-wikipedia-footer">(<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Media_help" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Media help">Audio help</a> · <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Spoken_articles" title="Wikipedia:Spoken articles">More spoken articles</a>)</div></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChomsky1999" class="citation book cs1">Chomsky, Noam (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cayXcN1JwSkC">The Fateful Triangle</a>. Black Rose Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1551641607" title="Special:BookSources/978-1551641607"><bdi>978-1551641607</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Fateful+Triangle&rft.pub=Black+Rose+Books&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-1551641607&rft.aulast=Chomsky&rft.aufirst=Noam&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcayXcN1JwSkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalibi1977" class="citation book cs1">Salibi, K. (1977). The Modern History of Lebanon. Delmar: Caravan Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-88206-015-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-88206-015-5"><bdi>0-88206-015-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Modern+History+of+Lebanon&rft.place=Delmar&rft.pub=Caravan+Books&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=0-88206-015-5&rft.aulast=Salibi&rft.aufirst=K.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSalibi1990" class="citation book cs1">Salibi, Kamal (1990). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4vOJ15vTZV4C&pg=PA26">A House of Many Mansions: The History of Lebanon Reconsidered</a>. University of California Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07196-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-520-07196-4"><bdi>978-0-520-07196-4</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+House+of+Many+Mansions%3A+The+History+of+Lebanon+Reconsidered&rft.pub=University+of+California+Press&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=978-0-520-07196-4&rft.aulast=Salibi&rft.aufirst=Kamal&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4vOJ15vTZV4C%26pg%3DPA26&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFShehadi1992" class="citation book cs1">Shehadi, Nadim (1992). Lebanon: A History of Conflict. The Center for Lebanese Studies. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-85043-119-1" title="Special:BookSources/1-85043-119-1"><bdi>1-85043-119-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lebanon%3A+A+History+of+Conflict&rft.pub=The+Center+for+Lebanese+Studies&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=1-85043-119-1&rft.aulast=Shehadi&rft.aufirst=Nadim&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith2006" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Charles D. (2006). Palestine and the Arab Israeli Conflict. Bedford/St. Martin's. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780312437367" title="Special:BookSources/9780312437367"><bdi>9780312437367</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Palestine+and+the+Arab+Israeli+Conflict&rft.pub=Bedford%2FSt.+Martin%27s&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=9780312437367&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=Charles+D.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhite1899" class="citation book cs1">White, Arthur S. (1899). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/expansionegyptu00whitgoog">The Expansion of Egypt Under Anglo-Egyptian Condominium</a>. Muthen & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Expansion+of+Egypt+Under+Anglo-Egyptian+Condominium&rft.pub=Muthen+%26+Co.&rft.date=1899&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Arthur+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fexpansionegyptu00whitgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AHistory+of+Lebanon" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output 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style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Lebanon_topics" title="Template:Lebanon topics"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Lebanon_topics" title="Template talk:Lebanon topics"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Lebanon_topics" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Lebanon topics"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Lebanon_articles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Lebanon" title="Lebanon">Lebanon</a> <a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Lebanon" title="Outline of Lebanon">articles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_ancient_Lebanon" title="History of ancient Lebanon">Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia" title="Phoenicia">Phoenicia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Hellenistic_rule" title="Phoenicia under Hellenistic rule">Hellenistic era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenicia_under_Roman_rule" title="Phoenicia under Roman rule">Roman era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Arab_rule">Arab era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Crusader_kingdoms">Crusader era</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Mamluk_rule">Mamluk era</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ottoman_Empire" title="Ottoman Empire">Ottoman Empire</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Emirate_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Emirate of Mount Lebanon">Emirate of Mount Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Double_Qaim-Maqamate_of_Mount_Lebanon" title="Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon">Double Qaim-Maqamate of Mount Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon_Mutasarrifate" title="Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate">Mount Lebanon Mutasarrifate</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greater_Lebanon" title="Greater Lebanon">French mandate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Civil_War" title="Lebanese Civil War">Civil War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cedar_Revolution" title="Cedar Revolution">Cedar Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syrian_Civil_War_spillover_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon">Syrian Civil War spillover in Lebanon</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Geography_of_Lebanon" title="Geography