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</a> <ul id="toc-Origins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Material_and_formal_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Material_and_formal_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Material and formal aspects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Material_and_formal_aspects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Material and formal aspects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Material_and_formal_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Clothing_and_gear" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Clothing_and_gear"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Clothing and gear</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Clothing_and_gear-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rubber_black_balls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rubber_black_balls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Rubber black balls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rubber_black_balls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ballcourt" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ballcourt"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Ballcourt</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ballcourt-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_aspects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_aspects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Cultural aspects</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_aspects-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Cultural aspects subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_aspects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Proxy_for_warfare" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proxy_for_warfare"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Proxy for warfare</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proxy_for_warfare-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Human_sacrifice" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Human_sacrifice"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Human sacrifice</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Human_sacrifice-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Symbolism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Symbolism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Symbolism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Symbolism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Nahua" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Nahua"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.1</span> <span>Nahua</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Nahua-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Maya" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maya"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3.2</span> <span>Maya</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maya-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-The_ballgame_in_Mesoamerican_civilizations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#The_ballgame_in_Mesoamerican_civilizations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>The ballgame in Mesoamerican civilizations</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-The_ballgame_in_Mesoamerican_civilizations-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle The ballgame in Mesoamerican civilizations subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-The_ballgame_in_Mesoamerican_civilizations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Maya_civilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Maya_civilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Maya civilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Maya_civilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Teotihuacan" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Teotihuacan"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Teotihuacan</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Teotihuacan-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aztec" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aztec"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Aztec</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aztec-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Pacific_coast" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pacific_coast"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Pacific coast</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pacific_coast-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Caribbean" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Caribbean"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Caribbean</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Caribbean-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_popular_culture" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_popular_culture"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>In popular culture</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-In_popular_culture-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cited_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cited_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Cited sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cited_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Mesoamerican ballgame</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 32 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-32" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">32 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A3%D9%88%D9%84%D8%A7%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%B2%D8%AA%D9%84%D9%8A" title="أولاماليزتلي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="أولاماليزتلي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D1%83%D0%BB%D1%8C%D0%BD%D1%8F_%D1%9E_%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%87" title="Месаамерыканская гульня ў мяч – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Месаамерыканская гульня ў мяч" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Boischp%C3%BC_in_Mesoamerica" title="Boischpü in Mesoamerica – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Boischpü in Mesoamerica" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joc_de_pilota_mesoameric%C3%A0" title="Joc de pilota mesoamericà – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Joc de pilota mesoamericà" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tlachtli" title="Tlachtli – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Tlachtli" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerikansk_boldspil" title="Mesoamerikansk boldspil – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Mesoamerikansk boldspil" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerikanisches_Ballspiel" title="Mesoamerikanisches Ballspiel – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Mesoamerikanisches Ballspiel" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juego_de_pelota_mesoamericano" title="Juego de pelota mesoamericano – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Juego de pelota mesoamericano" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezamerika_pilkludo" title="Mezamerika pilkludo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Mezamerika pilkludo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerikar_pilota_joko" title="Mesoamerikar pilota joko – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Mesoamerikar pilota joko" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jeu_de_balle_(M%C3%A9soam%C3%A9rique)" title="Jeu de balle (Mésoamérique) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Jeu de balle (Mésoamérique)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Srednjoameri%C4%8Dka_igra_loptom" title="Srednjoamerička igra loptom – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Srednjoamerička igra loptom" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Permainan_bola_Mesoamerika" title="Permainan bola Mesoamerika – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Permainan bola Mesoamerika" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gioco_della_palla_centroamericano" title="Gioco della palla centroamericano – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Gioco della palla centroamericano" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A6%27%D7%98%D7%9C%D7%99" title="טלאצ'טלי – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טלאצ'טלי" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ludus_pilae_Mesoamericanus" title="Ludus pilae Mesoamericanus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Ludus pilae Mesoamericanus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meso-Amerikaans_balspel" title="Meso-Amerikaans balspel – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Meso-Amerikaans balspel" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%83%A1%E3%82%BD%E3%82%A2%E3%83%A1%E3%83%AA%E3%82%AB%E3%81%AE%E7%90%83%E6%88%AF" title="メソアメリカの球戯 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="メソアメリカの球戯" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerikansk_ballspill" title="Mesoamerikansk ballspill – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Mesoamerikansk ballspill" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ullamaliztli" title="Ullamaliztli – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Ullamaliztli" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jogo_de_bola_mesoamericano" title="Jogo de bola mesoamericano – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Jogo de bola mesoamericano" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pok-ta-pok" title="Pok-ta-pok – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Pok-ta-pok" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D0%BA%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%B2_%D0%BC%D1%8F%D1%87" title="Мезоамериканская игра в мяч – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Мезоамериканская игра в мяч" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerican_ball_game" title="Mesoamerican ball game – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Mesoamerican ball game" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B5%D0%B7%D0%BE%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%B8%D0%B3%D1%80%D0%B0_%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%BF%D1%82%D0%BE%D0%BC" title="Мезоамеричка игра лоптом – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Мезоамеричка игра лоптом" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezoameri%C4%8Dka_igra_loptom" title="Mezoamerička igra loptom – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Mezoamerička igra loptom" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerikkalainen_pallopeli" title="Mesoamerikkalainen pallopeli – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Mesoamerikkalainen pallopeli" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mesoamerikanskt_bollspel" title="Mesoamerikanskt bollspel – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Mesoamerikanskt bollspel" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mezoamerika_top_oyunu" title="Mezoamerika top oyunu – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Mezoamerika top oyunu" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Ancient game</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_3.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_3.JPG/250px-Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_3.JPG" decoding="async" width="250" height="295" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_3.JPG/375px-Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_3.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e1/Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_3.JPG/500px-Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_3.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1896" data-file-height="2240" /></a><figcaption>The ball in front of the goal during a game of pok-ta-pok, 2006</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>Mesoamerican ballgame</b> (<a href="/wiki/Nahuatl_languages" class="mw-redirect" title="Nahuatl languages">Nahuatl languages</a>: <i lang="nah">ōllamalīztli</i>, <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1177148991">.mw-parser-output .IPA-label-small{font-size:85%}.mw-parser-output .references .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .infobox .IPA-label-small,.mw-parser-output .navbox .IPA-label-small{font-size:100%}</style><span class="IPA-label IPA-label-small">Nahuatl pronunciation:</span> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[oːlːamaˈlistɬi]</a></span>, <a href="/wiki/Mayan_languages" title="Mayan languages">Mayan languages</a>: <i lang="myn">pitz</i>) was a <a href="/wiki/Sport" title="Sport">sport</a> with ritual associations played since at least 1650 BC<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> by the <a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian" class="mw-redirect" title="Pre-Columbian">pre-Columbian</a> people of <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerica" title="Mesoamerica">Ancient Mesoamerica</a>. The sport had different versions in different places during the millennia, and a modernized version of the game, <i><a href="/wiki/Ulama_(game)" title="Ulama (game)">ulama</a></i>, is still played by the <a href="/wiki/Native_Mexicans" class="mw-redirect" title="Native Mexicans">indigenous populations</a> in some places.<sup id="cite_ref-FOX_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOX-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rules of the Mesoamerican ballgame are not known, but judging from its descendant, ulama, they were probably similar to <a href="/wiki/Racquetball" title="Racquetball">racquetball</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Schwartz-2008_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Schwartz-2008-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> where the aim is to keep the ball in play. The stone ballcourt goals are a late addition to the game.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (May 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>In the most common theory of the game, the players struck the ball with their hips, although some versions allowed the use of forearms, rackets, bats, or handstones. The ball was made of solid <a href="/wiki/Rubber" class="mw-redirect" title="Rubber">rubber</a> and weighed as much as 9 lbs, and sizes differed greatly over time or according to the version played. </p><p>The Mesoamerican ballgame had important <a href="/wiki/Ritual" title="Ritual">ritual</a> aspects, and major formal ballgames were held as ritual events. Late in the history of the game, some cultures occasionally seem to have combined competitions with religious <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice" title="Human sacrifice">human sacrifice</a>. The sport was also played casually for recreation by children and may have been played by women as well as men.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Pre-Columbian <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">ballcourts</a> have been found throughout Mesoamerica, as for example at <a href="/wiki/Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a>, as far south as modern <a href="/wiki/Nicaragua" title="Nicaragua">Nicaragua</a>, and possibly as far north as what is now the U.S. state of <a href="/wiki/Arizona" title="Arizona">Arizona</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These ballcourts vary considerably in size, but all have long narrow alleys with slanted side-walls or vertical walls against which the balls could bounce. </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Name">Name</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Name"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mesoamerican ballgame is known by a wide variety of names. In English, it is often called <i>pok-ta-pok</i> (or <i>pok-a-tok</i>). This term originates from a 1932 article by Danish archaeologist <a href="/wiki/Frans_Blom" title="Frans Blom">Frans Blom</a>, who adapted it from the <a href="/wiki/Yucatec_Maya_language" title="Yucatec Maya language">Yucatec Maya</a> word <span title="Yucatec Maya-language text"><i lang="yua">pokolpok</i></span>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dodson_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dodson-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Blom_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blom-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/Nahuatl" title="Nahuatl">Nahuatl</a>, the language of the Aztecs, it was called <span title="Classical Nahuatl-language text"><i lang="nci">ōllamaliztli</i></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">oːlːamaˈlistɬi</span>) or <span title="Classical Nahuatl-language text"><i lang="nci">tlachtli</i></span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈtɬatʃtɬi</span>). In <a href="/wiki/Classical_Maya" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical Maya">Classical Maya</a>, it was known as <span title="Epigraphic Mayan-language text"><i lang="emy">pitz</i></span>. In modern <a href="/wiki/Spanish_language" title="Spanish language">Spanish</a>, it is called <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">juego de pelota maya</i></span> ('Maya ballgame'),<sup id="cite_ref-MundoMaya_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MundoMaya-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">juego de pelota mesoamericano</i></span> ('Mesoamerican ballgame'),<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or simply <span title="Spanish-language text"><i lang="es">pelota maya</i></span> ('Maya ball'). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Origins">Origins</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Origins"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Early_Mesoamerican_Ballgame_sites_1.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_Mesoamerican_Ballgame_sites_1.svg/350px-Early_Mesoamerican_Ballgame_sites_1.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="259" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_Mesoamerican_Ballgame_sites_1.svg/525px-Early_Mesoamerican_Ballgame_sites_1.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Early_Mesoamerican_Ballgame_sites_1.svg/700px-Early_Mesoamerican_Ballgame_sites_1.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="560" /></a><figcaption>A map showing sites where early ballcourts, balls, or figurines have been recovered</figcaption></figure> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/300px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg" decoding="async" width="300" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/450px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/600px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_-_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg 2x" data-file-width="930" data-file-height="500" /></a><figcaption>A view into the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">ballcourt</a> at <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a></figcaption></figure> <p>It is not known precisely when or where the Mesoamerican ballgame originated, although it is likely that it originated earlier than 2000 BC in the low-lying tropical zones home to the <a href="/wiki/Castilla_elastica" title="Castilla elastica">rubber tree</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>One candidate for the birthplace of the ballgame is the <a href="/wiki/Soconusco" title="Soconusco">Soconusco</a> coastal lowlands along the Pacific Ocean.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Here, at <a href="/wiki/Paso_de_la_Amada" title="Paso de la Amada">Paso de la Amada</a>, archaeologists have found the oldest ballcourt yet discovered, dated to approximately 1400 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-See_Hill_1998_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-See_Hill_1998-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The other major candidate is the <a href="/wiki/Olmec_heartland" title="Olmec heartland">Olmec heartland</a>, across the <a href="/wiki/Isthmus_of_Tehuantepec" title="Isthmus of Tehuantepec">Isthmus of Tehuantepec</a> along the <a href="/wiki/Gulf_Coast_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Gulf Coast of Mexico">Gulf Coast</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/wiki/Aztecs" title="Aztecs">Aztecs</a> referred to their <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Postclassic</a> contemporaries who then inhabited the region as the <i>Olmeca</i> (i.e. "rubber people") since the region was strongly identified with <a href="/wiki/Latex" title="Latex">latex</a> production.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The earliest-known rubber balls in the world come from the sacrificial bog at <a href="/wiki/El_Manat%C3%AD" title="El Manatí">El Manatí</a>, an early Olmec-associated site located in the hinterland of the <a href="/wiki/Coatzacoalcos_River" title="Coatzacoalcos River">Coatzacoalcos River</a> drainage system.