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You could also send an email to the <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Stewards" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/Stewards">stewards</a> <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/VRT" class="extiw" title="m:Special:MyLanguage/VRT">VRT</a> queue at <kbd>stewards@wikimedia.org</kbd> including all above details. </p> </div> <p>Other useful links: <a href="https://meta.wikimedia.org/wiki/Global_blocks" class="extiw" title="m:Global blocks">Global blocks</a> · <a href="/wiki/Help:I_have_been_blocked" title="Help:I have been blocked">Help:I have been blocked</a> </p> </div></li></ul><hr /> <div id="viewsourcetext">You can view and copy the source of this page:</div><textarea readonly="" accesskey="," id="wpTextbox1" cols="80" rows="25" style="" class="mw-editfont-monospace" lang="en" dir="ltr" name="wpTextbox1">=== Effects on marine ecosystems === Harmful algal blooms in marine ecosystems have been observed to cause adverse effects to a wide variety of aquatic organisms, most notably marine mammals, sea turtles, seabirds and finfish. The impacts of HAB toxins on these groups can include harmful changes to their developmental, immunological, neurological, or reproductive capacities. The most conspicuous effects of HABs on marine wildlife are large-scale mortality events associated with toxin-producing blooms. For example, a [[mass mortality event]] of 107 [[bottlenose dolphins]] occurred along the Florida panhandle in the spring of 2004 due to ingestion of contaminated [[menhaden]] with high levels of [[brevetoxin]].<ref name="Flewelling LJ 2005">{{cite journal|last=Flewelling|first=L. J.|display-authors=etal|year=2005|title=Red tides and marine mammal mortalities|journal=[[Nature (journal)|Nature]]|volume=435|issue=7043|pages=755–756|bibcode=2005Natur.435..755F|doi=10.1038/nature435755a|pmc=2659475|pmid=15944690}}</ref> Manatee mortalities have also been attributed to brevetoxin but unlike dolphins, the main toxin vector was endemic seagrass species (''Thalassia testudinum'') in which high concentrations of brevetoxins were detected and subsequently found as a main component of the stomach contents of manatees.<ref name="Flewelling LJ 2005" /> Additional marine mammal species, like the highly endangered [[North Atlantic right whale]], have been exposed to neurotoxins by preying on highly contaminated [[zooplankton]].<ref name="Durbin E 2002">Durbin E et al. (2002) North Atlantic right whale, ''Eubalaena glacialis'', exposed to paralytic shellfish poisoning (PSP) toxins by a zooplankton vector, ''Calanus finmarchicus''. Harmful Algae I, : 243–251 (2002)</ref> With the summertime habitat of this species overlapping with seasonal blooms of the toxic dinoflagellate ''Alexandrium fundyense'', and subsequent copepod grazing, foraging right whales will ingest large concentrations of these contaminated [[copepods]]. Ingestion of such contaminated prey can affect respiratory capabilities, feeding behavior, and ultimately the reproductive condition of the population.<ref name="Durbin E 2002" /> Immune system responses have been affected by brevetoxin exposure in another critically endangered species, the [[loggerhead sea turtle]]. Brevetoxin exposure, from inhalation of aerosolized toxins and ingestion of contaminated prey, can have clinical signs of increased lethargy and muscle weakness in loggerhead sea turtles causing these animals to wash ashore in a decreased metabolic state with increases of immune system responses upon blood analysis.<ref>{{cite journal|last=Walsh|first=C. J.|display-authors=etal|year=2010|title=Effects of brevetoxin exposure on the immune system of loggerhead sea turtles|journal=Aquatic Toxicology|volume=97|issue=4|pages=293–303|doi=10.1016/j.aquatox.2009.12.014|pmid=20060602}}</ref> Examples of common harmful effects of HABs include: # the production of neurotoxins which cause mass mortalities in fish, seabirds, sea turtles, and marine mammals # human illness or death from consumption of seafood contaminated by toxic algae<ref>{{cite web|title=Red Tide FAQ - Is it safe to eat oysters during a red tide?