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<span>Composition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Composition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Composition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Composition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Lipids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lipids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Lipids</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lipids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Phospholipids_forming_lipid_vesicles" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Phospholipids_forming_lipid_vesicles"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Phospholipids_forming_lipid_vesicles-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Carbohydrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Carbohydrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Carbohydrates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Carbohydrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Proteins" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Proteins"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Proteins</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Proteins-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Function</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Prokaryotes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Prokaryotes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Prokaryotes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Prokaryotes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Structures</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Structures-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Structures subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fluid_mosaic_model" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fluid_mosaic_model"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Fluid mosaic model</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fluid_mosaic_model-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lipid_bilayer" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lipid_bilayer"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Lipid bilayer</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lipid_bilayer-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Membrane_polarity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Membrane_polarity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.3</span> <span>Membrane polarity</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Membrane_polarity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Membrane_structures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Membrane_structures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.4</span> <span>Membrane structures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Membrane_structures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cytoskeleton" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cytoskeleton"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.5</span> <span>Cytoskeleton</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cytoskeleton-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Intracellular_membranes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intracellular_membranes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.6</span> <span>Intracellular membranes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intracellular_membranes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.7</span> <span>Variations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Permeability" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Permeability"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Permeability</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Permeability-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes_and_references" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes_and_references"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Notes and references</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes_and_references-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Cell membrane</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 81 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-81" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">81 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D8%A1_%D8%AE%D9%84%D9%88%D9%8A" title="غشاء خلوي – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="غشاء خلوي" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran" title="Membran – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Membran" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8B%E0%A6%B7_%E0%A6%9D%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BF" title="কোষ ঝিল্লি – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="কোষ ঝিল্লি" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%A8-pau-mo%CC%8D%CD%98h" title="Sè-pau-mo̍͘h – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Sè-pau-mo̍͘h" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%87%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D1%8B" title="Клетачныя мембраны – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Клетачныя мембраны" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D1%8A%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Клетъчна мембрана – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Клетъчна мембрана" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86elijska_membrana" title="Ćelijska membrana – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Ćelijska membrana" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_plasm%C3%A0tica" title="Membrana plasmàtica – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Membrana plasmàtica" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplazmatick%C3%A1_membr%C3%A1na" title="Cytoplazmatická membrána – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Cytoplazmatická membrána" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellbilen" title="Cellbilen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Cellbilen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellemembran" title="Cellemembran – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Cellemembran" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B4%D8%A7%D9%8A%D8%A9_%D8%B5%D9%8A%D8%B7%D9%88%D9%BE%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%85%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="غشاية صيطوپلازمية – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="غشاية صيطوپلازمية" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellmembran" title="Zellmembran – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Zellmembran" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rakumembraan" title="Rakumembraan – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Rakumembraan" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%9A%CF%85%CF%84%CF%84%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B9%CE%BA%CE%AE_%CE%BC%CE%B5%CE%BC%CE%B2%CF%81%CE%AC%CE%BD%CE%B7" title="Κυτταρική μεμβράνη – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Κυτταρική μεμβράνη" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_plasm%C3%A1tica" title="Membrana plasmática – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Membrana plasmática" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%88elmembrano" title="Ĉelmembrano – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Ĉelmembrano" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zelula_mintz" title="Zelula mintz – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Zelula mintz" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%BA%D8%B4%D8%A7%DB%8C_%D8%B3%D9%84%D9%88%D9%84%DB%8C" title="غشای سلولی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="غشای سلولی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrane_plasmique" title="Membrane plasmique – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Membrane plasmique" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cillscann%C3%A1n" title="Cillscannán – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Cillscannán" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Far-chrackan_killag" title="Far-chrackan killag – Manx" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Far-chrackan killag" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="Manx" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_plasm%C3%A1tica" title="Membrana plasmática – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Membrana plasmática" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%B8%ED%8F%AC%EB%A7%89" title="세포막 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="세포막" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%B2%D5%BB%D5%BB%D5%A1%D5%A9%D5%A1%D5%B2%D5%A1%D5%B6%D5%A9" title="Բջջաթաղանթ – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Բջջաթաղանթ" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%95%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%9D%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%80" title="कोशिका झिल्ली – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="कोशिका झिल्ली" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stani%C4%8Dna_membrana" title="Stanična membrana – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Stanična membrana" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran_sel" title="Membran sel – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Membran sel" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ulwelwesi_lwengqamuzana" title="Ulwelwesi lwengqamuzana – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Ulwelwesi lwengqamuzana" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frumuhimna" title="Frumuhimna – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Frumuhimna" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_cellulare" title="Membrana cellulare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Membrana cellulare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%9D_%D7%94%D7%AA%D7%90" title="קרום התא – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="קרום התא" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9mbran_s%C3%A8l" title="Mémbran sèl – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Mémbran sèl" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A3%E1%83%AF%E1%83%A0%E1%83%94%E1%83%93%E1%83%98%E1%83%A1_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%94%E1%83%9B%E1%83%91%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%9C%E1%83%90" title="უჯრედის მემბრანა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="უჯრედის მემბრანა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%83%D1%88%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Жасуша мембранасы – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Жасуша мембранасы" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Utando_wa_seli" title="Utando wa seli – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Utando wa seli" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manbr%C3%A0n_selil%C3%A8" title="Manbràn selilè – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Manbràn selilè" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parz%C3%BBna_xaney%C3%AA" title="Parzûna xaneyê – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Parzûna xaneyê" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%81%D1%8B" title="Клетка мембранасы – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Клетка мембранасы" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_cellulae" title="Membrana cellulae – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Membrana cellulae" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%A0%C5%ABnas_membr%C4%81na" title="Šūnas membrāna – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Šūnas membrāna" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zellmembran" title="Zellmembran – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Zellmembran" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazmin%C4%97_membrana" title="Plazminė membrana – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Plazminė membrana" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_cellulara" title="Membrana cellulara – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Membrana cellulara" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sejtmembr%C3%A1n" title="Sejtmembrán – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Sejtmembrán" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Клеточна мембрана – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Клеточна