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He explains how these thinkers contributed to the current theories of natural law and just war and how they played a key role in the elaboration of the principles which are central to the modern system of the law of nations.","my_library_url":"https://www.google.com/accounts/Login?service=print\u0026continue=https://books.google.com.sg/books%3Fop%3Dlibrary\u0026hl=en","is_magazine":false,"is_public_domain":false,"last_page":{"pid":"PA231","order":238,"title":"231"}},{"enableUserFeedbackUI":true,"pseudocontinuous":true,"is_cobrand":false,"sign_in_url":"https://www.google.com/accounts/Login?service=print\u0026continue=https://books.google.com.sg/books%3Fid%3D0e3MCwAAQBAJ%26q%3Dstood%26source%3Dgbs_word_cloud_r%26hl%3Den\u0026hl=en","isEntityPageViewport":false,"showViewportOnboarding":false,"showViewportPlainTextOnboarding":false},{"page":[{"pid":"PA109","flags":8,"order":116,"vq":"stood"}]},null,{"number_of_results":55,"search_results":[{"page_id":"PA5","page_number":"5","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as universal principles that were comprehended within the natural law. In particular terms, the natural law was taken by Aquinas to embody the first principles of practical reason, and with these principles relating to the basic\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=0e3MCwAAQBAJ\u0026pg=PA5\u0026vq=stood"},{"page_id":"PA6","page_number":"6","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as laws that were tainted with injustice and hence as laws which, as Aquinas put it, were not laws but rather outrages against law. However, it also followed, for Aquinas, that when the conditions of end, authority and form were\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=0e3MCwAAQBAJ\u0026pg=PA6\u0026vq=stood"},{"page_id":"PA8","page_number":"8","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as being eminently serviceable for the development of international law. Thus the natural law, as Aquinas accounted for it, was a law based in principles of human reason that were universal and directed towards what were\u0026nbsp;...","page_url":"https://books.google.com.sg/books?id=0e3MCwAAQBAJ\u0026pg=PA8\u0026vq=stood"},{"page_id":"PA9","page_number":"9","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e in need of some legal basis and justification. This meant, among much else, that law applied to the relations between states and rulers in the sense that war itself was assumed to involve the enforcement of law and, through this\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA26","page_number":"26","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e opposed to one another on a question pertaining to rights that is critical for liberal theory. For Kant expounded an ethics, and a set of principles of justice and political morality deriving from this, as where the rights of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA38","page_number":"38","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a requirement that, as in juristic logic, involved a commitment to the position that the Indians were to be recognized as subjects of the law of nations and as possessing rights and personality under it. This was reflected in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA39","page_number":"39","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a form of law that Suarez took to derive from the natural law , but nevertheless to be quite distinct from it . This was so in the respects , among others , that the principles of the natural law possessed an intrinsic\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA41","page_number":"41","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e in need of some system of law for the direction and proper order- ing of their mutual association. This normative regulation was pro- vided to a substantial degree by natural reason, but this was not so to an adequate level and in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA42","page_number":"42","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the found- ation of the state and of state government, but that the formation of the actual political communities constitutive of states and the estab- lishing therein of their particular institutions of government required and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA49","page_number":"49","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e in a representative relation as to their subjects and that they were, as such, distinguishable from the states for which they discharged the functions of rulership.24 The rules and principles pertaining to the law of nations that\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA54","page_number":"54","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a form of volitional human law in that it was law that originated in the will of nations and that derived ... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the underlying normative foun- dation for the law of nations. Thus it is to be emphasized that, with\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA57","page_number":"57","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e somewhat opposed to those of the later developments in theorizing on the state that involved the commitment to the principles of constitutional government and the rule of law. This was so in the matter of the strongly absolutist\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA61","page_number":"61","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as principles that, in considera- tion of this, were to be distinguished from the principles of the law of nature as these were understood to apply to individual men in respect of their specifically natural condition and\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA68","page_number":"68","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a form of association among men that was based in agreement or covenant. 