<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Villagers, and archaeologists, have recovered a dozen balls ranging in diameter from 10 to 22 cm from the freshwater spring there. Five of these balls have been dated to the earliest-known occupational phase for the site, approximately 1700–1600 BC.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These rubber balls were found with other ritual offerings buried at the site, indicating that even at this early date the game had religious and ritual connotations.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A stone "yoke" of the type frequently associated with Mesoamerican ballcourts was also reported to have been found by local villagers at the site, leaving open the distinct possibility that these rubber balls were related to the ritual ballgame, and not simply an independent form of sacrificial <a href="/wiki/Votive_deposit" class="mw-redirect" title="Votive deposit">offering</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Excavations at the nearby Olmec site of <a href="/wiki/San_Lorenzo_Tenochtitl%C3%A1n" title="San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán">San Lorenzo Tenochtitlán</a> have also uncovered a number of ballplayer figurines, <a href="/wiki/Radiocarbon_dating" title="Radiocarbon dating">radiocarbon-dated</a> as far back as 1250–1150 BC. A rudimentary ballcourt, dated to a later occupation at San Lorenzo, 600–400 BC, has also been identified.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>From the tropical lowlands, the game apparently moved into central Mexico. Starting around 1000 BC or earlier, ballplayer figurines were interred with burials at <a href="/wiki/Tlatilco" title="Tlatilco">Tlatilco</a> and similarly styled figurines from the same period have been found at the nearby <a href="/wiki/Tlapacoya_(Mesoamerican_site)" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlapacoya (Mesoamerican site)">Tlapacoya</a> site.<sup id="cite_ref-BradleyJoralemon_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BradleyJoralemon-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It was about this period, as well, that the so-called <a href="/wiki/Xochipala" title="Xochipala">Xochipala</a>-style ballplayer figurines were crafted in <a href="/wiki/Guerrero" title="Guerrero">Guerrero</a>. Although no ballcourts of similar age have been found in Tlatilco or Tlapacoya, it is possible that the ballgame was indeed played in these areas, but on courts with perishable boundaries or temporary court markers.<sup id="cite_ref-Ekholm_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ekholm-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>By 300 BC, evidence for the game appears throughout much of the Mesoamerican archaeological record, including ballcourts in the Central Chiapas Valley (the next oldest ballcourts discovered, after Paso de la Amada),<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and in the <a href="/wiki/Oaxaca_Valley" title="Oaxaca Valley">Oaxaca Valley</a>, as well as ceramic ballgame tableaus from Western Mexico (see photo below). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Material_and_formal_aspects">Material and formal aspects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Material and formal aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_Goal.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_Goal.jpg/250px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_Goal.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_Goal.jpg/375px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_Goal.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_Goal.jpg/500px-Chich%C3%A9n_Itz%C3%A1_Goal.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2088" data-file-height="1550" /></a><figcaption>Some ballcourts had upper goals, scoring on which would end the match instantly.</figcaption></figure> <p>As might be expected with a game played over such a long period of time by many cultures, details varied over time and place, so the Mesoamerican ballgame might be more accurately seen as a family of related games. </p><p>In general, the hip-ball version is most popularly thought of as <i>the</i> Mesoamerican ballgame,<sup id="cite_ref-orr_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-orr-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and researchers believe that this version was the primary—or perhaps only—version played within the <a href="/wiki/Masonry" title="Masonry">masonry</a> <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">ballcourt</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ample archaeological evidence exists for games where the ball was struck by a wooden stick (e.g., a mural at <a href="/wiki/Teotihuacan" title="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</a> shows a game which resembles <a href="/wiki/Field_hockey" title="Field hockey">field hockey</a>), <a href="/wiki/Racket_(sports_equipment)" title="Racket (sports equipment)">racquets</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bat-and-ball_games#Equipment" title="Bat-and-ball games">bats</a> and batons, handstones, and the forearm, perhaps at times in combination. Each of the various types of games had its own size of ball, specialized gear and playing field, and rules. </p><p>Games were played between two teams of players. The number of players per team could vary, from two to four.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some games were played on makeshift courts for simple recreation while others were formal spectacles on huge stone ballcourts leading to human sacrifice. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ulama_37_(Aguilar).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ulama_37_%28Aguilar%29.jpg/170px-Ulama_37_%28Aguilar%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="244" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ulama_37_%28Aguilar%29.jpg/255px-Ulama_37_%28Aguilar%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/dd/Ulama_37_%28Aguilar%29.jpg/340px-Ulama_37_%28Aguilar%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="674" data-file-height="968" /></a><figcaption>A modern <a href="/wiki/Sinaloa" title="Sinaloa">Sinaloa</a> <a href="/wiki/Ulama_(game)" title="Ulama (game)">ulama</a> player. The outfit is similar to that worn by Aztec players.</figcaption></figure> <p>Even without human sacrifice, the game could be brutal and there were often serious injuries inflicted by the solid, heavy ball. Today's hip-<i><a href="/wiki/Ulama_(game)" title="Ulama (game)">ulama</a></i> players are "perpetually bruised"<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while nearly 500 years ago Spanish chronicler <a href="/wiki/Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" title="Diego Durán">Diego Durán</a> reported that some bruises were so severe that they had to be <a href="/wiki/Incision_and_drainage" title="Incision and drainage">lanced</a> open. He also reported that players were even killed when the ball "hit them in the mouth or the stomach or the intestines".<sup id="cite_ref-Blanchard_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blanchard-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The rules of the Mesoamerican ballgame, regardless of the version, are not known in any detail. In contemporary <i>ulama</i>, the game resembles a netless <a href="/wiki/Volleyball" title="Volleyball">volleyball</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Noble_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Noble-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> with each team confined to one half of the court. In the most widespread version of <i>ulama</i>, the ball is hit back and forth using only the hips until one team fails to return it or the ball leaves the court. </p><p>In the Postclassic period, the Maya began placing vertical stone rings on each side of the court, the object being to pass the ball through one, an innovation that continued into the later <a href="/wiki/Toltec" title="Toltec">Toltec</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aztec" class="mw-redirect" title="Aztec">Aztec</a> cultures. </p><p>In the 16th-century Aztec ballgame that the Spaniards witnessed, points were lost by a player who let the ball bounce more than twice before returning it to the other team, who let the ball go outside the boundaries of the court, or who tried and failed to pass the ball through one of the stone rings placed on each wall along the center line.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to 16th-century Aztec chronicler <a href="/wiki/Toribio_de_Benavente_Motolinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Toribio de Benavente Motolinia">Motolinia</a>, points were gained if the ball hit the opposite end wall, while the decisive victory was reserved for the team that put the ball through a ring.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, placing the ball through the ring was a rare event—the rings at Chichen Itza, for example, were set 6 metres (20 ft) off the playing field—and most games were likely won on points.<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Clothing_and_gear">Clothing and gear</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Clothing and gear"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The game's paraphernalia—clothing, headdresses, gloves, all but the stone—are long gone, so knowledge on clothing relies on art—paintings and drawings, stone reliefs, and figurines—to provide evidence for pre-Columbian ballplayer clothing and gear, which varied considerably in type and quantity. Capes and masks, for example, are shown on several <a href="/wiki/Dainz%C3%BA" title="Dainzú">Dainzú</a> <a href="/wiki/Relief" title="Relief">reliefs</a>, while Teotihuacan murals show men playing stick-ball in skirts.<sup id="cite_ref-t2004_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-t2004-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelotaspieler_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Pelotaspieler_2.jpg/250px-Pelotaspieler_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="188" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Pelotaspieler_2.jpg/375px-Pelotaspieler_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/46/Pelotaspieler_2.jpg/500px-Pelotaspieler_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/National_Museum_of_Anthropology" class="mw-redirect" title="National Museum of Anthropology">National Museum of Anthropology</a> in Mexico City – a figure of a pelota player</figcaption></figure> <p>The basic hip-game outfit consisted of a <a href="/wiki/Loincloth" title="Loincloth">loincloth</a>, sometimes augmented with leather hip guards. Loincloths are found on the earliest ballplayer figurines from Tlatilco, Tlapacoya, and the Olmec culture, are seen in the Weiditz drawing from 1528 (below), and, with hip guards, are the sole outfit of contemporary <i>ulama</i> players (above)—a span of nearly 3,000 years. </p><p>In many cultures, further protection was provided by a thick <a href="/wiki/Girdle" title="Girdle">girdle</a>, most likely of wicker or wood covered in fabric or leather. Made of perishable materials, none of these girdles have survived, although many stone "yokes" have been uncovered. Misnamed by earlier archaeologists due to its resemblance to an <a href="/wiki/Yoke" title="Yoke">animal yoke</a>, the stone yoke is thought to be too heavy for actual play and was likely used only before or after the game in ritual contexts.<sup id="cite_ref-Scott_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Scott-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition to providing some protection from the ball, the girdle or yoke would also have helped propel the ball with more force than the hip alone. Additionally, some players wore chest protectors called <i>palmas</i> which were inserted into the yoke and stood upright in front of the chest. </p><p>Kneepads are seen on a variety of players from many areas and eras and are worn by forearm-<i>ulama</i> players today. A type of <a href="/wiki/Garter_(stockings)" class="mw-redirect" title="Garter (stockings)">garter</a> is also often seen, worn just below the knee or around the ankle—it is not known what function this served. Gloves appear on the purported ballplayer reliefs of Dainzú, roughly 500 BC, as well as the Aztec players are drawn by Weiditz 2,000 years later (see drawing below).<sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Blanchard_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blanchard-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Helmets, likely utilitarian, and elaborate headdresses, likely used only in ritual contexts, are common in ballplayer depictions. Headdresses are particularly prevalent on Maya painted vases or on <a href="/wiki/Jaina_Island" title="Jaina Island">Jaina Island</a> figurines. Many ballplayers of the Classic era are seen with a right kneepad—no left—and a wrapped right forearm, as shown in the Maya image above. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rubber_black_balls">Rubber black balls</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Rubber black balls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_rubber_balls" title="Mesoamerican rubber balls">Mesoamerican rubber balls</a></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesoamerica_-_manopla_and_ball.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mesoamerica_-_manopla_and_ball.jpg/250px-Mesoamerica_-_manopla_and_ball.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="262" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mesoamerica_-_manopla_and_ball.jpg/375px-Mesoamerica_-_manopla_and_ball.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/59/Mesoamerica_-_manopla_and_ball.jpg/500px-Mesoamerica_-_manopla_and_ball.jpg 2x" data-file-width="696" data-file-height="730" /></a><figcaption>A solid rubber ball used or similar to those used in the Mesoamerican ballgame, from <a href="/wiki/Kaminaljuyu" title="Kaminaljuyu">Kaminaljuyu</a>, 300 BC to 250 AD, with a <i>manopla</i>, or handstone, used to strike the ball.</figcaption></figure> <p>The sizes or weights of the balls actually used in the ballgame are not known with any certainty. While several dozen ancient balls have been recovered, they were originally laid down as offerings in a sacrificial bog or spring, and there is no evidence that any of these were used in the ballgame. In fact, some of these extant votive balls were created specifically <i>as</i> offerings.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>However, based on a review of modern-day game balls, ancient rubber balls, and other archaeological evidence, it is presumed by most researchers that the ancient hip-ball was made of a mix from one or another of the latex-producing plants found all the way from the southeastern rain forests to the northern desert.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Most balls were made from latex sap of the lowland <i>Castilla elastica</i> tree. Someone discovered that by mixing latex with sap from the vine of a species of morning glory (<i><a href="/wiki/Calonyction_aculeatum" class="mw-redirect" title="Calonyction aculeatum">Calonyction aculeatum</a></i>) they could turn the slippery polymers in raw latex into a resilient rubber. The size varied between 10 and 12 in (25 and 30 cm) (measured in hand spans) and weighed 3 to 6 lb (1.4 to 2.7 kg).<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ball used in the ancient handball or stick-ball game was probably slightly larger and heavier than a modern-day baseball.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Leyenaar_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Leyenaar-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some Maya depictions, such as <a href="/wiki/File:Staircase_Riser,_Maya,_ballgame.jpg" title="File:Staircase Riser, Maya, ballgame.jpg">this relief</a>, show balls 1 m (3 ft 3 in) or more in diameter. Academic consensus is that these depictions are exaggerations or symbolic, as are, for example, the impossibly unwieldy headdresses worn in the same portrayals.<sup id="cite_ref-Coe_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Coe-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ballcourt">Ballcourt</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Ballcourt"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_ballcourt" title="Mesoamerican ballcourt">Mesoamerican ballcourt</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Juego_de_pelota.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Juego_de_pelota.jpg/220px-Juego_de_pelota.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Juego_de_pelota.jpg/330px-Juego_de_pelota.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Juego_de_pelota.jpg/440px-Juego_de_pelota.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="667" /></a><figcaption>Classic <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:I,_heavily_serifed.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/I%2C_heavily_serifed.png/10px-I%2C_heavily_serifed.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/I%2C_heavily_serifed.png/15px-I%2C_heavily_serifed.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/I%2C_heavily_serifed.png/20px-I%2C_heavily_serifed.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="456" /></a></span>-shape ball court in <a href="/wiki/Cihuat%C3%A1n" title="Cihuatán">Cihuatán</a> site, <a href="/wiki/El_Salvador" title="El Salvador">El Salvador</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mesoamerican_Ballcourt_cross-sections_3.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mesoamerican_Ballcourt_cross-sections_3.svg/220px-Mesoamerican_Ballcourt_cross-sections_3.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="172" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mesoamerican_Ballcourt_cross-sections_3.svg/330px-Mesoamerican_Ballcourt_cross-sections_3.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Mesoamerican_Ballcourt_cross-sections_3.svg/440px-Mesoamerican_Ballcourt_cross-sections_3.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1055" data-file-height="824" /></a><figcaption>Cross sections of some of the more typical ballcourts</figcaption></figure> <p>The game was played within a large masonry structure. Built in a form that changed remarkably little during 2,700 years, over 1,300 Mesoamerican ballcourts have been identified, 60% in the last 20 years alone.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> All ballcourts have the same general shape, a long narrow playing alley flanked by walls with both horizontal and sloping (or, more rarely, vertical) surfaces. The walls were often plastered and brightly painted. In early ballcourts the alleys were open-ended; later ballcourts had enclosed end-zones, giving the structure an <span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:I,_heavily_serifed.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/I%2C_heavily_serifed.png/10px-I%2C_heavily_serifed.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="17" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/I%2C_heavily_serifed.png/15px-I%2C_heavily_serifed.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/I%2C_heavily_serifed.png/20px-I%2C_heavily_serifed.png 2x" data-file-width="262" data-file-height="456" /></a></span>-shape when viewed from above. </p><p>While the length-to-width ratio remained relatively constant at about four-to-one,<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> there was tremendous variation in ballcourt size: The playing field of the Great Ballcourt at Chichen Itza, by far the largest, measures 96.5 by 30 metres (317 by 98 ft), while the Ceremonial Court at <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a> was only 16 by 5 metres (52 by 16 ft).<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Across Mesoamerica, ballcourts were built and used for many generations. Although ballcourts are found within most sizable Mesoamerican ruins, they are not equally distributed across time or geography. For example, the Late Classic site of <a href="/wiki/El_Taj%C3%ADn" title="El Tajín">El Tajín</a>, the largest city of the ballgame-obsessed <a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Classic Veracruz culture</a>, has at least 18 ballcourts, and <a href="/wiki/Cantona_(archaeological_site)" title="Cantona (archaeological site)">Cantona</a>, a nearby contemporaneous site, sets the record with 24.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In contrast, northern <a href="/wiki/Chiapas" title="Chiapas">Chiapas</a><sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the northern Maya Lowlands<sup id="cite_ref-Kurjack_50-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kurjack-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> have relatively few, and ballcourts are conspicuously absent at some major sites, including Teotihuacan, <a href="/wiki/Bonampak" title="Bonampak">Bonampak</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tortuguero_(Maya_site)" title="Tortuguero (Maya site)">Tortuguero</a>, although Mesoamerican ballgame iconography has been found there.