мембрана" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8B%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="കോശസ്തരം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="കോശസ്തരം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran_plasma" title="Membran plasma – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Membran plasma" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celmembraan" title="Celmembraan – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Celmembraan" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%86%9C" title="細胞膜 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="細胞膜" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellemembran" title="Cellemembran – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Cellemembran" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sellemembran" title="Sellemembran – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Sellemembran" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_plasmica" title="Membrana plasmica – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Membrana plasmica" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabaga_Lubbiyyoo(Cell_membrane)" title="Sabaga Lubbiyyoo(Cell membrane) – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Sabaga Lubbiyyoo(Cell membrane)" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plazmatik_membrana" title="Plazmatik membrana – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Plazmatik membrana" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%DA%98%D9%88%D9%86%DA%A9%D9%8A_%D8%BA%D8%B4%D8%A7" title="د ژونکي غشا – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د ژونکي غشا" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/B%C5%82ona_kom%C3%B3rkowa" title="Błona komórkowa – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Błona komórkowa" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_plasm%C3%A1tica" title="Membrana plasmática – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Membrana plasmática" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membran%C4%83_celular%C4%83" title="Membrană celulară – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Membrană celulară" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%82%D0%BE%D1%87%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Клеточная мембрана – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Клеточная мембрана" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrana_e_qeliz%C3%ABs" title="Membrana e qelizës – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Membrana e qelizës" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cell_membrane" title="Cell membrane – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Cell membrane" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoplazmatick%C3%A1_membr%C3%A1na" title="Cytoplazmatická membrána – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Cytoplazmatická membrána" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Celi%C4%8Dna_membrana" title="Celična membrana – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Celična membrana" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%DB%95%DB%8C_%D8%AE%D8%A7%D9%86%DB%95%DB%8C%DB%8C" title="پەردەی خانەیی – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="پەردەی خانەیی" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8B%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B8%D1%98%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Ћелијска мембрана – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Ћелијска мембрана" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%86elijska_membrana" title="Ćelijska membrana – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Ćelijska membrana" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9mbran_s%C3%A9l" title="Mémbran sél – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Mémbran sél" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Solukalvo" title="Solukalvo – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Solukalvo" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cellmembran" title="Cellmembran – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Cellmembran" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Membrano_ng_selula" title="Membrano ng selula – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Membrano ng selula" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%81_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%A9%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9A%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="உயிரணு மென்சவ்வு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="உயிரணு மென்சவ்வு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A2%E0%B8%B7%E0%B9%88%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B8%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%A1%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%8B%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C" title="เยื่อหุ้มเซลล์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เยื่อหุ้มเซลล์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%BCcre_zar%C4%B1" title="Hücre zarı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Hücre zarı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BB%D1%96%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%BC%D0%B1%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Клітинна мембрана – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Клітинна мембрана" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DA%BE%D9%84%DB%8C_(%D8%AE%D9%84%DB%8C%DB%81)" title="جھلی (خلیہ) – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جھلی (خلیہ)" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%88%D8%AC%DB%95%D9%8A%D8%B1%DB%95_%D9%BE%DB%95%D8%B1%D8%AF%D9%89%D8%B3%D9%89" title="ھۈجەيرە پەردىسى – Uyghur" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="ھۈجەيرە پەردىسى" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="Uyghur" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A0ng_t%E1%BA%BF_b%C3%A0o" title="Màng tế bào – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Màng tế bào" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%BB%86%E8%83%9E%E8%86%9C" title="细胞膜 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="细胞膜" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%B4%B0%E8%83%9E%E8%86%9C" title="細胞膜 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="細胞膜" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></span></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Biological membrane that separates the interior of a cell from its outside environment</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_4.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_4.svg/400px-Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_4.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="469" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_4.svg/600px-Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_4.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3a/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_4.svg/800px-Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_4.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1690" data-file-height="1982" /></a><figcaption>Illustration of a <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> cell membrane</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Celltypes.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/400px-Celltypes.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="167" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/600px-Celltypes.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/83/Celltypes.svg/800px-Celltypes.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="214" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of a <a href="/wiki/Eukaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Eukaryotic">eukaryotic</a> vs. a <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotic">prokaryotic</a> cell membrane</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>cell membrane</b> (also known as the <b>plasma membrane</b> or <b>cytoplasmic membrane</b>, and historically referred to as the <b>plasmalemma</b>) is a <a href="/wiki/Biological_membrane" title="Biological membrane">biological membrane</a> that separates and protects the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">interior</a> of a <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_space" title="Extracellular space">outside environment</a> (the extracellular space).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The cell membrane consists of a <a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">lipid bilayer</a>, made up of two layers of <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a> with <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterols</a> (a lipid component) interspersed between them, maintaining appropriate membrane <a href="/wiki/Membrane_fluidity" title="Membrane fluidity">fluidity</a> at various temperatures. The membrane also contains <a href="/wiki/Membrane_protein" title="Membrane protein">membrane proteins</a>, including <a href="/wiki/Integral_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral protein">integral proteins</a> that span the membrane and serve as <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transporter" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane transporter">membrane transporters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral protein">peripheral proteins</a> that loosely attach to the outer (peripheral) side of the cell membrane, acting as <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a> to facilitate interaction with the cell's environment.<sup id="cite_ref-Herrmann-2019_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Herrmann-2019-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Glycolipid" title="Glycolipid">Glycolipids</a> embedded in the outer lipid layer serve a similar purpose. </p><p>The cell membrane <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transport" title="Membrane transport">controls the movement of substances</a> in and out of a cell, being <a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">selectively permeable</a> to <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> and <a href="/wiki/Organic_molecule" class="mw-redirect" title="Organic molecule">organic molecules.</a><sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, cell membranes are involved in a variety of cellular processes such as <a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion" title="Cell adhesion">cell adhesion</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ion_conductivity" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion conductivity">ion conductivity</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Cell_signalling" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell signalling">cell signalling</a> and serve as the attachment surface for several extracellular structures, including the <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> and the carbohydrate layer called the <a href="/wiki/Glycocalyx" title="Glycocalyx">glycocalyx</a>, as well as the intracellular network of protein fibers called the <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a>. In the field of synthetic biology, cell membranes can be <a href="/wiki/Artificial_cell#Encapsulated_cell" title="Artificial cell">artificially reassembled</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Budin-2012_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Budin-2012-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Staff-2012a_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staff-2012a-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Staff-2012_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Staff-2012-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Zeidi-2018_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeidi-2018-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/History_of_cell_membrane_theory" title="History of cell membrane theory">History of cell membrane theory</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Robert_Hooke" title="Robert Hooke">Robert Hooke</a>'s discovery of cells in 1665 led to the proposal of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">cell theory</a>. Initially it was believed that all cells contained a hard cell wall since only plant cells could be observed at the time.