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As to its substance , Pufendorf followed Grotius and Hobbes in present\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA77","page_number":"77","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the link between the absolute duties in natural law and the hypothetical duties to which men were subject from the standpoint of natural law. As we have noted, the duties given in the hypothetical prin- ciples of natural law\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA78","page_number":"78","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e in opposition to the condition of society particular to the civil state. Pufendorf did not agree with Hobbes that the natural condition of the relations among men was the state of war as such. For he considered that men in this\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA79","page_number":"79","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a unified association of men for common ends, and its forming involved the subjection of the men as associated to a common power such as to ensure that men would respect their mutual rights and thereby act in furtherance of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA80","page_number":"80","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as foundational among the rights and powers of sovereignty which belonged to government in the state. The civil law, as Pufendorf explained it, was set apart from natural law in that it was law that proceeded from the will of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA81","page_number":"81","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as rights that were to be thought of as originating through agreement, and as holding only within the state as an institution founded in agreement. However, it is to be emphasized that the explanation that Pufendorf gave of the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA83","page_number":"83","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e exempt from subordination to all external political authority structures, and with Pufendorf pointing to how supremacy and non-accountability were bound up with sovereignty as among the essential characteristics of states and the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA87","page_number":"87","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e to be law that, as in its form as the law of nations, was to be thought of as binding directly on the rulers within states and as impos- ing significant normative constraints and limitations on them as to the exercise of their\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA88","page_number":"88","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e by Pufendorf to be rights and duties that were enforceable through the exercise of coercive power, where this power was conditional on the introduction of some institutional structure based in acts of 88 The Law of Nations in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA89","page_number":"89","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e subject to the principles of the natural law. Nevertheless, Hobbes and Pufendorf did recognize that there was a clear point of distinction as between the situation of individual men in relation to natural law and the situation of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA92","page_number":"92","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the law of nature as applied directly to nations and states. The necessary law of nations was strictly binding in con- science and absolutely immutable in its form, and in consequence of this it had universal application to all\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA94","page_number":"94","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the voluntary law of nations. Thus it was that Wolff took the voluntary law of nations as law whose origins were to be explained in terms of the fiction of its being law stipulated by the ruler of the supreme state, and so, in\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA95","page_number":"95","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as specific to nations and states and to their condition. Granted that the voluntary law of nations, for Wolff ... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e not as the natural law as this applied to individual men, and then extended, as in that form, to have\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA96","page_number":"96","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the law to which individual men were subject. Despite this, Vattel was emphatic as to his clear disagreements with Wolff on certain substantial points to do with the natural law of nations, and with this being so quite\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA97","page_number":"97","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e to one another in the condition of nature which preceded the instituting of political society. In the natural condition of their co-existence, the nations and states, as with the individuals who comprised them, were the subjects\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA99","page_number":"99","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a form of society founded in general laws which served to underwrite the freedom, independence and equality of nations and states. The principle that nations and states were to be recognized as free, independent and equal\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA100","page_number":"100","snippet_text":"... obligations and rights, and where the conditions for their enforcement, as obligations and rights, \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as consistent with the liberty and equality which belonged to nations and 100 The Law of Nations in Political Thought."},{"page_id":"PA101","page_number":"101","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e out as the law which had application to nations and states in their actual condition and circumstances. There are three such subject-matters to which reference is made here: the law relating to international commerce, the law\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA102","page_number":"102","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e distinct from the necessary law of nations, as in the respect that it provided that commercial relations among nations and states were to be regulated by the law of treaties. This meant that commercial rights and obligations as\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA104","page_number":"104","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e placed beyond the possibility of their being legitimately subordinated to insti- tutions of international government, and with this so for the reason that states, as sovereign and independent entities, were on account of their\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA109","page_number":"109","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e not only as the law of nature modified such as to have a particular and exclusive, and so fully differentiated, application to states and to sovereign rulers; it \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e also as a body of law that in its substance was directed\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA110","page_number":"110","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e subject to analysis as an elaboration of the meaning and implications of the fundamental prin- ciples of justice in war. Thus in Book 1 of De Jure Belli ac Pacis, Grotius considered lawful authority in war in terms that