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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Origins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Origins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Origins</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Origins-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Origins subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Theories_of_origin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Theories_of_origin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.1</span> <span>Theories of origin</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Theories_of_origin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Legendary_accounts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Legendary_accounts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.2</span> <span>Legendary accounts</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Legendary_accounts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alphabet:_the_Beith-luis-nin" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alphabet:_the_Beith-luis-nin"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Alphabet: the Beith-luis-nin</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alphabet:_the_Beith-luis-nin-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Alphabet: the Beith-luis-nin subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Alphabet:_the_Beith-luis-nin-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Letter_names" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Letter_names"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Letter names</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Letter_names-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Corpus" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Corpus"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Corpus</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Corpus-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Non-monumental_uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Non-monumental_uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Non-monumental uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Non-monumental_uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Samples" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Samples"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Samples</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Samples-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unicode" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unicode"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Unicode</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Unicode-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Neopaganism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Neopaganism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Neopaganism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Neopaganism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_and_cited_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_and_cited_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>General and cited references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_and_cited_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Ogham</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 56 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-56" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">56 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8A%A6%E1%8C%8B%E1%88%9D_%E1%8C%BD%E1%88%95%E1%8D%88%E1%89%B5" title="ኦጋም ጽሕፈት – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ኦጋም ጽሕፈት" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D8%AC%D9%87%D8%A7%D9%85" title="أوجهام – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أوجهام" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Агамічнае пісьмо – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Агамічнае пісьмо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D1%96%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D1%96%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Агамічнае пісьмо – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Агамічнае пісьмо" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Огам – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Огам" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CE%BB%CF%86%CE%AC%CE%B2%CE%B7%CF%84%CE%BF_%CE%8C%CE%B3%CE%B1%CE%BC" title="Αλφάβητο Όγαμ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Αλφάβητο Όγαμ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogamo" title="Ogamo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ogamo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%88%DA%AF%D8%A7%D9%85" title="اوگام – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="اوگام" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham_(alfabet)" title="Ogham (alfabet) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Ogham (alfabet)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%98%A4%EA%B0%90_%EB%AC%B8%EC%9E%90" title="오감 문자 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="오감 문자" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%95%D5%A3%D5%A1%D5%B4%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D5%AB%D6%80" title="Օգամական գիր – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Օգամական գիր" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogamsko_pismo" title="Ogamsko pismo – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Ogamsko pismo" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabeto_ogamico" title="Alfabeto ogamico – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Alfabeto ogamico" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%95%D7%92%D7%9D" title="אוגם – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אוגם" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A6%E1%83%90%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="ოღამი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ოღამი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogams" title="Ogams – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ogams" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Nias" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="Nias" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham_(alfabet)" title="Ogham (alfabet) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Ogham (alfabet)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%AA%E3%82%AC%E3%83%A0%E6%96%87%E5%AD%97" title="オガム文字 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="オガム文字" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham-skrift" title="Ogham-skrift – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Ogham-skrift" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pismo_ogamiczne" title="Pismo ogamiczne – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pismo ogamiczne" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alfabetul_celtic" title="Alfabetul celtic – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Alfabetul celtic" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B5_%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%81%D1%8C%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Огамическое письмо – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Огамическое письмо" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oghamov%C3%A9_p%C3%ADsmo" title="Oghamové písmo – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Oghamové písmo" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogamska_pisava" title="Ogamska pisava – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Ogamska pisava" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Огам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Огам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogam" title="Ogam – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Ogam" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%A9%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%82%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%A1" title="อักษรโอคัม – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="อักษรโอคัม" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ogham" title="Ogham – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Ogham" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D0%B3%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Огам – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Огам" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%AD%90%E7%94%98%E5%AD%97%E6%AF%8D" title="歐甘字母 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="歐甘字母" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bbc mw-list-item"><a href="https://bbc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Surat_Ogham" title="Surat Ogham – Batak Toba" lang="bbc" hreflang="bbc" 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Early Middle Ages Irish alphabet</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1092331828">@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .contains-special-characters{width:22em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right contains-special-characters noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Ogham_letter_ngeadal.svg/37px-Ogham_letter_ngeadal.svg.png" decoding="async" width="37" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Ogham_letter_ngeadal.svg/55px-Ogham_letter_ngeadal.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Ogham_letter_ngeadal.svg/73px-Ogham_letter_ngeadal.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="55" data-file-height="60" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><b>This article contains <a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ogham text</a>.</b> Without proper <a href="/wiki/Help:Multilingual_support#Ogham" title="Help:Multilingual support">rendering support</a>, you may see <a href="/wiki/Specials_(Unicode_block)#Replacement_character" title="Specials (Unicode block)">question marks, boxes, or other symbols</a> instead of Ogham letters.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="padding:0.25em; background:lightblue;">Ogham <br /> <b>᚛ᚑᚌᚐᚋ᚜</b><br /><div style="font-weight:normal"></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image" style="padding-top:0.4em;padding-bottom:0.4em;"><span class="skin-invert" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg/240px-Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg" decoding="async" width="240" height="394" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg/360px-Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/92/Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg/480px-Ogham_Stone_Rathass_Church_Tralee_Kerry.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="902" /></a></span><div class="infobox-caption" style="border-bottom:1px solid #aaa;">An inscription found in 1975 in <a href="/wiki/Ratass_Church" title="Ratass Church">Ratass Church</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tralee" title="Tralee">Tralee</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Kerry" title="County Kerry">County Kerry</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Script type</th><td class="infobox-data"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0; line-height:1.25em"> <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabet</a> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Time period</div></th><td class="infobox-data">c. 4th–10th centuries</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Direction</th><td class="infobox-data">Bottom-to-top, left-to-right <span class="penicon autoconfirmed-show"><span class="mw-valign-text-top" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184661?uselang=en#P1406" title="Edit this on Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this on Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></span></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;">Languages</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a>;<br /> <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a>; <a href="/wiki/Pictish" class="mw-redirect" title="Pictish">Pictish</a><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd">ISO 15924</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><a href="/wiki/ISO_15924" title="ISO 15924">ISO 15924</a></th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886049734">.mw-parser-output .monospaced{font-family:monospace,monospace}</style><span class="monospaced">Ogam</span> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r886049734"><span class="monospaced">(212)</span>, Ogham</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background:#ddd"><a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Unicode alias</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Ogham</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="padding-right:0.6em;"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;"><a href="/wiki/Unicode_range" class="mw-redirect" title="Unicode range">Unicode range</a></div></th><td class="infobox-data"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1680.pdf">U+1680–U+169F</a></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><b>Ogham</b> (<span class="rt-commentedText nowrap"><span class="IPA nopopups noexcerpt" lang="en-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/English" title="Help:IPA/English">/<span style="border-bottom:1px dotted"><span title="/ˈ/: primary stress follows">ˈ</span><span title="/ɒ/: 'o' in 'body'">ɒ</span><span title="/ɡ/: 'g' in 'guy'">ɡ</span><span title="/əm/: 'm' in 'rhythm'">əm</span></span>/</a></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Help:Pronunciation_respelling_key" title="Help:Pronunciation respelling key"><i title="English pronunciation respelling"><span style="font-size:90%">OG</span>-əm</i></a>,<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <small><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Modern Irish</a>:</small> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="ga-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Irish" title="Help:IPA/Irish">[ˈoː(ə)mˠ]</a></span>; <a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Middle Irish language">Middle Irish</a>: <i lang="mga">ogum, ogom</i>, later <span title="Middle Irish (900-1200)-language text"><i lang="mga">ogam</i></span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="mga-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">[ˈɔɣəmˠ]</a></span><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) is an <a href="/wiki/Early_Medieval" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Medieval">Early Medieval</a> <a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">alphabet</a> used primarily to write the <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">early Irish language</a> (in the <a href="/wiki/Ogham_inscriptions" class="mw-redirect" title="Ogham inscriptions">"orthodox" inscriptions</a>, 4th to 6th centuries AD), and later the <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> language (<a href="/wiki/Scholastic_ogham" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic ogham">scholastic ogham</a>, 6th to 9th centuries). There are roughly 400 surviving orthodox inscriptions on stone monuments throughout Ireland and western Britain, the bulk of which are in southern <a href="/wiki/Munster" title="Munster">Munster</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The largest number outside Ireland are in <a href="/wiki/Pembrokeshire" title="Pembrokeshire">Pembrokeshire</a>, Wales.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The vast majority of the inscriptions consist of personal names. </p><p>According to the High Medieval <i><a href="/wiki/Br%C3%ADatharogam" title="Bríatharogam">Bríatharogam</a></i>, the letters are named after various trees. For this reason, Ogham is sometimes known as the <b>Celtic tree alphabet</b>. </p><p>The etymology of the word <i>ogam</i> or <i>ogham</i> remains unclear. One possible origin is from the Irish <i>og-úaim</i> 'point-seam', referring to the seam made by the point of a sharp weapon.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Myths_and_legends;_the_Celtic_race_(1910)_(14760479206).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Myths_and_legends%3B_the_Celtic_race_%281910%29_%2814760479206%29.jpg/220px-Myths_and_legends%3B_the_Celtic_race_%281910%29_%2814760479206%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="325" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Myths_and_legends%3B_the_Celtic_race_%281910%29_%2814760479206%29.jpg/330px-Myths_and_legends%3B_the_Celtic_race_%281910%29_%2814760479206%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/cd/Myths_and_legends%3B_the_Celtic_race_%281910%29_%2814760479206%29.jpg/440px-Myths_and_legends%3B_the_Celtic_race_%281910%29_%2814760479206%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1960" data-file-height="2896" /></a><figcaption>Carving of Ogham letters into a stone pillar – illustration by <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Reid_(artist)" title="Stephen Reid (artist)">Stephen Reid</a> (1873 – 1948), in: <i>Myths & Legends of the Celtic Race</i> by <a href="/wiki/T._W._Rolleston" title="T. W. Rolleston">T. W. Rolleston</a> (1857 – 1920), published 1911, p. 288</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1246091330">.mw-parser-output .sidebar{width:22em;float:right;clear:right;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em;background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);border:1px solid var(--border-color-base,#a2a9b1);padding:0.2em;text-align:center;line-height:1.4em;font-size:88%;border-collapse:collapse;display:table}body.skin-minerva .mw-parser-output .sidebar{display:table!important;float:right!important;margin:0.5em 0 1em 1em!important}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-subgroup{width:100%;margin:0;border-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-left{float:left;clear:left;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-none{float:none;clear:both;margin:0.5em 1em 1em 0}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-outer-title{padding:0 0.4em 0.2em;font-size:125%;line-height:1.2em;font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-image{padding:0.4em}.mw-parser-output .sidebar-top-caption,.mw-parser-output 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1116488514"><table class="sidebar sidebar-collapse nomobile nowraplinks abchis-body"><tbody><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="sidebar-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed"><div class="sidebar-list-title" style="color: var(--color-base)"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_alphabet" title="History of the alphabet">History of the alphabet</a></div><div class="sidebar-list-content mw-collapsible-content"><div class="treeview"> <ul><li><span style="text-decoration-color:gray; text-decoration-line:line-through;"><i><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></i></span> 32nd <abbr title="century">c.</abbr> BCE <ul><li><span style="text-decoration-color:gray; text-decoration-line:line-through;"><i><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></i></span> 32nd c. BCE <ul><li><span style="text-decoration-color:gray; text-decoration-line:line-through;"><i><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></i></span> 7th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a> 3rd c. BCE</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><span style="text-decoration-color:gray; text-decoration-line:line-through;"><i><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Sinaitic">Proto-Sinaitic</a></i></span> 19th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a> 15th c. BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Ancient South Arabian</a> 9th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 5th c. BCE</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> 12th c. BCE <ul><li>(<span role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable crossreference selfref">see <a href="#tp-abchistory-phx">below</a></span>)</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a> 1443</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 1601</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a> 1989</li></ul> </div> <hr /> <div class="treeview"><span class="anchor" id="tp-abchistory-phx"></span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> 12th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew" class="mw-redirect" title="Paleo-Hebrew">Paleo-Hebrew</a> 10th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a> 6th c. BCE</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> 8th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a> 3rd c. BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmi">Brahmi</a> 3rd c. BCE <ul><li>(<i><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_family" class="mw-redirect" title="Brahmic family">Brahmic</a></i>) <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a> 4th century <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a> 4th century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a> 6th century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> 611</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> 7th century <ul><li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa" class="mw-redirect" title="ʼPhags-pa">ʼPhags-pa</a> 1269</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a> 10th century <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a> 1840</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> 3rd c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Western_Neo-Aramaic#Square_Aramaic_Alphabet" title="Western Neo-Aramaic">Square Aramaic</a> 2007</li></ul></li> <li><span style="text-decoration-color:gray; text-decoration-line:line-through;"><i><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a></i></span> 3rd c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> 4th century</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palmyrene_alphabet" title="Palmyrene alphabet">Palmyrene</a> 2nd c. BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a> 2nd c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_alphabet" title="Arabic alphabet">Arabic</a> 4th century <ul><li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a> 1949</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> 2nd c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a> 2nd c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Old Turkic</a> 6th century <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 650</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> 1204</li></ul></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a> 2nd century</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> 8th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Etruscan</a> 8th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin</a> 7th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a> 1854</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a> 19th century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Syllabic_writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a> 1888</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a> 1915</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saanich_dialect#Writing_system" title="Saanich dialect">Saanich</a> 1978</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a> 2006</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runic" class="mw-redirect" title="Runic">Runic</a> 2nd century</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ogham</a> 4th century</li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a> 5th c. BCE</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a> 3rd century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a> 3rd century</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a> 405 <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 420</span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 430</span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic" class="mw-redirect" title="Glagolitic">Glagolitic</a> 862</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyrillic">Cyrillic</a> <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr><span style="white-space:nowrap;"> 940</span> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic" class="mw-redirect" title="Old Permic">Old Permic</a> 1372</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Libyco-Berber" class="mw-redirect" title="Libyco-Berber">Libyco-Berber</a> 10th c. BCE <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a> 4th century <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh#Neo-Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Neo-Tifinagh</a> 1970</li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleohispanic_scripts" title="Paleohispanic scripts">Paleohispanic</a> 7th c. BCE</li></ul></li></ul> </div></div></div></td> </tr></tbody></table> <p>It is generally thought that the earliest inscriptions in Ogham date to about the 4th century AD,<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> but <a href="/wiki/James_Carney_(scholar)" title="James Carney (scholar)">James Carney</a> believed its origin is rather within the 1st century BC.