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id="toc-Evolutionary_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Basic_concepts" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Basic_concepts"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Basic concepts </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Basic_concepts-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Major_strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Major_strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Major strategies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Major_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Parasitic_castrators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasitic_castrators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.1 Parasitic castrators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasitic_castrators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Directly_transmitted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Directly_transmitted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.2 Directly transmitted </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Directly_transmitted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trophically_transmitted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trophically_transmitted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.3 Trophically transmitted </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trophically_transmitted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vector-transmitted" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vector-transmitted"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.4 Vector-transmitted </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vector-transmitted-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parasitoids" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasitoids"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.5 Parasitoids </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasitoids-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Micropredators" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micropredators"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2.6 Micropredators </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micropredators-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Transmission_strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Transmission_strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Transmission strategies </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Transmission_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Variations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Variations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Variations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Variations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hyperparasitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hyperparasitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.1 Hyperparasitism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hyperparasitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Social_parasitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Social_parasitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.2 Social parasitism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Social_parasitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Brood_parasitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Brood_parasitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.3 Brood parasitism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Brood_parasitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kleptoparasitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kleptoparasitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.4 Kleptoparasitism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kleptoparasitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sexual_parasitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sexual_parasitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.5 Sexual parasitism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sexual_parasitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Adelphoparasitism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Adelphoparasitism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.6 Adelphoparasitism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Adelphoparasitism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Illustrations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Illustrations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4.7 Illustrations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Illustrations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Taxonomic_range" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Taxonomic_range"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Taxonomic range </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Taxonomic_range-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Taxonomic range subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Taxonomic_range-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Animals" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Animals"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Animals </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Animals-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Plants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fungi" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fungi"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Fungi </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fungi-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Protozoa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Protozoa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Protozoa </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Protozoa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Bacteria" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bacteria"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.5 Bacteria </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bacteria-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Viruses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Viruses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.6 Viruses </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Viruses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Evolutionary ecology </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Evolutionary_ecology-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Evolutionary ecology subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Fossil_record" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fossil_record"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Fossil record </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fossil_record-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Coevolution" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Coevolution"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Coevolution </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Coevolution-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Long-term_partnerships_favouring_mutualism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Long-term_partnerships_favouring_mutualism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.1 Long-term partnerships favouring mutualism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Long-term_partnerships_favouring_mutualism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Competition_favouring_virulence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competition_favouring_virulence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.2 Competition favouring virulence </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competition_favouring_virulence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cospeciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cospeciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2.3 Cospeciation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cospeciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Modifying_host_behaviour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Modifying_host_behaviour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.3 Modifying host behaviour </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Modifying_host_behaviour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Trait_loss" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Trait_loss"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.4 