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ancient cities with particularly fine ballcourts in good condition include Tikal, <a href="/wiki/Yaxha" title="Yaxha">Yaxha</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cop%C3%A1n" title="Copán">Copán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coba" title="Coba">Coba</a>, <a href="/wiki/Iximche" title="Iximche">Iximche</a>, <a href="/wiki/Monte_Alb%C3%A1n" title="Monte Albán">Monte Albán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Uxmal" title="Uxmal">Uxmal</a>, <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yagul" title="Yagul">Yagul</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xochicalco" title="Xochicalco">Xochicalco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mixco_Viejo" title="Mixco Viejo">Mixco Viejo</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zaculeu" title="Zaculeu">Zaculeu</a>. </p><p>Ballcourts were public spaces used for a variety of elite cultural events and ritual activities like musical performances and festivals, and, of course, the ballgame. Pictorial depictions often show musicians playing at ballgames, and votive deposits buried at the Main Ballcourt at <a href="/wiki/Tenochtitlan" title="Tenochtitlan">Tenochtitlan</a> contained miniature whistles, <a href="/wiki/Ocarina" title="Ocarina">ocarinas</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Teponaztli" title="Teponaztli">drums</a>. A pre-Columbian ceramic from western Mexico shows what appears to be a wrestling match taking place on a ballcourt.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Corona_Relieve_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A relief of the Crown showing a scene from the Mesoamerican Ball Game."><img alt="A relief of the Crown showing a scene from the Mesoamerican Ball Game." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/La_Corona_Relieve_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/120px-La_Corona_Relieve_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="73" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/La_Corona_Relieve_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/180px-La_Corona_Relieve_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/94/La_Corona_Relieve_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg/240px-La_Corona_Relieve_Juego_de_Pelota.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5171" data-file-height="3156" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A relief of the Crown showing a scene from the Mesoamerican Ball Game.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Maya_Ballplayer,_Jaina_Island,_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The yoke and kneepads identify this molded ceramic Maya figurine as a ballplayer. Like many of these Jaina Island style figurines, it also functions as a whistle. 600–900 CE."><img alt="The yoke and kneepads identify this molded ceramic Maya figurine as a ballplayer. Like many of these Jaina Island style figurines, it also functions as a whistle. 600–900 CE." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maya_Ballplayer%2C_Jaina_Island%2C_1.jpg/69px-Maya_Ballplayer%2C_Jaina_Island%2C_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="69" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maya_Ballplayer%2C_Jaina_Island%2C_1.jpg/104px-Maya_Ballplayer%2C_Jaina_Island%2C_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1e/Maya_Ballplayer%2C_Jaina_Island%2C_1.jpg/139px-Maya_Ballplayer%2C_Jaina_Island%2C_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1048" data-file-height="1812" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The yoke and kneepads identify this molded ceramic Maya figurine as a ballplayer. Like many of these <a href="/wiki/Jaina_Island" title="Jaina Island">Jaina Island</a> style figurines, it also functions as a whistle. 600–900 CE.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Palmas_(Mesoamerican_ballgame)_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Two palmas from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. These palmas were chest protectors worn in the Mesoamerican ballgame and come from Veracruz, Mexico, ca. 700–1000 CE/AD. They are approximately 1½ feet (50 cm) high."><img alt="Two palmas from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. These palmas were chest protectors worn in the Mesoamerican ballgame and come from Veracruz, Mexico, ca. 700–1000 CE/AD. They are approximately 1½ feet (50 cm) high." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Palmas_%28Mesoamerican_ballgame%29_2.jpg/111px-Palmas_%28Mesoamerican_ballgame%29_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="111" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Palmas_%28Mesoamerican_ballgame%29_2.jpg/167px-Palmas_%28Mesoamerican_ballgame%29_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0c/Palmas_%28Mesoamerican_ballgame%29_2.jpg/222px-Palmas_%28Mesoamerican_ballgame%29_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1588" data-file-height="1716" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Two palmas from the Metropolitan Museum of Art, New York. These palmas were chest protectors worn in the Mesoamerican ballgame and come from Veracruz, Mexico, ca. 700–1000 CE/AD. They are approximately 1½ feet (50 cm) high.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Ba%C3%BAl_Ballgame_Stela.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A stela from El Baúl in the Cotzumalhuapa Nuclear Zone, showing two ballplayers."><img alt="A stela from El Baúl in the Cotzumalhuapa Nuclear Zone, showing two ballplayers." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/El_Ba%C3%BAl_Ballgame_Stela.jpg/82px-El_Ba%C3%BAl_Ballgame_Stela.jpg" decoding="async" width="82" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/El_Ba%C3%BAl_Ballgame_Stela.jpg/123px-El_Ba%C3%BAl_Ballgame_Stela.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/El_Ba%C3%BAl_Ballgame_Stela.jpg/165px-El_Ba%C3%BAl_Ballgame_Stela.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1286" data-file-height="1873" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Stela" class="mw-redirect" title="Stela">stela</a> from <a href="/wiki/El_Ba%C3%BAl" title="El Baúl">El Baúl</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Cotzumalhuapa" title="Cotzumalhuapa">Cotzumalhuapa</a> Nuclear Zone, showing two ballplayers.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tikal_central_ballcourt.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The ballcourt at Tikal, in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands"><img alt="The ballcourt at Tikal, in the Petén Basin region of the Maya lowlands" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Tikal_central_ballcourt.jpg/120px-Tikal_central_ballcourt.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="77" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Tikal_central_ballcourt.jpg/180px-Tikal_central_ballcourt.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/05/Tikal_central_ballcourt.jpg/240px-Tikal_central_ballcourt.jpg 2x" data-file-width="600" data-file-height="384" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">The ballcourt at <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a>, in the <a href="/wiki/Pet%C3%A9n_Basin" title="Petén Basin">Petén Basin</a> region of the Maya lowlands</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wupatki_Ruins_Ball_Court.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ruins at Wupatki National Monument, Arizona. There is disagreement among archaeologists whether these structures in the American Southwest were used for ballgames, although the consensus appears that they were. There is further discussion concerning the extent that any Southwest ballgame is related to the Mesoamerican ballgame."><img alt="Ruins at Wupatki National Monument, Arizona. There is disagreement among archaeologists whether these structures in the American Southwest were used for ballgames, although the consensus appears that they were. There is further discussion concerning the extent that any Southwest ballgame is related to the Mesoamerican ballgame." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Wupatki_Ruins_Ball_Court.jpg/120px-Wupatki_Ruins_Ball_Court.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Wupatki_Ruins_Ball_Court.jpg/180px-Wupatki_Ruins_Ball_Court.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Wupatki_Ruins_Ball_Court.jpg/240px-Wupatki_Ruins_Ball_Court.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3008" data-file-height="2000" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ruins at <a href="/wiki/Wupatki_National_Monument" title="Wupatki National Monument">Wupatki National Monument</a>, Arizona. There is disagreement among archaeologists whether these structures in the American Southwest were used for ballgames, although the consensus appears that they were. There is further discussion concerning the extent that any Southwest ballgame is related to the Mesoamerican ballgame.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_aspects">Cultural aspects</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Cultural aspects"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proxy_for_warfare">Proxy for warfare</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Proxy for warfare"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The Mesoamerican ballgame was a ritual deeply ingrained in Mesoamerican cultures and served purposes beyond that of a mere sporting event. <a href="/wiki/Fray_Juan_de_Torquemada" title="Fray Juan de Torquemada">Fray Juan de Torquemada</a>, a 16th-century Spanish missionary and historian, tells that the Aztec emperor <a href="/wiki/Axayacatl" title="Axayacatl">Axayacatl</a> played <a href="/w/index.php?title=Xihuitlemoc&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Xihuitlemoc (page does not exist)">Xihuitlemoc</a>, the leader of <a href="/wiki/Xochimilco#Precolonial" title="Xochimilco">Xochimilco</a>, wagering his annual income against several Xochimilco <a href="/wiki/Chinampas" class="mw-redirect" title="Chinampas">chinampas</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Fernando_de_Alva_Cort%C3%A9s_Ixtlilxochitl" class="mw-redirect" title="Fernando de Alva Cortés Ixtlilxochitl">Ixtlilxochitl</a>, a contemporary of Torquemada, relates that <a href="/wiki/Ce_Acatl_Topiltzin" class="mw-redirect" title="Ce Acatl Topiltzin">Topiltzin</a>, the Toltec king, played against three rivals, with the winner ruling over the losers.<sup id="cite_ref-s14_54-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s14-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These examples and others are cited by many researchers who have made compelling arguments that the game served as a way to defuse or resolve conflicts without genuine warfare, to settle disputes through a ballgame instead of a battle.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over time, then, the ballgame's role would expand to include not only external mediation, but also the resolution of competition and conflict within the society as well.<sup id="cite_ref-Kowalewski_57-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kowalewski-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This "boundary maintenance" or "conflict resolution" theory would also account for some of the irregular distribution of ballcourts. Overall, there appears to be a negative correlation between the degree of political centralization and the number of ballcourts at a site.<sup id="cite_ref-s14_54-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-s14-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, the Aztec Empire, with a strong centralized <a href="/wiki/Sovereign_state" title="Sovereign state">state</a> and few external rivals, had relatively few ballcourts while Middle Classic <a href="/wiki/Cantona_(Mesoamerican_site)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cantona (Mesoamerican site)">Cantona</a>, with 24 ballcourts, had many diverse cultures residing there under a relatively weak state.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Other scholars support these arguments by pointing to the warfare imagery often found at ballcourts: </p> <ul><li>The southeast panel of the South Ballcourt at El Tajín shows the protagonist ballplayer being dressed in a warrior's garb.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Captives are a prominent part of ballgame iconography. For example:</li></ul> <dl><dd><dl><dd><dl><dd>Several ceramic figurines show war captives holding game balls.</dd> <dd>The ballcourt at <a href="/wiki/Tonin%C3%A1" title="Toniná">Toniná</a> was decorated with sculptures of bound captives.</dd> <dd>A captive-within-the-ball motif is seen on the Hieroglyphic Stairs at Structure 33 in <a href="/wiki/Yaxchilan" title="Yaxchilan">Yaxchilan</a> and on Altar 8 at <a href="/wiki/Tikal" title="Tikal">Tikal</a>.</dd></dl></dd></dl></dd></dl> <ul><li>The modern-day descendant of the ballgame, <i>ulama</i>, "until quite recently was connected with warfare and many reminders of that association remain".<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Human_sacrifice">Human sacrifice</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Human sacrifice"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Panel9SBCTajin.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Panel9SBCTajin.JPG/220px-Panel9SBCTajin.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Panel9SBCTajin.JPG/330px-Panel9SBCTajin.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/13/Panel9SBCTajin.JPG/440px-Panel9SBCTajin.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3872" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption>One of a series of murals from the South Ballcourt at El Tajín, showing the sacrifice of a ballplayer</figcaption></figure> <p>The association between human sacrifice and the ballgame appears rather late in the archaeological record, no earlier than the <a href="/wiki/Mesoamerican_chronology#Classic_Period" title="Mesoamerican chronology">Classic era</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Miller_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Miller-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The association was particularly strong within the Classic Veracruz and the Maya cultures, where the most explicit depictions of human sacrifice can be seen on the ballcourt panels—for example at El Tajín (850–1100 CE)<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and at Chichen Itza (900–1200 CE)—as well as on the <a href="/wiki/File:Jugador_de_pelota_decapitado._Museo_de_Jalapa._M%C3%A9xico.jpg" title="File:Jugador de pelota decapitado. Museo de Jalapa. México.jpg">decapitated ballplayer stelae</a> from the Classic Veracruz site of Aparicio (700–900 CE). The Postclassic Maya religious and quasi-historical narrative, the <a href="/wiki/Popol_Vuh" title="Popol Vuh">Popol Vuh</a>, also links human sacrifice with the ballgame (see below). </p><p>Captives were often shown in <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">Maya art</a>, and it is assumed that these captives were sacrificed after losing a rigged ritual ballgame.<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather than nearly nude and sometimes battered captives, the ballcourts at El Tajín and Chichen Itza show the sacrifice of practiced ballplayers, perhaps the captain of a team.<sup id="cite_ref-c255_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c255-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Decapitation is particularly associated with the ballgame—severed heads are featured in much Late Classic ballgame art and appear repeatedly in the Popol Vuh. There has been speculation that the heads and skulls were used as balls.<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Symbolism">Symbolism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Symbolism"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Little is known about the game's symbolic contents. Several themes recur in scholarly writing. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Xiuhtecuhtli,_Codex_Borgia,_14,_w_rubber_balls_offering.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Xiuhtecuhtli%2C_Codex_Borgia%2C_14%2C_w_rubber_balls_offering.jpg/220px-Xiuhtecuhtli%2C_Codex_Borgia%2C_14%2C_w_rubber_balls_offering.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="219" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/31/Xiuhtecuhtli%2C_Codex_Borgia%2C_14%2C_w_rubber_balls_offering.jpg/330px-Xiuhtecuhtli%2C_Codex_Borgia%2C_14%2C_w_rubber_balls_offering.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/31/Xiuhtecuhtli%2C_Codex_Borgia%2C_14%2C_w_rubber_balls_offering.jpg 2x" data-file-width="414" data-file-height="412" /></a><figcaption>In this detail from the late 15th century <a href="/wiki/Codex_Borgia" title="Codex Borgia">Codex Borgia</a>, the Aztec god <a href="/wiki/Xiuhtecuhtli" title="Xiuhtecuhtli">Xiuhtecuhtli</a> brings a rubber ball offering to a temple. The balls each hold a <a href="/wiki/Quetzal" title="Quetzal">quetzal</a> feather, part of the offering.</figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Astronomy. The <a href="/wiki/Bouncing_ball" title="Bouncing ball">bouncing ball</a> is thought to have represented the sun.<sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The stone scoring rings are speculated to signify sunrise and sunset, or equinoxes.</li> <li>War. This is the most obvious symbolic aspect of the game (see also above, "Proxy for warfare"). Among the Mayas, the ball can represent the vanquished enemy, both in the late-Postclassic K'iche' kingdom (Popol Vuh), and in Classic kingdoms such as that of Yaxchilan.</li> <li>Fertility. Formative period ballplayer figurines—most likely females—often wear <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> icons.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At El Tajín, the ballplayer sacrifice ensures the renewal of <a href="/wiki/Pulque" title="Pulque">pulque</a>, an alcoholic <a href="/wiki/Agave_americana" title="Agave americana">maguey</a> beverage.</li> <li>Cosmologic duality. The game is seen as a struggle between day and night,<sup id="cite_ref-c255_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-c255-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or a battle between life and the underworld.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Courts were considered portals to the underworld and were built in key locations within the central ceremonial precincts. Playing ball engaged one in the maintenance of the cosmic order of the universe and the ritual regeneration of life.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Nahua">Nahua</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Nahua"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>According to an important <a href="/wiki/Nahuan_languages" title="Nahuan languages">Nahua</a> source, the Leyenda de los Soles,<sup id="cite_ref-Velazquez_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Velazquez-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the Toltec king Huemac played ball against the <a href="/wiki/Tlaloc" class="mw-redirect" title="Tlaloc">Tlalocs</a>, with precious stones and quetzal feathers at stake. Huemac won the game. When instead of precious stones and feathers, the rain deities offered Huemac their young maize ears and maize leaves, Huemac refused. As a consequence of this vanity, the Toltecs suffered a four-year drought. The same ball game match, with its unfortunate aftermath, signified the beginning of the end of the Toltec reign. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Maya">Maya</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Maya"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pelota_player_-_Chikultic_Disc_(591_CE)_-_Maya_-_National_Museum_of_Antropology_-_Mexico_2024.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pelota_player_-_Chikultic_Disc_%28591_CE%29_-_Maya_-_National_Museum_of_Antropology_-_Mexico_2024.jpg/220px-Pelota_player_-_Chikultic_Disc_%28591_CE%29_-_Maya_-_National_Museum_of_Antropology_-_Mexico_2024.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="198" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pelota_player_-_Chikultic_Disc_%28591_CE%29_-_Maya_-_National_Museum_of_Antropology_-_Mexico_2024.jpg/330px-Pelota_player_-_Chikultic_Disc_%28591_CE%29_-_Maya_-_National_Museum_of_Antropology_-_Mexico_2024.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/82/Pelota_player_-_Chikultic_Disc_%28591_CE%29_-_Maya_-_National_Museum_of_Antropology_-_Mexico_2024.jpg/440px-Pelota_player_-_Chikultic_Disc_%28591_CE%29_-_Maya_-_National_Museum_of_Antropology_-_Mexico_2024.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4992" data-file-height="4500" /></a><figcaption>A ballcourt marker, from the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya</a> site of <a href="/wiki/Chinkultic" title="Chinkultic">Chinkultic</a>, dated to 591. The ball displays the finely incised portrait of a young deity.