of Lebanon">Geography</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anti-Lebanon_Mountains" class="mw-redirect" title="Anti-Lebanon Mountains">Anti-Lebanon Mountains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beqaa_Valley" title="Beqaa Valley">Beqaa Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Template:Borders_of_Lebanon" title="Template:Borders of Lebanon">Borders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_cities_and_towns_in_Lebanon" title="List of cities and towns in Lebanon">Cities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Districts_of_Lebanon" title="Districts of Lebanon">Districts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Governorates_of_Lebanon" title="Governorates of Lebanon">Governorates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mount_Lebanon" title="Mount Lebanon">Mount Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shebaa_farms" class="mw-redirect" title="Shebaa farms">Shebaa farms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southern_Lebanon" title="Southern Lebanon">Southern Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wildlife_of_Lebanon" title="Wildlife of Lebanon">Wildlife</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Politics_of_Lebanon" title="Politics of Lebanon">Politics</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Constitution_of_Lebanon" title="Constitution of Lebanon">Constitution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corruption_in_Lebanon" title="Corruption in Lebanon">Corruption</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foreign_relations_of_Lebanon" title="Foreign relations of Lebanon">Foreign relations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_rights_in_Lebanon" title="Human rights in Lebanon">Human rights</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abortion_in_Lebanon" title="Abortion in Lebanon">Abortion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/LGBT_rights_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="LGBT rights in Lebanon">LGBT</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_Armed_Forces" title="Lebanese Armed Forces">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_political_parties_in_Lebanon" title="List of political parties in Lebanon">Political parties</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/President_of_Lebanon" title="President of Lebanon">President</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prime_Minister_of_Lebanon" title="Prime Minister of Lebanon">Prime Minister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_speakers_of_the_Parliament_of_Lebanon" title="List of speakers of the Parliament of Lebanon">Speaker of Parliament</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Economy_of_Lebanon" title="Economy of Lebanon">Economy</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Agriculture_in_Lebanon" title="Agriculture in Lebanon">Agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banque_du_Liban" title="Banque du Liban">Central Bank</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_rankings_of_Lebanon" title="International rankings of Lebanon">International rankings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_pound" title="Lebanese pound">Pound (currency)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telecommunications_in_Lebanon" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunications in Lebanon">Telecommunications</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tourism_in_Lebanon" title="Tourism in Lebanon">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transport_in_Lebanon" title="Transport in Lebanon">Transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Drug_economy_in_Lebanon" title="Drug economy in Lebanon">Drug industry</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Culture_of_Lebanon" title="Culture of Lebanon">Culture</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Architecture_of_Lebanon" title="Architecture of Lebanon">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cinema_of_Lebanon" title="Cinema of Lebanon">Cinema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_cuisine" title="Lebanese cuisine">Cuisine</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lebanese_wine" title="Lebanese wine">wine</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Demographics_of_Lebanon" title="Demographics of Lebanon">Demographics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Education_in_Lebanon" title="Education in Lebanon">Education</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_of_Lebanon" title="Flag of Lebanon">Flag</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Languages_of_Lebanon" title="Languages of Lebanon">Languages</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_of_Lebanon" title="Music of Lebanon">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Public_holidays_in_Lebanon" title="Public holidays in Lebanon">Public holidays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_Lebanon" title="Religion in Lebanon">Religion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sport_in_Lebanon" title="Sport in Lebanon">Sports</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Television_in_Lebanon" title="Television in Lebanon">Television</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_Lebanon" title="Women in Lebanon">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="font-weight:bold;"><div><div style="margin-bottom:-0.4em;"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Lebanon" title="Outline of Lebanon">Outline</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_Lebanon" title="Outline of Lebanon">Index</a></li></ul></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Lebanon" title="Category:Lebanon">Category</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portal:Lebanon" title="Portal:Lebanon">Portal</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="History_of_Asia" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:History_of_Asia" title="Template talk:History of Asia"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:History_of_Asia" title="Special:EditPage/Template:History of Asia"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="History_of_Asia" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/History_of_Asia" title="History of Asia">History of Asia</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_sovereign_states" title="List of sovereign states">Sovereign