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the use of "classical" ogham in stone inscriptions seems to have flourished in the 5th and 6th centuries around the <a href="/wiki/Irish_Sea" title="Irish Sea">Irish Sea</a>, from the phonological evidence it is clear that the alphabet predates the 5th century. Indeed, the alphabet has letters representing "archaic" <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> which were clearly part of the system, but which were no longer spoken by the 5th century and never appear in inscriptions, suggesting an extended period of ogham writing on wood or other perishable material prior to the preserved monumental inscriptions. They are: <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Aath" class="mw-redirect" title="Úath">úath</a></i> ("H") and <i><a href="/wiki/Straif" title="Straif">straif</a></i> ("Z" in the manuscript tradition, but probably "F" from "SW"), and <i><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A9tal" class="mw-redirect" title="Gétal">gétal</a></i> (velar nasal "NG" in the manuscript tradition, but etymologically probably "GW"). </p><p>It appears that the Ogham alphabet was modelled on another script,<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and some even consider it a mere cipher of its template script (Düwel 1968:<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> points out similarity with <a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">ciphers of Germanic runes</a>). The largest number of scholars favour the <a href="/wiki/Latin_alphabet" title="Latin alphabet">Latin alphabet</a> as this template,<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> although the <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a> and even the <a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek alphabet</a> have their supporters.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Runic origin would elegantly explain the presence of "H" and "Z" letters unused in Irish, as well as the presence of vocalic and consonantal variants "U" vs. "W", unknown to Latin writing and lost in Greek (cf. <a href="/wiki/Digamma" title="Digamma">digamma</a>). The Latin alphabet is the primary contender mainly because its influence at the required period (4th century) is most easily established, being widely used in neighbouring Roman <a href="/wiki/Roman_Britain#4th_century" title="Roman Britain">Britannia</a>, while runes in the 4th century were not very widespread even in <a href="/wiki/Continental_Europe" title="Continental Europe">continental Europe</a>. </p><p>In Ireland and Wales, the language of the monumental stone inscriptions is termed <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a>. The transition to <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a>, the language of the earliest sources in the Latin alphabet, takes place in about the 6th century.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since ogham inscriptions consist almost exclusively of personal names and marks possibly indicating land ownership, linguistic information that may be gleaned from the Primitive Irish period is mostly restricted to <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> developments. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Theories_of_origin">Theories of origin</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Theories of origin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg/170px-Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg/255px-Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg/340px-Book_of_Ballymote_170r.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="1268" /></a><figcaption>Fol. 170r of the <a href="/wiki/Book_of_Ballymote" title="Book of Ballymote">Book of Ballymote</a> (1390), the <i><a href="/wiki/Auraicept_na_n-%C3%89ces" title="Auraicept na n-Éces">Auraicept na n-Éces</a></i> explaining the ogham script</figcaption></figure> <p>There are two main schools of thought among scholars as to the motivation for the creation of ogham. Scholars such as Carney and MacNeill have suggested that ogham was first created as a cryptic alphabet, designed by the Irish to hide their meaning from writers of the Latin alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this school of thought, it is asserted that "the alphabet was created by Irish scholars or druids for political, military or religious reasons to provide a secret means of communication in opposition to the authorities of Roman Britain."<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The serious threat of invasion by the Roman Empire, which then ruled over neighbouring southern Britain, may have spurred the creation of the alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, in later centuries when the threat of invasion had receded and the Irish were themselves invading western Britain, the desire to keep communications secret from Romans or Romanised Britons would still have provided an incentive. With bilingual ogham and Latin inscriptions in Wales, however, one would suppose that the ogham could easily be decoded by at least an educated few in the post-Roman world.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The second main school of thought, put forward by scholars such as McManus,<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is that ogham was invented by the first Christian communities in early Ireland, out of a desire for a unique alphabet to write short messages and inscriptions in Irish. The sounds of Primitive Irish may have been difficult to transcribe into the Latin alphabet, motivating the invention of a separate alphabet. A possible such origin, as suggested by McManus (1991:41), is the early Irish Christian community known from around AD 400 at latest, attested by the mission of <a href="/wiki/Palladius_(bishop_of_Ireland)" title="Palladius (bishop of Ireland)">Palladius</a> by <a href="/wiki/Pope_Celestine_I" title="Pope Celestine I">Pope Celestine I</a> in AD 431. </p><p>A variation is the idea that this alphabet was first invented, for whatever reason, in 4th-century Irish settlements in west <a href="/wiki/History_of_Wales" title="History of Wales">Wales</a> after contact and intermarriage with Romanised Britons with knowledge of the Latin alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In fact, several ogham stones in Wales are bilingual, containing both Irish and <a href="/wiki/British_Latin" title="British Latin">British Latin</a>, testifying to the international contacts that led to the existence of some of these stones.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A third hypothesis, put forward by the noted ogham scholar <a href="/wiki/R._A._Stewart_Macalister" title="R. A. Stewart Macalister">R. A. S. Macalister</a> was influential at one time, but finds little favour with scholars today.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He believed – because ogham consists of four groups of five letters with a sequence of strokes from one to five – that ogham was first invented as a secret system of <a href="/wiki/Scholastic_ogham#Hand_signals" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic ogham">finger signals</a> in Cisalpine Gaul around 600 BC by Gaulish druids, and was inspired by a form of the Greek alphabet current in Northern Italy at the time. According to this idea, the alphabet was transmitted in oral form or on wood only, until it was finally put into a permanent form on stone inscriptions in early Christian Ireland. Later scholars are largely united in rejecting this hypothesis, however,<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> primarily because a detailed study of the letters<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (July 2010)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> shows that they were created specifically for the Primitive Irish of the early centuries AD. The supposed links with the form of the Greek alphabet that Macalister proposed can also be disproved.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>A fourth hypothesis, proposed by the scholars <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Thurneysen" title="Rudolf Thurneysen">Rudolf Thurneysen</a> and <a href="/wiki/Joseph_Vendryes" title="Joseph Vendryes">Joseph Vendryes</a>, is that the forms of the letters derive from a numerical <a href="/wiki/Tally_marks" title="Tally marks">tally-mark</a> counting system of the time, based around the numbers five and twenty, which was then adapted into an alphabet.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Legendary_accounts">Legendary accounts</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Legendary accounts"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to the 11th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn" title="Lebor Gabála Érenn">Lebor Gabála Érenn</a></i>, the 14th-century <i><a href="/wiki/Auraicept_na_n-%C3%89ces" title="Auraicept na n-Éces">Auraicept na n-Éces</a></i>, and other Medieval <a href="/wiki/Irish_folklore" title="Irish folklore">Irish folklore</a>, ogham was first invented soon after the fall of the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a>, along with the <a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Gaelic language</a>, by the legendary <a href="/wiki/Scythian" class="mw-redirect" title="Scythian">Scythian</a> king, <a href="/wiki/Fenius_Farsa" class="mw-redirect" title="Fenius Farsa">Fenius Farsa</a>. According to the Auraicept, Fenius journeyed from <a href="/wiki/Scythia" title="Scythia">Scythia</a> together with Goídel mac Ethéoir, Íar mac Nema and a <a href="/wiki/Retinue" title="Retinue">retinue</a> of 72 scholars. They came to the plain of <a href="/wiki/Shinar" title="Shinar">Shinar</a> to study the <a href="/wiki/Confusion_of_tongues" class="mw-redirect" title="Confusion of tongues">confused languages</a> at <a href="/wiki/Nimrod_(king)" class="mw-redirect" title="Nimrod (king)">Nimrod</a>'s tower (the <a href="/wiki/Tower_of_Babel" title="Tower of Babel">Tower of Babel</a>). Finding that they had already been dispersed, Fenius sent his scholars to study them, staying at the tower, coordinating the effort. After ten years, the investigations were complete, and Fenius created <i>in Bérla tóbaide</i> "the selected language", taking the best of each of the confused tongues, which he called <i>Goídelc</i>, <a href="/wiki/Goidelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Goidelic">Goidelic</a>, after Goídel mac Ethéoir. He also created extensions of <i>Goídelc</i>, called <i>Bérla Féne</i>, after himself, <i>Íarmberla</i>, after Íar mac Nema, and others, and the <i>Beithe-luis-nuin</i> (the ogham) as a perfected <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing system</a> for his languages. The names he gave to the letters were those of his 25 best scholars.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Alternatively, the <a href="/wiki/In_Lebor_Ogaim" title="In Lebor Ogaim">Ogam Tract</a> credits <a href="/wiki/Ogma" title="Ogma">Ogma</a> with the script's invention. Ogma was skilled in speech and poetry, and created the system for the learned, to confound rustics and fools. The first message written in ogam was seven <i>b'</i>s on a birch, sent as a warning to <a href="/wiki/Lugh" title="Lugh">Lug</a>, meaning: "your wife will be carried away seven times to the otherworld unless the birch protects her". For this reason, the letter <i>b</i> is said to be named after the birch, and <i>In Lebor Ogaim</i> goes on to tell the tradition that all letters were named after trees, a claim also referred to by the Auraicept as an alternative to the naming after Fenius' disciples.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (December 2023)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alphabet:_the_Beith-luis-nin">Alphabet: the Beith-luis-nin</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Alphabet: the Beith-luis-nin"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:A_mug_with_Ogham_letters_-_Tasse_mit_Ogham-Zeichen.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/A_mug_with_Ogham_letters_-_Tasse_mit_Ogham-Zeichen.jpg/220px-A_mug_with_Ogham_letters_-_Tasse_mit_Ogham-Zeichen.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/A_mug_with_Ogham_letters_-_Tasse_mit_Ogham-Zeichen.jpg/330px-A_mug_with_Ogham_letters_-_Tasse_mit_Ogham-Zeichen.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/A_mug_with_Ogham_letters_-_Tasse_mit_Ogham-Zeichen.jpg/440px-A_mug_with_Ogham_letters_-_Tasse_mit_Ogham-Zeichen.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2721" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Mug with Ogham letters: the four series (<i>aicmi</i>) of the 20 original letters and the five most important supplementary letters (<i><a href="/wiki/Forfeda" title="Forfeda">forfeda</a></i>)</figcaption></figure> <p>Strictly speaking, the word <i>ogham</i> means <i>letters</i>, while the alphabet is called <i>beith-luis-nin</i> after the letter names of the first letters (in the same way that the modern word "alphabet" derives from the Greek letters <i>alpha</i> and <i>beta</i>). The order of the first five letters, BLFSN, led the scholar Macalister to propose that a link between a form of the Greek alphabet used in Northern Italy in the 6th and 5th centuries BC. However, there is no evidence for Macalister's theory, and it has been discounted by later scholars. There are in fact other explanations for the name <i>Beith-luis-nin</i>. One explanation is that the word <i>nin</i>, which means <i>forked branch</i>, was used to mean letters in general. <i>Beith-luis-nin</i> could therefore mean simply <i>beith-luis</i> letters. Another suggestion is that <i>beith-luis-nin</i> is a contraction of the first five letters, ie, <i>beith-LVS-nin</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The ogham alphabet originally consisted of twenty letters, divided into four groups (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">aicme</i>) according the stroke angle and direction. The groups were </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">Aicme beithe</i>, right side/downward strokes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">Aicme hÚatha</i>, left side/upward strokes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">Aicme muine</i>, oblique crossing strokes</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a>: <i lang="ga">Aicme ailme</i>, notches or perpendicular crossing strokes</li></ul> <p>Five additional letters were later introduced (mainly in the manuscript tradition), the so-called <i><a href="/wiki/Forfeda" title="Forfeda">forfeda</a></i>. </p><p>A letter for <i>p</i> is conspicuously absent, since the <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phoneme</a> was lost in <a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a>, and the gap was not filled in <a href="/wiki/Celtic_languages#Classification" title="Celtic languages">Q-Celtic</a>, and no sign was needed before loanwords from <a href="/wiki/Latin" title="Latin">Latin</a> containing <i>p</i> appeared in Irish (<i>e.g.</i>, Patrick). Conversely, there is a letter for the <a href="/wiki/Labialized_velar_consonant" title="Labialized velar consonant">labiovelar</a> <i>q</i> (ᚊ <i>ceirt</i>), a phoneme lost in Old Irish. The base alphabet is, therefore, as it were, designed for Proto-Q-Celtic. </p><p>Of the five <i><a href="/wiki/Forfeda" title="Forfeda">forfeda</a></i> or supplementary letters, only the first, <i>ébad</i>, regularly appears in inscriptions, but mostly with the value K (McManus, § 5.3, 1991), in the word <i>koi</i> (ᚕᚑᚔ "here"). The others, except for <i>emancholl</i>, have at most only one certain 'orthodox' (see below) inscription each.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Due to their limited practical use, later ogamists turned the supplementary letters into a series of <a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">diphthongs</a>, changing completely the values for <i>pín</i> and <i>emancholl</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This meant that the alphabet was once again without a letter for the 'P' sound, forcing the invention of the letter <i>peithboc</i> (soft 'B'), which appears in the manuscripts only.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <table class="wikitable letters-table letters-green"> <tbody><tr> <th>B group </th> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Beith_(letter)" title="Beith (letter)">beith</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1242458723">.mw-parser-output .script-ogham,.mw-parser-output .script-Ogam{font-family:"Noto Sans Ogham","BabelStone Ogham","BabelStone Ogham Fixed","BabelStone Ogham Bound","BabelStone Ogham Stemless","BabelStone Ogham Lithic","BabelStone Ogham Pictish","BabelStone Ogham Special","DejaVu Sans","Segoe UI Historic","Segoe UI Symbol"}</style><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚁ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[b]</span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257226131">.mw-parser-output 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data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257186708">html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .template-letter-char{background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#202122);color:#F36060}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-table{background-color:#000}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-table .template-letter-box{background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#202122)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .template-letter-box{background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#202122)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .template-letter-char{color:#F55592}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-table{background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#202122)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-table .template-letter-box{background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#202122)}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-table th:not(.template-letter-box){background-color:#000}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-black .template-letter-char{color:#ccc}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-table th:not(.template-letter-box){background-color:#000}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-teal .template-letter-char{color:#10ACB0}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-blue .template-letter-char{color:#008DEE}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-green .template-letter-char{color:#23AE23}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night.letters-violet .mw-parser-output .template-letter-char{color:#A375E8}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-pink .template-letter-char{color:#F55592}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-orange .template-letter-char{color:#EE7347}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .letters-gold .template-letter-char{color:#DE8317}</style> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luis_(letter)" title="Luis (letter)">luis</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚂ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[l]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Fearn_(letter)" title="Fearn (letter)">fearn</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚃ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sail_(letter)" title="Sail (letter)">sail</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚄ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[s]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nion" title="Nion">nion</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚅ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>M group </th> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Muin_(letter)" title="Muin (letter)">muin</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚋ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[m]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gort_(letter)" title="Gort (letter)">gort</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚌ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡ]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/NG%C3%A9adal" title="NGéadal">nGéadal</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚍ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡʷ]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Straif" title="Straif">straif</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚎ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[st],<br />[ts],<span class="wrap"> </span>[sw]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ruis_(letter)" title="Ruis (letter)">ruis</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚏ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[r]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>A group </th> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ailm" title="Ailm">ailm</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚐ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[a]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Onn" title="Onn">onn</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚑ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[o]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Ar" title="Úr">úr</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚒ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Eadhadh" title="Eadhadh">eadhadh</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚓ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[e]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Iodhadh" title="Iodhadh">Iodhadh</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚔ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td></tr> <tr> <th>H group </th> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Uath" title="Uath">uath</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚆ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[j]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dair" title="Dair">dair</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚇ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[d]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tinne_(letter)" title="Tinne (letter)">tinne</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚈ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Coll_(letter)" title="Coll (letter)">coll</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚉ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[k]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ceirt" title="Ceirt">ceirt</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚊ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[kʷ]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td></tr> <tr> <th><a href="/wiki/Forfeda" title="Forfeda">Forfeda</a> </th> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">éabhadh</div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚕ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ea],<br />[k],<span class="wrap"> </span>[x],<span class="wrap"> </span>[eo]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">ór</div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚖ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[oi]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">uilleann</div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚗ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ui]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap"><a href="/wiki/If%C3%ADn" title="Ifín">ifín</a></div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚘ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ia]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td> <td class="template-letter-box"><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">eamhancholl</div><div class="template-letter-char"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span style="font-size:150%;">ᚙ</span></span></div><div class="template-letter-text template-letter-nowrap">IPA: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[x],<span class="wrap"> </span>[ai]</span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257226131"> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257210792"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257186708"> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Letter_names">Letter names</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Letter names"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Br%C3%ADatharogam" title="Bríatharogam">Bríatharogam</a></div> <p>The letter names are interpreted as names of trees or shrubs in manuscript tradition, both in <i><a href="/wiki/Auraicept_na_n-%C3%89ces" title="Auraicept na n-Éces">Auraicept na n-Éces</a></i> ('The Scholars' Primer') and <i><a href="/wiki/In_Lebor_Ogaim" title="In Lebor Ogaim">In Lebor Ogaim</a></i> ('The Ogam Tract'). They were first discussed in modern times by <a href="/wiki/Ruaidhr%C3%AD_%C3%93_Flaithbheartaigh" class="mw-redirect" title="Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh">Ruaidhrí Ó Flaithbheartaigh</a> (1685), who took them at face value. The Auraicept itself is aware that not all names are known tree names: "Now all these are wood names such as are found in the <i>Ogham Book of Woods,</i> and are not derived from men", admitting that "some of these trees are not known today". The Auraicept gives a short phrase or <a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">kenning</a> for each letter, known as a <i>Bríatharogam</i>, that traditionally accompanied each letter name, and a further gloss explaining their meanings and identifying the tree or plant linked to each letter. Only five of the twenty primary letters have tree names that the Auraicept considers comprehensible without further glosses, namely <i>beith</i> "birch", <i>fearn</i> "alder", <i>saille</i> "willow", <i>duir</i> "oak" and <i>coll</i> "hazel". All the other names have to be glossed or "translated". </p><p>According to the leading modern ogham scholar, Damian McManus, the "Tree Alphabet" idea dates to the <a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a> period (say, 10th century), but it postdates the Primitive Irish period, or at least the time when the letters were originally named. Its origin is probably due to the letters themselves being called <i>feda</i> "trees", or <i>nin</i> "forking branches" due to their shape. Since a few of the letters were, in fact, named after trees, the interpretation arose that they were called <i>feda</i> because of that. Some of the other letter names had fallen out of use as independent words, and were thus free to be claimed as "Old Gaelic" tree names, while others (such as <i>ruis</i>, <i>úath</i> or <i>gort</i>) were more or less forcefully reinterpreted as epithets of trees by the medieval glossators. </p><p>McManus (1991, §3.15) discusses possible etymologies of all the letter names, and as well as the five mentioned above, he adds one other definite tree name: <i>onn</i> "ash" (the Auraicept wrongly has "furze"). McManus (1988, p. 164) also believes that the name <i>idad</i> is probably an artificial form of <i>iubhar</i> "yew", as the kennings support that meaning, and concedes that <i>ailm</i> may possibly mean "pine tree," as it appears to be used to mean that in an 8th-century poem.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thus out of twenty letter names, only eight at most are the names of trees. The other names have a variety of meanings. </p> <ul><li><b>Beith</b>, Old Irish <b>Beithe</b> means "<a href="/wiki/Birch" title="Birch">birch</a>-tree", cognate to Middle Welsh <i>bedw</i>. Latin <i>betula</i> is considered a borrowing from the Gaulish cognate.</li> <li><b>Luis</b>, Old Irish <b>Luis</b> is either related to <i>luise</i> "blaze" or <i>lus</i> "herb". The arboreal tradition has <i>caertheand</i> "<a href="/wiki/Rowan" title="Rowan">rowan</a>".</li> <li><b>Fearn</b>, Old Irish <b>Fern</b> means "<a href="/wiki/Alder" title="Alder">alder</a>-tree", Primitive Irish <i>*wernā</i>, so that the original value of the letter was <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[w]</span>.</li> <li><b>Sail</b>, Old Irish <b>Sail</b> means "<a href="/wiki/Willow" title="Willow">willow</a>-tree", cognate to Latin <i>salix</i>.</li> <li><b>Nion</b>, Old Irish <b>Nin</b> means either "fork" or "loft". The arboreal tradition has <i>uinnius</i> "<a href="/wiki/European_Ash" class="mw-redirect" title="European Ash">ash-tree</a>".</li> <li><b>Uath</b>, Old Irish <b>Úath</b> means <i>úath</i> "horror, fear"; the arboreal tradition has "<a href="/wiki/Common_Hawthorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Common Hawthorn">white-thorn</a>". The original etymology of the name, and the letter's value, are however unclear. McManus (1986) suggested a value <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[y]</span>. Peter Schrijver (see McManus 1991:37) suggested that if <i>úath</i> "fear" is cognate with Latin <i>pavere</i>, a trace of PIE <i>*p</i> might have survived into Primitive Irish, but there is no independent evidence for this.</li> <li><b>Dair</b>, Old Irish <b>Dair</b> means "<a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>" (PIE <i>*doru-</i>).</li> <li><b>Tinne</b>, Old Irish <b>Tinne</b> from the evidence of the <a href="/wiki/Kenning" title="Kenning">kennings</a> means "bar of metal, <a href="/wiki/Ingot" title="Ingot">ingot</a>". The arboreal tradition has <i>cuileand</i> "<a href="/wiki/Holly" title="Holly">holly</a>".</li> <li><b>Coll</b>, Old Irish <b>Coll</b> meant "<a href="/wiki/Hazel" title="Hazel">hazel</a>-tree", cognate with Welsh <i>collen</i>, correctly glossed as <i>cainfidh</i> "fair-wood" ("hazel") by the arboreal interpretation. Latin <i>corulus</i> or <i>corylus</i> is cognate.</li> <li><b>Ceirt</b>, Old Irish <b>Cert</b> is cognate with Welsh <i>perth</i> "bush", Latin <i>quercus</i> "oak" (PIE <i>*perkwos</i>). It was confused with Old Irish <i>ceirt</i> "rag", reflected in the kennings. The Auraicept glosses <i>aball</i> "apple".</li> <li><b>Muin</b>, Old Irish <b>Muin</b>: the kennings connect this name to three different words, <i>muin</i> "neck, upper part of the back", <i>muin</i> "wile, ruse", and <i>muin</i> "love, esteem". The arboreal tradition has <i>finemhain</i> "<a href="/wiki/Vine" title="Vine">vine</a>".</li> <li><b>Gort</b>, Old Irish <b>Gort</b> means "field" (cognate to <i>garden</i>). The arboreal tradition has <i>edind</i> "<a href="/wiki/Ivy" class="mw-redirect" title="Ivy">ivy</a>".</li> <li><b>nGéadal</b>, Old Irish <b>Gétal</b> from the kennings has a meaning of "killing", maybe cognate to <i>gonid</i> "slays", from PIE <i><span title="Proto-Indo-European-language text" class="Unicode" style="white-space:nowrap;"><span lang="ine">gwen-</span></span></i>. The value of the letter in Primitive Irish, then, was a voiced labiovelar, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɡʷ]</span>. The arboreal tradition glosses <i>cilcach</i>, "<a href="/wiki/Broom_(plant)" class="mw-redirect" title="Broom (plant)">broom</a>" or "<a href="/wiki/Fern" title="Fern">fern</a>".</li> <li><b>Straif</b>, Old Irish <b>Straiph</b> means "sulphur". The Primitive Irish letter value is uncertain, it may have been a sibilant different from <i>s</i>, which is taken by <i>sail</i>, maybe a reflex of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/st/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/sw/</span>. The arboreal tradition glosses <i>draighin</i> "<a href="/wiki/Blackthorn" class="mw-redirect" title="Blackthorn">blackthorn</a>".</li> <li><b>Ruis</b>, Old Irish <b>Ruis</b> means "red" or "redness", glossed as <i>trom</i> "<a href="/wiki/Elderberry" class="mw-redirect" title="Elderberry">elder</a>".</li> <li><b>Ailm</b>, Old Irish <b>Ailm</b> is of uncertain meaning, possibly "pine-tree". The Auraicept has <i>crand giuis .i. ochtach</i>, "<a href="/wiki/Fir" title="Fir">fir</a>-tree" or "<a href="/wiki/Pine" title="Pine">pinetree</a>".</li> <li><b>Onn</b>, Old Irish <b>Onn</b> means "<a href="/wiki/Ash-tree" class="mw-redirect" title="Ash-tree">ash-tree</a>", although the Auraicept glosses <i>aiten</i> "<a href="/wiki/Furze" class="mw-redirect" title="Furze">furze</a>".</li> <li><b>Úr</b>, Old Irish <b>Úr</b>, based on the kennings, means "earth, clay, soil". The Auraicept glosses <i>fraech</i> "<a href="/wiki/Erica_(plant)" title="Erica (plant)">heath</a>".</li> <li><b>Eadhadh</b>, Old Irish <b>Edad</b> of unknown meaning. The Auraicept glosses <i>crand fir no crithach</i> "test-tree or <a href="/wiki/Aspen" title="Aspen">aspen</a>"</li> <li><b>Iodhadh</b>, Old Irish <b>Idad</b> is of uncertain meaning, but is probably a form of <i>ibhar</i> "<a href="/wiki/Taxus_baccata" title="Taxus baccata">yew</a>", which is the meaning given to it in the arboreal tradition.</li></ul> <p>Of the <i><a href="/wiki/Forfeda" title="Forfeda">forfeda</a></i>, four are glossed by the Auraicept: </p> <ul><li><b>Eabhadh</b>, Old Irish <b>Ebhadh</b> with <i>crithach</i> "aspen";</li> <li><b>Ór</b>, "gold" (from Latin aurum); the arboreal tradition has <i>feorus no edind</i>, "spindle tree or ivy"</li> <li><b>Uilleann</b>, Old Irish <b>Uilleand</b> "elbow"; the arboreal tradition has <i>edleand</i> "<a href="/wiki/Honeysuckle" title="Honeysuckle">honeysuckle</a>"</li> <li><b>Pín</b>, later <b>Ifín</b>, Old Irish <b>Iphin</b> with <i>spinan no ispin</i> "<a href="/wiki/Gooseberry" title="Gooseberry">gooseberry</a> or thorn".</li></ul> <p>The fifth letter is <i>emancholl</i> which means 'twin of hazel' </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Corpus">Corpus</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Corpus"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ogham_inscription" title="Ogham inscription">Ogham inscription</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CIIC_504.gif" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2a/CIIC_504.gif/170px-CIIC_504.gif" decoding="async" width="170" height="397" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2a/CIIC_504.gif 1.5x" data-file-width="241" data-file-height="563" /></a><figcaption>Ogham stone from the Isle of Man showing the <i>droim</i> in the centre. Text reads BIVAIDONAS MAQI MUCOI CUNAVA[LI], or in English, "Of Bivaidonas, son of the tribe Cunava[li]".</figcaption></figure> <p>Monumental ogham inscriptions are found in Ireland and <a href="/wiki/Wales" title="Wales">Wales</a>, with a few additional specimens found in southwest England (<a href="/wiki/Devon" title="Devon">Devon</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cornwall" title="Cornwall">Cornwall</a>), the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Scotland" title="Scotland">Scotland</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Shetland" title="Shetland">Shetland</a> and <a href="/wiki/Silchester_Ogham_stone" title="Silchester Ogham stone">a single example</a> from <a href="/wiki/Silchester" title="Silchester">Silchester</a> and another from <a href="/wiki/Coventry" title="Coventry">Coventry</a><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in England. They were mainly employed as territorial markers and memorials (grave stones). The stone commemorating <a href="/wiki/Vortiporius" title="Vortiporius">Vortiporius</a>, a 6th-century king of <a href="/wiki/Dyfed" title="Dyfed">Dyfed</a> (originally located in <a href="/wiki/Clynderwen" title="Clynderwen">Clynderwen</a>), is the only ogham stone inscription that bears the name of an identifiable individual.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The language of the inscriptions is predominantly <a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a>; the few inscriptions in Scotland, such as the <a href="/wiki/Lunnasting_stone" title="Lunnasting stone">Lunnasting stone</a>, record fragments of what is probably the <a href="/wiki/Pictish_language" title="Pictish language">Pictish language</a>. </p><p>The more ancient examples are <a href="/wiki/Standing_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Standing stone">standing stones</a>, where the script was carved into the edge (<i>droim</i> or <i>faobhar</i>) of the stone, which formed the stemline against which individual characters are cut. The text of these "Orthodox Ogham" inscriptions is read beginning from the bottom left-hand side of a stone, continuing upward along the edge, across the top and down the right-hand side (in the case of long inscriptions). Roughly 380 inscriptions are known in total (a number, incidentally, very close to the number of known inscriptions in the contemporary <a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a>), of which the highest concentration by far is found in the southwestern Irish province of <a href="/wiki/Munster" title="Munster">Munster</a>. Over one-third of the total are found in <a href="/wiki/County_Kerry" title="County Kerry">County Kerry</a> alone, most densely in the former kingdom of the <a href="/wiki/Corcu_Duibne" title="Corcu Duibne">Corcu Duibne</a>. </p><p>Later inscriptions are known as "<a href="/wiki/Scholastic_Ogham" class="mw-redirect" title="Scholastic Ogham">scholastic</a>", and are post 6th century in date. The term 'scholastic' derives from the fact that the inscriptions are believed to have been inspired by the manuscript sources, instead of being continuations of the original monument tradition. Unlike orthodox ogham, some medieval inscriptions feature all five <a href="/wiki/Forfeda" title="Forfeda">Forfeda</a>. Scholastic inscriptions are written on stemlines cut into the face of the stone, instead of along its edge. Ogham was also occasionally used for notes in manuscripts down to the 16th century. A modern ogham inscription is found on a gravestone dating to 1802 in Ahenny, <a href="/wiki/County_Tipperary" title="County Tipperary">County Tipperary</a>. </p><p>In Scotland, a number of inscriptions using the ogham writing system are known, but their language is still the subject of debate. It has been argued by Richard Cox in <i>The Language of Ogham Inscriptions in Scotland</i> (1999) that the language of these is Old Norse, but others remain unconvinced by this analysis, and regard the stones as being <a href="/wiki/Pict" class="mw-redirect" title="Pict">Pictish</a> in origin. However, due to the lack of knowledge about the Picts, the inscriptions remain undeciphered, their language possibly being non-<a href="/wiki/Indo-European_languages" title="Indo-European languages">Indo-European</a>. The Pictish inscriptions are scholastic, and are believed to have been inspired by the manuscript tradition brought into Scotland by <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Gaelic settlers</a>. </p><p>A rare example of a Christianised (cross-inscribed) Ogham stone can be seen in <a href="/wiki/St._Mary%27s_Collegiate_Church_Gowran" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran">St. Mary's Collegiate Church Gowran</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Kilkenny" title="County Kilkenny">County Kilkenny</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Non-monumental_uses">Non-monumental uses</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Non-monumental uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As well as its use for monumental inscriptions, the evidence from early Irish sagas and legends indicate that ogham was used for short messages on wood or metal, either to relay messages or to denote ownership of the object inscribed. Some of these messages seem to have been cryptic in nature and some were also for magical purposes. In addition, there is evidence from sources such as <i><a href="/wiki/In_Lebor_Ogaim" title="In Lebor Ogaim">In Lebor Ogaim</a></i>, or the <i>Ogham Tract</i>, that ogham may have been used to keep records or lists, such as genealogies and numerical tallies of property and business transactions. There is also evidence that ogham may have been used as a system of finger or hand signals.<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In later centuries when ogham ceased to be used as a practical alphabet, it retained its place in the learning of Gaelic scholars and poets as the basis of grammar and the rules of poetry. Indeed, until modern times the Latin alphabet in Gaelic continued to be taught using letter names borrowed from the <i>Beith-Luis-Nin</i>, along with the Medieval association of each letter with a different tree. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Samples">Samples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Samples"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ogham_inscription" title="Ogham inscription">Ogham inscription</a></div> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Ogham </th> <th>Transliteration </th> <th>English translation </th> <th>Source </th></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span title="Primitive Irish-language text"><span lang="pgl-Ogam">᚛ᚁᚔᚃᚐᚔᚇᚑᚅᚐᚄᚋᚐᚊᚔᚋᚒᚉᚑᚔ᚜ ᚛ᚉᚒᚅᚐᚃᚐ[ᚂᚔ]᚜</span></span></span> </td> <td><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;"><span title="PRIMITIVE IRISH-LANGUAGE ROMANIZATION"><i lang="PGL-LATN">BIVAIDONAS MAQI MUCOI CUNAVA[LI]</i></span></span></span> </td> <td>"[Stone] of Bivaidonas, son of the tribe Cunava[li]" </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ballaqueeney_Ogham_Stone" title="Ballaqueeney Ogham Stone">Ballaqueeney Ogham Stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Man" title="Isle of Man">Isle of Man</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1242458723"><span class="script-ogham"><span title="Primitive Irish-language text"><span lang="pgl-Ogam">᚛ᚂᚓᚌᚌ[--]ᚄᚇ[--]ᚂᚓᚌᚓᚄᚉᚐᚇ᚜ ᚛ᚋᚐᚊ ᚉᚑᚏᚏᚁᚏᚔ ᚋᚐᚊ ᚐᚋᚋᚂᚂᚑᚌᚔᚈᚈ᚜</span></span></span> </td> <td><span class="smallcaps"><span style="font-variant: small-caps; text-transform: lowercase;"><span title="PRIMITIVE IRISH-LANGUAGE ROMANIZATION"><i lang="PGL-LATN">LEGG[...]SD[...]LEGESCAD MAQ CORRBRI MAQ AMMLLOGITT</i></span></span></span> </td> <td>"Legescad, son of Corrbrias, son of Ammllogitt" </td> <td><a href="/wiki/Breastagh_Ogham_Stone" title="Breastagh Ogham Stone">Breastagh Ogham Stone</a>, <a href="/wiki/County_Mayo" title="County Mayo">County Mayo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ireland" title="Ireland">Ireland</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unicode">Unicode</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Unicode"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Ogham_(Unicode_block)" title="Ogham (Unicode block)">Ogham (Unicode block)</a></div> <p>Ogham was added to the <a href="/wiki/Unicode" title="Unicode">Unicode</a> Standard in September 1999 with the release of version 3.0.