Trait loss </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Trait_loss-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Host_defences" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Host_defences"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5 Host defences </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Host_defences-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Vertebrates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vertebrates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.1 Vertebrates </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vertebrates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Insects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Insects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.2 Insects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Insects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Plants_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Plants_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.5.3 Plants </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Plants_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biology_and_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biology_and_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Biology and conservation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Biology_and_conservation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Biology and conservation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Biology_and_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ecology_and_parasitology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ecology_and_parasitology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Ecology and parasitology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ecology_and_parasitology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rationale_for_conservation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rationale_for_conservation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Rationale for conservation </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rationale_for_conservation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Quantitative_ecology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Quantitative_ecology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Quantitative ecology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Quantitative_ecology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-History" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#History"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 History </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-History-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle History subsection </button> <ul id="toc-History-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Ancient" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ancient"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Ancient </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ancient-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medieval" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medieval"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Medieval </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Medieval-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Early_modern" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_modern"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.3 Early modern </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_modern-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Parasitology" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Parasitology"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.4 Parasitology </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Parasitology-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Vaccine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Vaccine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.5 Vaccine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Vaccine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Biological_control" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Biological_control"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.6 Biological control </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Biological_control-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Resistance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Resistance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.7 Resistance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Resistance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cultural_significance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cultural_significance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 Cultural significance </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Cultural_significance-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Cultural significance subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Cultural_significance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Classical_times" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classical_times"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.1 Classical times </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classical_times-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Society" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Society"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.2 Society </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Society-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Fiction" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Fiction"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7.3 Fiction </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Fiction-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 10 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 11 Sources </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 12 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 13 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Parasitism</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 92 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-92" aria-hidden="true" > 92 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%B7%D9%81%D9%84" title="تطفل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تطفل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismu" title="Parasitismu – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Parasitismu" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitizm" title="Parazitizm – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Parazitizm" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84" title="انگل – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="انگل" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%B0%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BF%E0%A6%A4%E0%A6%BE" title="পরজীবিতা – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="পরজীবিতা" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%96%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Паразітызм – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Паразітызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D1%8B%D1%82%D1%8B%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Паразытызм – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Паразытызм" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%8A%D0%BC" title="Паразитизъм – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Паразитизъм" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitizam" title="Parazitizam – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Parazitizam" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Parasitisme" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitismus" title="Parazitismus – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Parazitismus" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chisvetasimba" title="Chisvetasimba – Shona" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Chisvetasimba" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="Shona" class="interlanguage-link-target">ChiShona</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arfilyn" title="Arfilyn – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Arfilyn" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Parasitisme" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D8%A8%D8%B1%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%B7" title="تبرزيط – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="تبرزيط" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">الدارجة</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismus" title="Parasitismus – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Parasitismus" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Parasitism" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A0%CE%B1%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%83%CE%B9%CF%84%CE%B9%CF%83%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Παρασιτισμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Παρασιτισμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismo" title="Parasitismo – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Parasitismo" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitismo" title="Parazitismo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Parazitismo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismo" title="Parasitismo – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Parasitismo" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A7%D9%86%DA%AF%D9%84" title="انگل – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="انگل" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Parasitisme" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Faoighiche" title="Faoighiche – Scottish Gaelic" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Faoighiche" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="Scottish Gaelic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gàidhlig</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismo" title="Parasitismo – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Parasitismo" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B8%B0%EC%83%9D_(%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99)" title="기생 (생물학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="기생 (생물학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%84%D5%A1%D5%AF%D5%A1%D5%A2%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%AE%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Մակաբուծություն – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Մակաբուծություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE" title="परजीविता – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="परजीविता" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitizam" title="Parazitizam – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Parazitizam" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraziteso" title="Paraziteso – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Paraziteso" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Parasitisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismo" title="Parasitismo – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Parasitismo" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sn%C3%ADkjul%C3%ADf" title="Sníkjulíf – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Sníkjulíf" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parassitismo" title="Parassitismo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Parassitismo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%98%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%AA" title="טפילות – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="טפילות" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%AA%E0%B2%B0%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%80%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%BF%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%86" title="ಪರಜೀವಿಕೆ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಪರಜೀವಿಕೆ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98%E1%83%96%E1%83%9B%E1%83%98" title="პარაზიტიზმი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="პარაზიტიზმი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Паразитизм – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Паразитизм" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arvil" title="Arvil – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Arvil" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kimelea" title="Kimelea – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Kimelea" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitis" title="Parazitis – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Parazitis" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80" title="Мителер – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Мителер" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismus" title="Parasitismus – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Parasitismus" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paraz%C4%ABtisms" title="Parazītisms – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Parazītisms" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitizmas" title="Parazitizmas – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Parazitizmas" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%89l%C5%91sk%C3%B6d%C5%91" title="Élősködő – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Élősködő" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Паразитизам – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Паразитизам" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Katsentsitra" title="Katsentsitra – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Katsentsitra" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%AA%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%A6%E0%B4%82" title="പരാദം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="പരാദം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A3%E0%A4%BE" title="परजीवीपणा – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="परजीवीपणा" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%9E%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%90%E1%83%96%E1%83%98%E1%83%A2%E1%83%98" title="პარაზიტი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="პარაზიტი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Parasitisme" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D0%B8%D0%BC%D1%8D%D0%B3%D1%87%D0%BB%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Шимэгчлэл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Шимэгчлэл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Parasitisme" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AF%84%E7%94%9F" title="寄生 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="寄生" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasiit" title="Parasiit – Northern Frisian" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Parasiit" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="Northern Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nordfriisk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasittisme" title="Parasittisme – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Parasittisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasittisme" title="Parasittisme – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Parasittisme" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitisme" title="Parasitisme – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Parasitisme" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%AA%E0%AC%B0%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%80%E0%AC%AC%E0%AD%80" title="ପରଜୀବୀ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ପରଜୀବୀ" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maxxantuu" title="Maxxantuu – Oromo" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Maxxantuu" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="Oromo" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oromoo</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitizm" title="Parazitizm – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Parazitizm" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%AA%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%80%E0%A8%AA%E0%A9%81%E0%A8%A3%E0%A8%BE" title="ਪਰਜੀਵੀਪੁਣਾ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਪਰਜੀਵੀਪੁਣਾ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%D8%B1%D8%A7%D8%B2%D9%8A%D8%AA%D9%8A%D8%B2%D9%85" title="پرازيتيزم – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="پرازيتيزم" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paso%C5%BCytnictwo" title="Pasożytnictwo – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Pasożytnictwo" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismo" title="Parasitismo – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Parasitismo" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitism" title="Parazitism – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Parazitism" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atam" title="Atam – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Atam" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%BC" title="Паразитизм – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Паразитизм" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Паразиттар – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Паразиттар" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitizmi" title="Parazitizmi – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Parazitizmi" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Parasitism" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D9%81%D8%AA_%D8%AE%D9%88%D8%B1" title="مفت خور – Sindhi" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="مفت خور" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="Sindhi" class="interlanguage-link-target">سنڌي</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitizmus" title="Parazitizmus – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Parazitizmus" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zajedavstvo" title="Zajedavstvo – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Zajedavstvo" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%B4%DB%95%D8%AE%DB%86%D8%B1%DB%8C" title="مشەخۆری – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="مشەخۆری" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9F%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%B7%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B8%D0%B7%D0%B0%D0%BC" title="Паразитизам – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Паразитизам" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Loisinta" title="Loisinta – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Loisinta" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Parasitism" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parasitismo" title="Parasitismo – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Parasitismo" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%92%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%BF_%E0%AE%B5%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B4%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%81" title="ஒட்டுண்ணி வாழ்வு – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஒட்டுண்ணி வாழ்வு" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tijjen%E1%B9%ADedt" title="Tijjenṭedt – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tijjenṭedt" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%AA%E0%B0%B0%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%A8%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%80%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%A8%E0%B0%82" title="పరాన్నజీవనం – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="పరాన్నజీవనం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%AA%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%95" title="ปรสิต – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรสิต" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D1%83%D1%84%D1%82%D1%85%D3%AF%D1%80" title="Муфтхӯр – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Муфтхӯр" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parazitlik" title="Parazitlik – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" 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							cdx-button--size-medium cdx-button--icon-only cdx-dialog__header__close-button" aria-label="Close" onclick="document.getElementById("mw-fr-revision-details").style.display = "none";" type="submit"></button></header><div class="cdx-dialog__body">This is the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Pending_changes" title="Wikipedia:Pending changes">latest accepted revision</a>, <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Special:Log&type=review&page=Parasitism">reviewed</a> on 26 November 2024.</div></div><div tabindex="0"></div></div></div></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Relationship between species where one organism lives on or in another organism, causing it harm</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">"Parasite" redirects here. For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Parasite_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Parasite (disambiguation)">Parasite (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cymothoa_exigua_parassita_Lithognathus_mormyrus.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Cymothoa_exigua_parassita_Lithognathus_mormyrus.JPG/300px-Cymothoa_exigua_parassita_Lithognathus_mormyrus.JPG" decoding="async" width="300" height="225" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Cymothoa_exigua_parassita_Lithognathus_mormyrus.JPG/450px-Cymothoa_exigua_parassita_Lithognathus_mormyrus.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0a/Cymothoa_exigua_parassita_Lithognathus_mormyrus.JPG/600px-Cymothoa_exigua_parassita_Lithognathus_mormyrus.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3210" data-file-height="2408" /></a><figcaption>A <a href="/wiki/Fish_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Fish parasite">fish parasite</a>, the isopod <a href="/wiki/Cymothoa_exigua" title="Cymothoa exigua">Cymothoa exigua</a>, replacing the tongue of a <a href="/wiki/Lithognathus" title="Lithognathus">Lithognathus</a></figcaption></figure> Parasitism is a <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">close relationship</a> between <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, where one organism, the parasite, lives on or inside another organism, the <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a>, causing it some harm, and is <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapted</a> structurally to this way of life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin20074–5-1">[1]</a> The entomologist <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a> characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one".<a href="#cite_note-Wilson2014-2">[2]</a> Parasites include single-celled <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoans</a> such as the agents of <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sleeping_sickness" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleeping sickness">sleeping sickness</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Amoebic_dysentery" class="mw-redirect" title="Amoebic dysentery">amoebic dysentery</a>; animals such as <a href="/wiki/Hookworm" title="Hookworm">hookworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lice">lice</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">mosquitoes</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Vampire_bat" title="Vampire bat">vampire bats</a>; <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Armillaria_mellea" title="Armillaria mellea">honey fungus</a> and the agents of <a href="/wiki/Ringworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Ringworm">ringworm</a>; and plants such as <a href="/wiki/Mistletoe" title="Mistletoe">mistletoe</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dodder" class="mw-redirect" title="Dodder">dodder</a>, and the <a href="/wiki/Orobanchaceae" title="Orobanchaceae">broomrapes</a>. There are six major parasitic <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology#Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Behavioral ecology">strategies</a> of exploitation of animal hosts, namely <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castration" title="Parasitic castration">parasitic castration</a>, directly transmitted parasitism (by contact), <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trophic" class="extiw" title="wikt:trophic">trophically-transmitted</a> parasitism (by being eaten), <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vector-transmitted</a> parasitism, <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">parasitoidism</a>, and micropredation. One major axis of classification concerns invasiveness: an endoparasite lives inside the host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's surface. Like predation, parasitism is a type of <a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">consumer–resource interaction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-pmid21199247-3">[3]</a> but unlike <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predators</a>, parasites, with the exception of parasitoids, are much smaller than their hosts, do not kill them, and often live in or on their hosts for an extended period. Parasites of animals are highly <a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">specialised</a>, each parasite species living on one given