</figcaption></figure> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Maya_Hero_Twins" title="Maya Hero Twins">Maya Twin myth</a> of the Popol Vuh establishes the importance of the game (referred to in Classic Maya as <i>pitz</i>) as a symbol for warfare intimately connected to the themes of fertility and death. The story begins with the Hero Twins' father, <a href="/wiki/Hun_Hunahpu" title="Hun Hunahpu">Hun Hunahpu</a>, and uncle, Vucub Hunahpu, playing ball near the underworld, <a href="/wiki/Xibalba" title="Xibalba">Xibalba</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The lords of the underworld became annoyed with the noise from the ball playing and so the primary lords of Xibalba, One Death and Seven Death, sent owls to lure the brothers to the ballcourt of Xibalba, situated on the western edge of the underworld. </p><p>Despite the danger the brothers fall asleep and are captured and sacrificed by the lords of Xibalba and then buried in the ballcourt. Hun Hunahpu is decapitated and his head hung in a fruit tree, which bears the first <a href="/wiki/Calabash" title="Calabash">calabash</a> <a href="/wiki/Gourd" title="Gourd">gourds</a>. Hun Hunahpu's head spits into the hands of a passing goddess who conceives and bears the Hero Twins, Hunahpu and Xbalanque. The Hero Twins eventually find the ballgame equipment in their father's house and start playing, again to the annoyance of the Lords of Xibalba, who summon the twins to play the ballgame amidst trials and dangers. </p><p>In one notable episode, Hunahpu is decapitated by bats. His brother uses a squash as Hunahpu's substitute head until his real one, now used as a ball by the Lords, can be retrieved and placed back on Hunahpu's shoulders. The twins eventually go on to play the ballgame with the Lords of Xibalba, defeating them. However, the twins are unsuccessful in reviving their father, so they leave him buried in the ball court of Xibalba. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="The_ballgame_in_Mesoamerican_civilizations">The ballgame in Mesoamerican civilizations</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: The ballgame in Mesoamerican civilizations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Maya_civilization">Maya civilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Maya civilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:GreatBallCourt-interior.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/GreatBallCourt-interior.jpg/400px-GreatBallCourt-interior.jpg" decoding="async" width="400" height="208" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/GreatBallCourt-interior.jpg/600px-GreatBallCourt-interior.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/GreatBallCourt-interior.jpg/800px-GreatBallCourt-interior.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="1825" /></a><figcaption>The Great Ballcourt at <a href="/wiki/Chichen_Itza" title="Chichen Itza">Chichen Itza</a></figcaption></figure> <p>In Maya Ballgame, the Hero Twins myth links ballcourts with death and its overcoming. The ballcourt becomes a place of transition, a liminal stage between life and death. The ballcourt markers along the centerline of the Classic playing field depicted ritual and mythical scenes of the ballgame, often bordered by a <a href="/wiki/Quatrefoil" title="Quatrefoil">quatrefoil</a> that marked a portal into another world. The Twins themselves, however, are usually absent from Classic ballgame scenes, with the Classic forerunner of <a href="/wiki/Vucub_Caquix" title="Vucub Caquix">Vucub Caquix</a> of the Copán ball court, holding the severed arm of Hunahpu, as an important exception.<sup id="cite_ref-CM_74-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CM-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Teotihuacan">Teotihuacan</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Teotihuacan"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>No ballcourt has yet been identified at Teotihuacan, making it by far the largest Classic era site without one. In fact, the ballgame seems to have been nearly forsaken not only in Teotihuacan, but in areas such as <a href="/wiki/Matacapan" title="Matacapan">Matacapan</a> or Tikal that were under Teotihuacano influence.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the lack of a ballcourt, ball games were not unknown there. The murals of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tepantitla&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tepantitla (page does not exist)">Tepantitla</a> compound at Teotihuacan show a number of small scenes that seem to portray various types of ball games, including: </p> <ul><li>A two-player game in an open-ended masonry ballcourt.<sup id="cite_ref-Taladoire_2001_p._112_76-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taladoire_2001_p._112-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (See third picture below.)</li> <li>Teams using sticks on an open field whose end zones are marked by stone monuments.<sup id="cite_ref-Taladoire_2001_p._112_76-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Taladoire_2001_p._112-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Separate renditions of single players. (See first two details below.)</li></ul> <p>It has been hypothesized that, for reasons as yet unknown, the stick-game eclipsed the hip-ball game at Teotihuacan and at Teotihuacan-influenced cities, and only after the fall of Teotihuacan did the hip-ball game reassert itself.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tepantitla_mural,_Ballplayer_B_Cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla murals."><img alt="Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla murals." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_B_Cropped.jpg/120px-Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_B_Cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="99" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_B_Cropped.jpg/180px-Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_B_Cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d7/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_B_Cropped.jpg/240px-Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_B_Cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1461" data-file-height="1211" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla murals.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tepantitla_mural,_Ballplayer_A_(Daquella_manera).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla, Teotihuacan murals. Note the speech scroll issuing from the player's mouth."><img alt="Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla, Teotihuacan murals. Note the speech scroll issuing from the player's mouth." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg/120px-Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg/180px-Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ca/Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg/240px-Tepantitla_mural%2C_Ballplayer_A_%28Daquella_manera%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1805" data-file-height="1217" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Ballplayer painting from the Tepantitla, Teotihuacan murals. Note the <a href="/wiki/Speech_scroll" title="Speech scroll">speech scroll</a> issuing from the player's mouth.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tepantitla_Ballcourt_%26_Ballplayers_Teotihuacan.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Detail of a Tepantitla mural showing a hip-ball game on an open-ended ballcourt, represented by the parallel horizontal lines."><img alt="Detail of a Tepantitla mural showing a hip-ball game on an open-ended ballcourt, represented by the parallel horizontal lines." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Tepantitla_Ballcourt_%26_Ballplayers_Teotihuacan.jpg/120px-Tepantitla_Ballcourt_%26_Ballplayers_Teotihuacan.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="61" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Tepantitla_Ballcourt_%26_Ballplayers_Teotihuacan.jpg/180px-Tepantitla_Ballcourt_%26_Ballplayers_Teotihuacan.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9e/Tepantitla_Ballcourt_%26_Ballplayers_Teotihuacan.jpg/240px-Tepantitla_Ballcourt_%26_Ballplayers_Teotihuacan.jpg 2x" data-file-width="405" data-file-height="205" /></a></span></div> <div class="gallerytext">Detail of a Tepantitla mural showing a hip-ball game on an open-ended ballcourt, represented by the parallel horizontal lines.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Aztec">Aztec</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Aztec"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Codex-borgia-tlachtli.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Codex-borgia-tlachtli.png/300px-Codex-borgia-tlachtli.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="176" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Codex-borgia-tlachtli.png/450px-Codex-borgia-tlachtli.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5a/Codex-borgia-tlachtli.png/600px-Codex-borgia-tlachtli.png 2x" data-file-width="876" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>An I-shaped ballcourt with players and balls depicted in the <a href="/wiki/Codex_Borgia" title="Codex Borgia">Codex Borgia</a> Folio 45. Note that the four players are all holding batons, perhaps indicating that they are playing a type of racquet- or stick-ball.</figcaption></figure> <p>The Aztec version of the ballgame is called <i>ōllamalitzli</i> (sometimes spelled <i>ullamaliztli</i>)<sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are derived from the word <i>ōlli</i> "rubber" and the verb <i>ōllama</i> or "to play ball". The ball itself was called <i>ōllamaloni</i> and the ballcourt was called a <i>tlachtli</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan the largest ballcourt was called <i>Teotlachco</i> ("in the holy ballcourt")—here several important rituals would take place on the festivals of the month <a href="/w/index.php?title=Panquetzalitzli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Panquetzalitzli (page does not exist)">Panquetzalitzli</a>, including the <a href="/wiki/Human_sacrifice_in_Aztec_culture" title="Human sacrifice in Aztec culture">sacrifice</a> of four war captives to the honor of <a href="/wiki/Huitzilopochtli" class="mw-redirect" title="Huitzilopochtli">Huitzilopochtli</a> and his herald <a href="/wiki/Paynal" class="mw-redirect" title="Paynal">Paynal</a>. </p><p>For the Aztecs, the playing of the ballgame also had religious significance, but where the 16th-century K´iche´ Maya saw the game as a battle between the lords of the underworld and their earthly adversaries, their Aztec contemporaries may have seen it as a battle of the sun, personified by Huitzilopochtli, against the forces of night, led by the moon and the stars, and represented by the goddess <a href="/wiki/Coyolxauhqui" class="mw-redirect" title="Coyolxauhqui">Coyolxauhqui</a> and <a href="/wiki/Coatlicue" class="mw-redirect" title="Coatlicue">Coatlicue</a>'s sons the <a href="/wiki/Centzonuitznaua" class="mw-redirect" title="Centzonuitznaua">400 Huitznahuah</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But apart from holding important ritual and mythical meaning, the ballgame for the Aztecs was a sport and a pastime played for fun, although in general, the Aztec game was a prerogative of the nobles.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Weiditz_Trachtenbuch_010-011.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Weiditz_Trachtenbuch_010-011.jpg/220px-Weiditz_Trachtenbuch_010-011.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Weiditz_Trachtenbuch_010-011.jpg/330px-Weiditz_Trachtenbuch_010-011.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Weiditz_Trachtenbuch_010-011.jpg/440px-Weiditz_Trachtenbuch_010-011.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2586" data-file-height="1733" /></a><figcaption>Aztec ullamaliztli players performing for Charles V in Spain, drawn by Christoph Weiditz in 1528.</figcaption></figure> <p>Young Aztecs would be taught ballplaying in the <a href="/wiki/Calmecac" title="Calmecac">calmecac</a> school—and those who were most proficient might become so famous that they could play professionally. Games would frequently be staged in the different city wards and markets—often accompanied by large-scale betting. According to Diego Durán, "these wretches... sold their children in order to bet and even staked themselves and became slaves".<sup id="cite_ref-Smith_34-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Smith-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Since the rubber tree <i>Castilla elastica</i> was not found in the highlands of the Aztec Empire, the Aztecs generally received balls and rubber as tribute from the lowland areas where it was grown. The <i><a href="/wiki/Codex_Mendoza" title="Codex Mendoza">Codex Mendoza</a></i> gives a figure of 16,000 lumps of raw rubber being imported to Tenochtitlan from the southern provinces every six months, although not all of it was used for making balls. </p><p>In 1528, soon after the <a href="/wiki/Spanish_conquest_of_Mexico" class="mw-redirect" title="Spanish conquest of Mexico">Spanish conquest</a>, <a href="/wiki/Hern%C3%A1n_Cort%C3%A9s" title="Hernán Cortés">Cortés</a> sent a troupe of <i>ōllamanime</i> (ballplayers) to Spain to perform for <a href="/wiki/Charles_V,_Holy_Roman_Emperor" title="Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor">Charles V</a> where they were drawn by the German Christoph Weiditz.<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Besides the fascination with their exotic visitors, the Europeans were amazed by the bouncing rubber balls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pacific_coast">Pacific coast</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Pacific coast"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_4.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_4.jpg/250px-Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_4.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_4.jpg/375px-Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_4.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6b/Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_4.jpg/500px-Pok_ta_pok_ballgame_maya_indians_mexico_4.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1579" data-file-height="1292" /></a><figcaption>Pok-ta-pok players in action</figcaption></figure> <p>Ballcourts, monuments with ballgame imagery and ballgame paraphernalia have been excavated at sites along the Pacific coast of Guatemala and El Salvador including the <a href="/wiki/Cotzumalhuapa" title="Cotzumalhuapa">Cotzumalhuapa</a> nuclear zone sites of <a href="/wiki/Bilbao_(Mesoamerican_site)" title="Bilbao (Mesoamerican site)">Bilbao</a> and <a href="/wiki/El_Ba%C3%BAl" title="El Baúl">El Baúl</a> and sites right at the southeast periphery of the Mesoamerican region such as <a href="/wiki/Quelepa" title="Quelepa">Quelepa</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Kelly_84-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Kelly-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Andrews_85-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Andrews-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Caribbean">Caribbean</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Caribbean"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Batey_(game)" title="Batey (game)">Batey (game)</a></div> <p>Batey, a ball game played on many Caribbean islands in the <a href="/wiki/West_Indies" title="West Indies">West Indies</a>, has been proposed as a descendant of the Mesoamerican ballgame, perhaps through the Maya.<sup id="cite_ref-86" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_popular_culture">In popular culture</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: In popular culture"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><i><a href="/wiki/The_Road_to_El_Dorado" title="The Road to El Dorado">The Road to El Dorado</a></i>, a 2000 animated film by <a href="/wiki/DreamWorks_Pictures" title="DreamWorks Pictures">Dreamworks Pictures</a>.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Elena_of_Avalor" title="Elena of Avalor">Elena of Avalor</a></i>, a 2016 animated TV series by The Disney Channel.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Futurama" title="Futurama">Futurama</a></i>, season 9's first episode, Bender wins the game in his Mexican ancestors' hometown and also wins the honor of sacrifice upon the altar of the Ancients.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Black_Panther:_Wakanda_Forever" title="Black Panther: Wakanda Forever">Black Panther: Wakanda Forever</a></i> a group of young Talokans are seen playing the sport underwater.</li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Magic:_The_Gathering" title="Magic: The Gathering">Magic: The Gathering</a></i> features a card called 'Contested Game Ball', which depicts the ball and stone goals.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Jeffrey P. Blomster and Víctor E. Salazar Chávez. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.science.org/doi/10.1126/sciadv.aay6964">“Origins of the Mesoamerican ballgame: Earliest ballcourt from the highlands found at Etlatongo, Oaxaca, Mexico”</a>, “<a href="/wiki/Science_Advances" title="Science Advances">Science Advances</a>”, 13 March 2020. Retrieved 14 March 2020.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOX-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOX_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fox, John (2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=LD6h3NHeHxgC"><i>The ball: discovering the object of the game"</i></a>, 1st ed., New York: Harper. <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780061881794" title="Special:BookSources/9780061881794">9780061881794</a>. Cf. Chapter 4: "Sudden Death in the New World" about the Ulama game.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Schwartz-2008-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Schwartz-2008_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Schwartz" class="citation news cs1">Schwartz, Jeremy (December 19, 2008). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.statesman.com/news/content/news/stories/world/12/19/1219mexoldsports.html">"Indigenous groups keep ancient sports alive in Mexico"</a>. <i>Austin American-Statesman</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">December 20,</span> 2008</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Austin+American-Statesman&rft.atitle=Indigenous+groups+keep+ancient+sports+alive+in+Mexico&rft.date=2008-12-19&rft.aulast=Schwartz&rft.aufirst=Jeremy&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.statesman.com%2Fnews%2Fcontent%2Fnews%2Fstories%2Fworld%2F12%2F19%2F1219mexoldsports.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span><sup class="noprint Inline-Template"><span style="white-space: nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Link_rot" title="Wikipedia:Link rot"><span title=" Dead link tagged December 2018">permanent dead link</span></a></i><span style="visibility:hidden; color:transparent; padding-left:2px">‍</span>]</span></sup></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The primary evidence for female ballplayers is in the many apparently female figurines of the Formative period, wearing a ballplayer loincloth and perhaps other gear. In <i>The Sport of Life and Death</i>, editor Michael Whittington says: "It would [therefore] seem reasonable that women also played the game—perhaps in all-female teams—or participated in some yet to be understood ceremony enacted on the ballcourt." (p. 186). In the same volume, Gillett Griffin states that although these figurines have been "interpreted by some as females, in the context of ancient Mesoamerican society the question of the presence of female ballplayers, and their role in the game, is still debated." (p. 158).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The evidence for ballcourts among the <a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a> is not accepted by all researchers and even the proponents admit that the proposed Hohokam Ballcourts are significantly different from Mesoamerican ones: they are oblong, with a concave (not flat) surface. See Wilcox's article and photo at end of this article.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dodson-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Dodson_6-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDodson2006" class="citation web cs1">Dodson, Steve (May 8, 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://languagehat.com/pok-ta-pok/">"POK-TA-POK"</a>. <i>Languagehat</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">April 20,</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Languagehat&rft.atitle=POK-TA-POK&rft.date=2006-05-08&rft.aulast=Dodson&rft.aufirst=Steve&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flanguagehat.com%2Fpok-ta-pok%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blom-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Blom_7-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlom1932" class="citation journal cs1">Blom, Frans (1932). "The Maya Ball-Game 'Pok-ta-pok', called Tlachtli by the Aztecs". <i>Middle American Research Series Publications</i>. <b>4</b>. Tulane University: 485–530.