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href="/w/index.php?title=N-gram&action=edit" data-event-name="menu.edit" data-mw="interface" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet edit-page menu__item--page-actions-edit"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>Edit</span> </a> </li> </ul> </nav>  <div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="content"> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><script>function mfTempOpenSection(id){var block=document.getElementById("mf-section-"+id);block.className+=" open-block";block.previousSibling.className+=" open-block";}</script><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><section class="mf-section-0" id="mf-section-0"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/N-gram_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="N-gram (disambiguation)">N-gram (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Not to be confused with <a href="/wiki/Word_n-gram_language_model" title="Word n-gram language model">word n-gram language model</a> or <a href="/wiki/Engram_(disambiguation)" class="mw-redirect mw-disambig" title="Engram (disambiguation)">Engram</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <p>An <b><i>n</i>-gram</b> is a sequence of <i>n</i> adjacent symbols in particular order.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The symbols may be <i>n</i> adjacent <a href="/wiki/Letter_(alphabet)" title="Letter (alphabet)">letters</a> (including <a href="/wiki/Punctuation_mark" class="mw-redirect" title="Punctuation mark">punctuation marks</a> and blanks), <a href="/wiki/Syllable" title="Syllable">syllables</a>, or rarely whole <a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">words</a> found in a language dataset; or adjacent <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemes</a> extracted from a speech-recording dataset, or adjacent base pairs extracted from a genome. They are collected from a <a href="/wiki/Text_corpus" title="Text corpus">text corpus</a> or <a href="/wiki/Speech_corpus" title="Speech corpus">speech corpus</a>. </p><figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LARGER_FONT_VERSION_Six_n-grams_frequently_found_in_titles_of_publications_about_Coronavirus_disease_2019,_as_of_7_May_2020.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/LARGER_FONT_VERSION_Six_n-grams_frequently_found_in_titles_of_publications_about_Coronavirus_disease_2019%2C_as_of_7_May_2020.svg/300px-LARGER_FONT_VERSION_Six_n-grams_frequently_found_in_titles_of_publications_about_Coronavirus_disease_2019%2C_as_of_7_May_2020.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/LARGER_FONT_VERSION_Six_n-grams_frequently_found_in_titles_of_publications_about_Coronavirus_disease_2019%2C_as_of_7_May_2020.svg/450px-LARGER_FONT_VERSION_Six_n-grams_frequently_found_in_titles_of_publications_about_Coronavirus_disease_2019%2C_as_of_7_May_2020.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/LARGER_FONT_VERSION_Six_n-grams_frequently_found_in_titles_of_publications_about_Coronavirus_disease_2019%2C_as_of_7_May_2020.svg/600px-LARGER_FONT_VERSION_Six_n-grams_frequently_found_in_titles_of_publications_about_Coronavirus_disease_2019%2C_as_of_7_May_2020.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="787" data-file-height="787"></a><figcaption>Six <i>n</i>-grams frequently found in titles of publications about Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19), as of 7 May 2020</figcaption></figure> <p>N-gram is actually the <i>parent of a family of names</i> term, where <i>family members</i> can be (depending on <i>n</i> numeral) 1-gram, 2-gram etc., or the same using spoken numeral prefixes. </p><p>If <a href="/wiki/Latin_numerical_prefixes" class="mw-redirect" title="Latin numerical prefixes">Latin numerical prefixes</a> are used, then <i>n</i>-gram of size 1 is called a "unigram", size 2 a "<a href="/wiki/Bigram" title="Bigram">bigram</a>" (or, less commonly, a "digram") etc. If, instead of the Latin ones, the <a href="/wiki/Cardinal_number_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardinal number (linguistics)">English cardinal numbers</a> are furtherly used, then they are called "four-gram", "five-gram", etc. Similarly, using <a href="/wiki/Greek_numerical_prefixes" class="mw-redirect" title="Greek numerical prefixes">Greek numerical prefixes</a> such as "monomer", "dimer", "trimer", "tetramer", "pentamer", etc., or English cardinal numbers, "one-mer", "two-mer", "three-mer", etc. are used in computational biology, for <a href="/wiki/Polymer" title="Polymer">polymers</a> or <a href="/wiki/Oligomer" title="Oligomer">oligomers</a> of a known size, called <a href="/wiki/K-mer" title="K-mer"><i>k</i>-mers</a>. When the items are words, <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">n</span>-grams may also be called <i>shingles</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the context of <a href="/wiki/Natural_language_processing" title="Natural language processing">Natural language processing</a> (NLP), the use of <i>n</i>-grams allows <a href="/wiki/Bag-of-words_model" title="Bag-of-words model">bag-of-words</a> models to capture information such as word order, which would not be possible in the traditional bag of words setting. </p> <div id="toc" class="toc" role="navigation" aria-labelledby="mw-toc-heading"><input type="checkbox" role="button" id="toctogglecheckbox" class="toctogglecheckbox" style="display:none"><div class="toctitle" lang="en" dir="ltr"><h2 id="mw-toc-heading">Contents</h2><span class="toctogglespan"><label class="toctogglelabel" for="toctogglecheckbox"></label></span></div> <ul> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-1"><a href="#Examples"><span class="tocnumber">1</span> <span class="toctext">Examples</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-2"><a href="#References"><span class="tocnumber">2</span> <span class="toctext">References</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-3"><a href="#Further_reading"><span class="tocnumber">3</span> <span class="toctext">Further