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The spelling of the names given is a standardisation dating to 1997, used in Unicode Standard and in Irish Standard 434:1999<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p><p>The Unicode block for ogham is U+1680–U+169F. </p> <table class="wikitable nounderlines" style="border-collapse:collapse;background:var(--background-color-base,#fff);color:inherit;font-size:large;text-align:center"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="17" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small"><b><a href="/wiki/Ogham_(Unicode_block)" title="Ogham (Unicode block)">Ogham</a></b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><sup class="citation nobold" id="ref_U1680_as_of_Unicode_version"><a href="#endnote_U1680_as_of_Unicode_version">[1]</a></sup><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><sup class="citation nobold" id="ref_U1680_grey"><a href="#endnote_U1680_grey">[2]</a></sup><br /><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/charts/PDF/U1680.pdf">Official Unicode Consortium code chart</a> (PDF) </td></tr> <tr style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small"> <td style="width:45pt"> </td> <td style="width:20pt">0</td> <td style="width:20pt">1</td> <td style="width:20pt">2</td> <td style="width:20pt">3</td> <td style="width:20pt">4</td> <td style="width:20pt">5</td> <td style="width:20pt">6</td> <td style="width:20pt">7</td> <td style="width:20pt">8</td> <td style="width:20pt">9</td> <td style="width:20pt">A</td> <td style="width:20pt">B</td> <td style="width:20pt">C</td> <td style="width:20pt">D</td> <td style="width:20pt">E</td> <td style="width:20pt">F </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small">U+168x </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1680: OGHAM SPACE MARK"><span style="white-space:pre"> </span> </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1681: OGHAM LETTER BEITH">ᚁ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1682: OGHAM LETTER LUIS">ᚂ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1683: OGHAM LETTER FEARN">ᚃ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1684: OGHAM LETTER SAIL">ᚄ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1685: OGHAM LETTER NION">ᚅ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1686: OGHAM LETTER UATH">ᚆ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1687: OGHAM LETTER DAIR">ᚇ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1688: OGHAM LETTER TINNE">ᚈ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1689: OGHAM LETTER COLL">ᚉ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+168A: OGHAM LETTER CEIRT">ᚊ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+168B: OGHAM LETTER MUIN">ᚋ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+168C: OGHAM LETTER GORT">ᚌ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+168D: OGHAM LETTER NGEADAL">ᚍ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+168E: OGHAM LETTER STRAIF">ᚎ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+168F: OGHAM LETTER RUIS">ᚏ </td></tr> <tr> <td style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small">U+169x </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1690: OGHAM LETTER AILM">ᚐ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1691: OGHAM LETTER ONN">ᚑ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1692: OGHAM LETTER UR">ᚒ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1693: OGHAM LETTER EADHADH">ᚓ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1694: OGHAM LETTER IODHADH">ᚔ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1695: OGHAM LETTER EABHADH">ᚕ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1696: OGHAM LETTER OR">ᚖ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1697: OGHAM LETTER UILLEANN">ᚗ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1698: OGHAM LETTER IFIN">ᚘ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+1699: OGHAM LETTER EAMHANCHOLL">ᚙ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+169A: OGHAM LETTER PEITH">ᚚ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+169B: OGHAM FEATHER MARK">᚛ </td> <td style="font-family:'Noto Sans Ogham';" title="U+169C: OGHAM REVERSED FEATHER MARK">᚜ </td> <td title="Reserved" style="background-color:var(--background-color-disabled,#c8ccd1);color:inherit;"> </td> <td title="Reserved" style="background-color:var(--background-color-disabled,#c8ccd1);color:inherit;"> </td> <td title="Reserved" style="background-color:var(--background-color-disabled,#c8ccd1);color:inherit;"> </td></tr> <tr> <td colspan="17" style="background:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle,#f8f9fa);color:inherit;font-size:small;text-align:left"><b>Notes</b> <dl><dd>1.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_U1680_as_of_Unicode_version"><b><a href="#ref_U1680_as_of_Unicode_version">^</a></b></span> As of Unicode version 16.0</dd> <dd>2.<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1041539562"><span class="citation wikicite" id="endnote_U1680_grey"><b><a href="#ref_U1680_grey">^</a></b></span> Grey areas indicate non-assigned code points</dd></dl> </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Neopaganism">Neopaganism</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Neopaganism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Modern <a href="/wiki/New_Age" title="New Age">New Age</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neopagan" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopagan">Neopagan</a> approaches to ogham largely derive from the now-discredited theories of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Graves" title="Robert Graves">Robert Graves</a> in his book <i><a href="/wiki/The_White_Goddess" title="The White Goddess">The White Goddess</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this work, Graves took his inspiration from the theories of the ogham scholar R. A. S. Macalister (see above) and elaborated on them much further. Graves proposed that the ogham alphabet encoded a set of beliefs originating in the Middle East in <a href="/wiki/Stone_Age" title="Stone Age">Stone Age</a> times, concerning the ceremonies surrounding the worship of the Moon goddess in her various forms. Graves' argument is extremely complex, but in essence, he argues that the Hebrews, Greeks and Celts were all influenced by a people originating in the Aegean, called '<a href="/wiki/Sea_Peoples" title="Sea Peoples">the people of the sea</a>' by the Egyptians, who spread out around Europe in the 2nd millennium BC, taking their religious beliefs with them.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> He posits that at some early stage these teachings were encoded in alphabet form by poets to pass on their worship of the goddess (as the muse and inspiration of all poets) in a secret fashion, understandable only to initiates. Eventually, via the druids of Gaul, this knowledge was passed on to the poets of early Ireland and Wales. Graves, therefore, looked at the Tree Alphabet tradition surrounding ogham and explored the tree folklore of each of the letter names, proposing that the order of the letters formed an ancient "seasonal calendar of tree magic".<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although his theories have been discredited and discarded by modern scholars (including Macalister himself, with whom Graves corresponded),<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> they were taken up with enthusiasm by some adherents of the neopagan movement. In addition, Graves followed the BLNFS order of ogham letters put forward by Macalister (see above), with the result taken up by many New Age and Neopagan writers as the 'correct' order of the letters, despite its rejection by scholars. </p><p>The main use of ogham by adherents of <a href="/wiki/Neo-druidism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neo-druidism">Neo-druidism</a> and other forms of <a href="/wiki/Neopaganism" class="mw-redirect" title="Neopaganism">Neopaganism</a> is for the purpose of divination. Divination with ogham symbols is possibly mentioned in <i><a href="/wiki/Tochmarc_%C3%89ta%C3%ADne" title="Tochmarc Étaíne">Tochmarc Étaíne</a></i>, a tale in the Irish <a href="/wiki/Mythological_Cycle" title="Mythological Cycle">Mythological Cycle</a>, wherein the <a href="/wiki/Druid" title="Druid">druid</a> Dalan takes four wands of yew, and writes ogham letters upon them. Then he uses the tools for what some interpret as a form of <a href="/wiki/Divination" title="Divination">divination</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, as the tale doesn't explain how the sticks are handled or interpreted, this theory is open to interpretation.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A divination method invented by neopagans involves casting sticks upon a cloth marked out with a pattern, such as <a href="/wiki/Auraicept_na_n-%C3%89ces" title="Auraicept na n-Éces">Finn's Window</a>, and interpreting the patterns.<sup id="cite_ref-shallcrass_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shallcrass-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The meanings assigned in these modern methods are usually based on the tree ogham, with each letter associated with a tree or plant, and meanings derived from these associations. While some use folklore for the meanings, <a href="/wiki/Robert_Graves" title="Robert Graves">Robert Graves</a>' book <i><a href="/wiki/The_White_Goddess" title="The White Goddess">The White Goddess</a></i> continues to be a major influence on these methods and beliefs.<sup id="cite_ref-shallcrass_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-shallcrass-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Auraicept_na_n-%C3%89ces" title="Auraicept na n-Éces">Auraicept na n-Éces</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren y Beirdd</a> — A similar runic alphabet based on the Celtic <a href="/wiki/Vigesimal" title="Vigesimal">vigesimal</a> system invented by <a href="/wiki/Iolo_Morganwg" title="Iolo Morganwg">Iolo Morganwg</a> for the Welsh language.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ogham_inscription" title="Ogham inscription">Ogham inscription</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish Gaelic alphabet">Scottish Gaelic alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Star_Carr_Pendant" title="Star Carr Pendant">Star Carr Pendant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a> — Script used to write the <a href="/wiki/Maldivian_language" title="Maldivian language">Maldivian language</a> where letters are based on numerals.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Citations">Citations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.omniglot.com/writing/ogham.htm">"Ogham alphabet"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ogham+alphabet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.omniglot.com%2Fwriting%2Fogham.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190602081225/http://babelstone.blogspot.com/2013/06/ogham-stones-of-scotland.html">"BabelStone: The Ogham Stones of Scotland"</a>. 8 June 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://babelstone.blogspot.com/2013/06/ogham-stones-of-scotland.html">the original</a> on 2 June 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">12 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=BabelStone%3A+The+Ogham+Stones+of+Scotland&rft.date=2013-06-08&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fbabelstone.blogspot.com%2F2013%2F06%2Fogham-stones-of-scotland.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPadel1972" class="citation thesis cs1">Padel, Oliver J. (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.era.lib.ed.ac.uk/bitstream/handle/1842/9863/Padel1972_FULL.pdf;sequence=1"><i>Inscriptions of Pictland</i></a> (M.Litt). <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Adissertation&rft.title=Inscriptions+of+Pictland&rft.inst=University+of+Edinburgh&rft.date=1972&rft.aulast=Padel&rft.aufirst=Oliver+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.era.lib.ed.ac.uk%2Fbitstream%2Fhandle%2F1842%2F9863%2FPadel1972_FULL.pdf%3Bsequence%3D1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-ogham" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=ogham">"ogham"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=ogham&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dogham&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dil.ie/33582"><i>ogum, ogom</i></a> in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFQuin2007" class="citation book cs1">Quin, E. G.; et al., eds. (2007) [1913–1975]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.dil.ie"><i>Dictionary of the Irish Language, Based Mainly on Old and Middle Irish Materials</i></a>. Dublin: <a href="/wiki/Royal_Irish_Academy" title="Royal Irish Academy">RIA</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">3 December</span> 2021</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dictionary+of+the+Irish+Language%2C+Based+Mainly+on+Old+and+Middle+Irish+Materials&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=RIA&rft.date=2007&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.dil.ie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thurneysen, R. <i>A Grammar of Old Irish</i> page 9: "Older as a rule even than the above archaic material are the sepulchral inscriptions in a special alphabet called <b>ogom</b> or <b>ogum</b> in Middle Irish, <b>ogham</b> in Modern Irish."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McManus (1991) is aware of a total of 382 orthodox inscriptions. The later scholastic inscriptions have no definite endpoint and continue into the Middle Irish and even Modern Irish periods, and record also names in other languages, such as Old Norse, (Old) Welsh, Latin and possibly Pictish. See Forsyth, K.; "Abstract: The Three Writing Systems of the Picts." in Black et al. Celtic Connections: Proceedings of the Tenth International Congress of Celtic Studies, Vol. 1. East Linton: Tuckwell Press (1999), p. 508; Richard A. V. Cox, The Language of the Ogam Inscriptions of Scotland, Dept. of Celtic, Aberdeen University <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-9523911-3-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-9523911-3-9">0-9523911-3-9</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.abdn.ac.uk/mediareleases/archive/1999/pr415.hti">[1]</a>; See also <i>The New Companion to the Literature of Wales</i>, by Meic Stephens, p. 540.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Kelly, Michael J., <i>Early Ireland, an Introduction to Irish Prehistory</i>, p. 251, Cambridge University Press, 1989</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">(MacManus, §8.6)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">O'Kelly 1989, p. 250</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carney, James. <i>The Invention of the Ogam Cipher</i> 'Ériu', 1975, p. 57, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/R._A._Stewart_Macalister" title="R. A. Stewart Macalister">Macalister, R. A. Stewart</a>, <i>The Secret Languages of Ireland</i> reprinted by Craobh Rua Books, Armagh 1997.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Düwel, Klaus. "Runenkunde" (runic studies). Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 1968. OCLC 183700</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoss1972" class="citation book cs1">Ross, Anne (1972). <i>Everyday Life of the Pagan Celts</i>. London: Carousel. p. 168. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-552-54021-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-552-54021-8"><bdi>0-552-54021-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Everyday+Life+of+the+Pagan+Celts&rft.place=London&rft.pages=168&rft.pub=Carousel&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=0-552-54021-8&rft.aulast=Ross&rft.aufirst=Anne&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDillonChadwick1973" class="citation book cs1">Dillon, Myles; Chadwick, Nora (1973). <i>The Celtic Realms</i>. London: Cardinal. p. 258. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-351-15808-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-351-15808-1"><bdi>0-351-15808-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Celtic+Realms&rft.place=London&rft.pages=258&rft.pub=Cardinal&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=0-351-15808-1&rft.aulast=Dillon&rft.aufirst=Myles&rft.au=Chadwick%2C+Nora&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The Secret Languages of Ireland</i> as above.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thurneysen, Rudolf <i>A Grammar of Old Irish</i>. Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies. 1980, etc. pp. 8–11.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carney, J (1975) "The Invention of the Ogam Cipher", <i><a href="/wiki/%C3%89riu_(journal)" title="Ériu (journal)">Ériu</a></i>, Vol. 22, pp. 62–63</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacNeill, Eoin (1931) "Archaisms in the Ogham Inscriptions", <i>Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy</i>, Vol. 39, pp. 33–53, Dublin <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/246466439">246466439</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan2012" class="citation book cs1">Ryan, Catriona (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kDcsBwAAQBAJ&q=Border+States+in+the+Work+of+Tom+Mac+Intyre%3A+A+Paleo-Postmodern+Perspective&pg=PA21"><i>Border States in the Work of Tom Mac Intyre: A Paleo-Postmodern Perspective</i></a>. Cambridge Scholars. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781443836715" title="Special:BookSources/9781443836715"><bdi>9781443836715</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Border+States+in+the+Work+of+Tom+Mac+Intyre%3A+A+Paleo-Postmodern+Perspective&rft.pub=Cambridge+Scholars&rft.date=2012&rft.isbn=9781443836715&rft.aulast=Ryan&rft.aufirst=Catriona&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkDcsBwAAQBAJ%26q%3DBorder%2BStates%2Bin%2Bthe%2BWork%2Bof%2BTom%2BMac%2BIntyre%253A%2BA%2BPaleo-Postmodern%2BPerspective%26pg%3DPA21&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRyan" class="citation book cs1">Ryan. <i>Border States</i>. pp. 204–205.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Border+States&rft.pages=204-205&rft.au=Ryan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Thurneysen, R. <i>A Grammar of Old Irish</i> pages 9–10: "... In Britain ... most of these inscriptions are bilingual, with a Latin version accompanying the Ogam". Macalister, <i>The Secret Languages of Ireland</i> p. 19: "The reader has only to jot down a few sentences in this alphabet to convince himself that it can never have been used for any extended literary purpose."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacManus 1988, pp. 7, 41, 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldhistory.org/Ogham/">"Ogham"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ogham&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.worldhistory.org%2FOgham%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>The New Companion to the Literature of Wales</i>, by Meic Stephens, p. 540; <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://ogham.lyberty.com/mackillop.html">http://ogham.lyberty.com/mackillop.html</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Macalister, R. A. S. <i>The Secret Languages of Ireland</i>, pp. 27–36, Cambridge University Press, 1937</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McManus 1988, pp. 22–23, 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Vendryès 'L'écriture ogamique et ses origines' Études Celtiques, 4, pp. 110–113, 1941; Thurneysen, 'Zum ogam' Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, pp. 196–197, 1937. Cf. McManus 1988, p. 11, 1991.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">McManus 1988, pp. 36, 167, 1991; B. Ó Cuív, "Irish words for Alphabet", Eriu 31, p. 101. [...] it would be impossible to change the order of letters in ogham, given that it is a numbered series of strokes. In other words, to change N from the third to the fifth letter would also mean changing its symbol from three strokes to five strokes. The letters F and S would also have to be changed. This would obviously lead to great confusion, and would only be done if there was some compelling reason for the change. Macalister provides no such reason.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">See inscription 235 for <i>óir</i>, 240 for <i>uillen</i>, and 327 and 231 for <i>pín</i> in Macalister CIIC, Vol I</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">MacManus 1988, §7.13–14, 1991</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGravesLimerick1876" class="citation journal cs1">Graves, Charles; Limerick, C. (1876). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23036451">"The Ogham Alphabet"</a>. <i>Hermathena</i>. <b>2</b> (4): 443–472. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/23036451">23036451</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hermathena&rft.atitle=The+Ogham+Alphabet&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=443-472&rft.date=1876&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23036451%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.aulast=Graves&rft.aufirst=Charles&rft.au=Limerick%2C+C.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F23036451&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The rationale for the artificial form <i>idad</i> would be to make a pairing with <i>edad</i>. With regard to <i>ailm</i>, in the "King and Hermit" poem the hermit Marban says "caine ailmi ardom-peitet" – "beautiful are the pines that make music for me". This is a reference to the idea that pine makes a pleasing, soothing sound as the wind passes through its needles.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="https://www.theguardian.com/science/article/2024/may/08/teacher-finds-stone-ancient-ogham-writing-ireland-coventry-garden">[2]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-35">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Welsh Academy Encyclopedia of Wales. Cardiff: University of Wales Press 2008</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-36">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">A History of St. Mary’s Church. Text by Imelda Kehoe. Published by the Gowran Development Association 1992</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLewis-Highcorrell2003" class="citation book cs1">Lewis-Highcorrell, Don (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=2u22BAAAQBAJ&q=ogham+may+have+been+used+as+a+system+of+finger+or+hand+signals&pg=PA135"><i>Witch School Second Degree: Lessons in the Correllian Traditio</i></a>. Woodbury, MN: Llewellyn. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780738718217" title="Special:BookSources/9780738718217"><bdi>9780738718217</bdi></a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 January</span> 2016</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Witch+School+Second+Degree%3A+Lessons+in+the+Correllian+Traditio&rft.place=Woodbury%2C+MN&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Llewellyn&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=9780738718217&rft.aulast=Lewis-Highcorrell&rft.aufirst=Don&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D2u22BAAAQBAJ%26q%3Dogham%2Bmay%2Bhave%2Bbeen%2Bused%2Bas%2Ba%2Bsystem%2Bof%2Bfinger%2Bor%2Bhand%2Bsignals%26pg%3DPA135&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.unicode.org/versions/Unicode3.0.0/">"Unicode 3.0.0"</a>. <i>unicode.org</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">27 October</span> 2022</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=unicode.org&rft.atitle=Unicode+3.0.0&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.unicode.org%2Fversions%2FUnicode3.0.0%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Carr-Gomm, Philip & Richard Heygate, <i>The Book of English Magic</i>, The Overlook Press, Peter Mayer Publishers, Inc., 2010</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graves, R 'The White Goddess', pp. 61, 123, Faber & Faber, London, 1961</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graves 1961, p. 165</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Graves 1961, pp. 116–117</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-43">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFThe_Order_of_Bards_Ovates_&_Druids" class="citation web cs1">The Order of Bards Ovates & Druids. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930185033/http://www.druidry.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=PagEd&file=index&topic_id=1&page_id=74">"What Is an Ovate?"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.druidry.org/modules.php?op=modload&name=PagEd&file=index&topic_id=1&page_id=74">the original</a> on 30 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Is+an+Ovate%3F&rft.au=The+Order+of+Bards+Ovates+%26+Druids&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.druidry.org%2Fmodules.php%3Fop%3Dmodload%26name%3DPagEd%26file%3Dindex%26topic_id%3D1%26page_id%3D74&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSomerset_Pagans" class="citation web cs1">Somerset Pagans. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070930040215/http://www.somersetpagan.org/Ogham.html">"Ogham"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.somersetpagan.org/Ogham.html">the original</a> on 30 September 2007<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">19 January</span> 2007</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ogham&rft.au=Somerset+Pagans&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.somersetpagan.org%2FOgham.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-shallcrass-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-shallcrass_45-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-shallcrass_45-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPhilip_Shallcrass" class="citation web cs1">Philip Shallcrass. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20050404123651/http://www.druidorder.demon.co.uk/ogham.htm">"A Little History of Ogham"</a>. The British Druid Order. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.druidorder.demon.co.uk/ogham.htm">the original</a> on 4 April 2005<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">28 April</span> 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=A+Little+History+of+Ogham&rft.pub=The+British+Druid+Order&rft.au=Philip+Shallcrass&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.druidorder.demon.co.uk%2Fogham.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="General_and_cited_references">General and cited references</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: General and cited references"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Carney, James. <i>The Invention of the Ogam Cipher</i> 'Ériu' 22, 1975, pp. 62–63, Dublin: Royal Irish Academy</li> <li>Düwel, Klaus. <i>Runenkunde</i> (runic studies). Stuttgart/Weimar: Metzler, 1968. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/183700">183700</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Forsyth" title="Katherine Forsyth">Forsyth, Katherine</a>. <i>The Ogham Inscriptions of Scotland: An Edited Corpus</i>, PhD Dissertation, Harvard University (Ann Arbor: UMI, 1996). <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/48938210">48938210</a></li> <li>Gippert, Jost; Hlaváček, Ivan; Homolka, Jaromír. <i>Ogam. Eine frühe keltische Schrifterfindung</i>, Praha: Charles University, 1992. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/80-901489-3-X" title="Special:BookSources/80-901489-3-X">80-901489-3-X</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/39570484">39570484</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R._A._Stewart_Macalister" title="R. A. Stewart Macalister">Macalister, Robert A. S.</a> <i>The Secret Languages of Ireland</i>, pp. 27–36, Cambridge University Press, 1937</li> <li>Macalister, Robert A. S. <i>Corpus inscriptionum insularum celticarum</i>. First edition. Dublin: Stationery Office, 1945–1949. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/71392234">71392234</a></li> <li>McManus, Damian. <i>Ogam: Archaizing, Orthography and the Authenticity of the Manuscript Key to the Alphabet</i>, Ériu 37, 1988, 1–31. Dublin: Royal Irish Academy. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/56088345">56088345</a></li> <li>McManus, Damian. <i>A Guide to Ogam</i>, Maynooth 1991. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-870684-17-6" title="Special:BookSources/1-870684-17-6">1-870684-17-6</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/24181838">24181838</a></li> <li>MacNeill, Eoin. <i>Archaisms in the Ogham Inscriptions</i>, 'Proceedings of the Royal Irish Academy' 39, pp. 33–53, Dublin</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'Brien1962" class="citation book cs1">O'Brien, Michael A., ed. (1962). <i>Corpus Genealogiarum Hiberniae</i>. Vol. 1. Kelleher, John V. (intro. in the reprints of 1976 and 2005). Dublin: <a href="/wiki/Dublin_Institute_for_Advanced_Studies" title="Dublin Institute for Advanced Studies">DIAS</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0901282316" title="Special:BookSources/0901282316"><bdi>0901282316</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56540733">56540733</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Corpus+Genealogiarum+Hiberniae&rft.place=Dublin&rft.pub=DIAS&rft.date=1962&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56540733&rft.isbn=0901282316&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AOgham" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Raftery, Barry. <i>A Late Ogham Inscription from Co. Tipperary</i>, Journal of the Royal Society of Antiquaries of Ireland 99, 1969. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/search?fq=x0:jrnl&q=n2:0035-9106">0035-9106</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/6906544">6906544</a></li> <li>Swift, C. <i>Ogam Stones and the Earliest Irish Christians</i>, Maynooth: Dept. of Old and Middle Irish, St. Patrick's College, 1997. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-901519-98-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-901519-98-7">0-901519-98-7</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/37398935">37398935</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robert_Graves" title="Robert Graves">Ranke-Graves, Robert von</a>. <i>Die Weisse Göttin: Sprache des Mythos</i> (<i><a href="/wiki/The_White_Goddess" title="The White Goddess">The White Goddess</a></i>), <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-499-55416-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-499-55416-2">978-3-499-55416-2</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/52100148">52100148</a>, several re-editions, but rarely available. Editions available in German and English.</li> <li>Sims-Williams, Patrick. <i>The Celtic Inscriptions of Britain: Phonology and Chronology, c. 400–1200. (Publications of the Philological Society 37)</i> Oxford : Blackwell Publishing, 2003. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-4051-0903-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-4051-0903-3">1-4051-0903-3</a></li> <li>Thurneysen, Rudolf. <i>Zum Ogam</i>, Beiträge zur Geschichte der deutschen Sprache und Literatur, 61 (1937), pp. 188–208.</li> <li>Vendryès, Joseph. <i>L'écriture ogamique et ses origines</i> Études Celtiques, 4 (1941), pp. 83–116.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogham&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/40px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/60px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg/80px-Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Look up <i><b><a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Ogham" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Ogham">Ogham</a></b></i> in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.omniglot.com/writing/ogham.htm">Description and history of the ogham script</a></li> <li>TITUS: <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/didact/idg/kelt/ogamabb.htm">The Ogham Script</a> & Project <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://titus.fkidg1.uni-frankfurt.de/ogam/index.htm">Ogamica</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.evertype.com/standards/og/ogmharc.html">Every Ogham Thing on the Web</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.megalithicireland.com">Irish Ogham Stones</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20020106100700/http://ogham.lyberty.com/">The Ogham Stone</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20180619155104/http://web.onetel.net.uk/~hibou/Pictish%20Inscriptions.html">Pictish Ogham Inscriptions</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ogham.celt.dias.ie">Ogham in 3D project, a collection of 3D models and meta-data of Ogham stones</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/High_King_of_Ireland" title="High King of Ireland">High King of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_kingdoms" title="List of Irish kingdoms">Irish kingdoms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Alba" title="Kingdom of Alba">Alba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nine_Years%27_War_(Ireland)" title="Nine Years' War (Ireland)">Nine Years' War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Statutes_of_Iona" title="Statutes of Iona">Statutes of Iona</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flight_of_the_Earls" title="Flight of the Earls">Flight of the Earls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plantation_of_Ulster" title="Plantation of Ulster">Plantation of Ulster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Rebellion_of_1641" title="Irish Rebellion of 1641">1641 Rebellion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Act_for_the_Settlement_of_Ireland_1652" title="Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652">Act for the Settlement of Ireland 1652</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobitism" title="Jacobitism">Jacobitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jacobite_rising_of_1745" title="Jacobite rising of 1745">Jacobite rising of 1745</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Penal_laws_(Ireland)" title="Penal laws (Ireland)">Penal Laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Famine_(Ireland)" title="Great Famine (Ireland)">Great Hunger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_diaspora" title="Irish diaspora">Irish diaspora</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_Clearances" title="Highland Clearances">Highland Clearances</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_revival" title="Gaelic revival">Gaelic Revival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaeltacht" title="Gaeltacht">Gaeltacht</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/G%C3%A0idhealtachd" title="Gàidhealtachd">Gàidhealtachd</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Gaelic culture</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_law" title="Early Irish law">Brehon law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_mythology" title="Irish mythology">Gaelic mythology</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Lebor_Gab%C3%A1la_%C3%89renn" title="Lebor Gabála Érenn">Lebor Gabála Érenn</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_warfare" title="Gaelic warfare">Gaelic warfare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_astrology" title="Early Irish astrology">Gaelic astrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_kinship" title="Irish kinship">Gaelic kinship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_bardic_poetry" title="Irish bardic poetry">Bardic poetry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_literature" title="Gaelic literature">Gaelic literature</a> (<a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Modern_literature_in_Irish" title="Modern literature in Irish">Modern Irish</a>, <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic_literature" title="Scottish Gaelic literature">Scottish Gaelic</a> & <a href="/wiki/Manx_literature" title="Manx literature">Manx</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_folk_music" title="Gaelic folk music">Gaelic folk music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sean-n%C3%B3s_singing" title="Sean-nós singing">Sean-nós singing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oireachtas_na_Gaeilge" title="Oireachtas na Gaeilge">Oireachtas na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Royal_National_M%C3%B2d" title="Royal National Mòd">Am Mòd</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_games" title="Gaelic games">Gaelic games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Highland_games" title="Highland games">Highland games</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/T%C3%BAath" title="Túath">Túath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtic_Christianity" title="Celtic Christianity">Insular Christianity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hiberno-Scottish_mission" title="Hiberno-Scottish mission">Gaelic Christian mission</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Goidelic_languages" title="Goidelic languages">Language</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></i></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Classical_Gaelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Gaelic">Classical Gaelic</a></i></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manx_language" title="Manx language">Manx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_Gaelic" title="Scottish Gaelic">Scottish Gaelic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Clans</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="Irish" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irish_clans" title="Irish clans">Irish</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_royal_families" title="Irish royal families">Royal families</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lists_of_Irish_kings" title="Lists of Irish kings">Kings</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_medical_families" title="Irish medical families">Medical families</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_nobility_of_Ireland" title="Gaelic nobility of Ireland">Nobility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_genealogy" title="Irish genealogy">Genealogy</a></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th id="List" scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_clans" title="List of Irish clans">List</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Connachta" title="Connachta">Connachta</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_N%C3%A9ill" title="Uí Néill">Uí Néill</a>, <a href="/wiki/Airg%C3%ADalla" title="Airgíalla">Clan Colla</a>, <a href="/wiki/Clan_Donald" title="Clan Donald">Clan Donald</a>, <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_Mh%C3%A1ine" title="Uí Mháine">Uí Mháine</a>, etc)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalcassians" title="Dalcassians">Dalcassians</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A9isi" title="Déisi">Déisi</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/E%C3%B3ganachta" title="Eóganachta">Eóganachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iverni" title="Iverni">Érainn</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Riata" title="Dál Riata">Dál Riata</a>, <a href="/wiki/Corcu_Lo%C3%ADgde" title="Corcu Loígde">Corcu Loígde</a>, <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_Fiatach" title="Dál Fiatach">Dál Fiatach</a>, etc)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laigin" title="Laigin">Laigin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulaid" title="Ulaid">Ulaid</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/D%C3%A1l_nAraidi" title="Dál nAraidi">Dál nAraidi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Conmaicne" title="Conmaicne">Conmaicne</a>, and <a href="/wiki/C%C3%ADarraige" title="Cíarraige">Cíarraige</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_clans_in_Ulster" title="List of Irish clans in Ulster">Ulster</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Scottish_clan" title="Scottish clan">Scottish</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Scottish_clans" title="List of Scottish clans">List</a></li></ul></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related<br />organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <li><a href="/wiki/%C3%9Adar%C3%A1s_na_Gaeltachta" title="Údarás na Gaeltachta">Údarás na Gaeltachta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foras_na_Gaeilge" title="Foras na Gaeilge">Foras na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%B2rd_na_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="Bòrd na Gàidhlig">Bòrd na Gàidhlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Culture_Vannin" title="Culture Vannin">Culture Vannin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conradh_na_Gaeilge" title="Conradh na Gaeilge">Conradh na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Comunn_G%C3%A0idhealach" title="An Comunn Gàidhealach">An Comunn Gàidhealach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yn_%C3%87heshaght_Ghailckagh" title="Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh">Yn Çheshaght Ghailckagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seachtain_na_Gaeilge" title="Seachtain na Gaeilge">Seachtain na Gaeilge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gael_Linn" title="Gael Linn">Gael Linn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/ULTACH_Trust" title="ULTACH Trust">ULTACH Trust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comunn_na_G%C3%A0idhlig" title="Comunn na Gàidhlig">Comunn na Gàidhlig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Columba_Project" title="Columba Project">Columba Project</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clans_of_Ireland" title="Clans of Ireland">Clans of Ireland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/An_Coimisin%C3%A9ir_Teanga" title="An Coimisinéir Teanga">An Coimisinéir Teanga</a></li> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related subjects</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Haplogroup_R-M269" title="Haplogroup R-M269">Haplogroup R-M269</a> (<a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_the_British_Isles" title="Genetic history of the British Isles">human genetics</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celts" title="Celts">Celts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse%E2%80%93Gaels" title="Norse–Gaels">Norse–Gaels</a> (incl. <a href="/wiki/U%C3%AD_%C3%8Dmair" title="Uí Ímair">Uí Ímair</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clan_MacLeod" title="Clan MacLeod">Clan MacLeod</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_Munster" title="Kingdom of Munster">Kingdom of Munster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kingdom_of_the_Isles" title="Kingdom of the Isles">Kingdom of the Isles</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelicisation" title="Gaelicisation">Gaelicisation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Gaels" title="Category:Gaels">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Irish_language" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Irish_language" title="Template:Irish language"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Irish_language" title="Template talk:Irish language"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Irish_language" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Irish language"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Irish_language" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Irish_language" title="Irish language">Irish language</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/History_of_the_Irish_language" title="History of the Irish language">History</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Indo-European" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Indo-European">Proto-Indo-European</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Celtic">Proto-Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_Celtic" class="mw-redirect" title="Insular Celtic">Insular Celtic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Goidelic" class="mw-redirect" title="Proto-Goidelic">Proto-Goidelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primitive_Irish" title="Primitive Irish">Primitive Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Irish" title="Old Irish">Old Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Middle_Irish" title="Middle Irish">Middle Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Modern_Irish" title="Early Modern Irish">Early Modern Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern Irish">Modern Irish</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Sociolinguistics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish-speaking_people" title="List of Irish-speaking people">List of <span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga">Gaeilgeoirí</i></span></a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Connacht_Irish" title="Connacht Irish">Connacht Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Munster_Irish" title="Munster Irish">Munster Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Newfoundland_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Newfoundland Irish">Newfoundland Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leinster_Irish" class="mw-redirect" title="Leinster Irish">Leinster Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulster_Irish" title="Ulster Irish">Ulster Irish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Status_of_the_Irish_language" title="Status of the Irish language">Status</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language_in_Northern_Ireland" title="Irish language in Northern Ireland">Northern Ireland</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_language_outside_Ireland" title="Irish language outside Ireland">Outside Ireland</a> (<a href="/wiki/Irish_language_in_Newfoundland" title="Irish language in Newfoundland">in Newfoundland</a>)</li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/English_loanwords_in_Irish" title="English loanwords in Irish">Béarlachas</a></i></span></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A1inne" title="Fáinne">Fáinne</a></i></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Irish_grammar" title="Irish