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Middle+American+Research+Series+Publications&rft.atitle=The+Maya+Ball-Game+%27Pok-ta-pok%27%2C+called+Tlachtli+by+the+Aztecs&rft.volume=4&rft.pages=485-530&rft.date=1932&rft.aulast=Blom&rft.aufirst=Frans&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-MundoMaya-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-MundoMaya_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGraña_Behrens2001" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Graña Behrens, Daniel (2001). "El Juego de Pelota Maya". <i>Mundo Maya</i> (in Spanish). Guatemala: Cholsamaj. pp. 203–228. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-99922-56-41-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-99922-56-41-1"><bdi>978-99922-56-41-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=El+Juego+de+Pelota+Maya&rft.btitle=Mundo+Maya&rft.place=Guatemala&rft.pages=203-228&rft.pub=Cholsamaj&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-99922-56-41-1&rft.aulast=Gra%C3%B1a+Behrens&rft.aufirst=Daniel&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEspinoza2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Espinoza, Mauricio (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070524065929/http://www.denison.edu/collaborations/istmo/n04/proyectos/corazon.html">"El Corazón del Juego: El Juego de Pelota Mesoamericano como Texto Cultural en la Narrativa y el Cine Contemporáneo"</a>. <i>Istmo</i> (in Spanish). <b>4</b>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-2315">1535-2315</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.denison.edu/collaborations/istmo/n04/proyectos/corazon.html">the original</a> on May 24, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Istmo&rft.atitle=El+Coraz%C3%B3n+del+Juego%3A+El+Juego+de+Pelota+Mesoamericano+como+Texto+Cultural+en+la+Narrativa+y+el+Cine+Contempor%C3%A1neo&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=1535-2315&rft.aulast=Espinoza&rft.aufirst=Mauricio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.denison.edu%2Fcollaborations%2Fistmo%2Fn04%2Fproyectos%2Fcorazon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Shelton">Shelton</a>, pp. 109–110. There is wide agreement on game originating in the tropical lowlands, likely the Gulf Coast or Pacific Coast.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> pp. 107–108.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-See_Hill_1998-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-See_Hill_1998_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill,_Warren_D.Michael_BlakeJohn_E._Clark1998" class="citation journal cs1">Hill, Warren D.; Michael Blake; <a href="/wiki/John_E._Clark" title="John E. Clark">John E. Clark</a> (1998). "Ball court design dates back 3,400 years". <i>Nature</i>. <b>392</b> (6679): 878–879. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1998Natur.392..878H">1998Natur.392..878H</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2F31837">10.1038/31837</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:4394291">4394291</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature&rft.atitle=Ball+court+design+dates+back+3%2C400+years&rft.volume=392&rft.issue=6679&rft.pages=878-879&rft.date=1998&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A4394291%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2F31837&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1998Natur.392..878H&rft.au=Hill%2C+Warren+D.&rft.au=Michael+Blake&rft.au=John+E.+Clark&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Miller and Taube (1993, p.42)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These Gulf Coast inhabitants, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Olmeca-Xicalanca&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Olmeca-Xicalanca (page does not exist)">Olmeca-Xicalanca</a>, are not to be confused with the <a href="/wiki/Olmec" class="mw-redirect" title="Olmec">Olmec</a>, the name bestowed by 20th-century archaeologists on the influential Gulf Coast civilization which had dominated that region three thousand years earlier.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-15">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ortiz1999">Ortiz and Rodríguez</a> (1999), pp. 228–232, 242–243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-16">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ortiz1999">Ortiz and Rodríguez</a> (1999), pp. 228–232, 242–243.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diehl">Diehl</a>, p. 27</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Uriarte">Uriarte</a>, p. 41, who finds that the juxtaposition at El Manatí of the deposited balls and serpentine staffs (which may have been used to strike the balls) shows that there was already a "well-developed ideological relationship between the [ball]game, power, and serpents."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Ortiz1999">Ortiz and Rodríguez</a> (1999), p. 249</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Ortíz, "Las ofrendas de El Manatí y su posible asociación con el juego de pelota: un yugo a destiempo", pp. 55–67 in <a href="#Uriarte">Uriarte</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Diehl">Diehl</a>, p. 32, although the identification of a ballcourt within San Lorenzo has not been universally accepted.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-BradleyJoralemon-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-BradleyJoralemon_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley,_Douglas_E.Peter_David_Joralemon1993" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Douglas E.; Peter David Joralemon (1993). <i>The Lords of Life: The Iconography of Power and Fertility in Preclassic Mesoamerica</i> (exhibition catalogue, February 2 – April 5, 1992 ed.). Notre Dame, IN: <a href="/wiki/Snite_Museum_of_Art" title="Snite Museum of Art">Snite Museum of Art</a>, University of Notre Dame. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/29839104">29839104</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Lords+of+Life%3A+The+Iconography+of+Power+and+Fertility+in+Preclassic+Mesoamerica&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+IN&rft.edition=exhibition+catalogue%2C+February+2+%E2%80%93+April+5%2C+1992&rft.pub=Snite+Museum+of+Art%2C+University+of+Notre+Dame&rft.date=1993&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F29839104&rft.au=Bradley%2C+Douglas+E.&rft.au=Peter+David+Joralemon&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ekholm-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Ekholm_23-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEkholm,_Susanna_M.1991" class="citation book cs1">Ekholm, Susanna M. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/242">"Ceramic Figurines and the Mesoamerican Ballgame"</a>. In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i>. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/242">242</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8"><bdi>978-0-8165-1180-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22765562">22765562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ceramic+Figurines+and+the+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pages=242&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22765562&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1180-8&rft.au=Ekholm%2C+Susanna+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse%2Fpage%2F242&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Finca Acapulco, San Mateo, and El Vergel, along the Grijalva, have ballcourts dated between 900 and 550 BC (Agrinier, p. 175).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-orr-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-orr_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOrr,_Heather2005" class="citation book cs1">Orr, Heather (2005). "Ballgames: The Mesoamerican Ballgame". In Lindsay Jones (ed.). <i>Encyclopedia of Religion</i>. Detroit: Macmillan Reference, Vol. 2. p. 749.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ballgames%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.btitle=Encyclopedia+of+Religion&rft.place=Detroit&rft.pages=749&rft.pub=Macmillan+Reference%2C+Vol.+2&rft.date=2005&rft.au=Orr%2C+Heather&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Cohodas">Cohodas</a>, pp. 251–288</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-27">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The 16th-century Aztec chronicler <a href="/wiki/Toribio_de_Benavente_Motolinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Toribio de Benavente Motolinia">Motolinia</a> stated that the games were played by a two-man team vs. a two-man team, three-man team vs. a three-man team, and even a two-man team vs. a three-man team (quoted by <a href="#Shelton">Shelton</a>, p. 107).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Fagan, Brian M. <i>The Seventy Great Inventions of the Ancient World</i> reports that four-man vs four-man team also existed</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080319010915/http://www.calstatela.edu/academic/anthro/jbrady/ulama/photo3ab.htm">Cal State L.A.</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blanchard-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Blanchard_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Blanchard_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBlanchard,_Kendall2005" class="citation book cs1">Blanchard, Kendall (2005). <i>The Anthropology of Sport</i> (Revised ed.). Bergin & Garvey. p. 107. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-89789-329-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-89789-329-9"><bdi>978-0-89789-329-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Anthropology+of+Sport&rft.pages=107&rft.edition=Revised&rft.pub=Bergin+%26+Garvey&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-89789-329-9&rft.au=Blanchard%2C+Kendall&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Noble-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Noble_31-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNoble,_John2006" class="citation book cs1">Noble, John (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexico2006nobl/page/65"><i>Mexico</i></a>. Lonely Planet. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mexico2006nobl/page/65">65</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-74059-744-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-74059-744-9"><bdi>978-1-74059-744-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mexico&rft.pages=65&rft.pub=Lonely+Planet&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-1-74059-744-9&rft.au=Noble%2C+John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmexico2006nobl%2Fpage%2F65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Day">Day</a>, p. 66, who further references <a href="/wiki/Diego_Dur%C3%A1n" title="Diego Durán">Diego Durán</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bernardino_de_Sahag%C3%BAn" title="Bernardino de Sahagún">Bernardino de Sahagún</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Shelton">Shelton</a>, pp. 107–108, who quotes Motolinia.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Smith-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_34-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Smith_34-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSmith,_Michael_E.2003" class="citation book cs1">Smith, Michael E. (2003). <i>The Aztecs</i>. Oxford: Blackwell Publishers. pp. 238–239.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aztecs&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pages=238-239&rft.pub=Blackwell+Publishers&rft.date=2003&rft.au=Smith%2C+Michael+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-t2004-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-t2004_35-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Taladoire2004" class="citation journal cs1">Taladoire, Eric (March 4, 2004). "Could We Speak of the Super Bowl at Flushing Meadows?: La Pelota Mixteca, a Third Pre-Hispanic Ballgame, and its Possible Architectural Context". <i>Ancient Mesoamerica</i>. <b>14</b> (2): 319–342. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0956536103132142">10.1017/S0956536103132142</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:162558994">162558994</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ancient+Mesoamerica&rft.atitle=Could+We+Speak+of+the+Super+Bowl+at+Flushing+Meadows%3F%3A+La+Pelota+Mixteca%2C+a+Third+Pre-Hispanic+Ballgame%2C+and+its+Possible+Architectural+Context&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=319-342&rft.date=2004-03-04&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0956536103132142&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A162558994%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Taladoire&rft.aufirst=Eric&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Scott-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Scott_36-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFScott,_John_F.2001" class="citation book cs1">Scott, John F. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/54">"Dressed to Kill: Stone Regalia of the Mesoamerican Ballgame"</a>. <i>The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i> (Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the <a href="/wiki/Mint_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint Museum of Art">Mint Museum of Art</a>, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/54">54</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5"><bdi>978-0-500-05108-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Dressed+to+Kill%3A+Stone+Regalia+of+the+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.btitle=The+Sport+of+Life+and+Death%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=54&rft.edition=Published+in+conjunction+with+an+exhibition+of+the+same+name+organized+by+the+Mint+Museum+of+Art%2C+Charlotte%2C+NC.&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05108-5&rft.au=Scott%2C+John+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsportoflifedeath00emic%2Fpage%2F54&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Dainzu gloves are discussed in <a href="#Taladoire2004">Taladoire, 2004</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#FilloyNadal">Filloy Nadal</a>, p. 22.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-39">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#FilloyNadal">Filloy Nadal</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-40">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Schwartz">Schwartz</a> states that the ball used by present-day players is 8 pounds (3.6 kg).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#FilloyNadal">Filloy Nadal</a>, p. 30</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Leyenaar-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Leyenaar_42-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeyenaar,_Ted2001" class="citation book cs1">Leyenaar, Ted (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/125">"The Modern Ballgames of Sinaloa: a Survival of the Aztec Ullamaliztli"</a>. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). <i>The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i> (Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the <a href="/wiki/Mint_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint Museum of Art">Mint Museum of Art</a>, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/125">125–126</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5"><bdi>978-0-500-05108-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49029226">49029226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Modern+Ballgames+of+Sinaloa%3A+a+Survival+of+the+Aztec+Ullamaliztli&rft.btitle=The+Sport+of+Life+and+Death%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=125-126&rft.edition=Published+in+conjunction+with+an+exhibition+of+the+same+name+organized+by+the+Mint+Museum+of+Art%2C+Charlotte%2C+NC&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49029226&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05108-5&rft.au=Leyenaar%2C+Ted&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsportoflifedeath00emic%2Fpage%2F125&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Coe-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Coe_43-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCoe,_Michael_D.Dean_SnowElizabeth_P._Benson1986" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Michael_D._Coe" title="Michael D. Coe">Coe, Michael D.</a>; Dean Snow; <a href="/wiki/Elizabeth_P._Benson" title="Elizabeth P. Benson">Elizabeth P. Benson</a> (1986). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlasofancientam00coem/page/109"><i>Atlas of Ancient America</i></a>. New York: Facts on File. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/atlasofancientam00coem/page/109">109</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-1199-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-1199-5"><bdi>978-0-8160-1199-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/11518017">11518017</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Atlas+of+Ancient+America&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=Facts+on+File&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F11518017&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-1199-5&rft.au=Coe%2C+Michael+D.&rft.au=Dean+Snow&rft.au=Elizabeth+P.+Benson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fatlasofancientam00coem%2Fpage%2F109&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-44">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Cohodas">Cohodas</a>, p. 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 98. There are slightly over 200 ballcourts also identified in the <a href="/wiki/American_Southwest" class="mw-redirect" title="American Southwest">American Southwest</a> which are <i>not</i> included in this total, since these are outside Mesoamerica and there is significant discussion whether these areas were used for ballplaying or not.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-46">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Quirarte">Quirarte</a>, pp. 209–210.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-47">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 100. Taladoire gives these measures for the "playing field", while other authors include the benches and other trappings. See <a href="#Quirarte">Quirarte</a>, pp. 205–208. It is thought that neither the Great Ballcourt nor Tikal's Ceremonial Court were used for ballgames (Scarborough, p. 137).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Day">Day</a>, p. 75.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#TaladoireColsenet">Taladoire and Colsenet</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kurjack-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kurjack_50-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKurjack,_Edward_B.Ruben_Maldonado_C.Merle_Greene_Robertson1991" class="citation book cs1">Kurjack, Edward B.; Ruben Maldonado C.; <a href="/wiki/Merle_Greene_Robertson" title="Merle Greene Robertson">Merle Greene Robertson</a> (1991). "Ballcourts of the Northern Maya Lowlands". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse"><i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i></a></span>. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8"><bdi>978-0-8165-1180-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22765562">22765562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ballcourts+of+the+Northern+Maya+Lowlands&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22765562&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1180-8&rft.au=Kurjack%2C+Edward+B.&rft.au=Ruben+Maldonado+C.&rft.au=Merle+Greene+Robertson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 99.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Day">Day</a>, p. 69.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 97.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-s14-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-s14_54-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-s14_54-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Santley">Santley</a>, pp. 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#TaladoireColsenet">Taladoire and Colsenet</a>, p. 174: "We suggest that the ballgame was used as a substitute and a symbol for war."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Gillespie">Gillespie</a>, p. 340: the ballgame was "a boundary maintenance mechanism between polities".