reading</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-4"><a href="#See_also"><span class="tocnumber">4</span> <span class="toctext">See also</span></a></li> <li class="toclevel-1 tocsection-5"><a href="#External_links"><span class="tocnumber">5</span> <span class="toctext">External links</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(1)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Examples">Examples</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=N-gram&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Examples" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-1 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-1"> <p>(Shannon 1951)<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> discussed <i>n</i>-gram models of English. For example: </p> <ul><li>3-gram character model (random draw based on the probabilities of each trigram): <i>in no ist lat whey cratict froure birs grocid pondenome of demonstures of the retagin is regiactiona of cre</i></li> <li>2-gram word model (random draw of words taking into account their transition probabilities): <i>the head and in frontal attack on an english writer that the character of this point is therefore another method for the letters that the time of who ever told the problem for an unexpected</i></li></ul> <table class="wikitable" style="font-size:85%;"> <caption>Figure 1 <i>n</i>-gram examples from various disciplines </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Field</th> <th>Unit</th> <th>Sample sequence</th> <th>1-gram sequence</th> <th>2-gram sequence</th> <th>3-gram sequence </th></tr> <tr> <th>Vernacular name</th> <th></th> <th></th> <th>unigram</th> <th>bigram</th> <th>trigram </th></tr> <tr> <th>Order of resulting <a href="/wiki/Markov_model" title="Markov model">Markov model</a></th> <th></th> <th></th> <th>0</th> <th>1</th> <th>2 </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Protein_sequencing" title="Protein sequencing">Protein sequencing</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Amino_acid" title="Amino acid">amino acid</a></td> <td>... Cys-Gly-Leu-Ser-Trp ...</td> <td>..., Cys, Gly, Leu, Ser, Trp, ...</td> <td>..., Cys-Gly, Gly-Leu, Leu-Ser, Ser-Trp, ...</td> <td>..., Cys-Gly-Leu, Gly-Leu-Ser, Leu-Ser-Trp, ... </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/DNA_sequencing" title="DNA sequencing">DNA sequencing</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Base_pair" title="Base pair">base pair</a></td> <td>...AGCTTCGA...</td> <td>..., A, G, C, T, T, C, G, A, ...</td> <td>..., AG, GC, CT, TT, TC, CG, GA, ...</td> <td>..., AGC, GCT, CTT, TTC, TCG, CGA, ... </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Language_model" title="Language model">Language model</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Character_(computing)" title="Character (computing)">character</a></td> <td>...to_be_or_not_to_be...</td> <td>..., t, o, _, b, e, _, o, r, _, n, o, t, _, t, o, _, b, e, ...</td> <td>..., to, o_, _b, be, e_, _o, or, r_, _n, no, ot, t_, _t, to, o_, _b, be, ...</td> <td>..., to_, o_b, _be, be_, e_o, _or, or_, r_n, _no, not, ot_, t_t, _to, to_, o_b, _be, ... </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Word_n-gram_language_model" title="Word n-gram language model">Word <i>n</i>-gram language model</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Word" title="Word">word</a></td> <td>... to be or not to be ...</td> <td>..., to, be, or, not, to, be, ...</td> <td>..., to be, be or, or not, not to, to be, ...</td> <td>..., to be or, be or not, or not to, not to be, ... </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Figure 1 shows several example sequences and the corresponding 1-gram, 2-gram and 3-gram sequences. </p><p>Here are further examples; these are word-level 3-grams and 4-grams (and counts of the number of times they appeared) from the Google <i>n</i>-gram corpus.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>3-grams </p> <ul><li>ceramics collectables collectibles (55)</li> <li>ceramics collectables fine (130)</li> <li>ceramics collected by (52)</li> <li>ceramics collectible pottery (50)</li> <li>ceramics collectibles cooking (45)</li></ul> <p>4-grams </p> <ul><li>serve as the incoming (92)</li> <li>serve as the incubator (99)</li> <li>serve as the independent (794)</li> <li>serve as the index (223)</li> <li>serve as the indication (72)</li> <li>serve as the indicator (120)</li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(2)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=N-gram&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: References" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-2 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-2"> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.sciencedirect.com/topics/computer-science/n-gram-language-model">"n-gram language model - an overview | ScienceDirect Topics"</a>. <i>www.sciencedirect.com</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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"Syntactic clustering of the web". <i>Computer Networks and ISDN Systems</i>. <b>29</b> (8): <span class="nowrap">1157–</span>1166. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fs0169-7552%2897%2900031-7">10.1016/s0169-7552(97)00031-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:9022773">9022773</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computer+Networks+and+ISDN+Systems&rft.atitle=Syntactic+clustering+of+the+web&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E1157-%3C%2Fspan%3E1166&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fs0169-7552%2897%2900031-7&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A9022773%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Broder&rft.aufirst=Andrei+Z.&rft.au=Glassman%2C+Steven+C.&rft.au=Manasse%2C+Mark+S.&rft.au=Zweig%2C+Geoffrey&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AN-gram" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Shannon, Claude E. "The redundancy of English." <i>Cybernetics; Transactions of the 7th Conference, New York: Josiah Macy, Jr. Foundation</i>. 