animal species, and <a href="/wiki/Reproduction" title="Reproduction">reproduce</a> at a faster rate than their hosts. Classic examples include interactions between <a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">vertebrate</a> hosts and <a href="/wiki/Tapeworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapeworms">tapeworms</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">flukes</a>, and those between the malaria-causing <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> species, and <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a>. Parasites reduce host <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> by general or specialised <a href="/wiki/Pathology" title="Pathology">pathology</a>, that ranges from <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castration" title="Parasitic castration">parasitic castration</a> to <a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavior-altering parasites">modification of host behaviour</a>. Parasites increase their own fitness by exploiting hosts for resources necessary for their survival, in particular by feeding on them and by using intermediate (secondary) hosts to assist in their <a href="/wiki/Transmission_(medicine)" class="mw-redirect" title="Transmission (medicine)">transmission</a> from one definitive (primary) host to another. Although parasitism is often unambiguous, it is part of a spectrum of interactions between <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>, grading via parasitoidism into predation, through evolution into <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a>, and in some fungi, shading into being <a href="/wiki/Saprotrophic_nutrition" title="Saprotrophic nutrition">saprophytic</a>. Human knowledge of parasites such as <a href="/wiki/Roundworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworm">roundworms</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tapeworm" class="mw-redirect" title="Tapeworm">tapeworms</a> dates back to <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Egypt" title="Ancient Egypt">ancient Egypt</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">Greece</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Rome" title="Ancient Rome">Rome</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Early_modern" class="mw-redirect" title="Early modern">early modern</a> times, <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> observed <a href="/wiki/Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia lamblia</a> with his microscope in 1681, while <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a> described internal and external parasites including <a href="/wiki/Sheep_liver_fluke" class="mw-redirect" title="Sheep liver fluke">sheep liver fluke</a> and <a href="/wiki/Tick" title="Tick">ticks</a>. Modern <a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a> developed in the 19th century. In human culture, parasitism has negative connotations. These were exploited to <a href="/wiki/Satire" title="Satire">satirical</a> effect in <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a>'s 1733 poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody", comparing poets to <a href="/wiki/Hyperparasitical" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperparasitical">hyperparasitical</a> "vermin". In fiction, <a href="/wiki/Bram_Stoker" title="Bram Stoker">Bram Stoker</a>'s 1897 <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic horror</a> novel <a href="/wiki/Dracula" title="Dracula">Dracula</a> and its many later adaptations featured a <a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">blood-drinking</a> parasite. <a href="/wiki/Ridley_Scott" title="Ridley Scott">Ridley Scott</a>'s 1979 film <a href="/wiki/Alien_(film)" title="Alien (film)">Alien</a> was one of many works of <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a> to feature a parasitic alien species.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian2009-4">[4]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Etymology">Etymology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Etymology">edit</a>]</div> First used in English in 1539, the word parasite comes from the <a href="/wiki/Old_French" title="Old French">Medieval French</a> parasite, from the <a href="/wiki/Latinisation_(literature)" class="mw-redirect" title="Latinisation (literature)">Latinised</a> form parasitus, from <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greek_language" class="mw-redirect" title="Ancient Greek language">Ancient Greek</a> παράσιτος<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> (parasitos) 'one who eats at the table of another' in turn from παρά<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> (para) 'beside, by' and σῖτος (sitos) 'wheat, food'.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> The related term parasitism appears in English from 1611.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_strategies">Evolutionary strategies</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evolutionary strategies">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Basic_concepts">Basic concepts</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Basic concepts">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_life_cycle" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic life cycle">Parasitic life cycle</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Taenia_solium_tapeworm_scolex_with_its_four_suckers_and_two_rows_of_hooks_5262_lores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Taenia_solium_tapeworm_scolex_with_its_four_suckers_and_two_rows_of_hooks_5262_lores.jpg/220px-Taenia_solium_tapeworm_scolex_with_its_four_suckers_and_two_rows_of_hooks_5262_lores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Taenia_solium_tapeworm_scolex_with_its_four_suckers_and_two_rows_of_hooks_5262_lores.jpg/330px-Taenia_solium_tapeworm_scolex_with_its_four_suckers_and_two_rows_of_hooks_5262_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/36/Taenia_solium_tapeworm_scolex_with_its_four_suckers_and_two_rows_of_hooks_5262_lores.jpg/440px-Taenia_solium_tapeworm_scolex_with_its_four_suckers_and_two_rows_of_hooks_5262_lores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="688" data-file-height="464" /></a><figcaption>Head (scolex) of tapeworm <a href="/wiki/Taenia_solium" title="Taenia solium">Taenia solium</a>, an <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal parasite">intestinal parasite</a>, has hooks and <a href="/wiki/Sucker_(zoology)" title="Sucker (zoology)">suckers</a> to attach to its <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a></figcaption></figure> Parasitism is a kind of <a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">symbiosis</a>, a close and persistent long-term biological interaction between a parasite and its host. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Saprotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprotroph">saprotrophs</a>, parasites feed on living hosts, though some parasitic fungi, for instance, may continue to feed on hosts they have killed. Unlike <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensalism</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a>, the parasitic relationship harms the host, either feeding on it or, as in the case of intestinal parasites, consuming some of its food. Because parasites interact with other species, they can readily act as <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">vectors</a> of pathogens, causing <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_disease" title="Parasitic disease">disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-SuzukiSasaki2019-10">[10]</a><a href="#cite_note-pmid37458178-11">[11]</a> <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a> is by definition not a symbiosis, as the interaction is brief, but the entomologist <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a> has characterised parasites as "predators that eat prey in units of less than one".<a href="#cite_note-Wilson2014-2">[2]</a> Within that scope are many possible strategies. <a href="/wiki/Taxonomist" class="mw-redirect" title="Taxonomist">Taxonomists</a> classify parasites in a variety of overlapping schemes, based on their interactions with their hosts and on their <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycles</a>, which can be complex. An <a href="/wiki/Obligate_parasite" title="Obligate parasite">obligate parasite</a> depends completely on the host to complete its life cycle, while a <a href="/wiki/Facultative_parasite" title="Facultative parasite">facultative parasite</a> does not. Parasite life cycles involving only one host are called "direct"; those with a definitive host (where the parasite reproduces sexually) and at least one intermediate host are called "indirect".