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kowalewski-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kowalewski_57-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKowalewski,_Stephen_A.Gary_M._FeinmanLaura_FinstenRichard_E._Blanton1991" class="citation book cs1">Kowalewski, Stephen A.; Gary M. Feinman; Laura Finsten; <a href="/wiki/Richard_E._Blanton" class="mw-redirect" title="Richard E. Blanton">Richard E. Blanton</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/43">"Pre-Hispanic Ballcourts from the Valley of Oaxaca, Mexico"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Vernon_Scarborough" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Scarborough">Vernon Scarborough</a>; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i>. Tucson: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona_Press" title="University of Arizona Press">University of Arizona Press</a>. p. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/43">43</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4"><bdi>978-0-8165-1360-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51873028">51873028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Pre-Hispanic+Ballcourts+from+the+Valley+of+Oaxaca%2C+Mexico&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pages=43&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51873028&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1360-4&rft.au=Kowalewski%2C+Stephen+A.&rft.au=Gary+M.+Feinman&rft.au=Laura+Finsten&rft.au=Richard+E.+Blanton&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse%2Fpage%2F43&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Day">Day</a>, p. 76</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 114.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-60">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Wilkerson">Wilkerson</a>, p. 59.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/California_State_University,_Los_Angeles" title="California State University, Los Angeles">California State University, Los Angeles</a>, Department of Anthropology, <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://www.calstatela.edu/academic/anthro/jbrady/ulama/photohi.htm">[1]</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131004222321/http://www.calstatela.edu/academic/anthro/jbrady/ulama/photohi.htm">Archived</a> October 4, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Kubler, p. 147</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Miller-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Miller_63-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller,_Mary_Ellen2001" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Miller_(art_historian)" title="Mary Miller (art historian)">Miller, Mary Ellen</a> (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20">"The Maya Ballgame: Rebirth in the Court of Life and Death"</a>. <i>The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i> (Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the <a href="/wiki/Mint_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint Museum of Art">Mint Museum of Art</a>, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20">20–31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5"><bdi>978-0-500-05108-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49029226">49029226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Maya+Ballgame%3A+Rebirth+in+the+Court+of+Life+and+Death&rft.btitle=The+Sport+of+Life+and+Death%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=20-31&rft.edition=Published+in+conjunction+with+an+exhibition+of+the+same+name+organized+by+the+Mint+Museum+of+Art%2C+Charlotte%2C+NC.&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49029226&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05108-5&rft.au=Miller%2C+Mary+Ellen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsportoflifedeath00emic%2Fpage%2F20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-64">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Uriarte">Uriarte</a>, p. 46.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-65">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Schele">Schele and Miller</a>, p. 249: "It would not be surprising if the game were rigged"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-c255-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-c255_66-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-c255_66-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Cohodas">Cohodas</a>, p. 255</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Gillespie">Gillespie</a>, p. 321.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-68">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Schele">Schele and Miller</a>, p. 243: "occasionally [sacrificial victims'] decapitated heads (sic) were placed in play"</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-69">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The ball-as-sun analogy is common in ballgame literature; see, among others, <a href="#Gillespie">Gillespie</a>, or Blanchard. Some researchers contend that the ball represents not the sun, but the moon.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBradley,_Douglas_E.1997" class="citation book cs1">Bradley, Douglas E. (1997). <i>Life, Death and Duality: A Handbook of the Rev. Edmund P. Joyce, C.S.C. Collection of Ritual Ballgame Sculpture</i>. Snite Museum of Art Bulletin, Vol. 1. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39750624">39750624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Life%2C+Death+and+Duality%3A+A+Handbook+of+the+Rev.+Edmund+P.+Joyce%2C+C.S.C.+Collection+of+Ritual+Ballgame+Sculpture&rft.place=Notre+Dame%2C+IN&rft.series=Snite+Museum+of+Art+Bulletin%2C+Vol.+1&rft.pub=University+of+Notre+Dame&rft.date=1997&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39750624&rft.au=Bradley%2C+Douglas+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span>. Bradley finds that a raised circular dot, or a U-shaped symbol with a dot in the middle, or raised U- or V-shaped areas each represent maize.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#TaladoireColsenet">Taladoire and Colsenet</a>, p. 173.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Velazquez-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Velazquez_72-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVelázquez,_Primo_Feliciano_(translator)1975" class="citation book cs1">Velázquez, Primo Feliciano (translator) (1975). <i>Códice Chimalpopoca: Anales de Cuauhtitlan y Leyenda de los Soles</i>. Mexico: UNAM. p. 126.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=C%C3%B3dice+Chimalpopoca%3A+Anales+de+Cuauhtitlan+y+Leyenda+de+los+Soles&rft.place=Mexico&rft.pages=126&rft.pub=UNAM&rft.date=1975&rft.au=Vel%C3%A1zquez%2C+Primo+Feliciano+%28translator%29&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span> <span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: </span><span class="cs1-visible-error citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">|author=</code> has generic name (<a href="/wiki/Help:CS1_errors#generic_name" title="Help:CS1 errors">help</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">These excerpts from the Popol Vuh can be found in Christenson's recent translation or in any work on the Popol Vuh.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-CM-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-CM_74-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChinchilla_Mazariegos,_Oswaldo2011" class="citation book cs1">Chinchilla Mazariegos, Oswaldo (2011). <i>Imágenes de la mitología maya</i>. Museo Popol Vuh, Guatemala. pp. 114–118.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Im%C3%A1genes+de+la+mitolog%C3%ADa+maya&rft.pages=114-118&rft.pub=Museo+Popol+Vuh%2C+Guatemala&rft.date=2011&rft.au=Chinchilla+Mazariegos%2C+Oswaldo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 109, who states that Matacapan and Tikal did indeed build ballcourts but only after the fall of Teotihuacan.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Taladoire_2001_p._112-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Taladoire_2001_p._112_76-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-Taladoire_2001_p._112_76-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 112.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Taladoire2001">Taladoire (2001)</a> p. 113.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The Nahuatl word for the game, <i>ōllamaliztli</i> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="nah-Latn-fonipa"><a href="/wiki/Help:IPA/Nahuatl" title="Help:IPA/Nahuatl">[oːllamaˈlistɬi]</a></span>) was often spelled <i>ullamaliztli</i>—the orthography with "u" is a misrendering of the Náhuatl word caused by the fact that the quality of the nahuatl vowel /ō/ sounds a little like Spanish /u/.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">The name of the present-day city of <a href="/wiki/Taxco" title="Taxco">Taxco</a>, <a href="/wiki/Guerrero" title="Guerrero">Guerrero</a>, comes from the Nahuatl word <i>tlachcho</i> meaning "in the ballcourt".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Garza">De La Garza & Izquierdo</a>, p. 315.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Wilkerson">Wilkerson</a>, p. 45 and others, although there is by no means a universal view; <a href="#Santley">Santley</a>, p. 8: "The game was played by nearly all adolescent and adult males, noble and commoner alike."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-82">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/wiki/Toribio_de_Benavente_Motolinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Toribio de Benavente Motolinia">Motolinia</a>, another early Spanish chronicler, also mentioned the heavy betting that accompanied games in <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMotolinia,_Toribio_de_Benavente1903" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Motolinia" class="mw-redirect" title="Motolinia">Motolinia, Toribio de Benavente</a> (1903). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/memorialesdefra01sngoog"><i>Memoriales</i></a>. Paris. p. 320.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Memoriales&rft.place=Paris&rft.pages=320&rft.date=1903&rft.au=Motolinia%2C+Toribio+de+Benavente&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmemorialesdefra01sngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span><span class="cs1-maint citation-comment"><code class="cs1-code">{{<a href="/wiki/Template:Cite_book" title="Template:Cite book">cite book</a>}}</code>: CS1 maint: location missing publisher (<a href="/wiki/Category:CS1_maint:_location_missing_publisher" title="Category:CS1 maint: location missing publisher">link</a>)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#Garza">De La Garza & Izquierdo</a>, p. 325.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kelly-84"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Kelly_84-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKelly,_Joyce1996" class="citation book cs1">Kelly, Joyce (1996). <i>An Archaeological Guide to Northern Central America: Belize, Guatemala, Honduras, and El Salvador</i>. Norman: University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 221, 226. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2858-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-2858-0"><bdi>978-0-8061-2858-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/34658843">34658843</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Archaeological+Guide+to+Northern+Central+America%3A+Belize%2C+Guatemala%2C+Honduras%2C+and+El+Salvador&rft.place=Norman&rft.pages=221%2C+226&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=1996&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F34658843&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-2858-0&rft.au=Kelly%2C+Joyce&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Andrews-85"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Andrews_85-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAndrews,_E._Wyllys1986" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Andrews, E. Wyllys (1986) [1976]. <i>La Arqueología de Quelepa, El Salvador</i> (in Spanish). San Salvador, El Salvador: Ministerio de Cultura y Comunicaciones. pp. 225–228.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=La+Arqueolog%C3%ADa+de+Quelepa%2C+El+Salvador&rft.place=San+Salvador%2C+El+Salvador&rft.pages=225-228&rft.pub=Ministerio+de+Cultura+y+Comunicaciones&rft.date=1986&rft.au=Andrews%2C+E.+Wyllys&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAlegría,_Ricardo_E.1951" class="citation journal cs1">Alegría, Ricardo E. (1951). "The Ball Game Played by the Aborigines of the Antilles". <i><a href="/wiki/American_Antiquity" title="American Antiquity">American Antiquity</a></i>. <b>16</b> (4). Menasha, WI: Society for American Archaeology: 348–352. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2307%2F276984">10.2307/276984</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/276984">276984</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/27201871">27201871</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:164059254">164059254</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Antiquity&rft.atitle=The+Ball+Game+Played+by+the+Aborigines+of+the+Antilles&rft.volume=16&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=348-352&rft.date=1951&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F27201871&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A164059254%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F276984%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2307%2F276984&rft.au=Alegr%C3%ADa%2C+Ricardo+E.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://gatherer.wizards.com/Pages/Card/Details.aspx?multiverseid=636972">Contested Game Ball</a></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cited_sources">Cited sources</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Cited sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Day" class="citation book cs1">Day, Jane Stevenson (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/65">"Performing on the Court"</a>. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). <i>The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i> (Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the <a href="/wiki/Mint_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint Museum of Art">Mint Museum of Art</a>, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/65">65–77</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5"><bdi>978-0-500-05108-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49029226">49029226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Performing+on+the+Court&rft.btitle=The+Sport+of+Life+and+Death%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=65-77&rft.edition=Published+in+conjunction+with+an+exhibition+of+the+same+name+organized+by+the+Mint+Museum+of+Art%2C+Charlotte%2C+NC.&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49029226&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05108-5&rft.au=Day%2C+Jane+Stevenson&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsportoflifedeath00emic%2Fpage%2F65&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Garza" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Garza Camino, Mercedes de la; Ana Luisa Izquierdo (1980). "El <i>Ullamaliztli</i> en el Siglo XVI". <i>Estudios de Cultura Náhuatl</i> (in Spanish). <b>14</b>: 315–333. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0071-1675">0071-1675</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Estudios+de+Cultura+N%C3%A1huatl&rft.atitle=El+Ullamaliztli+en+el+Siglo+XVI&rft.volume=14&rft.pages=315-333&rft.date=1980&rft.issn=0071-1675&rft.au=Garza+Camino%2C+Mercedes+de+la&rft.au=Ana+Luisa+Izquierdo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Cohodas" class="citation book cs1">Cohodas, Marvin (1991). "Ballgame imagery of the Maya Lowlands: History and Iconography". In <a href="/wiki/Vernon_Scarborough" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Scarborough">Vernon Scarborough</a>; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse"><i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i></a></span>. Tucson: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona_Press" title="University of Arizona Press">University of Arizona Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4"><bdi>978-0-8165-1360-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51873028">51873028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ballgame+imagery+of+the+Maya+Lowlands%3A+History+and+Iconography&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51873028&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1360-4&rft.au=Cohodas%2C+Marvin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Diehl" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Diehl" title="Richard Diehl">Diehl, Richard</a> (2004). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/olmecsamericasfi0000dieh"><i>The Olmecs: America's First Civilization</i></a></span>. Ancient peoples and places series. London: Thames & Hudson. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-02119-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-02119-4"><bdi>978-0-500-02119-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56746987">56746987</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Olmecs%3A+America%27s+First+Civilization&rft.place=London&rft.series=Ancient+peoples+and+places+series&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56746987&rft.isbn=978-0-500-02119-4&rft.au=Diehl%2C+Richard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Folmecsamericasfi0000dieh&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="FilloyNadal" class="citation book cs1">Filloy Nadal, Laura (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20">"Rubber and Rubber Balls in Mesoamerica"</a>. In E. Michael Whittington (ed.). <i>The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i> (Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the <a href="/wiki/Mint_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint Museum of Art">Mint Museum of Art</a>, Charlotte, NC. ed.). New York: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/20">20–31</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5"><bdi>978-0-500-05108-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49029226">49029226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Rubber+and+Rubber+Balls+in+Mesoamerica&rft.btitle=The+Sport+of+Life+and+Death%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=20-31&rft.edition=Published+in+conjunction+with+an+exhibition+of+the+same+name+organized+by+the+Mint+Museum+of+Art%2C+Charlotte%2C+NC.&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49029226&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05108-5&rft.au=Filloy+Nadal%2C+Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsportoflifedeath00emic%2Fpage%2F20&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Gillespie" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Susan_D._Gillespie" title="Susan D. Gillespie">Gillespie, Susan D.</a> (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/317">"Ballgames and Boundaries"</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Vernon_Scarborough" class="mw-redirect" title="Vernon Scarborough">Vernon Scarborough</a>; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i>. Tucson: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona_Press" title="University of Arizona Press">University of Arizona Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/317">317–345</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1360-4"><bdi>978-0-8165-1360-4</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/51873028">51873028</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ballgames+and+Boundaries&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pages=317-345&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F51873028&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1360-4&rft.au=Gillespie%2C+Susan+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse%2Fpage%2F317&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Ortiz1999" class="citation book cs1">Ortíz C., Ponciano; María del Carmen Rodríguez (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090205071742/http://www.doaks.org/Social/social09.pdf">"Olmec Ritual Behavior at El Manatí: A Sacred Space"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. In <a href="/wiki/David_C._Grove" class="mw-redirect" title="David C. Grove">David C. Grove</a>; <a href="/wiki/Rosemary_A._Joyce" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosemary A. Joyce">Rosemary A. Joyce</a> (eds.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialpatternsin0000unse/page/225"><i>Social Patterns in Pre-Classic Mesoamerica: a symposium at Dumbarton Oaks, 9 and 10 October 1993</i></a> (Dumbarton Oaks etexts ed.). Washington, D.C.: <a href="/wiki/Dumbarton_Oaks_Research_Library_and_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection">Dumbarton Oaks Research Library and Collection</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/socialpatternsin0000unse/page/225">225–254</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-252-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-88402-252-7"><bdi>978-0-88402-252-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/39229716">39229716</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.doaks.org/Social/social09.