states</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Afghanistan" title="History of Afghanistan">Afghanistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Armenia" title="History of Armenia">Armenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Azerbaijan" title="History of Azerbaijan">Azerbaijan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bahrain" title="History of Bahrain">Bahrain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bangladesh" title="History of Bangladesh">Bangladesh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Bhutan" title="History of Bhutan">Bhutan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Brunei" title="History of Brunei">Brunei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cambodia" title="History of Cambodia">Cambodia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_China" title="History of China">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Cyprus" title="History of Cyprus">Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_East_Timor" title="History of East Timor">East Timor (Timor-Leste)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Egypt" title="History of Egypt">Egypt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Georgia_(country)" title="History of Georgia (country)">Georgia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_India" title="History of India">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Indonesia" title="History of Indonesia">Indonesia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iran" title="History of Iran">Iran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Iraq" title="History of Iraq">Iraq</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Israel" title="History of Israel">Israel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Japan" title="History of Japan">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Jordan" title="History of Jordan">Jordan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kazakhstan" title="History of Kazakhstan">Kazakhstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_North_Korea" title="History of North Korea">North Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Korea" title="History of South Korea">South Korea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kuwait" title="History of Kuwait">Kuwait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Kyrgyzstan" title="History of Kyrgyzstan">Kyrgyzstan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Laos" title="History of Laos">Laos</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Lebanon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Malaysia" title="History of Malaysia">Malaysia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Maldives" title="History of the Maldives">Maldives</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Mongolia" title="History of Mongolia">Mongolia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Myanmar" title="History of Myanmar">Myanmar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Nepal" title="History of Nepal">Nepal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Oman" title="History of Oman">Oman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Pakistan" title="History of Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Philippines" title="History of the Philippines">Philippines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Qatar" title="History of Qatar">Qatar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Russia" title="History of Russia">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Saudi_Arabia" title="History of Saudi Arabia">Saudi Arabia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Singapore" title="History of Singapore">Singapore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Sri_Lanka" title="History of Sri Lanka">Sri Lanka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Syria" title="History of Syria">Syria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Tajikistan" title="History of Tajikistan">Tajikistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Thailand" title="History of Thailand">Thailand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkey" title="History of Turkey">Turkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Turkmenistan" title="History of Turkmenistan">Turkmenistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_United_Arab_Emirates" title="History of the United Arab Emirates">United Arab Emirates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Uzbekistan" title="History of Uzbekistan">Uzbekistan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Vietnam" title="History of Vietnam">Vietnam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Yemen" title="History of Yemen">Yemen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_states_with_limited_recognition" title="List of states with limited recognition">States with limited recognition</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Abkhazia" title="History of Abkhazia">Abkhazia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Northern_Cyprus" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Northern Cyprus">Northern Cyprus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_State_of_Palestine" title="History of the State of Palestine">Palestine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_South_Ossetia" class="mw-redirect" title="History of South Ossetia">South Ossetia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Taiwan" title="History of Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Dependent_territory" title="Dependent territory">Dependencies</a> and other territories</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_British_Indian_Ocean_Territory" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the British Indian Ocean Territory">British Indian Ocean Territory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Christmas_Island" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Christmas Island">Christmas Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Cocos_(Keeling)_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="History of the Cocos (Keeling) Islands">Cocos (Keeling) Islands</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Hong_Kong" title="History of Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_Macau" title="History of Macau">Macau</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Asia" 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