1951.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFranzBrants2006" class="citation web cs1">Franz, Alex; Brants, Thorsten (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://googleresearch.blogspot.com/2006/08/all-our-n-gram-are-belong-to-you.html">"All Our <i>N</i>-gram are Belong to You"</a>. <i>Google Research Blog</i>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061017225954/http://googleresearch.blogspot.com/2006/08/all-our-n-gram-are-belong-to-you.html">Archived</a> from the original on 17 October 2006<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">16 December</span> 2011</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Google+Research+Blog&rft.atitle=All+Our+N-gram+are+Belong+to+You&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Franz&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft.au=Brants%2C+Thorsten&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fgoogleresearch.blogspot.com%2F2006%2F08%2Fall-our-n-gram-are-belong-to-you.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AN-gram" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(3)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=N-gram&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Further reading" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-3 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-3"> <ul><li>Manning, Christopher D.; Schütze, Hinrich; <i>Foundations of Statistical Natural Language Processing</i>, MIT Press: 1999, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-262-13360-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-262-13360-1">0-262-13360-1</a></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWhiteDunningSuttonAdams1993" class="citation journal cs1">White, Owen; Dunning, Ted; Sutton, Granger; Adams, Mark; Venter, J. Craig; Fields, Chris (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC309901">"A quality control algorithm for dna sequencing projects"</a>. <i>Nucleic Acids Research</i>. <b>21</b> (16): <span class="nowrap">3829–</span>3838. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fnar%2F21.16.3829">10.1093/nar/21.16.3829</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC309901">309901</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/8367301">8367301</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nucleic+Acids+Research&rft.atitle=A+quality+control+algorithm+for+dna+sequencing+projects&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=16&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E3829-%3C%2Fspan%3E3838&rft.date=1993&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC309901%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F8367301&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fnar%2F21.16.3829&rft.aulast=White&rft.aufirst=Owen&rft.au=Dunning%2C+Ted&rft.au=Sutton%2C+Granger&rft.au=Adams%2C+Mark&rft.au=Venter%2C+J.+Craig&rft.au=Fields%2C+Chris&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC309901&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AN-gram" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li>Damerau, Frederick J.; <i>Markov Models and Linguistic Theory</i>, Mouton, The Hague, 1971</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFigueroaAtkinson2012" class="citation journal cs1">Figueroa, Alejandro; Atkinson, John (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/262176888">"Contextual Language Models For Ranking Answers To Natural Language Definition Questions"</a>. <i>Computational Intelligence</i>. <b>28</b> (4): <span class="nowrap">528–</span>548. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1467-8640.2012.00426.x">10.1111/j.1467-8640.2012.00426.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:27378409">27378409</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Computational+Intelligence&rft.atitle=Contextual+Language+Models+For+Ranking+Answers+To+Natural+Language+Definition+Questions&rft.volume=28&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E528-%3C%2Fspan%3E548&rft.date=2012&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1467-8640.2012.00426.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A27378409%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Figueroa&rft.aufirst=Alejandro&rft.au=Atkinson%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F262176888&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AN-gram" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBrocardoTraoreSaadWoungang2013" class="citation conference cs1">Brocardo, Marcelo Luiz; Traore, Issa; Saad, Sherif; Woungang, Isaac (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/6705711"><i>Authorship Verification for Short Messages Using Stylometry</i></a>. IEEE International Conference on Computer, Information and Telecommunication Systems (CITS).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=conference&rft.btitle=Authorship+Verification+for+Short+Messages+Using+Stylometry&rft.date=2013&rft.aulast=Brocardo&rft.aufirst=Marcelo+Luiz&rft.au=Traore%2C+Issa&rft.au=Saad%2C+Sherif&rft.au=Woungang%2C+Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F6705711&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AN-gram" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(4)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=N-gram&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: See also" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-4 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-4"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Google_Books_Ngram_Viewer" title="Google Books Ngram Viewer">Google Books Ngram Viewer</a></li></ul> </section><div class="mw-heading mw-heading2 section-heading" onclick="mfTempOpenSection(5)"><span class="indicator mf-icon mf-icon-expand mf-icon--small"></span><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"> <a role="button" href="/w/index.php?title=N-gram&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: External links" class="cdx-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--icon-only cdx-button--weight-quiet "> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon--edit"></span> <span>edit</span> </a> </span> </div><section class="mf-section-5 collapsible-block" id="mf-section-5"> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ngramextractor.com">Ngram Extractor: Gives weight of <i>n</i>-gram based on their frequency.