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard-2014_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Microscopists focused on the cell wall for well over 150 years until advances in microscopy were made. In the early 19th century, cells were recognized as being separate entities, unconnected, and bound by individual cell walls after it was found that plant cells could be separated. This theory extended to include animal cells to suggest a universal mechanism for cell protection and development. </p><p>By the second half of the 19th century, microscopy was still not advanced enough to make a distinction between cell membranes and cell walls. However, some microscopists correctly identified at this time that while invisible, it could be inferred that cell membranes existed in animal cells due to intracellular movement of components internally but not externally and that membranes were not the equivalent of a <a href="/wiki/Plant_cell_wall" class="mw-redirect" title="Plant cell wall">plant cell wall</a>. It was also inferred that cell membranes were not vital components to all cells. Many refuted the existence of a cell membrane still towards the end of the 19th century. In 1890, a revision to the cell theory stated that cell membranes existed, but were merely secondary structures. It was not until later studies with osmosis and permeability that cell membranes gained more recognition.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard-2014_9-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 1895, <a href="/wiki/Ernest_Overton" title="Ernest Overton">Ernest Overton</a> proposed that cell membranes were made of lipids.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The lipid bilayer hypothesis, proposed in 1925 by <a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Evert_Gorter" class="extiw" title="nl:Evert Gorter">Gorter</a> and Grendel,<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> created speculation in the description of the cell membrane bilayer structure based on crystallographic studies and soap bubble observations. In an attempt to accept or reject the hypothesis, researchers measured membrane thickness. These researchers extracted the lipid from human red blood cells and measured the amount of surface area the lipid would cover when spread over the surface of the water. Since mature mammalian <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a> lack both nuclei and cytoplasmic organelles, the plasma membrane is the only lipid-containing structure in the cell. Consequently, all of the lipids extracted from the cells can be assumed to have resided in the cells' plasma membranes. The ratio of the surface area of water covered by the extracted lipid to the surface area calculated for the red blood cells from which the lipid was 2:1(approx) and they concluded that the plasma membrane contains a lipid bilayer.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard-2014_9-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1925 it was determined by Fricke that the thickness of erythrocyte and yeast cell membranes ranged between 3.3 and 4 nm, a thickness compatible with a lipid monolayer. The choice of the dielectric constant used in these studies was called into question but future tests could not disprove the results of the initial experiment. Independently, the leptoscope was invented in order to measure very thin membranes by comparing the intensity of light reflected from a sample to the intensity of a membrane standard of known thickness. The instrument could resolve thicknesses that depended on pH measurements and the presence of membrane proteins that ranged from 8.6 to 23.2 nm, with the lower measurements supporting the lipid bilayer hypothesis. Later in the 1930s, the membrane structure model developed in general agreement to be the <a href="/wiki/Paucimolecular_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Paucimolecular model">paucimolecular model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Davson" title="Hugh Davson">Davson</a> and <a href="/wiki/James_Danielli" title="James Danielli">Danielli</a> (1935). This model was based on studies of surface tension between oils and <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderm</a> eggs. Since the surface tension values appeared to be much lower than would be expected for an oil–water interface, it was assumed that some substance was responsible for lowering the interfacial tensions in the surface of cells. It was suggested that a lipid bilayer was in between two thin protein layers. The paucimolecular model immediately became popular and it dominated cell membrane studies for the following 30 years, until it became rivaled by the fluid mosaic model of <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Jonathan_Singer" title="Seymour Jonathan Singer">Singer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garth_L._Nicolson" title="Garth L. Nicolson">Nicolson</a> (1972).<sup id="cite_ref-Singer-1972_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Singer-1972-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lombard-2014_9-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Despite the numerous models of the cell membrane proposed prior to the <a href="/wiki/Fluid_mosaic_model" title="Fluid mosaic model">fluid mosaic model</a>, it remains the primary archetype for the cell membrane long after its inception in the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard-2014_9-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the <a href="/wiki/Fluid_mosaic_model" title="Fluid mosaic model">fluid mosaic model</a> has been modernized to detail contemporary discoveries, the basics have remained constant: the membrane is a lipid bilayer composed of hydrophilic exterior heads and a hydrophobic interior where proteins can interact with hydrophilic heads through polar interactions, but proteins that span the bilayer fully or partially have hydrophobic amino acids that interact with the non-polar lipid interior. The <a href="/wiki/Fluid_mosaic_model" title="Fluid mosaic model">fluid mosaic model</a> not only provided an accurate representation of membrane mechanics, it enhanced the study of hydrophobic forces, which would later develop into an essential descriptive limitation to describe biological <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">macromolecules</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard-2014_9-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>For many centuries, the scientists cited disagreed with the significance of the structure they were seeing as the cell membrane. For almost two centuries, the membranes were seen but mostly disregarded as an important structure with cellular function. It was not until the 20th century that the significance of the cell membrane as it was acknowledged. Finally, two scientists Gorter and Grendel (1925) made the discovery that the membrane is "lipid-based". From this, they furthered the idea that this structure would have to be in a formation that mimicked layers. Once studied further, it was found by comparing the sum of the cell surfaces and the surfaces of the lipids, a 2:1 ratio was estimated; thus, providing the first basis of the bilayer structure known today. This discovery initiated many new studies that arose globally within various fields of scientific studies, confirming that the structure and functions of the cell membrane are widely accepted.<sup id="cite_ref-Lombard-2014_9-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lombard-2014-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The structure has been variously referred to by different writers as the ectoplast (<a href="/wiki/Hugo_de_Vries" title="Hugo de Vries">de Vries</a>, 1885),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Plasmahaut</i> (plasma skin, <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Pfeffer" title="Wilhelm Pfeffer">Pfeffer</a>, 1877, 1891),<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i>Hautschicht</i> (skin layer, Pfeffer, 1886; used with a different meaning by <a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Hofmeister" title="Wilhelm Hofmeister">Hofmeister</a>, 1867), plasmatic membrane (Pfeffer, 1900),<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> plasma membrane, cytoplasmic membrane, cell envelope and cell membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some authors who did not believe that there was a functional permeable boundary at the surface of the cell preferred to use the term plasmalemma (coined by Mast, 1924) for the external region of the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Composition">Composition</h2></div> <p>Cell membranes contain a variety of <a href="/wiki/Biomolecule" title="Biomolecule">biological molecules</a>, notably lipids and proteins. Composition is not set, but constantly changing for fluidity and changes in the environment, even fluctuating during different stages of cell development. Specifically, the amount of cholesterol in human primary neuron cell membrane changes, and this change in composition affects fluidity throughout development stages.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Material is incorporated into the membrane, or deleted from it, by a variety of mechanisms: </p> <ul><li>Fusion of intracellular <a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vesicle (biology)">vesicles</a> with the membrane (<a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a>) not only excretes the contents of the vesicle but also incorporates the vesicle membrane's components into the cell membrane. The membrane may form <a href="/wiki/Bleb_(cell_biology)" title="Bleb (cell biology)">blebs</a> around extracellular material that pinch off to become vesicles (<a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">endocytosis</a>).</li> <li>If a membrane is continuous with a tubular structure made of membrane material, then material from the tube can be drawn into the membrane continuously.</li> <li>Although the concentration of membrane components in the aqueous phase is low (stable membrane components have low solubility in water), there is an exchange of molecules between the lipid and aqueous phases.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lipids">Lipids</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Membrane_Lipids.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Membrane_Lipids.svg/310px-Membrane_Lipids.svg.png" decoding="async" width="310" height="251" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Membrane_Lipids.svg/465px-Membrane_Lipids.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Membrane_Lipids.svg/620px-Membrane_Lipids.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="414" /></a><figcaption>Examples of the major membrane phospholipids and glycolipids: <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidylcholine" title="Phosphatidylcholine">phosphatidylcholine</a> (PtdCho), <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidylethanolamine" title="Phosphatidylethanolamine">phosphatidylethanolamine</a> (PtdEtn), <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidylinositol" title="Phosphatidylinositol">phosphatidylinositol</a> (PtdIns), <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidylserine" title="Phosphatidylserine">phosphatidylserine</a> (PtdSer).</figcaption></figure><p>The cell membrane consists of three classes of <a href="/wiki/Amphipathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphipathic">amphipathic</a> lipids: <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Glycolipid" title="Glycolipid">glycolipids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sterol" title="Sterol">sterols</a>. The amount of each depends upon the type of cell, but in the majority of cases phospholipids are the most abundant, often contributing for over 50% of all lipids in plasma membranes.