grammar">Grammar</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil" title="An Caighdeán Oifigiúil">An Caighdeán Oifigiúil</a></i></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_initial_mutations" title="Irish initial mutations">Initial mutations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_declension" title="Irish declension">Declension</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_conjugation" title="Irish conjugation">Conjugation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dependent_and_independent_verb_forms" title="Dependent and independent verb forms">Dependent and independent forms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_phonology" title="Irish phonology">Phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_syntax" title="Irish syntax">Syntax</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Writing</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_orthography" title="Irish orthography">Orthography</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic type</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Irish_literature" title="Early Irish literature">Early literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_literature_in_Irish" title="Modern literature in Irish">Modern literature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_lexicography" title="Irish lexicography">Lexicography</a></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_Caighde%C3%A1n_Oifigi%C3%BAil" title="An Caighdeán Oifigiúil">An Caighdeán Oifigiúil</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish_language_media" class="mw-redirect" title="List of Irish language media">Media</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Journals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Comhar" title="Comhar">Comhar</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Feasta" title="Feasta">Feasta</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_tUltach" title="An tUltach">An tUltach</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Tuairisc.ie" title="Tuairisc.ie">Tuairisc.ie</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/N%C3%B3s" title="Nós">Nós</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/An_Gael" title="An Gael">An Gael</a></i></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Independent" title="Irish Independent">Seachtain</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Television</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/TG4" title="TG4">TG4</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/C%C3%BAla_4" class="mw-redirect" title="Cúla 4">Cúla 4</a></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RT%C3%89_One" title="RTÉ One">RTÉ One</a> <small>(<span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Nuacht_RT%C3%89" title="Nuacht RTÉ">Nuacht RTÉ</a></i></span>)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Two_Northern_Ireland" title="BBC Two Northern Ireland">BBC Two NI</a> <small>(sporadic)</small></li> <li><a href="/wiki/NVTV" title="NVTV">NVTV</a> <small>(sporadic)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Radio</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style: normal;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/RT%C3%89_Raidi%C3%B3_na_Gaeltachta" title="RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta">RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raidi%C3%B3_R%C3%AD-R%C3%A1" title="Raidió Rí-Rá">Raidió Rí-Rá</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raidi%C3%B3_Na_Life" title="Raidió Na Life">Raidió Na Life</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Raidi%C3%B3_F%C3%A1ilte" title="Raidió Fáilte">Raidió Fáilte</a></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/BBC_Radio_Ulster" title="BBC Radio Ulster">BBC Radio Ulster</a> <small>(<span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Blas_(Radio_Ulster)" title="Blas (Radio Ulster)">Blas</a></i></span>)</small></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Publishers</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0;font-style: normal;"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Tuairisc.ie" title="Tuairisc.ie">Tuairisc.ie</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/An_G%C3%BAm" title="An Gúm">An Gúm</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Cl%C3%B3_Iar-Chonnacht" title="Cló Iar-Chonnacht">Cló Iar-Chonnacht</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Coisc%C3%A9im" title="Coiscéim">Coiscéim</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gael_Linn" title="Gael Linn">Gael Linn</a></span></span></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Irish_Texts_Society" title="Irish Texts Society">Irish Texts Society</a></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/S%C3%A1irs%C3%A9al_agus_Dill" title="Sáirséal agus Dill">Sáirséal agus Dill</a></span></span></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><span lang="ga" style="font-style: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Gl%C3%B3r_na_nGael" title="Glór na nGael">Glór na nGael</a></span></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Qualifications</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Leaving_Certificate_(Ireland)" title="Leaving Certificate (Ireland)">Leaving Cert Irish</a></li> <li><span title="Irish-language text"><i lang="ga"><a href="/wiki/Teastas_Eorpach_na_Gaeilge" title="Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge">Teastas Eorpach na Gaeilge</a></i></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Names</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Irish_name" title="Irish name">Personal and family names</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_Irish-language_given_names" title="List of Irish-language given names">List of personal names</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow hlist" colspan="2"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Irish_language" title="Category:Irish language">Category</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Types_of_writing_systems" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:List_of_writing_systems" title="Template talk:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:List_of_writing_systems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:List of writing systems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Types_of_writing_systems" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a> of <a href="/wiki/Writing_system" title="Writing system">writing systems</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Overview</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing" title="History of writing">History of writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grapheme" title="Grapheme">Grapheme</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Lists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Writing systems</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Undeciphered_writing_systems" title="Undeciphered writing systems">undeciphered</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_creators_of_writing_systems" title="List of creators of writing systems">inventors</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_constructed_scripts" title="List of constructed scripts">constructed</a></li></ul></li> <li>Languages by writing system / <a href="/wiki/List_of_languages_by_first_written_accounts" class="mw-redirect" title="List of languages by first written accounts">by first written accounts</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible expanded navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Types" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_writing_systems" title="List of writing systems">Types</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abjads" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abjad" title="Abjad">Abjads</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Numerals</a></i></li></ul> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aramaic_alphabet" title="Aramaic alphabet">Aramaic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hatran_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Hatran alphabet">Hatran</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Elifba_alphabet" title="Elifba alphabet">Elifba</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Egyptian hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elymaic" title="Elymaic">Elymaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_alphabet" title="Hebrew alphabet">Hebrew</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ktav_Ashuri" title="Ktav Ashuri">Ashuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cursive_Hebrew" title="Cursive Hebrew">Cursive</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rashi_script" title="Rashi script">Rashi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solitreo" title="Solitreo">Solitreo</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandaic_alphabet" title="Mandaic alphabet">Mandaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manichaean_script" title="Manichaean script">Manichaean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nabataean_script" title="Nabataean script">Nabataean</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_North_Arabian" title="Ancient North Arabian">Ancient North Arabian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahlavi_scripts" title="Pahlavi scripts">Pahlavi</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Book_Pahlavi" class="mw-redirect" title="Book Pahlavi">Book</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Pahlavi" title="Inscriptional Pahlavi">Inscriptional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inscriptional_Parthian" title="Inscriptional Parthian">Inscriptional Parthian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psalter_Pahlavi" title="Psalter Pahlavi">Psalter</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegon_script" title="Pegon script">Pegon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phoenician_alphabet" title="Phoenician alphabet">Phoenician</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Hebrew_alphabet" title="Paleo-Hebrew alphabet">Paleo-Hebrew</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pitman_shorthand" title="Pitman shorthand">Pitman shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Sinaitic_script" title="Proto-Sinaitic script">Proto-Sinaitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Punic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Punic alphabet">Punic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samaritan_script" title="Samaritan script">Samaritan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">South Arabian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Zabur_script" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Zabur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_South_Arabian_script#Musnad" title="Ancient South Arabian script">Musnad</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sogdian_alphabet" title="Sogdian alphabet">Sogdian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet" title="Syriac alphabet">Syriac</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#Classical_ʾEsṭrangēlā" title="Syriac alphabet">ʾEsṭrangēlā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#West_Syriac_Serṭā" title="Syriac alphabet">Serṭā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syriac_alphabet#East_Syriac_Maḏnḥāyā" title="Syriac alphabet">Maḏnḥāyā</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teeline_Shorthand" class="mw-redirect" title="Teeline Shorthand">Teeline Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ugaritic_alphabet" title="Ugaritic alphabet">Ugaritic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Abugidas" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Abugida" title="Abugida">Abugidas</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em"><a href="/wiki/Brahmic_scripts" title="Brahmic scripts">Brahmic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Northern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bengali%E2%80%93Assamese_script" title="Bengali–Assamese script">Bengali–Assamese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhaiksuki_script" title="Bhaiksuki script">Bhaiksuki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brahmi_script" title="Brahmi script">Brahmi script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Devanagari" title="Devanagari">Devanagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dogri_script" title="Dogri script">Dogri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_script" title="Gujarati script">Gujarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gupta_script" title="Gupta script">Gupta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gurmukhi" title="Gurmukhi">Gurmukhi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaithi" title="Kaithi">Kaithi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kalinga_script" title="Kalinga script">Kalinga</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khema_script" title="Khema script">Khema</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khojki_script" title="Khojki script">Khojki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khudabadi_script" title="Khudabadi script">Khudabadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La%E1%B9%87%E1%B8%8D%C4%81_scripts" title="Laṇḍā scripts">Laṇḍā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepcha_script" title="Lepcha script">Lepcha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mahajani" title="Mahajani">Mahajani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marchen_script" title="Marchen script">Marchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meitei_script" title="Meitei script">Meitei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modi_script" title="Modi script">Modi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Multani_script" title="Multani script">Multani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C4%81gar%C4%AB_script" title="Nāgarī script">Nagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nandinagari" title="Nandinagari">Nandinagari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Nepalese scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bhujimol_script" title="Bhujimol script">Bhujimol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Golmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Golmol script (page does not exist)">Golmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Himmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Himmol script (page does not exist)">Himmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kummol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kummol script (page does not exist)">Kummol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kvemmol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kvemmol script (page does not exist)">Kvemmol</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pachumol_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pachumol script (page does not exist)">Pachumol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pracalit_script" title="Pracalit script">Pracalit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ranjana_script" title="Ranjana script">Ranjana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamyig_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Tamyig script">Tamyig</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tirhuta_script" title="Tirhuta script">Tirhuta</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limbu_script" title="Limbu script">Limbu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepalese_scripts" title="Nepalese scripts">Litumol</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Odia_script" title="Odia script">Odia</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Karani_script" title="Karani script">Karani</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/%CA%BCPhags-pa_script" title="ʼPhags-pa script">ʼPhags-pa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sharada_script" title="Sharada script">Sharada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siddha%E1%B9%83_script" title="Siddhaṃ script">Siddhaṃ</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyombo_script" title="Soyombo script">Soyombo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylheti_Nagri" title="Sylheti Nagri">Sylheti Nagri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Takri_script" title="Takri script">Takri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_script" title="Tibetan script">Tibetan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uchen_script" title="Uchen script">Uchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Um%C3%AA_script" title="Umê script">Umê</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tocharian_script" title="Tocharian script">Tocharian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zanabazar_square_script" title="Zanabazar square script">Zanabazar square</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Southern</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ahom_script" title="Ahom script">Ahom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balinese_script" title="Balinese script">Balinese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Batak_script" title="Batak script">Batak</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baybayin" title="Baybayin">Baybayin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bhattiprolu_script" title="Bhattiprolu script">Bhattiprolu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buda_script" title="Buda script">Buda</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhid_script" title="Buhid script">Buhid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chakma_script" title="Chakma script">Chakma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cham_script" title="Cham script">Cham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fakkham_script" title="Fakkham script">Fakkham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grantha_script" title="Grantha script">Grantha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Goykanadi" title="Goykanadi">Goykanadi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanunoo_script" title="Hanunoo script">Hanunoo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Javanese_script" title="Javanese script">Javanese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kadamba_script" title="Kadamba script">Kadamba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kannada_script" title="Kannada script">Kannada</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%27gaw_Karen_alphabet" title="S'gaw Karen alphabet">Karen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kawi_script" title="Kawi script">Kawi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khmer_script" title="Khmer script">Khmer</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Khom_Thai_script" title="Khom Thai script">Khom Thai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kulitan" title="Kulitan">Kulitan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Lanna</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Langdi" title="Langdi">Langdi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lao_script" title="Lao script">Lao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leke_script" title="Leke script">Leke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_script" title="Lontara script">Lontara</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lontara_Bilang-bilang_script" title="Lontara Bilang-bilang script">Bilang-bilang</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Makasar_script" title="Makasar script">Makasar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_script" title="Malayalam script">Malayalam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maldivian_writing_systems" title="Maldivian writing systems">Old Maldivian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dhives_Akuru" title="Dhives Akuru">Dhives Akuru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eveyla_Akuru" class="mw-redirect" title="Eveyla Akuru">Eveyla Akuru</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mon%E2%80%93Burmese_script" title="Mon–Burmese script">Mon–Burmese</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pallava_script" title="Pallava script">Pallava</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyu_script" title="Pyu script">Pyu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saurashtra_script" title="Saurashtra script">Saurashtra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shan_alphabet" title="Shan alphabet">Shan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_script" title="Sinhala script">Sinhala</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sukhothai_script" title="Sukhothai script">Sukhothai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sundanese_script" title="Sundanese script">Sundanese</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Old_Sundanese_script" title="Old Sundanese script">Old Sundanese</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tagbanwa_script" title="Tagbanwa script">Tagbanwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Le_script" title="Tai Le script">Tai Le</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Tai_Lue_alphabet" title="New Tai Lue alphabet">New Tai Lue</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Noi_script" title="Tai Noi script">Tai Noi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Tham_script" title="Tai Tham script">Tai Tham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tai_Viet_script" title="Tai Viet script">Tai Viet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lai_Tay_script" title="Lai Tay script">Lai Tay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil_script" title="Tamil script">Tamil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tamil-Brahmi" title="Tamil-Brahmi">Tamil-Brahmi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tanchangya_script" title="Tanchangya script">Tanchangya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telugu_script" title="Telugu script">Telugu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thai_script" title="Thai script">Thai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tigalari_script" title="Tigalari script">Tigalari</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ulu_scripts" title="Ulu scripts">Ulu scripts</a> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Incung_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Incung script (page does not exist)">Incung</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lampung_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Lampung script">Lampung</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lembak_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lembak script (page does not