</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/ngrams">Google's Google Books <i>n</i>-gram viewer</a> and <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://googleresearch.blogspot.com/2006/08/all-our-n-gram-are-belong-to-you.html">Web <i>n</i>-grams database</a> (September 2006)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.statoperator.com/">STATOPERATOR N-grams Project Weighted <i>n</i>-gram viewer for every domain in Alexa Top 1M</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ngrams.info/">1,000,000 most frequent 2,3,4,5-grams</a> from the 425 million word <a href="/wiki/Corpus_of_Contemporary_American_English" title="Corpus of Contemporary American English">Corpus of Contemporary American English</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.peachnote.com/">Peachnote's music ngram viewer</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.w3.org/TR/ngram-spec/">Stochastic Language Models (<i>n</i>-Gram) Specification</a> (W3C)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.cs.columbia.edu/~mcollins/courses/nlp2011/notes/lm.pdf">Michael Collins's notes on <i>n</i>-Gram Language Models</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://github.com/OpenRefine/OpenRefine/wiki/Clustering-In-Depth/">OpenRefine: Clustering In Depth</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output 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.navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div>    </section></div> <noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=mobile&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N-gram&oldid=1277042418">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=N-gram&oldid=1277042418</a>"</div></div> </div> <div class="post-content" id="page-secondary-actions"> </div> </main> <footer class="mw-footer minerva-footer" role="contentinfo"> <a class="last-modified-bar" href="/w/index.php?title=N-gram&action=history"> <div class="post-content last-modified-bar__content"> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-medium minerva-icon--modified-history"></span> <span class="last-modified-bar__text modified-enhancement" data-user-name="Marjan Tomki SI" data-user-gender="unknown" data-timestamp="1740213036"> <span>Last edited on 22 February 2025, at 08:30</span> </span> <span class="minerva-icon minerva-icon-size-small minerva-icon--expand"></span> </div> </a> <div class="post-content footer-content"> <div id='mw-data-after-content'> <div class="read-more-container"></div> </div> <div id="p-lang"> <h4>Languages</h4> <section> <ul id="p-variants" class="minerva-languages"></ul> <ul class="minerva-languages"><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-grama" title="N-grama – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="N-grama" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-Gramm" title="N-Gramm – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="N-Gramm" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-grama" title="N-grama – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="N-grama" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-grama" title="N-grama – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="N-grama" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86-%DA%AF%D8%B1%D9%85" title="ان-گرم – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="ان-گرم" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gramme" title="N-gramme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="N-gramme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-%EA%B7%B8%EB%9E%A8" title="N-그램 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="N-그램" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%8F%E0%A4%A8-%E0%A4%97%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AE" title="एन-ग्राम – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="एन-ग्राम" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gramma" title="N-gramma – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="N-gramma" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="N-грам – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="N-грам" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-grama" title="N-grama – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="N-grama" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="N-грамма – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="N-грамма" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-grammi" title="N-grammi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="N-grammi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B0" title="N-грама – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="N-грама" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/N-gram" title="N-gram – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="N-gram" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/N%E5%85%83%E8%AF%AD%E6%B3%95" title="N元语法 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="N元语法" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li></ul> </section> </div> <div class="minerva-footer-logo"><img src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" alt="Wikipedia" width="120" height="18" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"/> </div> <ul id="footer-info" class="footer-info hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 22 February 2025, at 08:30<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Content is available under <a class="external" rel="nofollow" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en">CC BY-SA 4.0</a> unless otherwise noted.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places" class="footer-places hlist hlist-separated"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li 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