<sup id="cite_ref-Lodish-2000a_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lodish-2000a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cooper-2000_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-2000-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Glycolipids only account for a minute amount of about 2% and sterols make up the rest. In <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cell</a> studies, 30% of the plasma membrane is lipid. However, for the majority of eukaryotic cells, the composition of plasma membranes is about half lipids and half proteins by weight. </p><p>The fatty chains in <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a> and <a href="/wiki/Glycolipid" title="Glycolipid">glycolipids</a> usually contain an even number of carbon atoms, typically between 16 and 20. The 16- and 18-carbon fatty acids are the most common. Fatty acids may be saturated or unsaturated, with the configuration of the double bonds nearly always "cis". The length and the degree of unsaturation of fatty acid chains have a profound effect on membrane fluidity as unsaturated lipids create a kink, preventing the fatty acids from packing together as tightly, thus decreasing the <a href="/wiki/Melting_point" title="Melting point">melting temperature</a> (increasing the fluidity) of the membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-Lodish-2000a_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lodish-2000a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Cooper-2000_24-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-2000-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ability of some organisms to regulate <a href="/wiki/Membrane_fluidity" title="Membrane fluidity">the fluidity of their cell membranes</a> by altering lipid composition is called <a href="/wiki/Homeoviscous_adaptation" title="Homeoviscous adaptation">homeoviscous adaptation</a>. </p><p>The entire membrane is held together via <a href="/wiki/Non-covalent" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-covalent">non-covalent</a> interaction of hydrophobic tails, however the structure is quite fluid and not fixed rigidly in place. Under <a href="/wiki/Physiological_condition" title="Physiological condition">physiological conditions</a> phospholipid molecules in the cell membrane are in the <a href="/wiki/Liquid_crystal" title="Liquid crystal">liquid crystalline state</a>. It means the lipid molecules are free to diffuse and exhibit rapid lateral diffusion along the layer in which they are present.<sup id="cite_ref-Lodish-2000a_23-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lodish-2000a-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the exchange of phospholipid molecules between intracellular and extracellular leaflets of the bilayer is a very slow process. <a href="/wiki/Lipid_rafts" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipid rafts">Lipid rafts</a> and caveolae are examples of <a href="/wiki/Cholesterol" title="Cholesterol">cholesterol</a>-enriched microdomains in the cell membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-Cooper-2000_24-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cooper-2000-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Also, a fraction of the lipid in direct contact with integral membrane proteins, which is tightly bound to the protein surface is called <a href="/wiki/Annular_lipid_shell" title="Annular lipid shell">annular lipid shell</a>; it behaves as a part of protein complex. </p><p>Cholesterol is normally found dispersed in varying degrees throughout cell membranes, in the irregular spaces between the hydrophobic tails of the membrane lipids, where it confers a stiffening and strengthening effect on the membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Additionally, the amount of cholesterol in biological membranes varies between organisms, cell types, and even in individual cells. Cholesterol, a major component of plasma membranes, regulates the fluidity of the overall membrane, meaning that cholesterol controls the amount of movement of the various cell membrane components based on its concentrations.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In high temperatures, cholesterol inhibits the movement of phospholipid fatty acid chains, causing a reduced permeability to small molecules and reduced membrane fluidity. The opposite is true for the role of cholesterol in cooler temperatures. Cholesterol production, and thus concentration, is up-regulated (increased) in response to cold temperature. At cold temperatures, cholesterol interferes with fatty acid chain interactions. Acting as antifreeze, cholesterol maintains the fluidity of the membrane. Cholesterol is more abundant in cold-weather animals than warm-weather animals. In plants, which lack cholesterol, related compounds called sterols perform the same function as cholesterol.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Phospholipids_forming_lipid_vesicles">Phospholipids forming lipid vesicles</h3></div> <p>Lipid vesicles or <a href="/wiki/Liposome" title="Liposome">liposomes</a> are approximately spherical pockets that are enclosed by a lipid bilayer.<sup id="cite_ref-Lodish-2000_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lodish-2000-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These structures are used in laboratories to study the effects of chemicals in cells by delivering these chemicals directly to the cell, as well as getting more insight into cell membrane permeability. Lipid vesicles and liposomes are formed by first suspending a lipid in an aqueous solution then agitating the mixture through <a href="/wiki/Sonication" title="Sonication">sonication</a>, resulting in a vesicle. Measuring the rate of <a href="/wiki/Efflux_(microbiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Efflux (microbiology)">efflux</a> from the inside of the vesicle to the ambient solution allows researchers to better understand membrane permeability.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Vesicles can be formed with molecules and ions inside the vesicle by forming the vesicle with the desired molecule or ion present in the solution. Proteins can also be embedded into the membrane through <a href="/wiki/Solubilizing" class="mw-redirect" title="Solubilizing">solubilizing</a> the desired proteins in the presence of detergents and attaching them to the phospholipids in which the liposome is formed.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (September 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> These provide researchers with a tool to examine various membrane protein functions. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Carbohydrates">Carbohydrates</h3></div> <p>Plasma membranes also contain <a href="/wiki/Carbohydrates" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbohydrates">carbohydrates</a>, predominantly <a href="/wiki/Glycoprotein" title="Glycoprotein">glycoproteins</a>, but with some glycolipids (<a href="/wiki/Cerebroside" title="Cerebroside">cerebrosides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Ganglioside" title="Ganglioside">gangliosides</a>). Carbohydrates are important in the role of <a href="/wiki/Cell-cell_recognition" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell-cell recognition">cell-cell recognition</a> in eukaryotes; they are located on the surface of the cell where they recognize host cells and share information. Viruses that bind to cells using these receptors cause an infection.<sup id="cite_ref-Brandley-1986_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandley-1986-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For the most part, no <a href="/wiki/Glycosylation" title="Glycosylation">glycosylation</a> occurs on membranes within the cell; rather generally glycosylation occurs on the extracellular surface of the plasma membrane. The <a href="/wiki/Glycocalyx" title="Glycocalyx">glycocalyx</a> is an important feature in all cells, especially <a href="/wiki/Epithelium" title="Epithelium">epithelia</a> with microvilli. Recent data suggest the glycocalyx participates in cell adhesion, <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte_homing_receptor" title="Lymphocyte homing receptor">lymphocyte homing</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-Brandley-1986_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Brandley-1986-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and many others. The <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/Penultimate" class="extiw" title="wiktionary:Penultimate">penultimate</a> sugar is <a href="/wiki/Galactose" title="Galactose">galactose</a> and the terminal sugar is <a href="/wiki/Sialic_acid" title="Sialic acid">sialic acid</a>, as the sugar backbone is modified in the <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a>. Sialic acid carries a negative charge, providing an external barrier to charged particles. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Proteins">Proteins</h3></div> <table class="wikitable" style="float:right; font-size:85%; margin-left:15px; width:60%"> <tbody><tr> <td><b>Type</b></td> <td><b>Description</b></td> <td><b>Examples</b> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Integral_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Integral protein">Integral proteins</a><br />or transmembrane proteins</td> <td>Span the membrane and have a hydrophilic <a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">cytosolic</a> <a href="/wiki/Protein_domains" class="mw-redirect" title="Protein domains">domain</a>, which interacts with internal molecules, a hydrophobic membrane-spanning domain that anchors it within the cell membrane, and a hydrophilic extracellular domain that interacts with external molecules. The hydrophobic domain consists of one, multiple, or a combination of <a href="/wiki/Alpha_helix" title="Alpha helix">α-helices</a> and <a href="/wiki/Beta_sheet" title="Beta sheet">β sheet</a> protein <a href="/wiki/Structural_motif" title="Structural motif">motifs</a>.</td> <td>Ion channels, <a href="/wiki/Proton_pump" title="Proton pump">proton pumps</a>, <a href="/wiki/G_protein-coupled_receptor" title="G protein-coupled receptor">G protein-coupled receptor</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Lipid_anchored_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Lipid anchored protein">Lipid anchored proteins</a></td> <td>Covalently bound to single or multiple lipid molecules; hydrophobically insert into the cell membrane and anchor the protein. The protein itself is not in contact with the membrane.</td> <td><a href="/wiki/G_protein" title="G protein">G proteins</a> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_protein" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral protein">Peripheral proteins</a></td> <td>Attached to integral membrane proteins, or associated with peripheral regions of the lipid bilayer. These proteins tend to have only temporary interactions with biological membranes, and once reacted, the molecule dissociates to carry on its work in the cytoplasm.</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_protein#Enzymes" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral protein">Some enzymes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peripheral_protein#Polypeptide_ligands_.28hormones.2C_inhibitors.2C_toxins.2C_antimicrobial_peptides.29" class="mw-redirect" title="Peripheral protein">some hormones</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>The cell membrane has large content of proteins, typically around 50% of membrane volume<sup id="cite_ref-Gray-2002_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gray-2002-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These proteins are important for the cell because they are responsible for various biological activities. Approximately a third of the <a href="/wiki/Gene" title="Gene">genes</a> in <a href="/wiki/Yeast" title="Yeast">yeast</a> code specifically for them, and this number is even higher in multicellular organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-Lodish-2000_25-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lodish-2000-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Membrane_protein" title="Membrane protein">Membrane proteins</a> consist of three main types: integral proteins, peripheral proteins, and lipid-anchored proteins.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As shown in the adjacent table, integral proteins are amphipathic transmembrane proteins. Examples of integral proteins include ion channels, proton pumps, and g-protein coupled receptors. <a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">Ion channels</a> allow inorganic ions such as sodium, potassium, calcium, or chlorine to diffuse down their electrochemical gradient across the lipid bilayer through hydrophilic pores across the membrane. The electrical behavior of cells (i.e. nerve cells) is controlled by ion channels.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Proton pumps are protein pumps that are embedded in the lipid bilayer that allow protons to travel through the membrane by transferring from one amino acid side chain to another. Processes such as electron transport and generating ATP use proton pumps.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A G-protein coupled receptor is a single polypeptide chain that crosses the lipid bilayer seven times responding to signal molecules (i.e. hormones and neurotransmitters). G-protein coupled receptors are used in processes such as cell to cell signaling, the regulation of the production of cAMP, and the regulation of ion channels.