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on February 5, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Olmec+Ritual+Behavior+at+El+Manat%C3%AD%3A+A+Sacred+Space&rft.btitle=Social+Patterns+in+Pre-Classic+Mesoamerica%3A+a+symposium+at+Dumbarton+Oaks%2C+9+and+10+October+1993&rft.place=Washington%2C+D.C.&rft.pages=225-254&rft.edition=Dumbarton+Oaks+etexts&rft.pub=Dumbarton+Oaks+Research+Library+and+Collection&rft.date=1999&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F39229716&rft.isbn=978-0-88402-252-7&rft.au=Ort%C3%ADz+C.%2C+Ponciano&rft.au=Mar%C3%ADa+del+Carmen+Rodr%C3%ADguez&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.doaks.org%2FSocial%2Fsocial09.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Quirarte" class="citation book cs1">Quirarte, Jacinto (1977). "The Ballcourt in Mesoamerica: Its Architectural Development". In Alan Cordy-Collins; Jean Stern (eds.). <i>Pre-Columbian Art History</i>. Palo Alto, California: Peek Publications. pp. 191–212. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-917962-41-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-917962-41-7"><bdi>978-0-917962-41-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Ballcourt+in+Mesoamerica%3A+Its+Architectural+Development&rft.btitle=Pre-Columbian+Art+History&rft.place=Palo+Alto%2C+California&rft.pages=191-212&rft.pub=Peek+Publications&rft.date=1977&rft.isbn=978-0-917962-41-7&rft.au=Quirarte%2C+Jacinto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Santley" class="citation book cs1">Santley, Robert M.; Berman, Michael J.; Alexander, Rami T. (1991). "The Politicization of the Mesoamerican Ballgame and Its Implications for the Interpretation of the Distribution of Ballcourts in Central Mexico". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse"><i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i></a></span>. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8"><bdi>978-0-8165-1180-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22765562">22765562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Politicization+of+the+Mesoamerican+Ballgame+and+Its+Implications+for+the+Interpretation+of+the+Distribution+of+Ballcourts+in+Central+Mexico&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22765562&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1180-8&rft.au=Santley%2C+Robert+M.&rft.au=Berman%2C+Michael+J.&rft.au=Alexander%2C+Rami+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Schele" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Linda_Schele" title="Linda Schele">Schele, Linda</a>; Miller, Mary Ellen (1986). <i>The Blood of Kings: Dynasty and Ritual in Maya Art</i>. Fort Worth, Texas: Kimball Art Museum.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Blood+of+Kings%3A+Dynasty+and+Ritual+in+Maya+Art&rft.place=Fort+Worth%2C+Texas&rft.pub=Kimball+Art+Museum&rft.date=1986&rft.au=Schele%2C+Linda&rft.au=Miller%2C+Mary+Ellen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Shelton" class="citation book cs1">Shelton, Anthony A. (2003). "The Aztec Theatre State and the Dramatization of War". In Tim Cornell; Thomas B. Allen (eds.). <i>War and Games</i>. New York: Boydell Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-870-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-85115-870-9"><bdi>978-0-85115-870-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Aztec+Theatre+State+and+the+Dramatization+of+War&rft.btitle=War+and+Games&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Boydell+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=978-0-85115-870-9&rft.au=Shelton%2C+Anthony+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Taladoire2001" class="citation book cs1">Taladoire, Eric (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/97">"The Architectural Background of the Pre-Hispanic Ballgame"</a>. <i>The Sport of Life and Death: The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i> (Published in conjunction with an exhibition of the same name organized by the <a href="/wiki/Mint_Museum_of_Art" class="mw-redirect" title="Mint Museum of Art">Mint Museum of Art</a>, Charlotte, NC ed.). New York: Thames & Hudson. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/sportoflifedeath00emic/page/97">97–115</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05108-5"><bdi>978-0-500-05108-5</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/49029226">49029226</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Architectural+Background+of+the+Pre-Hispanic+Ballgame&rft.btitle=The+Sport+of+Life+and+Death%3A+The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=97-115&rft.edition=Published+in+conjunction+with+an+exhibition+of+the+same+name+organized+by+the+Mint+Museum+of+Art%2C+Charlotte%2C+NC&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2001&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F49029226&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05108-5&rft.au=Taladoire%2C+Eric&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fsportoflifedeath00emic%2Fpage%2F97&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="TaladoireColsenet" class="citation book cs1">Taladoire, Eric; Colsenet, Benoit (1991). "<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'Bois Ton Sang, Beaumanior':The Political and Conflictual Aspects of the Ballgame in the Northern Chiapas Area". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse"><i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i></a></span>. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8"><bdi>978-0-8165-1180-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22765562">22765562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27Bois+Ton+Sang%2C+Beaumanior%27%3AThe+Political+and+Conflictual+Aspects+of+the+Ballgame+in+the+Northern+Chiapas+Area&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22765562&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1180-8&rft.au=Taladoire%2C+Eric&rft.au=Colsenet%2C+Benoit&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Uriarte" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Uriarte, María Teresa, ed. (1992). <i>El juego de pelota en Mesoamérica: raíces y supervivencia</i> (in Spanish). México D.F.: SigloXXI Editores and Casa de Cultura, Gobierno del Estado de Sinaloa. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-968-23-1837-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-968-23-1837-5"><bdi>978-968-23-1837-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=El+juego+de+pelota+en+Mesoam%C3%A9rica%3A+ra%C3%ADces+y+supervivencia&rft.place=M%C3%A9xico+D.F.&rft.pub=SigloXXI+Editores+and+Casa+de+Cultura%2C+Gobierno+del+Estado+de+Sinaloa&rft.date=1992&rft.isbn=978-968-23-1837-5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="Wilkerson" class="citation book cs1">Wilkerson, S. Jeffrey K. (1991). "Then They Were Sacrificed: The Ritual Ballgame of Northeastern Mesoamerica Through Time and Space". In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <span class="id-lock-registration" title="Free registration required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse"><i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i></a></span>. Tucson: University of Arizona Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8"><bdi>978-0-8165-1180-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22765562">22765562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Then+They+Were+Sacrificed%3A+The+Ritual+Ballgame+of+Northeastern+Mesoamerica+Through+Time+and+Space&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22765562&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1180-8&rft.au=Wilkerson%2C+S.+Jeffrey+K.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin" style=""> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBerdan,_Frances_F.2005" class="citation book cs1">Berdan, Frances F. (2005). <i>The Aztecs of Central Mexico: An Imperial Society</i>. Case Studies in Cultural Anthropology (2nd ed.). Belmont, CA: Thomson Wadsworth. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-534-62728-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-534-62728-7"><bdi>978-0-534-62728-7</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/55880584">55880584</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Aztecs+of+Central+Mexico%3A+An+Imperial+Society&rft.place=Belmont%2C+CA&rft.series=Case+Studies+in+Cultural+Anthropology&rft.edition=2nd&rft.pub=Thomson+Wadsworth&rft.date=2005&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F55880584&rft.isbn=978-0-534-62728-7&rft.au=Berdan%2C+Frances+F.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps"><a href="/wiki/California_State_University,_Los_Angeles" title="California State University, Los Angeles">California State University, Los Angeles</a>, Department of Anthropology</span>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.calstatela.edu/academic/anthro/jbrady/ulama/proyectoulama.htm">"Proyecto Ulama 2003"</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131005154551/http://www.calstatela.edu/academic/anthro/jbrady/ulama/proyectoulama.htm">Archived</a> October 5, 2013, at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, accessed October 2007.</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCarrasco,_DavidScott_Sessions1998" class="citation book cs1">Carrasco, David; Scott Sessions (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/dailylifeofaztec00carr"><i>Daily Life of the Aztecs: People of the Sun and Earth</i></a>. The Greenwood Press "Daily Life Through History". Westport CT: Greenwood Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-313-29558-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-313-29558-1"><bdi>0-313-29558-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1080-4749">1080-4749</a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/37552549">37552549</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Daily+Life+of+the+Aztecs%3A+People+of+the+Sun+and+Earth&rft.place=Westport+CT&rft.series=The+Greenwood+Press+%22Daily+Life+Through+History%22&rft.pub=Greenwood+Press&rft.date=1998&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F37552549&rft.issn=1080-4749&rft.isbn=0-313-29558-1&rft.au=Carrasco%2C+David&rft.au=Scott+Sessions&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fdailylifeofaztec00carr&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChristenson,_Allen_J.2007" class="citation book cs1">Christenson, Allen J. (2007). <i>Popol Vuh: The Sacred Book of the Maya: The Great Classic of Central American Spirituality</i>. University of Oklahoma Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3839-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8061-3839-8"><bdi>978-0-8061-3839-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Popol+Vuh%3A+The+Sacred+Book+of+the+Maya%3A+The+Great+Classic+of+Central+American+Spirituality&rft.pub=University+of+Oklahoma+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-8061-3839-8&rft.au=Christenson%2C+Allen+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFColas,_PierreAlexander_Voss2006" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Colas" title="Pierre Colas">Colas, Pierre</a>; Alexander Voss (2006). "A Game of Life and Death – The Maya Ball Game". In <a href="/wiki/Nikolai_Grube" title="Nikolai Grube">Nikolai Grube</a>; Eva Eggebrecht; Matthias Seidel (eds.). <i>Maya: Divine Kings of the Rain Forest</i>. Cologne, Germany: Könemann. pp. 186–191. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-8331-1957-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-8331-1957-6"><bdi>978-3-8331-1957-6</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/71165439">71165439</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=A+Game+of+Life+and+Death+%E2%80%93+The+Maya+Ball+Game&rft.btitle=Maya%3A+Divine+Kings+of+the+Rain+Forest&rft.place=Cologne%2C+Germany&rft.pages=186-191&rft.pub=K%C3%B6nemann&rft.date=2006&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F71165439&rft.isbn=978-3-8331-1957-6&rft.au=Colas%2C+Pierre&rft.au=Alexander+Voss&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEspinoza,_Mauricio2002" class="citation journal cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Espinoza, Mauricio (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070524065929/http://www.denison.edu/collaborations/istmo/n04/proyectos/corazon.html">"El Corazón del Juego: El Juego de Pelota Mesoamericano como Texto Cultural en la Narrativa y el Cine Contemporáneo"</a>. <i>Istmo</i> (in Spanish). <b>4</b>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1535-2315">1535-2315</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.denison.edu/collaborations/istmo/n04/proyectos/corazon.html">the original</a> on May 24, 2007.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Istmo&rft.atitle=El+Coraz%C3%B3n+del+Juego%3A+El+Juego+de+Pelota+Mesoamericano+como+Texto+Cultural+en+la+Narrativa+y+el+Cine+Contempor%C3%A1neo&rft.volume=4&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=1535-2315&rft.au=Espinoza%2C+Mauricio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.denison.edu%2Fcollaborations%2Fistmo%2Fn04%2Fproyectos%2Fcorazon.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFoster,_Lynn_V.2002" class="citation book cs1">Foster, Lynn V. (2002). <i>Handbook to Life in the Ancient Maya World</i>. Facts on File Library of World History. New York: Facts On File. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4148-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8160-4148-0"><bdi>978-0-8160-4148-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Handbook+to+Life+in+the+Ancient+Maya+World&rft.place=New+York&rft.series=Facts+on+File+Library+of+World+History&rft.pub=Facts+On+File&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-8160-4148-0&rft.au=Foster%2C+Lynn+V.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHosler,_DorothySandra_BurkettMichael_Tarkanian1999" class="citation journal cs1">Hosler, Dorothy; Sandra Burkett; Michael Tarkanian (June 18, 1999). "Prehistoric Polymers: Rubber Processing in Ancient Mesoamerica". <i><a href="/wiki/Science_(journal)" title="Science (journal)">Science</a></i>. <b>284</b> (5422): 1988–1991. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1126%2Fscience.284.5422.1988">10.1126/science.284.5422.1988</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/10373117">10373117</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Science&rft.atitle=Prehistoric+Polymers%3A+Rubber+Processing+in+Ancient+Mesoamerica&rft.volume=284&rft.issue=5422&rft.pages=1988-1991&rft.date=1999-06-18&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1126%2Fscience.284.5422.1988&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F10373117&rft.au=Hosler%2C+Dorothy&rft.au=Sandra+Burkett&rft.au=Michael+Tarkanian&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcKillop,_Heather_I.2004" class="citation book cs1">McKillop, Heather I. (2004). <i>The Ancient Maya: New Perspectives</i>. Santa Barbara, CA: ABC-CLIO. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-697-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-57607-697-2"><bdi>978-1-57607-697-2</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/56558696">56558696</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Ancient+Maya%3A+New+Perspectives&rft.place=Santa+Barbara%2C+CA&rft.pub=ABC-CLIO&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F56558696&rft.isbn=978-1-57607-697-2&rft.au=McKillop%2C+Heather+I.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMetropolitan_Museum_of_Art2002" class="citation journal cs1">Metropolitan Museum of Art (2002). "Recent Acquisitions, A selection 2001–2002". <i>The Metropolitan Museum of Art Bulletin</i>. <b>LX</b> (2). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0026-1521">0026-1521</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art+Bulletin&rft.atitle=Recent+Acquisitions%2C+A+selection+2001%E2%80%932002&rft.volume=LX&rft.issue=2&rft.date=2002&rft.issn=0026-1521&rft.au=Metropolitan+Museum+of+Art&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMiller,_Mary_EllenSimon_Martin2004" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Mary_Miller_(art_historian)" title="Mary Miller (art historian)">Miller, Mary Ellen</a>; <a href="/wiki/Simon_Martin_(Mayanist)" title="Simon Martin (Mayanist)">Simon Martin</a> (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/courtlyartofanci00mill"><i>Courtly Art of the Ancient Maya</i></a>. London: <a href="/wiki/Thames_%26_Hudson" title="Thames & Hudson">Thames & Hudson</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05129-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-500-05129-0"><bdi>978-0-500-05129-0</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/54799516">54799516</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Courtly+Art+of+the+Ancient+Maya&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Thames+%26+Hudson&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F54799516&rft.isbn=978-0-500-05129-0&rft.au=Miller%2C+Mary+Ellen&rft.au=Simon+Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcourtlyartofanci00mill&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilcox,_David_R.1991" class="citation book cs1">Wilcox, David R. (1991). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/101">"The Mesoamerican Ballgame in the American Southwest"</a>. In Vernon Scarborough; David R. Wilcox (eds.). <i>The Mesoamerican Ballgame</i>. Tucson: <a href="/wiki/University_of_Arizona_Press" title="University of Arizona Press">University of Arizona Press</a>. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mesoamericanball0000unse/page/101">101–125</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8165-1180-8"><bdi>978-0-8165-1180-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/22765562">22765562</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame+in+the+American+Southwest&rft.btitle=The+Mesoamerican+Ballgame&rft.place=Tucson&rft.pages=101-125&rft.pub=University+of+Arizona+Press&rft.date=1991&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F22765562&rft.isbn=978-0-8165-1180-8&rft.au=Wilcox%2C+David+R.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmesoamericanball0000unse%2Fpage%2F101&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFZender,_Mark2004" class="citation journal cs1">Zender, Mark (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080910095804/http://www.mesoweb.com/pari/publications/journal/404/Handspan.pdf">"Glyphs for "Handspan" and "Strike" in Classic Maya Ballgame Texts"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>The PARI Journal</i>. <b>IV</b> (4). <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0003-8113">0003-8113</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.mesoweb.com/pari/publications/journal/404/Handspan.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on September 10, 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+PARI+Journal&rft.atitle=Glyphs+for+%22Handspan%22+and+%22Strike%22+in+Classic+Maya+Ballgame+Texts&rft.volume=IV&rft.issue=4&rft.date=2004&rft.issn=0003-8113&rft.au=Zender%2C+Mark&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.mesoweb.com%2Fpari%2Fpublications%2Fjournal%2F404%2FHandspan.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AMesoamerican+ballgame" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesoamerican_ballgame&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></span> Media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Mesoamerican_ballgame" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Mesoamerican ballgame">Mesoamerican ballgame</a> at Wikimedia Commons </p> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nbahoopsonline.com/Articles/2008-09/Mesoamericanball.html">The First Basketball: The Mesoamerican ballgame</a> NBA Hoops Online</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.metmuseum.org/art/collection/search/316267">A figurine showing ballplayer gear</a>, from the Gulf coast's <a href="/wiki/Classic_Veracruz_culture" title="Classic Veracruz culture">Classic Veracruz culture</a>.