|url=http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/landwater/water/environconcerns/hab/redtide/faq.phtml#q9|access-date=2009-08-23|publisher=Tpwd.state.tx.us}}</ref> # mechanical damage to other organisms, such as disruption of epithelial gill tissues in fish, resulting in asphyxiation # oxygen depletion of the water column (hypoxia or [[Anoxic waters|anoxia]]) from cellular respiration and bacterial degradation [[File:Gulf dead zone.jpg|thumb|Dead zone in the southern U.S.]] ==== Marine life exposure ==== HABs occur naturally off coasts all over the world. Marine dinoflagellates produce ichthyotoxins. Where HABs occur, dead fish wash up on shore for up to two weeks after a HAB has been through the area. In addition to killing fish, the toxic algae contaminate shellfish. Some [[mollusks]] are not susceptible to the toxin, and store it in their fatty tissues. By consuming the organisms responsible for HABs, shellfish can accumulate and retain [[saxitoxin]] produced by these organisms. Saxitoxin blocks [[sodium channel]]s and ingestion can cause [[paralysis]] within 30 minutes.<ref name=":8">{{cite web|url=http://www.tpwd.state.tx.us/landwater/water/environconcerns/hab/redtide/faq.phtml#q9|title=Red Tide FAQ – Is it safe to eat oysters during a red tide?|publisher=www.tpwd.state.tx.us|access-date=2009-08-23}} </ref> In addition to directly harming marine animals and vegetation loss, harmful algal blooms can also lead to [[ocean acidification]], which occurs when the amount of carbon dioxide in the water is increased to unnatural levels. Ocean acidification slows the growth of certain species of fish and shellfish, and even prevents shell formation in certain species of mollusks. These subtle, small changes can add up over time to cause chain reactions and devastating effects on whole marine ecosystems.<ref>US Department of Commerce, N. O. and A. A. (NOAA). (2019, April 2). What is Eutrophication? NOAA's National Ocean Service. Retrieved July 9, 2022, from https://oceanservice.noaa.gov/facts/eutrophication.html</ref> Other animals that eat exposed shellfish are susceptible to the neurotoxin, which may lead to neurotoxic shellfish poisoning<ref name=":9">{{cite journal |first1=Sharon M. |last1=Watkins |first2=Andrew |last2=Reich |first3=Lora E. |last3=Fleming |first4=Roberta |last4=Hammond |title=Neurotoxic Shellfish Poisoning |journal=Marine Drugs |year=2008 |volume=6 |issue=3 |pages=431–455 |doi=10.3390/md20080021 |pmid=19005578 |pmc=2579735|doi-access=free }}</ref> and sometimes even death. Most mollusks and clams filter feed, which results in higher concentrations of the toxin than just drinking the water.<ref name=":111">Brand et al., Larry E., Lisa Campbell, Eileen Bresnan. "Karenia: The biology and ecology of a toxic genus." Harmful Algae 14 (2012): 156–178. 6 March 2018.</ref> [[Scaup]], for example, are [[diving ducks]] whose diet mainly consists of mollusks. When scaup eat the filter-feeding shellfish that have accumulated high levels of the HAB toxin, their population becomes a prime target for poisoning. However, even birds that do not eat mollusks can be affected by simply eating dead fish on the beach or drinking the water.<ref name=":22">Forrester et al., Donald J., Jack M. Gaskin, Franklin H. White. "AN EPIZOOTIC OF WATERFOWL IN FLORIDA." Journal of Wildlife Diseases 13 (1997): 160–167.</ref> The toxins released by the blooms can kill marine animals including [[dolphin]]s, sea turtles, birds, and [[manatee]]s.<ref name=":7">{{cite web | url=https://start1.org/red-tide/effects/ | title=Red Tide & Red Algae Effects | date=2015 }}</ref><ref>{{cite web | url=http://www.floridahealth.gov/environmental-health/aquatic-toxins/_documents/red-tide-rack-card-2014-two-up-897kb.pdf | title=Top 10 Red Tide Facts |publisher=Florida Department of Health | date=2016 }}</ref> The Florida Manatee, a subspecies of the West Indian Manatee, is a species often impacted by red tide blooms. Florida manatees are often exposed to the poisonous red-tide toxins either by consumption or inhalation. There are many small barnacles, crustaceans, and other [https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/SG188 epiphytes] that grow on the blades of seagrass. These tiny creatures filter particles from the water around them and use these particles as their main food source. During red tide blooms, they also filter the toxic red tide cells from the water, which then becomes concentrated inside them. Although these toxins do not harm epiphytes, they are extremely poisonous to marine creatures who consume (or accidentally consume) the exposed epiphytes, such as manatees. When manatees unknowingly consume exposed epiphytes while grazing on sea grass, the toxins are subsequently released from the epiphytes and ingested by the manatees. In addition to consumption, manatees may also become exposed to air-borne Brevetoxins released from harmful red-tide cells when passing through algal blooms.<ref>Hall-Scharf , B., & Ubeda , A. J. (2019, October 3). SG188/SG188: How red tides impact manatees. Retrieved July 10, 2022, from https://edis.ifas.ufl.edu/publication/SG188</ref> Manatees also have an immunoresponse to HABs and their toxins that can make them even more susceptible to other stressors. Due to this susceptibility, manatees can die from either the immediate, or the after effects of the HAB.