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002a_4-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002a-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The cell membrane, being exposed to the outside environment, is an important site of cell–cell communication. As such, a large variety of protein receptors and identification proteins, such as <a href="/wiki/Antigen" title="Antigen">antigens</a>, are present on the surface of the membrane. Functions of membrane proteins can also include cell–cell contact, surface recognition, cytoskeleton contact, signaling, enzymatic activity, or transporting substances across the membrane. </p><p> Most membrane proteins must be inserted in some way into the membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For this to occur, an N-terminus "signal sequence" of amino acids directs proteins to the <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a>, which inserts the proteins into a lipid bilayer. Once inserted, the proteins are then transported to their final destination in vesicles, where the vesicle fuses with the target membrane.</p><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Function">Function</h2></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg/400px-Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg/600px-Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg/800px-Cell_membrane_detailed_diagram_en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="877" data-file-height="361" /></a><figcaption>A detailed diagram of the cell membrane</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Blausen_0213_CellularDiffusion.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Blausen_0213_CellularDiffusion.png/220px-Blausen_0213_CellularDiffusion.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="201" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Blausen_0213_CellularDiffusion.png/330px-Blausen_0213_CellularDiffusion.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/93/Blausen_0213_CellularDiffusion.png/440px-Blausen_0213_CellularDiffusion.png 2x" data-file-width="2300" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Illustration depicting cellular diffusion</figcaption></figure> <p>The cell membrane surrounds the <a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">cytoplasm</a> of living cells, physically separating the <a href="/wiki/Intracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Intracellular">intracellular</a> components from the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular" class="mw-redirect" title="Extracellular">extracellular</a> environment. The cell membrane also plays a role in anchoring the <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a> to provide shape to the cell, and in attaching to the <a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">extracellular matrix</a> and other cells to hold them together to form <a href="/wiki/Tissue_(biology)" title="Tissue (biology)">tissues</a>. <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">Fungi</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, most <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Plant" title="Plant">plants</a> also have a <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a>, which provides a mechanical support to the cell and precludes the passage of <a href="/wiki/Macromolecule" title="Macromolecule">larger molecules</a>. </p><p>The cell membrane is <a href="/wiki/Semipermeable_membrane" title="Semipermeable membrane">selectively permeable</a> and able to regulate what enters and exits the cell, thus facilitating the <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transport" title="Membrane transport">transport</a> of materials needed for survival. The movement of substances across the membrane can be achieved by either <a href="/wiki/Passive_transport" title="Passive transport">passive transport</a>, occurring without the input of cellular energy, or by <a href="/wiki/Active_transport" title="Active transport">active transport</a>, requiring the cell to expend energy in transporting it. The membrane also maintains the <a href="/wiki/Membrane_potential" title="Membrane potential">cell potential</a>. The cell membrane thus works as a selective filter that allows only certain things to come inside or go outside the cell. The cell employs a number of transport mechanisms that involve biological membranes: </p><p>1. Passive <a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">osmosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a>: Some substances (small molecules, ions) such as carbon dioxide (CO<sub>2</sub>) and oxygen (O<sub>2</sub>), can move across the plasma membrane by diffusion, which is a passive transport process. Because the membrane acts as a barrier for certain molecules and ions, they can occur in different concentrations on the two sides of the membrane. Diffusion occurs when small molecules and ions move freely from high concentration to low concentration in order to equilibrate the membrane. It is considered a passive transport process because it does not require energy and is propelled by the concentration gradient created by each side of the membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such a concentration gradient across a semipermeable membrane sets up an <a href="/wiki/Osmotic_pressure" title="Osmotic pressure">osmotic flow</a> for the water. Osmosis, in biological systems involves a solvent, moving through a semipermeable membrane similarly to passive diffusion as the solvent still moves with the concentration gradient and requires no energy. While water is the most common solvent in cell, it can also be other liquids as well as supercritical liquids and gases.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>2. <a href="/wiki/Ion_channels" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion channels">Transmembrane protein channels</a> and <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transport_protein" title="Membrane transport protein">transporters</a>: Transmembrane proteins extend through the lipid bilayer of the membranes; they function on both sides of the membrane to transport molecules across it.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nutrients, such as sugars or amino acids, must enter the cell, and certain products of metabolism must leave the cell. Such molecules can diffuse passively through protein channels such as <a href="/wiki/Aquaporins" class="mw-redirect" title="Aquaporins">aquaporins</a> in <a href="/wiki/Facilitated_diffusion" title="Facilitated diffusion">facilitated diffusion</a> or are pumped across the membrane by <a href="/wiki/Membrane_transport_protein" title="Membrane transport protein">transmembrane transporters</a>. Protein channel proteins, also called <i>permeases</i>, are usually quite specific, and they only recognize and transport a limited variety of chemical substances, often limited to a single substance. Another example of a transmembrane protein is a cell-surface receptor, which allow cell signaling molecules to communicate between cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Alberts-2002_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Alberts-2002-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>3. <a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">Endocytosis</a>: Endocytosis is the process in which cells absorb molecules by engulfing them. The plasma membrane creates a small deformation inward, called an invagination, in which the substance to be transported is captured. This invagination is caused by proteins on the outside on the cell membrane, acting as receptors and clustering into depressions that eventually promote accumulation of more proteins and lipids on the cytosolic side of the membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The deformation then pinches off from the membrane on the inside of the cell, creating a vesicle containing the captured substance. Endocytosis is a pathway for internalizing solid particles ("cell eating" or <a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">phagocytosis</a>), small molecules and ions ("cell drinking" or <a href="/wiki/Pinocytosis" title="Pinocytosis">pinocytosis</a>), and macromolecules. Endocytosis requires energy and is thus a form of active transport. </p><p>4. <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">Exocytosis</a>: Just as material can be brought into the cell by invagination and formation of a vesicle, the membrane of a vesicle can be fused with the plasma membrane, extruding its contents to the surrounding medium. This is the process of exocytosis. Exocytosis occurs in various cells to remove undigested residues of substances brought in by endocytosis, to secrete substances such as hormones and enzymes, and to transport a substance completely across a cellular barrier. In the process of exocytosis, the undigested waste-containing food vacuole or the secretory vesicle budded from <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a>, is first moved by cytoskeleton from the interior of the cell to the surface. The vesicle membrane comes in contact with the plasma membrane. The lipid molecules of the two bilayers rearrange themselves and the two membranes are, thus, fused. A passage is formed in the fused membrane and the vesicles discharges its contents outside the cell. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Prokaryotes">Prokaryotes</h2></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">Prokaryotes</a> are divided into two different groups, <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a>, with bacteria dividing further into <a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">gram-positive</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">gram-negative</a>. <a href="/wiki/Gram-negative_bacteria" title="Gram-negative bacteria">Gram-negative bacteria</a> have both a plasma membrane and an <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_outer_membrane" title="Bacterial outer membrane">outer membrane</a> separated by <a href="/wiki/Periplasm" title="Periplasm">periplasm</a>; however, other <a href="/wiki/Prokaryotes" class="mw-redirect" title="Prokaryotes">prokaryotes</a> have only a plasma membrane. These two membranes differ in many aspects. The outer membrane of the gram-negative bacteria differs from other prokaryotes due to <a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">phospholipids</a> forming the exterior of the bilayer, and <a href="/wiki/Lipoprotein" title="Lipoprotein">lipoproteins</a> and phospholipids forming the interior.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outer membrane typically has a porous quality due to its presence of membrane proteins, such as gram-negative <a href="/wiki/Porin_(protein)" title="Porin (protein)">porins</a>, which are pore-forming proteins. The inner plasma membrane is also generally symmetric whereas the outer membrane is asymmetric because of proteins such as the aforementioned. </p><p>Also, for the prokaryotic membranes, there are multiple things that can affect the fluidity. One of the major factors that can affect the fluidity is fatty acid composition. For example, when the bacteria <i>Staphylococcus aureus</i> was grown in 37<sup>◦</sup>C for 24h, the membrane exhibited a more fluid state instead of a gel-like state. This supports the concept that in higher temperatures, the membrane is more fluid than in colder temperatures. When the membrane is becoming more fluid and needs to become more stabilized, it will make longer fatty acid chains or saturated fatty acid chains in order to help stabilize the membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">Bacteria</a> are also surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">cell wall</a> composed of <a href="/wiki/Peptidoglycan" title="Peptidoglycan">peptidoglycan</a> (amino acids and sugars). Some eukaryotic cells also have cell walls, but none that are made of peptidoglycan. The outer membrane of gram negative bacteria is rich in <a href="/wiki/Lipopolysaccharide" title="Lipopolysaccharide">lipopolysaccharides</a>, which are combined poly- or oligosaccharide and carbohydrate lipid regions that stimulate the cell's natural immunity.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The outer membrane can <a href="/wiki/Bleb_(cell_biology)" title="Bleb (cell biology)">bleb</a> out into periplasmic protrusions under stress conditions or upon virulence requirements while encountering a host target cell, and thus such blebs may work as virulence organelles.