exist)">Lembak</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ogan_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ogan script (page does not exist)">Ogan</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pasemah_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pasemah script (page does not exist)">Pasemah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rejang_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Rejang script">Rejang</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Serawai_script&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Serawai script (page does not exist)">Serawai</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vatteluttu" title="Vatteluttu">Vatteluttu</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Kolezhuthu" class="mw-redirect" title="Kolezhuthu">Kolezhuthu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malayanma" title="Malayanma">Malayanma</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:5em">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bharati_script" title="Bharati script">Bharati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boyd%27s_syllabic_shorthand" title="Boyd's syllabic shorthand">Boyd's syllabic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian syllabics</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blackfoot_language#Writing_system" title="Blackfoot language">Blackfoot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrier_syllabics" title="Carrier syllabics">Déné syllabics</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dham_script" title="Dham script">Dham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox I</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ge%CA%BDez_script" title="Geʽez script">Geʽez</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gunjala_Gondi_script" title="Gunjala Gondi script">Gunjala Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sarati" title="Sarati">Sarati</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kharosthi" title="Kharosthi">Kharosthi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mandombe_script" title="Mandombe script">Mandombe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gondi_writing" title="Gondi writing">Masaram Gondi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meroitic_script" title="Meroitic script">Meroitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pollard_script" title="Pollard script">Miao</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tengwar" title="Tengwar">Tengwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thaana" title="Thaana">Thaana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thomas_Natural_Shorthand" title="Thomas Natural Shorthand">Thomas Natural Shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mwangwego_script" title="Mwangwego script">Mwangwego</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Qiang_language" title="Qiang language">Rma</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Alphabets" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Alphabet" title="Alphabet">Alphabets</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adlam_script" title="Adlam script">Adlam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ariyaka_script" title="Ariyaka script">Ariyaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Armenian_alphabet" title="Armenian alphabet">Armenian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avestan_alphabet" title="Avestan alphabet">Avestan</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Pazend" title="Pazend">Pazend</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avoiuli" title="Avoiuli">Avoiuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bassa_Vah_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bassa Vah script">Bassa Vah</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carian_alphabets" title="Carian alphabets">Carian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caucasian_Albanian_script" title="Caucasian Albanian script">Caucasian Albanian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cirth" title="Cirth">Cirth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coelbren_y_Beirdd" title="Coelbren y Beirdd">Coelbren</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coorgi%E2%80%93Cox_alphabet" title="Coorgi–Cox alphabet">Coorgi–Cox alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coptic_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Coptic alphabet">Coptic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_script" title="Cyrillic script">Cyrillic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bosnian_Cyrillic" title="Bosnian Cyrillic">Bosnian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Early_Cyrillic_alphabet" title="Early Cyrillic alphabet">Early</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deseret_alphabet" title="Deseret alphabet">Deseret</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand" title="Duployan shorthand">Duployan shorthand</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Duployan_shorthand#Chinook_writing" title="Duployan shorthand">Chinook</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclectic_shorthand" title="Eclectic shorthand">Eclectic shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elbasan_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Elbasan script">Elbasan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enochian" title="Enochian">Enochian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etruscan_alphabet" title="Etruscan alphabet">Etruscan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/George_Psalmanazar#Pseudo-lexicographer" title="George Psalmanazar">Formosan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fox_language#Writing_systems" title="Fox language">Fox II</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraser_script" title="Fraser script">Fraser</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabelsberger_shorthand" title="Gabelsberger shorthand">Gabelsberger shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gadabuursi_Somali_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Gadabuursi Somali script">Gadabuursi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Garay_alphabet" title="Garay alphabet">Garay alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georgian_scripts" title="Georgian scripts">Georgian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asomtavruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Asomtavruli">Asomtavruli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuskhuri" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuskhuri">Nuskhuri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mkhedruli" class="mw-redirect" title="Mkhedruli">Mkhedruli</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Veso_Bey_alphabet" title="Veso Bey alphabet">Veso Bey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glagolitic_script" title="Glagolitic script">Glagolitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_alphabet" title="Gothic alphabet">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gregg_shorthand" title="Gregg shorthand">Gregg shorthand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greek_alphabet" title="Greek alphabet">Greek</a> (<a href="/wiki/Archaic_Greek_alphabets" title="Archaic Greek alphabets">Archaic</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greco-Iberian_alphabet" title="Greco-Iberian alphabet">Greco-Iberian alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hangul" title="Hangul">Hangul</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanifi_Rohingya_script" title="Hanifi Rohingya script">Hanifi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunwar_language#Writing_Systems" title="Sunwar language">Jenticha</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaddare_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Kaddare script">Kaddare</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kayah_Li_alphabet" title="Kayah Li alphabet">Kayah Li</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Klingon_scripts" title="Klingon scripts">Klingon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latin_script" title="Latin script">Latin</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beneventan_script" title="Beneventan script">Beneventan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blackletter" title="Blackletter">Blackletter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carolingian_minuscule" title="Carolingian minuscule">Carolingian minuscule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fraktur" title="Fraktur">Fraktur</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gaelic_type" title="Gaelic type">Gaelic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_script" title="Insular script">Insular</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interlac" class="mw-redirect" title="Interlac">Interlac</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurrent" title="Kurrent">Kurrent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Merovingian_script" title="Merovingian script">Merovingian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scribal_abbreviation" title="Scribal abbreviation">Sigla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C3%BCtterlin" title="Sütterlin">Sütterlin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tironian_notes" title="Tironian notes">Tironian notes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visigothic_script" title="Visigothic script">Visigothic</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luo_script" title="Luo script">Luo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lycian_alphabet" title="Lycian alphabet">Lycian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lydian_alphabet" title="Lydian alphabet">Lydian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medefaidrin" title="Medefaidrin">Medefaidrin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molodtsov_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Molodtsov alphabet">Molodtsov</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mru_language#Script" title="Mru language">Mru</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mundari_Bani" title="Mundari Bani">Mundari Bani</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%27Ko_script" title="N'Ko script">N'Ko</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ogham</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Chiki_script" title="Ol Chiki script">Ol Chiki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Hungarian_script" title="Old Hungarian script">Old Hungarian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Italic_scripts" title="Old Italic scripts">Old Italic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Permic_script" title="Old Permic script">Old Permic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Turkic_script" title="Old Turkic script">Orkhon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Uyghur_alphabet" title="Old Uyghur alphabet">Old Uyghur</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_script" title="Mongolian script">Mongolian</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Evenki_alphabet" class="mw-redirect" title="Evenki alphabet">Evenki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galik_alphabet" title="Galik alphabet">Galik alphabet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Manchu_alphabet" title="Manchu alphabet">Manchu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clear_Script" title="Clear Script">Oirat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vagindra_script" title="Vagindra script">Vagindra</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ol_Onal" title="Ol Onal">Ol Onal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osage_script" title="Osage script">Osage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmanya_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Osmanya script">Osmanya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pau_Cin_Hau_script" title="Pau Cin Hau script">Pau Cin Hau</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phrygian_alphabet" title="Phrygian alphabet">Phrygian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pisidian_language" title="Pisidian language">Pisidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Runes">Runic</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anglo-Saxon_runes" title="Anglo-Saxon runes">Anglo-Saxon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cipher_runes" title="Cipher runes">Cipher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dalecarlian_runes" title="Dalecarlian runes">Dalecarlian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elder_Futhark" title="Elder Futhark">Elder Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Younger_Futhark" title="Younger Futhark">Younger Futhark</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gothic_runic_inscriptions" title="Gothic runic inscriptions">Gothic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marcomannic_runes" class="mw-redirect" title="Marcomannic runes">Marcomannic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medieval_runes" title="Medieval runes">Medieval</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Staveless_runes" title="Staveless runes">Staveless</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shavian_alphabet" title="Shavian alphabet">Shavian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sidetic_language" title="Sidetic language">Sidetic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sorang_Sompeng_script" title="Sorang Sompeng script">Sorang Sompeng</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sunuwar_alphabet" title="Sunuwar alphabet">Sunuwar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tifinagh" title="Tifinagh">Tifinagh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Todhri_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Todhri script">Todhri</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurukh_language#Writing_systems" title="Kurukh language">Tolong Siki</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vellara_alphabet" title="Vellara alphabet">Vellara</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visible_Speech" title="Visible Speech">Visible Speech</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vithkuqi_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Vithkuqi script">Vithkuqi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wancho_language#Orthography" title="Wancho language">Wancho</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Warang_Citi" title="Warang Citi">Warang Citi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurdish_alphabets#Yezidi" title="Kurdish alphabets">Yezidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zaghawa_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Zaghawa script">Zaghawa</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Non-linear</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_maritime_signal_flags" title="International maritime signal flags">Maritime flags</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Telegraph_code" title="Telegraph code">Telegraph code</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flag_semaphore" title="Flag semaphore">Flag semaphore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Ideograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ideogram" title="Ideogram">Ideograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adinkra_symbols" title="Adinkra symbols">Adinkra</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aztec_script" title="Aztec script">Aztec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blissymbols" title="Blissymbols">Blissymbols</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dongba_symbols" title="Dongba symbols">Dongba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ersu_Shaba_script" title="Ersu Shaba script">Ersu Shaba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emoji" title="Emoji">Emoji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isotype_(picture_language)" title="Isotype (picture language)">Isotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kaid%C4%81_glyphs" title="Kaidā glyphs">Kaidā</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%EA%9E%8Ckmaw_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Miꞌkmaw hieroglyphic writing">Miꞌkmaw</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixtec_writing" title="Mixtec writing">Mixtec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Epoch_Notation_Painting" class="mw-redirect" title="New Epoch Notation Painting">New Epoch Notation Painting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nsibidi" title="Nsibidi">Nsibidi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ojibwe_writing_systems#Ojibwe_"hieroglyphs"" title="Ojibwe writing systems">Ojibwe Hieroglyphs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Olmec_hieroglyphs" title="Olmec hieroglyphs">Olmec</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siglas_poveiras" title="Siglas poveiras">Siglas poveiras</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Testerian" title="Testerian">Testerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yerkish" title="Yerkish">Yerkish</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zapotec_script" title="Zapotec script">Zapotec</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Logograms" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Logogram" title="Logogram">Logograms</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_family_of_scripts" title="Chinese family of scripts">Chinese family of scripts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Chinese_characters" title="Chinese characters">Chinese characters</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simplified_Chinese_characters" title="Simplified Chinese characters">Simplified</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Traditional_Chinese_characters" title="Traditional Chinese characters">Traditional</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oracle_bone_script" title="Oracle bone script">Oracle bone script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_bronze_inscriptions" title="Chinese bronze inscriptions">Bronze scripts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seal_script" title="Seal script">Seal script</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Large_seal_script" title="Large seal script">large</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_seal_script" title="Small seal script">small</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bird-worm_seal_script" title="Bird-worm seal script">bird-worm</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hanja" title="Hanja">Hanja</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kanji" title="Kanji">Kanji</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ch%E1%BB%AF_N%C3%B4m" title="Chữ Nôm">Chữ Nôm</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sawndip" title="Sawndip">Sawndip</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bowen_script" class="mw-redirect" title="Bowen script">Bowen</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Chinese-influenced</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Jurchen_script" title="Jurchen script">Jurchen</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_large_script" title="Khitan large script">Khitan large script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sui_script" title="Sui script">Sui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tangut_script" title="Tangut script">Tangut</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em"><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Cuneiform</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Akkadian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Akkadian cuneiform">Akkadian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Assyrian_cuneiform" class="mw-redirect" title="Assyrian cuneiform">Assyrian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elamite_cuneiform" title="Elamite cuneiform">Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hittite_cuneiform" title="Hittite cuneiform">Hittite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform_Luwian" class="mw-redirect" title="Cuneiform Luwian">Luwian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other logosyllabic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anatolian_hieroglyphs" title="Anatolian hieroglyphs">Anatolian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bagam_script" title="Bagam script">Bagam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cretan_hieroglyphs" title="Cretan hieroglyphs">Cretan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmian_script" title="Isthmian script">Isthmian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maya_script" title="Maya script">Maya</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proto-Elamite_script" title="Proto-Elamite script">Proto-Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenevil" title="Tenevil">Tenevil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Classical_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi (Classical)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Logoconsonantal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Demotic_(Egyptian)" title="Demotic (Egyptian)">Demotic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hieratic" title="Hieratic">Hieratic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egyptian_hieroglyphs" title="Egyptian hieroglyphs">Hieroglyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Numerals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hindu%E2%80%93Arabic_numeral_system" title="Hindu–Arabic numeral system">Hindu-Arabic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abjad_numerals" title="Abjad numerals">Abjad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Attic_numerals" title="Attic numerals">Attic (Greek)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Muisca_numerals" title="Muisca numerals">Muisca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roman_numerals" title="Roman numerals">Roman</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sitelen_Pona" title="Sitelen Pona">Sitelen Pona</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Semi-syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Semi-syllabaries" class="mw-redirect" title="Semi-syllabaries">Semi-syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Full</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Celtiberian_script" title="Celtiberian script">Celtiberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Northeastern_Iberian_script" title="Northeastern Iberian script">Northeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Iberian_script" title="Southeastern Iberian script">Southeastern Iberian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khom_script_(Ong_Kommadam)" title="Khom