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Landsberg|first1=J.H.|last2=Flewelling|first2=L.J.|last3=Naar|first3=J.|date=March 2009|title=Karenia brevis red tides, brevetoxins in the food web, and impacts on natural resources: Decadal advancements|journal=Harmful Algae|volume=8|issue=4|pages=598–607|doi=10.1016/j.hal.2008.11.010|bibcode=2009HAlga...8..598L |issn=1568-9883}}</ref> In addition to causing manatee mortalities, red-tide exposure also causes severe [https://www.researchgate.net/publication/271274562_Sublethal_red_tide_toxin_exposure_in_free-ranging_manatees_Trichechus_manatus_affects_the_immune_system_through_reduced_lymphocyte_proliferation_responses_inflammation_and_oxidative_stress sublethal health problems among Florida manatee populations]. Studies have shown that red-tide exposure among free-ranging Florida manatees has been shown to negatively impact immune functioning by causing increased inflammation, a reduction in lymphocyte proliferation responses, and oxidative stress.<ref>{{ cite Walsh, C. J., Butawan, M., Yordy, J., Ball, R., Flewelling, L., de Wit, M., & Bonde, R. K. (2015). Sublethal red tide toxin exposure in free-ranging manatees (Trichechus manatus) affects the immune system through reduced lymphocyte proliferation responses, inflammation, and oxidative stress. Aquatic Toxicology, 161, 73-84 }}</ref> Fish such as Atlantic herring, American pollock, winter flounder, Atlantic salmon, and cod were dosed orally with these toxins in an experiment, and within minutes the subjects started to exhibit a loss of equilibrium and began to swim in an irregular, jerking pattern, followed by paralysis and shallow, arrhythmic breathing and eventually death, after about an hour.<ref name=":33">White, A. W. "Sensitivity of Marine Fishes to Toxins from the Red-Tide Dinoflagellate Gonyaulax excavata and Implications for Fish Kills." Marine Biology 65 (1981): 255–260. 6 March 2018.</ref> HABs have been shown to have a negative effect also in the memory functions of sea lions.<ref>{{Cite journal|last1=Cook|first1=P.F.|last2=Reichmuth|first2=C.|date=2015|title=Algal toxin impairs sea lion memory and hippocampal connectivity, with implications for strandings|url=https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/science.aac5675|journal=Science|volume=350|issue=6267|pages=1545–1547|doi=10.1126/science.aac5675|pmid=26668068|bibcode=2015Sci...350.1545C|s2cid=22981507}}</ref> </textarea><div class="templatesUsed"></div><p id="mw-returnto">Return to <a href="/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom" title="Harmful algal bloom">Harmful algal bloom</a>.</p> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1&useformat=desktop" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom">https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harmful_algal_bloom</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks catlinks-allhidden" data-mw="interface"></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Harmful_algal_bloom&action=edit&section=28&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.canary-556c5f94cd-vrwjd","wgBackendResponseTime":206,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"0.053","walltime":"0.067","ppvisitednodes":{"value":418,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":17740,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":6556,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":9,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":0,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":0,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":469,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":0,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 47.281 1 -total"," 99.86% 47.216 2 Template:Blocked_text"," 44.11% 20.857 2 Template:Replace"," 38.32% 18.119 1 Template:Colocationwebhost"," 34.29% 16.213 1 Template:Hidden"," 14.76% 6.977 1 Template:Tlx"," 14.37% 6.796 1 Template:Hidden_begin"," 2.02% 0.953 1 MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake"," 1.82% 0.862 1 Template:Hidden_end"," 1.62% 0.768 1 MediaWiki:Wikimedia-globalblocking-blockedtext-mistake-email-steward"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"0.011","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":1043326,"limit":52428800}},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-web.codfw.canary-556c5f94cd-vrwjd","timestamp":"20241201051225","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> </body> </html>