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Bacterial cells provide numerous examples of the diverse ways in which prokaryotic cell membranes are adapted with structures that suit the organism's niche. For example, proteins on the surface of certain bacterial cells aid in their gliding motion.<sup id="cite_ref-Saier-2013_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saier-2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many gram-negative bacteria have cell membranes which contain ATP-driven protein exporting systems.<sup id="cite_ref-Saier-2013_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Saier-2013-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Structures">Structures</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fluid_mosaic_model">Fluid mosaic model</h3></div> <p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Fluid_mosaic_model" title="Fluid mosaic model">fluid mosaic model</a> of <a href="/wiki/Seymour_Jonathan_Singer" title="Seymour Jonathan Singer">S. J. Singer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Garth_L._Nicolson" title="Garth L. Nicolson">G. L. Nicolson</a> (1972), which replaced the earlier <a href="/wiki/Davson-Danielli_model" class="mw-redirect" title="Davson-Danielli model">model of Davson and Danielli</a>, biological membranes can be considered as a <a href="/wiki/Two-dimensional_liquid" title="Two-dimensional liquid">two-dimensional liquid</a> in which lipid and protein molecules diffuse more or less easily.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the lipid bilayers that form the basis of the membranes do indeed form two-dimensional liquids by themselves, the plasma membrane also contains a large quantity of proteins, which provide more structure. Examples of such structures are protein-protein complexes, pickets and fences formed by the actin-based <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a>, and potentially <a href="/wiki/Lipid_raft" title="Lipid raft">lipid rafts</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lipid_bilayer">Lipid bilayer</h3></div> <figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fluid_Mosaic.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Fluid_Mosaic.svg/200px-Fluid_Mosaic.svg.png" decoding="async" width="200" height="108" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Fluid_Mosaic.svg/300px-Fluid_Mosaic.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/10/Fluid_Mosaic.svg/400px-Fluid_Mosaic.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="271" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the arrangement of amphipathic lipid molecules to form a <a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">lipid bilayer</a>. The yellow <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polar</a> head groups separate the grey hydrophobic tails from the aqueous cytosolic and extracellular environments.</figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">Lipid bilayers</a> form through the process of <a href="/wiki/Self-assembly" title="Self-assembly">self-assembly</a>. The cell membrane consists primarily of a thin layer of <a href="/wiki/Amphipathic" class="mw-redirect" title="Amphipathic">amphipathic</a> <a href="/wiki/Phospholipids" class="mw-redirect" title="Phospholipids">phospholipids</a> that spontaneously arrange so that the hydrophobic "tail" regions are isolated from the surrounding water while the hydrophilic "head" regions interact with the intracellular (cytosolic) and extracellular faces of the resulting bilayer. This forms a continuous, spherical <a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">lipid bilayer</a>. Hydrophobic interactions (also known as the <a href="/wiki/Hydrophobic_effect" title="Hydrophobic effect">hydrophobic effect</a>) are the major driving forces in the formation of lipid bilayers. An increase in interactions between hydrophobic molecules (causing clustering of hydrophobic regions) allows water molecules to bond more freely with each other, increasing the entropy of the system. This complex interaction can include noncovalent interactions such as <a href="/wiki/Van_der_Waals_force" title="Van der Waals force">van der Waals</a>, electrostatic and hydrogen bonds. </p><p>Lipid bilayers are generally impermeable to ions and polar molecules. The arrangement of hydrophilic heads and hydrophobic tails of the lipid bilayer prevent polar solutes (ex. amino acids, nucleic acids, carbohydrates, proteins, and ions) from diffusing across the membrane, but generally allows for the passive diffusion of hydrophobic molecules. This affords the cell the ability to control the movement of these substances via <a href="/wiki/Transmembrane_protein" title="Transmembrane protein">transmembrane protein</a> complexes such as pores, channels and gates. <a href="/wiki/Flippase" title="Flippase">Flippases</a> and <a href="/wiki/Scramblase" class="mw-redirect" title="Scramblase">scramblases</a> concentrate <a href="/wiki/Phosphatidyl_serine" class="mw-redirect" title="Phosphatidyl serine">phosphatidyl serine</a>, which carries a negative charge, on the inner membrane. Along with <a href="/wiki/Sialic_acid" title="Sialic acid">NANA</a>, this creates an extra barrier to charged <a href="/wiki/Moiety_(chemistry)" title="Moiety (chemistry)">moieties</a> moving through the membrane. </p><p>Membranes serve diverse functions in <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Prokaryote" title="Prokaryote">prokaryotic</a> cells. One important role is to regulate the movement of materials into and out of cells. The phospholipid bilayer structure (fluid mosaic model) with specific membrane proteins accounts for the selective permeability of the membrane and passive and active transport mechanisms. In addition, membranes in prokaryotes and in the mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotes facilitate the synthesis of ATP through chemiosmosis.<sup id="cite_ref-Zeidi-2018_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Zeidi-2018-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Membrane_polarity">Membrane polarity</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_polarity" title="Epithelial polarity">Epithelial polarity</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Alpha_Intercalated_Cell_Cartoon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Alpha_Intercalated_Cell_Cartoon.svg/300px-Alpha_Intercalated_Cell_Cartoon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="224" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Alpha_Intercalated_Cell_Cartoon.svg/450px-Alpha_Intercalated_Cell_Cartoon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/38/Alpha_Intercalated_Cell_Cartoon.svg/600px-Alpha_Intercalated_Cell_Cartoon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="777" data-file-height="579" /></a><figcaption>Alpha intercalated cell</figcaption></figure> <p>The <b>apical membrane</b> or <b>luminal membrane</b> of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that faces inward to the <a href="/wiki/Lumen_(anatomy)" title="Lumen (anatomy)">lumen</a>. This is particularly evident in <a href="/wiki/Epithelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Epithelial cell">epithelial</a> and <a href="/wiki/Endothelial_cell" class="mw-redirect" title="Endothelial cell">endothelial cells</a>, but also describes other polarized cells, such as <a href="/wiki/Neuron" title="Neuron">neurons</a>. The <b>basolateral membrane</b> or basolateral cell membrane of a polarized cell is the surface of the plasma membrane that forms its basal and lateral surfaces.<sup id="cite_ref-Uniprot_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Uniprot-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It faces outwards, towards the <a href="/wiki/Interstitium" title="Interstitium">interstitium</a>, and away from the lumen. Basolateral membrane is a compound phrase referring to the terms "basal (base) membrane" and "lateral (side) membrane", which, especially in epithelial cells, are identical in composition and activity. Proteins (such as ion channels and <a href="/wiki/Ion_pump_(biology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Ion pump (biology)">pumps</a>) are free to move from the basal to the lateral surface of the cell or vice versa in accordance with the <a href="/wiki/Fluid_mosaic_model" title="Fluid mosaic model">fluid mosaic model</a>. <a href="/wiki/Tight_junction" title="Tight junction">Tight junctions</a> join epithelial cells near their apical surface to prevent the migration of proteins from the basolateral membrane to the apical membrane. The basal and lateral surfaces thus remain roughly equivalent<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="margin-left:0.1em; white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify"><span title="The text near this tag may need clarification or removal of jargon. (October 2012)">clarification needed</span></a></i>]</sup> to one another, yet distinct from the apical surface. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Membrane_structures">Membrane structures</h3></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cell_membrane_drawing-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cell_membrane_drawing-en.svg/300px-Cell_membrane_drawing-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="184" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cell_membrane_drawing-en.svg/450px-Cell_membrane_drawing-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/Cell_membrane_drawing-en.svg/600px-Cell_membrane_drawing-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="706" data-file-height="434" /></a><figcaption>Diagram of the cell membrane's structures</figcaption></figure> <p>Cell membrane can form different types of "supramembrane" structures such as <a href="/wiki/Caveolae" title="Caveolae">caveolae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Postsynaptic_density" title="Postsynaptic density">postsynaptic density</a>, <a href="/wiki/Podosome" title="Podosome">podosomes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Invadopodia" title="Invadopodia">invadopodia</a>, <a href="/wiki/Focal_adhesion" title="Focal adhesion">focal adhesion</a>, and different types of <a href="/wiki/Cell_junctions" class="mw-redirect" title="Cell junctions">cell junctions</a>. These structures are usually responsible for <a href="/wiki/Cell_adhesion" title="Cell adhesion">cell adhesion</a>, communication, <a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">endocytosis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">exocytosis</a>. They can be visualized by <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron microscopy">electron microscopy</a> or <a href="/wiki/Fluorescence_microscopy" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluorescence microscopy">fluorescence microscopy</a>. They are composed of specific proteins, such as <a href="/wiki/Integrins" class="mw-redirect" title="Integrins">integrins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cadherins" class="mw-redirect" title="Cadherins">cadherins</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cytoskeleton">Cytoskeleton</h3></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">cytoskeleton</a> is found underlying the cell membrane in the cytoplasm and provides a scaffolding for membrane proteins to anchor to, as well as forming <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a> that extend from the cell. Indeed, cytoskeletal elements interact extensively and intimately with the cell membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Anchoring proteins restricts them to a particular cell surface — for example, the apical surface of epithelial cells that line the <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gut</a> — and limits how far they may diffuse within the bilayer. The cytoskeleton is able to form appendage-like organelles, such as <a href="/wiki/Cilia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cilia">cilia</a>, which are <a href="/wiki/Microtubule" title="Microtubule">microtubule</a>-based extensions covered by the cell membrane, and <a href="/wiki/Filopodia" title="Filopodia">filopodia</a>, which are <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a>-based extensions. These extensions are ensheathed in membrane and project from the surface of the cell in order to sense the external environment and/or make contact with the substrate or other cells. The apical surfaces of epithelial cells are dense with actin-based finger-like projections known as <a href="/wiki/Microvilli" class="mw-redirect" title="Microvilli">microvilli</a>, which increase cell surface area and thereby increase the absorption rate of nutrients. Localized decoupling of the cytoskeleton and cell membrane results in formation of a <a href="/wiki/Bleb_(cell_biology)" title="Bleb (cell biology)">bleb</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intracellular_membranes">Intracellular membranes</h3></div> <p>The content of the cell, inside the cell membrane, is composed of numerous <a href="/wiki/Membrane-bound_organelle" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane-bound organelle">membrane-bound organelles</a>, which contribute to the overall function of the cell. The origin, structure, and function of each organelle leads to a large variation in the cell composition due to the individual uniqueness associated with each organelle. </p> <ul><li>Mitochondria and chloroplasts are considered to have evolved from bacteria, known as the <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">endosymbiotic theory</a>. This theory arose from the idea that <i>Paracoccus</i> and <i>Rhodopseudomonas</i>, types of bacteria, share similar functions to mitochondria and blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) share similar functions to chloroplasts. Endosymbiotic theory proposes that through the course of evolution, a eukaryotic cell engulfed these two types of bacteria, leading to the formation of mitochondria and chloroplasts inside eukaryotic cells. This engulfment lead to the double-membranes systems of these organelles in which the outer membrane originated from the host's plasma membrane and the inner membrane was the endosymbiont's plasma membrane. Considering that mitochondria and chloroplasts both contain their own DNA is further support that both of these organelles evolved from engulfed bacteria that thrived inside a eukaryotic cell.