brought\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA112","page_number":"112","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as normative rules and principles that possessed a moral character rather than a legal standing proper. In marked contrast to this, Wolff and Vattel insisted that there were immunities and pro- tections belonging to non-combatant\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA115","page_number":"115","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a public authority that remained based in the principles of the rule of law and those of limited constitutional government. Accordingly, the sovereign was bound to maintain the fundamental law of the state constitution\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA116","page_number":"116","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a formal corollary of the principle that nations and states were to be recognized as sovereign entities. As regarding Wolff, he looked forward to Vattel in picking out the principle of non-interference as something essential to\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA125","page_number":"125","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e in breach of the trust of the people, as relating to the ends of political society, and acted to invade the rights and property of subjects and thereby to make an arbitrary disposition of their lives, liberties and fortunes. Here\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA129","page_number":"129","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e supreme, in relation to the executive power, as in its status as the source and origin of all the powers involved in the execution and enforcement of the laws. In the matter of Locke and individual rights, it is to be observed\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA133","page_number":"133","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e subject to regulation through different prin- ciples and that there applied to them the various rules specific to the law of nations. The latter rules included the ones, as cited by Hume, to do with the inviolability of\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA139","page_number":"139","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e subject to the power of the sovereign . This was the model of law that Bentham set out most notably in Of Laws in General , as is clear from the follow- ing portion of the definition of law with which the work opens : A law may be\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA152","page_number":"152","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as law that was distinct from the positive law of nations in the respect that it was to be thought of as law that was binding on states and rulers without regard for their will, consent and agreement to be bound, and hence as law\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA153","page_number":"153","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e, in fact, as the rules of positive international morality. In the designating of inter- national law as the rules of positive international morality, Austin pre- served something of the sense, as essential to the modern natural\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA160","page_number":"160","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e secured to men through an authentic lawful entitlement.10 The determinations of the freedom of men in the state were set through laws, and so were set through the people as a united citizen-body in the exercise of their law-making\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA161","page_number":"161","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as sovereign persons or entities, as from the standpoint of the law-making capacities of the citizen-bodies com- prising them, and that states, as in their ideal form, were to exercise their sovereignty in accordance with the\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA181","page_number":"181","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e in absolute opposition to the condition of states in their natural society. This carried with it the implication that the law applying to states, and as binding through their will and agreement, was law that was to Rousseau, Kant\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA182","page_number":"182","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as a right that Kant thought of as serving to bring the dif- ferent peoples of the world together as through peaceful forms of mutual intercourse that remained subject to a universally accepted system of law. In this way, he\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA185","page_number":"185","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e opposed to the thrust and substance of the positivism and utilitarianism that were integral to Bentham\u0026#39;s project in jurisprudence and to his own version of the liberal internationalist position. As we have seen, Bentham adopted a\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA189","page_number":"189","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e in an essentially dynamic relation to the political order of which it was a part. It is Kant\u0026#39;s recognition of the dynamic, historical dimension of the law of peace, as much as the radical voluntarism of the view he took as to its\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA190","page_number":"190","snippet_text":"... pertaining to civil society, these were institutional bodies that \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e intermediate as between individuals and the state, in which sense of it the corporations set common ends and interests for 190 The Law of Nations in Political Thought."},{"page_id":"PA193","page_number":"193","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the product of the reason-directed course of human historical development.41 The form of historical analysis and explanation that Hegel adopted as to the development of the state is indicative of the decisiveness of his break\u0026nbsp;..."},{"page_id":"PA196","page_number":"196","snippet_text":"... \u003cb\u003estood\u003c/b\u003e as the final end of human history. The historical finality of the constitutional state, as Hegel envis- aged it, is at present an open question given what are the evident inade- quacies of states in the resolving of the\u0026nbsp;..."}],"search_query_escaped":"stood"},{});</script></div></div></div><script>(function() {var href = window.location.href;if (href.indexOf('?') !== -1) {var parameters = href.split('?')[1].split('&');for (var i = 0; i < parameters.length; i++) {var param = parameters[i].split('=');if (param[0] == 'focus') {var elem = document.getElementById(param[1]);if (elem) {elem.focus();}}}}})();</script>