script (Ong Kommadam)">Khom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunging_script" title="Dunging script">Dunging</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:10em">Redundant</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Espanca_script" title="Espanca script">Espanca script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pahawh_Hmong" title="Pahawh Hmong">Pahawh Hmong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Khitan_small_script" title="Khitan small script">Khitan small script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southwest_Paleohispanic_script" title="Southwest Paleohispanic script">Southwest Paleohispanic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bopomofo" title="Bopomofo">Bopomofo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_writing_in_Vietnam#Quốc_Âm_Tân_Tự" title="History of writing in Vietnam">Quốc Âm Tân Tự</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Sign_languages" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Sign_language" title="Sign language">Sign languages</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/ASLwrite" title="ASLwrite">ASLwrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SignWriting" title="SignWriting">SignWriting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Si5s" title="Si5s">si5s</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stokoe_notation" title="Stokoe notation">Stokoe notation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Syllabaries" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Syllabary" title="Syllabary">Syllabaries</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Afaka_syllabary" title="Afaka syllabary">Afaka</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bamum_script" title="Bamum script">Bamum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/B%C3%A9t%C3%A9_syllabary" title="Bété syllabary">Bété</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Byblos_syllabary" title="Byblos syllabary">Byblos</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Canadian_Aboriginal_syllabics" title="Canadian Aboriginal syllabics">Canadian Aboriginal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cherokee_syllabary" title="Cherokee syllabary">Cherokee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypriot_syllabary" title="Cypriot syllabary">Cypriot</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cypro-Minoan_syllabary" title="Cypro-Minoan syllabary">Cypro-Minoan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ditema_tsa_Dinoko" title="Ditema tsa Dinoko">Ditema tsa Dinoko</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eskayan_script" title="Eskayan script">Eskayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geba_syllabary" title="Geba syllabary">Geba</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Great_Lakes_Algonquian_syllabics" title="Great Lakes Algonquian syllabics">Great Lakes Algonquian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Iban_language#Alphabet" title="Iban language">Iban</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Idu_script" title="Idu script">Idu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kana" title="Kana">Kana</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hiragana" title="Hiragana">Hiragana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Katakana" title="Katakana">Katakana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man%27y%C5%8Dgana" title="Man'yōgana">Man'yōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hentaigana" title="Hentaigana">Hentaigana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/S%C5%8Dgana" title="Sōgana">Sōgana</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jindai_moji" title="Jindai moji">Jindai moji</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mende_Kikakui_script" title="Mende Kikakui script">Kikakui</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kpelle_syllabary" title="Kpelle syllabary">Kpelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_B" title="Linear B">Linear B</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Linear_Elamite" title="Linear Elamite">Linear Elamite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lisu_language#Lisu_syllabary" title="Lisu language">Lisu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Loma_language#writing_systems" title="Loma language">Loma</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/N%C3%BCshu" title="Nüshu">Nüshu</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nwagu_Aneke_script" title="Nwagu Aneke script">Nwagu Aneke script</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Persian_cuneiform" title="Old Persian cuneiform">Old Persian cuneiform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuneiform" title="Cuneiform">Sumerian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vai_syllabary" title="Vai syllabary">Vai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Woleai_script" title="Woleai script">Woleai</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yi_script#Modern_Yi" title="Yi script">Yi</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Yugtun_script" title="Yugtun script">Yugtun</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Braille" title="Template:Braille"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Braille" title="Template talk:Braille"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Braille" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Braille"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Braille_⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Braille" title="Braille">Braille</a><span style="padding-left:0.5em;"> </span>⠃⠗⠁⠊⠇⠇⠑</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille cell</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/1829_braille" title="1829 braille">1829 braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/International_uniformity_of_braille_alphabets" title="International uniformity of braille alphabets">International uniformity</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_ASCII" title="Braille ASCII">ASCII braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Patterns" title="Braille Patterns">Unicode braille patterns</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Braille scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Category:French-ordered_braille_alphabets" title="Category:French-ordered braille alphabets">French-ordered</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Albanian_Braille" title="Albanian Braille">Albanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Azeri_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Azeri Braille">Azerbaijani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Catalan_Braille" title="Catalan Braille">Catalan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Chinese (mainland Mandarin)</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Czech_Braille" title="Czech Braille">Czech</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dutch_Braille" title="Dutch Braille">Dutch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/English_Braille" title="English Braille">English</a> (<a href="/wiki/Unified_English_Braille" title="Unified English Braille">Unified English</a>)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Esperanto_Braille" title="Esperanto Braille">Esperanto</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/French_Braille" title="French Braille">French</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/German_Braille" title="German Braille">German</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ghanaian_braille" title="Ghanaian braille">Ghanaian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Guarani_Braille" title="Guarani Braille">Guarani</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hawaiian_Braille" title="Hawaiian Braille">Hawaiian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hungarian_Braille" title="Hungarian Braille">Hungarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/I%C3%B1upiaq_Braille" title="Iñupiaq Braille">Iñupiaq</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">IPA</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Irish_Braille" title="Irish Braille">Irish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Italian_Braille" title="Italian Braille">Italian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Latvian_Braille" title="Latvian Braille">Latvian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Lithuanian_Braille" title="Lithuanian Braille">Lithuanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a> (extended to 8-dot)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Maltese_Braille" title="Maltese Braille">Maltese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/M%C4%81ori_Braille" title="Māori Braille">Māori</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Navajo_Braille" title="Navajo Braille">Navajo</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nigerian_braille" title="Nigerian braille">Nigerian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Philippine_Braille" title="Philippine Braille">Philippine</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Polish_Braille" title="Polish Braille">Polish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Portuguese_Braille" title="Portuguese Braille">Portuguese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Romanian_Braille" title="Romanian Braille">Romanian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Samoan_Braille" title="Samoan Braille">Samoan</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slovak_Braille" title="Slovak Braille">Slovak</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/South_African_braille" title="South African braille">South African</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Spanish_Braille" title="Spanish Braille">Spanish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a> (largely reassigned)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Turkish_Braille" title="Turkish Braille">Turkish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vietnamese_Braille" title="Vietnamese Braille">Vietnamese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Welsh_Braille" title="Welsh Braille">Welsh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Yugoslav_Braille" title="Yugoslav Braille">Yugoslav</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Zambian_Braille" title="Zambian Braille">Zambian</a></span></li></ul> </div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Nordic family</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Estonian_Braille" title="Estonian Braille">Estonian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Faroese_Braille" title="Faroese Braille">Faroese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Icelandic_Braille" title="Icelandic Braille">Icelandic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Scandinavian_Braille" title="Scandinavian Braille">Scandinavian</a></span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Danish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Finnish</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Greenlandic</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Northern_S%C3%A1mi_Braille" title="Northern Sámi Braille">Northern Sámi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Norwegian</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap">Swedish</span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Russian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Cyrillic_alphabets" title="Cyrillic alphabets">Cyrillic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Belarusian_Braille" title="Belarusian Braille">Belarusian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bulgarian_Braille" title="Bulgarian Braille">Bulgarian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kazakh_Braille" title="Kazakh Braille">Kazakh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kyrgyz_Braille" title="Kyrgyz Braille">Kyrgyz</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mongolian_Braille" title="Mongolian Braille">Mongolian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Russian_Braille" title="Russian Braille">Russian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tatar_Braille" title="Tatar Braille">Tatar</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ukrainian_Braille" title="Ukrainian Braille">Ukrainian</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Egyptian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Arabic_script" title="Arabic script">Arabic</a>-mediated scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Arabic_Braille" title="Arabic Braille">Arabic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Persian_Braille" title="Persian Braille">Persian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (Pakistan)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Indian lineage family<br />i.e. <a href="/wiki/Bharati_Braille" title="Bharati Braille">Bharati Braille</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Devanagari_Braille" title="Devanagari Braille">Devanagari (Hindi / Marathi / Nepali)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Bengali_Braille" title="Bengali Braille">Bengali (Bangla / Assamese)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gujarati_Braille" title="Gujarati Braille">Gujarati</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Kannada_Braille" title="Kannada Braille">Kannada</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Malayalam_Braille" title="Malayalam Braille">Malayalam</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Odia_Braille" title="Odia Braille">Odia</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Punjabi_Braille" title="Punjabi Braille">Punjabi</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sinhala_Braille" title="Sinhala Braille">Sinhala</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tamil_Braille" title="Tamil Braille">Tamil</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Telugu_Braille" title="Telugu Braille">Telugu</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Urdu_Braille" title="Urdu Braille">Urdu</a> (India)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other scripts</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Ge%27ez_Braille" class="mw-redirect" title="Ge'ez Braille">Amharic</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Armenian_Braille" title="Armenian Braille">Armenian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Burmese_Braille" title="Burmese Braille">Burmese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Dzongkha_Braille" title="Dzongkha Braille">Dzongkha</a> (Bhutanese)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Georgian_Braille" title="Georgian Braille">Georgian</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Greek_Braille" title="Greek Braille">Greek</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Hebrew_Braille" title="Hebrew Braille">Hebrew</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Inuktitut_Braille" title="Inuktitut Braille">Inuktitut</a> (reassigned vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Khmer_Braille" title="Khmer Braille">Khmer</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thai_and_Lao_Braille" title="Thai and Lao Braille">Thai and Lao</a> (Japanese vowels)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Tibetan_Braille" title="Tibetan Braille">Tibetan</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Reordered</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Algerian_Braille" title="Algerian Braille">Algerian Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Frequency-based</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Braille" title="American Braille">American Braille</a> (obsolete)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Independent</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap">Chinese semi-syllabaries</span> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Cantonese_Braille" title="Cantonese Braille">Cantonese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mainland_Chinese_Braille" title="Mainland Chinese Braille">Mainland Chinese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Taiwanese_Braille" title="Taiwanese Braille">Taiwanese Mandarin</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Two-cell_Chinese_Braille" title="Two-cell Chinese Braille">Two-cell Chinese (Shuangpin)</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japanese_Braille" title="Japanese Braille">Japanese</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Korean_Braille" title="Korean Braille">Korean</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Eight-dot</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Luxembourgish_Braille" title="Luxembourgish Braille">Luxembourgish</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_kanji" title="Braille kanji">Kanji</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (GS8)</span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Symbols in braille</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_music" title="Braille music">Braille music</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Canadian_currency_tactile_feature" title="Canadian currency tactile feature">Canadian currency marks</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Computer_Braille_Code" title="Computer Braille Code">Computer Braille Code</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Gardner%E2%80%93Salinas_braille_codes" title="Gardner–Salinas braille codes">Gardner–Salinas braille codes</a> (science; GS8/GS6)</span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/IPA_Braille" title="IPA Braille">International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Nemeth_Braille" title="Nemeth Braille">Nemeth braille code</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Braille_technology" title="Braille technology">Braille technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_e-book" title="Braille e-book">Braille e-book</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_embosser" title="Braille embosser">Braille embosser</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_translator" title="Braille translator">Braille translator</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_watch" title="Braille watch">Braille watch</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Mountbatten_Brailler" title="Mountbatten Brailler">Mountbatten Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Optical_braille_recognition" title="Optical braille recognition">Optical braille recognition</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perforation" title="Perforation">Perforation</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Perkins_Brailler" title="Perkins Brailler">Perkins Brailler</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Refreshable_braille_display" title="Refreshable braille display">Refreshable braille display</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Slate_and_stylus" title="Slate and stylus">Slate and stylus</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braigo" title="Braigo">Braigo</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Louis_Braille" title="Louis Braille">Louis Braille</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Charles_Barbier" title="Charles Barbier">Charles Barbier</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/R%C3%B3%C5%BCa_Czacka" title="Róża Czacka">Róża Czacka</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Valentin_Ha%C3%BCy" title="Valentin Haüy">Valentin Haüy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Harris_Mowbray" title="Harris Mowbray">Harris Mowbray</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Thakur_Vishva_Narain_Singh" title="Thakur Vishva Narain Singh">Thakur Vishva Narain Singh</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Sabriye_Tenberken" title="Sabriye Tenberken">Sabriye Tenberken</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/William_Bell_Wait" title="William Bell Wait">William Bell Wait</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Organisations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Institute_of_America" title="Braille Institute of America">Braille Institute of America</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_Without_Borders" title="Braille Without Borders">Braille Without Borders</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Japan_Braille_Library" title="Japan Braille Library">Japan Braille Library</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/National_Braille_Association" title="National Braille Association">National Braille Association</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Blindness_organizations" title="Category:Blindness organizations">Blindness organizations</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Category:Schools_for_the_blind" title="Category:Schools for the blind">Schools for the blind</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/American_Printing_House_for_the_Blind" title="American Printing House for the Blind">American Printing House for the Blind</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other <a href="/wiki/Tactile_alphabet" title="Tactile alphabet">tactile alphabets</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Decapoint" title="Decapoint">Decapoint</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Moon_type" title="Moon type">Moon type</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/New_York_Point" title="New York Point">New York Point</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Night_writing" title="Night writing">Night writing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Vibratese" title="Vibratese">Vibratese</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Accessible_publishing" title="Accessible publishing">Accessible publishing</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/Braille_literacy" title="Braille literacy">Braille literacy</a></span></li> <li><span class="nowrap"><a href="/wiki/RoboBraille" title="RoboBraille">RoboBraille</a></span></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184661#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184661#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <span class="mw-valign-text-top noprint" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q184661#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></span></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4359722-1">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85094245">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ogam"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph462057&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007543650805171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/031888313">IdRef</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" 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