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>In eukaryotic cells, the <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuclear membrane">nuclear membrane</a> separates the contents of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">nucleus</a> from the cytoplasm of the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The nuclear membrane is formed by an <a href="/wiki/Inner_nuclear_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Inner nuclear membrane">inner</a> and <a href="/wiki/Outer_nuclear_membrane" class="mw-redirect" title="Outer nuclear membrane">outer membrane</a>, providing the strict regulation of materials in to and out of the nucleus. Materials move between the cytosol and the nucleus through <a href="/wiki/Nuclear_pore" title="Nuclear pore">nuclear pores</a> in the nuclear membrane. If a cell's nucleus is more active in <a href="/wiki/Transcription_(biology)" title="Transcription (biology)">transcription</a>, its membrane will have more pores. The protein composition of the nucleus can vary greatly from the cytosol as many proteins are unable to cross through pores via diffusion. Within the nuclear membrane, the inner and outer membranes vary in protein composition, and only the outer membrane is continuous with the <a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">endoplasmic reticulum</a> (ER) membrane. Like the ER, the outer membrane also possesses ribosomes responsible for producing and transporting proteins into the space between the two membranes. The nuclear membrane disassembles during the early stages of mitosis and reassembles in later stages of mitosis.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The ER, which is part of the endomembrane system, which makes up a very large portion of the cell's total membrane content. The ER is an enclosed network of tubules and sacs, and its main functions include protein synthesis, and lipid metabolism. There are 2 types of ER, smooth and rough. The rough ER has ribosomes attached to it used for protein synthesis, while the smooth ER is used more for the processing of toxins and calcium regulation in the cell.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>The <a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a> has two interconnected round Golgi cisternae. Compartments of the apparatus forms multiple tubular-reticular networks responsible for organization, stack connection and cargo transport that display a continuous grape-like stringed vesicles ranging from 50 to 60 nm. The apparatus consists of three main compartments, a flat disc-shaped cisterna with tubular-reticular networks and vesicles.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations">Variations</h3></div> <p>The cell membrane has different lipid and protein compositions in distinct <a href="/wiki/List_of_distinct_cell_types_in_the_adult_human_body" class="mw-redirect" title="List of distinct cell types in the adult human body">types of cells</a> and may have therefore specific names for certain cell types. </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sarcolemma" title="Sarcolemma">Sarcolemma</a> in <a href="/wiki/Muscle_cell" title="Muscle cell">muscle cells</a>: Sarcolemma is the name given to the cell membrane of muscle cells.<sup id="cite_ref-Reed-1966_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reed-1966-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although the sarcolemma is similar to other cell membranes, it has other functions that set it apart. For instance, the sarcolemma transmits synaptic signals, helps generate action potentials, and is very involved in muscle contraction.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Unlike other cell membranes, the sarcolemma makes up small channels called <a href="/wiki/T-tubule" title="T-tubule">T-tubules</a> that pass through the entirety of muscle cells. It has also been found that the average sarcolemma is 10 nm thick as opposed to the 4 nm thickness of a general cell membrane.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Reed-1966_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Reed-1966-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li> <li>Oolemma is the cell membrane in <a href="/wiki/Oocytes" class="mw-redirect" title="Oocytes">oocytes</a>: The oolemma of oocytes, (immature egg cells) are not consistent with a lipid bilayer as they lack a bilayer and do not consist of lipids.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Rather, the structure has an inner layer, the fertilization envelope, and the exterior is made up of the vitelline layer, which is made up of glycoproteins; however, channels and proteins are still present for their functions in the membrane.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axolemma" title="Axolemma">Axolemma</a>: The specialized plasma membrane on the <a href="/wiki/Axons" class="mw-redirect" title="Axons">axons</a> of nerve cells that is responsible for the generation of the action potential. It consists of a granular, densely packed lipid bilayer that works closely with the cytoskeleton components <a href="/wiki/Spectrin" title="Spectrin">spectrin</a> and <a href="/wiki/Actin" title="Actin">actin</a>. These cytoskeleton components are able to bind to and interact with transmembrane proteins in the axolemma.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Permeability">Permeability</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_permeability" title="Intestinal permeability">Intestinal permeability</a></div> <p>The <a href="/wiki/Permeation#Simple_approximation" title="Permeation">permeability</a> of a membrane is the rate of passive <a href="/wiki/Diffusion" title="Diffusion">diffusion</a> of molecules through the membrane. These molecules are known as <a href="/wiki/Permeation" title="Permeation">permeant</a> molecules. Permeability depends mainly on the <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">electric charge</a> and <a href="/wiki/Chemical_polarity" title="Chemical polarity">polarity</a> of the molecule and to a lesser extent the <a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">molar mass</a> of the molecule. Due to the cell membrane's hydrophobic nature, small electrically neutral molecules pass through the membrane more easily than charged, large ones. The inability of charged molecules to pass through the cell membrane results in <a href="/wiki/PH_partition" title="PH partition">pH partition</a> of substances throughout the <a href="/wiki/Fluid_compartment" class="mw-redirect" title="Fluid compartment">fluid compartments</a> of the body<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (October 2024)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 20em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Annular_lipid_shell" title="Annular lipid shell">Annular lipid shell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_cell" title="Artificial cell">Artificial cell</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure" title="Bacterial cell structure">Bacterial cell structure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bangstad_syndrome" title="Bangstad syndrome">Bangstad syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_cortex" title="Cell cortex">Cell cortex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_damage" title="Cell damage">Cell damage</a>, including damage to cell membrane</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_theory" title="Cell theory">Cell theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoneme" title="Cytoneme">Cytoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elasticity_of_cell_membranes" title="Elasticity of cell membranes">Elasticity of cell membranes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gram-positive_bacteria" title="Gram-positive bacteria">Gram-positive bacteria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_models" title="Membrane models">Membrane models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_nanotubule" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane nanotubule">Membrane nanotubule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_cell_membrane_theory" title="History of cell membrane theory">History of cell membrane theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_raft" title="Lipid raft">Lipid raft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trogocytosis" title="Trogocytosis">Trogocytosis</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes_and_references">Notes and references</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellMembranes.html">Kimball's Biology pages</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090125224255/http://users.rcn.com/jkimball.ma.ultranet/BiologyPages/C/CellMembranes.html">Archived</a> 2009-01-25 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, Cell Membranes</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and 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class="external text" href="http://www.phys.unsw.edu.au/~jw/tension.html">Membrane homeostasis, tension regulation, mechanosensitive membrane exchange and membrane traffic</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opm.phar.umich.edu/localization.php?localization=Eukaryotic%20plasma%20membrane">3D structures of proteins associated with plasma membrane of eukaryotic cells</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://opm.phar.umich.edu/atlas.php?membrane=Eukaryotic%20plasma%20membrane">Lipid composition and proteins of some eukariotic membranes</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110924181859/http://www.etap.org/demo/biology1/instruction3tutor.html">Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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.navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cellular_structures" title="Template:Cellular structures"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cellular_structures" title="Template talk:Cellular structures"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cellular_structures" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cellular structures"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Structures_of_the_cell_/_organelles" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Structures of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> / <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelles</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endomembrane_system" title="Endomembrane system">Endomembrane <br />system</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Cell membrane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_nucleus" title="Cell nucleus">Nucleus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endoplasmic_reticulum" title="Endoplasmic reticulum">Endoplasmic