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adena_culture" title="Adena culture">Adena</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alachua_culture" title="Alachua culture">Alachua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancient_Beringian" title="Ancient Beringian">Ancient Beringian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ancestral_Puebloans" title="Ancestral Puebloans">Ancestral Pueblo (Anasazi)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anishinaabe" title="Anishinaabe">Anishinaabe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avonlea_culture" title="Avonlea culture">Avonlea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baytown_culture" title="Baytown culture">Baytown</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Belle_Glade_culture" title="Belle Glade culture">Belle Glade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buttermilk_Creek_complex" title="Buttermilk Creek complex">Buttermilk Creek complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caborn-Welborn_culture" title="Caborn-Welborn culture">Caborn-Welborn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cades_Pond_culture" title="Cades Pond culture">Cades Pond</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calf_Creek_culture" title="Calf Creek culture">Calf Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Caloosahatchee_culture" title="Caloosahatchee culture">Caloosahatchee</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_culture" title="Clovis culture">Clovis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coles_Creek_culture" title="Coles Creek culture">Coles Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Comond%C3%BA_complex" title="Comondú complex">Comondú</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deptford_culture" title="Deptford culture">Deptford</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_tradition" title="Folsom tradition">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ancient" title="Fort Ancient">Fort Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Walton_culture" title="Fort Walton culture">Fort Walton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fremont_culture" title="Fremont culture">Fremont</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glacial_Kame_culture" title="Glacial Kame culture">Glacial Kame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glades_culture" title="Glades culture">Glades</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hohokam" title="Hohokam">Hohokam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_tradition" title="Hopewell tradition">Hopewell</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Hopewell_sites" title="List of Hopewell sites">List of Hopewell sites</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Jolla_complex" title="La Jolla complex">La Jolla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Las_Palmas_complex" title="Las Palmas complex">Las Palmas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maritime_Archaic" title="Maritime Archaic">Maritime Archaic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mississippian_culture" title="Mississippian culture">Mississippian</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/List_of_Mississippian_sites" title="List of Mississippian sites">List of Mississippian sites</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mogollon_culture" title="Mogollon culture">Mogollon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monongahela_culture" title="Monongahela culture">Monongahela</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Cordilleran_culture" title="Old Cordilleran culture">Old Cordilleran</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oneota" title="Oneota">Oneota</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Arctic_tradition" title="Paleo-Arctic tradition">Paleo-Arctic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paleo-Indians" title="Paleo-Indians">Paleo-Indians</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patayan" title="Patayan">Patayan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plano_cultures" title="Plano cultures">Plano</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plaquemine_culture" title="Plaquemine culture">Plaquemine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point_culture" title="Poverty Point culture">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Red_Ocher_people" title="Red Ocher people">Red Ocher</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Safety_Harbor_culture" title="Safety Harbor culture">Safety Harbor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Santa_Rosa-Swift_Creek_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Santa Rosa-Swift Creek culture">Santa Rosa-Swift Creek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/St._Johns_culture" title="St. Johns culture">St. Johns</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steed-Kisker_culture" title="Steed-Kisker culture">Steed-Kisker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suwannee_Valley_culture" title="Suwannee Valley culture">Suwannee Valley</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tchefuncte_site#Tchefuncte_culture" title="Tchefuncte site">Tchefuncte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troyville_culture" title="Troyville culture">Troyville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weeden_Island_culture" title="Weeden Island culture">Weeden Island</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Archaeological<br />sites</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Angel_Mounds" title="Angel Mounds">Angel Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anzick_site" title="Anzick site">Anzick site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bandelier_National_Monument" title="Bandelier National Monument">Bandelier National Monument</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bastian_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Bastian Site">Bastian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benson_Archeological_Site_(13WD50)" title="Benson Archeological Site (13WD50)">Benson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blue_Spring_Heritage_Center" title="Blue Spring Heritage Center">Blue Spring Shelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bluefish_Caves" title="Bluefish Caves">Bluefish Caves</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/The_Bluff_Point_Stoneworks" title="The Bluff Point Stoneworks">The Bluff Point Stoneworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brewster_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Brewster Site">Brewster</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cahokia" title="Cahokia">Cahokia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Candelaria_Cave" title="Candelaria Cave">Candelaria Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casa_Grande_Ruins_National_Monument" title="Casa Grande Ruins National Monument">Casa Grande</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chaco_Culture_National_Historical_Park" title="Chaco Culture National Historical Park">Chaco Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coso_Rock_Art_District" title="Coso Rock Art District">Coso Rock Art District</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crystal_River_Archaeological_State_Park" title="Crystal River Archaeological State Park">Crystal River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuarenta_Casas" title="Cuarenta Casas">Cuarenta Casas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cueva_de_la_Olla_(archaeological_site)" title="Cueva de la Olla (archaeological site)">Cueva de la Olla</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cutler_Fossil_Site" title="Cutler Fossil Site">Cutler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eaker_site" title="Eaker site">Eaker</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Fin_del_Mundo" title="El Fin del Mundo">El Fin del Mundo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/El_Vallecito" title="El Vallecito">El Vallecito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effigy_Mounds_National_Monument" title="Effigy Mounds National Monument">Effigy Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Etowah_Indian_Mounds" title="Etowah Indian Mounds">Etowah Indian Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eva_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Eva Site">Eva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_site" title="Folsom site">Folsom</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Ancient_(Lebanon,_Ohio)" title="Fort Ancient (Lebanon, Ohio)">Fort Ancient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Center" title="Fort Center">Fort Center</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fort_Juelson" title="Fort Juelson">Fort Juelson</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Four_Mounds_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Four Mounds Site">Four Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gila_Cliff_Dwellings_National_Monument" title="Gila Cliff Dwellings National Monument">Gila Cliff Dwellings</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glenwood_Archeological_District" title="Glenwood Archeological District">Glenwood</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grimes_Point" title="Grimes Point">Grimes Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Helen_Blazes_archaeological_site" title="Helen Blazes archaeological site">Helen Blazes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Holly_Bluff_site" title="Holly Bluff site">Holly Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hopewell_Culture_National_Historical_Park" title="Hopewell Culture National Historical Park">Hopewell Culture National Historical Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horr%27s_Island" title="Horr's Island">Horr's Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hu%C3%A1poca" title="Huápoca">Huápoca</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Key_Marco" title="Key Marco">Key Marco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimball_Village" title="Kimball Village">Kimball Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kincaid_Mounds_State_Historic_Site" title="Kincaid Mounds State Historic Site">Kincaid Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kolomoki_Mounds" title="Kolomoki Mounds">Kolomoki Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_Jackson_Mounds_Archaeological_State_Park" title="Lake Jackson Mounds Archaeological State Park">Lake Jackson Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lehner_Mammoth-Kill_Site" title="Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site">Lehner Mammoth-Kill Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/L%27Anse_aux_Meadows" title="L'Anse aux Meadows">L'Anse aux Meadows</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lynch_Quarry_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Lynch Quarry Site">Lynch Quarry Site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marksville_culture" title="Marksville culture">Marksville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marmes_Rockshelter" title="Marmes Rockshelter">Marmes Rockshelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Meadowcroft_Rockshelter" title="Meadowcroft Rockshelter">Meadowcroft Rockshelter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesa_Verde_National_Park" title="Mesa Verde National Park">Mesa Verde</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moaning_Cavern" title="Moaning Cavern">Moaning Cavern</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moorehead_Circle" title="Moorehead Circle">Moorehead Circle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Morrison_Mounds" title="Morrison Mounds">Morrison Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moundville_Archaeological_Site" title="Moundville Archaeological Site">Moundville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mummy_Cave" title="Mummy Cave">Mummy Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nodena_site" title="Nodena site">Nodena site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocmulgee_Mounds_National_Historical_Park" title="Ocmulgee Mounds National Historical Park">Ocmulgee Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Old_Stone_Fort_(Tennessee)" title="Old Stone Fort (Tennessee)">Old Stone Fort</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orwell_Site_(Fergus_Falls,_Minnesota)" class="mw-redirect" title="Orwell Site (Fergus Falls, Minnesota)">Orwell site</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Casas_Grandes" title="Casas Grandes">Paquime</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Painted_Bluff" title="Painted Bluff">Painted Bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parkin_Archeological_State_Park" title="Parkin Archeological State Park">Parkin Park</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinson_Mounds" title="Pinson Mounds">Pinson Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plum_Bayou_Mounds_Archeological_State_Park" title="Plum Bayou Mounds Archeological State Park">Plum Bayou Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Portsmouth_Earthworks" title="Portsmouth Earthworks">Portsmouth Earthworks</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Poverty_Point" title="Poverty Point">Poverty Point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pueblo_Bonito" title="Pueblo Bonito">Pueblo Bonito</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rassawek" title="Rassawek">Rassawek</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recapture_Canyon" title="Recapture Canyon">Recapture Canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_Styx_archaeological_site" title="River Styx archaeological site">River Styx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roberts_Island_complex" title="Roberts Island complex">Roberts Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Eagle" title="Rock Eagle">Rock Eagle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Hawk" title="Rock Hawk">Rock Hawk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rosenstock_Village_Site" class="mw-redirect" title="Rosenstock Village Site">Rosenstock Village</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Russell_Cave_National_Monument" title="Russell Cave National Monument">Russell Cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salmon_Ruins" title="Salmon Ruins">Salmon Ruins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpent_Mound" title="Serpent Mound">Serpent Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rock_Paintings_of_Sierra_de_San_Francisco" title="Rock Paintings of Sierra de San Francisco">Sierra de San Francisco</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_shell_ring_sites" title="List of shell ring sites">Shell ring sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spiro_Mounds" title="Spiro Mounds">Spiro Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stallings_Island" title="Stallings Island">Stallings Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/SunWatch_Indian_Village" title="SunWatch Indian Village">SunWatch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taos_Pueblo" title="Taos Pueblo">Taos Pueblo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Town_Creek_Indian_Mound" title="Town Creek Indian Mound">Town Creek Indian Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turkey_River_Mounds_State_Preserve" title="Turkey River Mounds State Preserve">Turkey River Mounds</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Upward_Sun_River_site" title="Upward Sun River site">Upward Sun River</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Velda_Mound" title="Velda Mound">Velda Mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/West_Oak_Forest_Earthlodge_Site" title="West Oak Forest Earthlodge Site">West Oak Forest Earthlodge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wickiup_Hill" title="Wickiup Hill">Wickiup Hill</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Windover_Archeological_Site" title="Windover Archeological Site">Windover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Winterville_site" title="Winterville site">Winterville</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wupatki_National_Monument" title="Wupatki National Monument">Wupatki</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Human<br />remains</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anzick-1" title="Anzick-1">Anzick-1</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arlington_Springs_Man" title="Arlington Springs Man">Arlington Springs Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buhl_Woman" title="Buhl Woman">Buhl Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kennewick_Man" title="Kennewick Man">Kennewick Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/La_Brea_Woman" title="La Brea Woman">La Brea Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leanderthal_Lady" title="Leanderthal Lady">Leanderthal Lady</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melbourne_Bone_Bed#Melbourne_Man" title="Melbourne Bone Bed">Melbourne Man</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minnesota_Woman" title="Minnesota Woman">Minnesota Woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pe%C3%B1on_woman" title="Peñon woman">Peñon woman</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spirit_Cave_mummy" title="Spirit Cave mummy">Spirit Cave mummy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vero_man" title="Vero man">Vero man</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background:#E8E6B4;width:1%;vertical-align:top;">Miscellaneous</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aridoamerica" title="Aridoamerica">Aridoamerica</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Ballgame</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Black_drink" class="mw-redirect" title="Black drink">Black drink</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ceremonial_pipe" title="Ceremonial pipe">Ceremonial pipe</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chanunpa" title="Chanunpa">Chanunpa</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chunkey" title="Chunkey">Chunkey</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clovis_point" title="Clovis point">Clovis point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Container_Revolution_(pottery)" class="mw-redirect" title="Container Revolution (pottery)">Container Revolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eastern_Agricultural_Complex" title="Eastern Agricultural Complex">Eastern Agricultural Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eden_point" title="Eden point">Eden point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effigy_mound" title="Effigy mound">Effigy mound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex#Birdman" title="Southeastern Ceremonial Complex">Falcon dancer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Folsom_point" title="Folsom point">Folsom point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_Corn_Ceremony" title="Green Corn Ceremony">Green Corn Ceremony</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Horned_Serpent" title="Horned Serpent">Horned Serpent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kiva" title="Kiva">Kiva</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medicine_wheel" title="Medicine wheel">Medicine wheel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metallurgy_in_pre-Columbian_America#North_America" title="Metallurgy in pre-Columbian America">Metallurgy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mi%27kmaq_hieroglyphic_writing" class="mw-redirect" title="Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing">Mi'kmaq hieroglyphic writing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mound_Builders" title="Mound Builders">Mound Builders</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Native_American_Graves_Protection_and_Repatriation_Act" title="Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act">N.A.G.P.R.A.</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norse_colonization_of_North_America" title="Norse colonization of North America">Norse colonization of North America</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oasisamerica" title="Oasisamerica">Oasisamerica</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piasa" title="Piasa">Piasa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Projectile_point" title="Projectile point">Projectile point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Southeastern_Ceremonial_Complex" title="Southeastern Ceremonial Complex">Southeastern Ceremonial Complex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indigenous_North_American_stickball" title="Indigenous North American stickball">Stickball</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Three_Sisters_(agriculture)" title="Three Sisters (agriculture)">Three Sisters agriculture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thunderbird_(mythology)" title="Thunderbird (mythology)">Thunderbird</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_transoceanic_contact_theories" title="Pre-Columbian transoceanic contact theories">Transoceanic contact</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Underwater_panther" title="Underwater panther">Underwater panther</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_glyphs" title="Water glyphs">Water glyphs</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="background:#E8E6B4"><div> <dl><dt>Related</dt> <dd><a href="/wiki/Genetic_history_of_indigenous_peoples_of_the_Americas" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic history of indigenous peoples of the Americas">Genetic history</a></dd> <dd><a href="/wiki/Pre-Columbian_era" title="Pre-Columbian era">Pre-Columbian era</a></dd></dl> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" 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