reticulum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Golgi_apparatus" title="Golgi apparatus">Golgi apparatus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parenthesome" title="Parenthesome">Parenthesome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Autophagosome" title="Autophagosome">Autophagosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vesicle_(biology_and_chemistry)" title="Vesicle (biology and chemistry)">Vesicle</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Exosome_(vesicle)" title="Exosome (vesicle)">Exosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lysosome" title="Lysosome">Lysosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endosome" title="Endosome">Endosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagosome" title="Phagosome">Phagosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vacuole" title="Vacuole">Vacuole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Acrosome" title="Acrosome">Acrosome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_(cell_biology)" title="Granule (cell biology)">Cytoplasmic granule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Melanosome" title="Melanosome">Melanosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbody" title="Microbody">Microbody</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glyoxysome" title="Glyoxysome">Glyoxysome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peroxisome" title="Peroxisome">Peroxisome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weibel%E2%80%93Palade_body" title="Weibel–Palade body">Weibel–Palade body</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cytoskeleton" title="Cytoskeleton">Cytoskeleton</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microfilament" title="Microfilament">Microfilament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_filament" title="Intermediate filament">Intermediate filament</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microtubule" title="Microtubule">Microtubule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prokaryotic_cytoskeleton" title="Prokaryotic cytoskeleton">Prokaryotic cytoskeleton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microtubule_organizing_center" title="Microtubule organizing center">Microtubule organizing center</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Centrosome" title="Centrosome">Centrosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Centriole" title="Centriole">Centriole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basal_body" title="Basal body">Basal body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spindle_pole_body" title="Spindle pole body">Spindle pole body</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myofibril" title="Myofibril">Myofibril</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undulipodium" title="Undulipodium">Undulipodium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cilium" title="Cilium">Cilium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagellum#Eukaryotic" title="Flagellum">Flagellum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Axoneme" title="Axoneme">Axoneme</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radial_spoke" title="Radial spoke">Radial spoke</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudopodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudopodium">Pseudopodium</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lamellipodium" title="Lamellipodium">Lamellipodium</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filopodium" class="mw-redirect" title="Filopodium">Filopodium</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endosymbiont" title="Endosymbiont">Endosymbionts</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mitochondrion" title="Mitochondrion">Mitochondrion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastid" title="Plastid">Plastid</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chloroplast" title="Chloroplast">Chloroplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chromoplast" title="Chromoplast">Chromoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gerontoplast" title="Gerontoplast">Gerontoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Leucoplast" title="Leucoplast">Leucoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amyloplast" title="Amyloplast">Amyloplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Elaioplast" title="Elaioplast">Elaioplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteinoplast" title="Proteinoplast">Proteinoplast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tannosome" title="Tannosome">Tannosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apicoplast" title="Apicoplast">Apicoplast</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nitroplast" title="Nitroplast">Nitroplast</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other internal</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Nucleolus" title="Nucleolus">Nucleolus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ribosome" title="Ribosome">Ribosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spliceosome" title="Spliceosome">Spliceosome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vault_(organelle)" title="Vault (organelle)">Vault</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoplasm" title="Cytoplasm">Cytoplasm</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cytosol" title="Cytosol">Cytosol</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cytoplasmic_inclusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytoplasmic inclusion">Inclusions</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Proteasome" title="Proteasome">Proteasome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosome" title="Magnetosome">Magnetosome</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">External</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cell_wall" title="Cell wall">Cell wall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extracellular_matrix" title="Extracellular matrix">Extracellular matrix</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Structures_of_the_cell_membrane" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Cell_membranes" title="Template:Cell membranes"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Cell_membranes" title="Template talk:Cell membranes"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Cell_membranes" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Cell membranes"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Structures_of_the_cell_membrane" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Structures of the <a class="mw-selflink selflink">cell membrane</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Membrane_lipid" title="Membrane lipid">Membrane lipids</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">Lipid bilayer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phospholipid" title="Phospholipid">Phospholipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipoprotein" title="Lipoprotein">Lipoproteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sphingolipid" title="Sphingolipid">Sphingolipids</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sterol" title="Sterol">Sterols</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Membrane_protein" title="Membrane protein">Membrane proteins</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_glycoproteins" title="Membrane glycoproteins">Membrane glycoproteins</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integral_membrane_protein" title="Integral membrane protein">Integral membrane proteins</a>/<a href="/wiki/Transmembrane_protein" title="Transmembrane protein">transmembrane protein</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peripheral_membrane_protein" title="Peripheral membrane protein">Peripheral membrane protein</a>/<a href="/wiki/Lipid-anchored_protein" title="Lipid-anchored protein">Lipid-anchored protein</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Caveolae" title="Caveolae">Caveolae/Coated pits</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cell_junction" title="Cell junction">Cell junctions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Glycocalyx" title="Glycocalyx">Glycocalyx</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lipid_raft" title="Lipid raft">Lipid raft/microdomains</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_contact_site" title="Membrane contact site">Membrane contact sites</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Membrane_nanotube" class="mw-redirect" title="Membrane nanotube">Membrane nanotubes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myelin" title="Myelin">Myelin sheath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Node_of_Ranvier" title="Node of Ranvier">Nodes of Ranvier</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_envelope" title="Nuclear envelope">Nuclear envelope</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phycobilisome" title="Phycobilisome">Phycobilisomes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porosome" title="Porosome">Porosomes</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Membrane_transport" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Membrane_transport" title="Template:Membrane transport"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Membrane_transport" title="Template talk:Membrane transport"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Membrane_transport" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Membrane transport"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Membrane_transport" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Membrane_transport" title="Membrane transport">Membrane transport</a></div></th></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>Mechanisms for chemical transport through <a href="/wiki/Biological_membrane" title="Biological membrane">biological membranes</a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Passive_transport" title="Passive transport">Passive transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Simple_diffusion" class="mw-redirect" title="Simple diffusion">Simple diffusion</a> (or non-<a href="/wiki/Mediated_transport" title="Mediated transport">mediated transport</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Facilitated_diffusion" title="Facilitated diffusion">Facilitated diffusion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osmosis" title="Osmosis">Osmosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ion_channel" title="Ion channel">Channels</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solute_carrier_family" title="Solute carrier family">Carriers</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Active_transport" title="Active transport">Active transport</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Uniporter" title="Uniporter">Uniporter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symporter" title="Symporter">Symporter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Antiporter" title="Antiporter">Antiporter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_active_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Primary active transport">Primary active transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Secondary_active_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary active transport">Secondary active transport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Cytosis" title="Cytosis">Cytosis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Endocytosis" title="Endocytosis">Endocytosis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Efferocytosis" title="Efferocytosis">Efferocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-specific,_adsorptive_pinocytosis" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-specific, adsorptive pinocytosis">Non-specific, adsorptive pinocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pinocytosis" title="Pinocytosis">Pinocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potocytosis" title="Potocytosis">Potocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Receptor-mediated_endocytosis" title="Receptor-mediated endocytosis">Receptor-mediated endocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Transcytosis" title="Transcytosis">Transcytosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Exocytosis" title="Exocytosis">Exocytosis</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><a href="/wiki/Degranulation" title="Degranulation">Degranulation</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link 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