<a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> An endoparasite lives inside the host's body; an ectoparasite lives outside, on the host's surface.<a href="#cite_note-Para-Site-14">[14]</a> Mesoparasites—like some <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a>, for example—enter an opening in the host's body and remain partly embedded there.<a href="#cite_note-15">[15]</a> Some parasites can be generalists, feeding on a wide range of hosts, but many parasites, and the majority of protozoans and <a href="/wiki/Helminth" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminth">helminths</a> that parasitise animals, are specialists and extremely host-specific.<a href="#cite_note-Para-Site-14">[14]</a> An early basic, functional division of parasites distinguished microparasites and macroparasites. These each had a <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_model" title="Mathematical model">mathematical model</a> assigned in order to analyse the population movements of the host–parasite groupings.<a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-16">[16]</a> The microorganisms and viruses that can reproduce and complete their life cycle within the host are known as microparasites. Macroparasites are the multicellular organisms that reproduce and complete their life cycle outside of the host or on the host's body.<a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> Much of the thinking on types of parasitism has focused on terrestrial animal parasites of animals, such as helminths. Those in other environments and with other hosts often have analogous strategies. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Snubnosed_eel" title="Snubnosed eel">snubnosed eel</a> is probably a facultative endoparasite (i.e., it is semiparasitic) that opportunistically burrows into and eats sick and dying fish.<a href="#cite_note-Caira1997-18">[18]</a> <a href="/wiki/Phytophagous" class="mw-redirect" title="Phytophagous">Plant-eating</a> insects such as <a href="/wiki/Scale_insect" title="Scale insect">scale insects</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">aphids</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar" title="Caterpillar">caterpillars</a> closely resemble ectoparasites, attacking much larger plants; they serve as vectors of bacteria, fungi and viruses which cause <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">plant diseases</a>. As female scale insects cannot move, they are obligate parasites, permanently attached to their hosts.<a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-16">[16]</a> The sensory inputs that a parasite employs to identify and approach a potential host are known as "host cues". Such cues can include, for example, vibration,<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> exhaled <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a>, skin odours, visual and heat signatures, and moisture.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> Parasitic plants can use, for example, light, host physiochemistry, and volatiles to recognize potential hosts.<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Major_strategies">Major strategies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Major strategies">edit</a>]</div> There are six major parasitic <a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology#Evolutionarily_stable_strategy" title="Behavioral ecology">strategies</a>, namely <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic castrator">parasitic castration</a>; directly transmitted parasitism; <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trophic" class="extiw" title="wikt:trophic">trophically</a>-transmitted parasitism; <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector</a>-transmitted parasitism; <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">parasitoidism</a>; and micropredation. These apply to parasites whose hosts are plants as well as animals.<a href="#cite_note-Rollinson-16">[16]</a><a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> These strategies represent <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adaptive peaks</a>; intermediate strategies are possible, but organisms in many different groups have consistently <a href="/wiki/Convergent_evolution" title="Convergent evolution">converged</a> on these six, which are evolutionarily stable.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> A perspective on the evolutionary options can be gained by considering four key questions: the effect on the <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> of a parasite's hosts; the number of hosts they have per life stage; whether the host is prevented from reproducing; and whether the effect depends on intensity (number of parasites per host). From this analysis, the major evolutionary strategies of parasitism emerge, alongside predation.<a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-23">[23]</a> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Evolutionary strategies in parasitism and predation<a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-23">[23]</a> (Intensity-dependent: green, roman;        Intensity-independent: purple, italics) </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Host <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a></th> <th>Single host, stays alive</th> <th>Single host, dies</th> <th>Multiple hosts </th></tr> <tr> <td>Able to reproduce (fitness > 0)</td> <td>Conventional parasite    Pathogen</td> <td>Trophically-transmitted parasite<a href="#cite_note-24">[a]</a>    Trophically-transmitted pathogen</td> <td>Micropredator    Micropredator </td></tr> <tr> <td>Unable to reproduce (fitness = 0)</td> <td>-----    Parasitic castrator</td> <td>Trophically-transmitted parasitic castrator    Parasitoid</td> <td>Social predator<a href="#cite_note-25">[b]</a>    Solitary predator </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parasitic_castrators">Parasitic castrators</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Parasitic castrators">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castration" title="Parasitic castration">Parasitic castration</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Sacculina_carcini.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sacculina_carcini.jpg/220px-Sacculina_carcini.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="145" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sacculina_carcini.jpg/330px-Sacculina_carcini.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/50/Sacculina_carcini.jpg/440px-Sacculina_carcini.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1874" data-file-height="1235" /></a><figcaption>The parasitic castrator <a href="/wiki/Sacculina_carcini" title="Sacculina carcini">Sacculina carcini</a> (highlighted) attached to <a href="/wiki/Liocarcinus_holsatus" title="Liocarcinus holsatus">its crab host</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castrator" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitic castrator">Parasitic castrators</a> partly or completely destroy their host's ability to reproduce, diverting the energy that would have gone into reproduction into host and parasite growth, sometimes causing gigantism in the host. The host's other systems remain intact, allowing it to survive and to sustain the parasite.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin2007111-26">[24]</a> Parasitic crustaceans such as those in the specialised <a href="/wiki/Barnacle" title="Barnacle">barnacle</a> genus <a href="/wiki/Sacculina" title="Sacculina">Sacculina</a> specifically cause damage to the gonads of their many species<a href="#cite_note-Elumalai_Viswanathan_Pravinkumar_Raffi-27">[25]</a> of host <a href="/wiki/Crab" title="Crab">crabs</a>. In the case of Sacculina, the testes of over two-thirds of their crab hosts degenerate sufficiently for these male crabs to develop female <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristic" title="Secondary sex characteristic">secondary sex characteristics</a> such as broader abdomens, smaller <a href="/wiki/Chela_(organ)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chela (organ)">claws</a> and egg-grasping appendages. Various species of helminth castrate their hosts (such as insects and snails). This may happen directly, whether mechanically by feeding on their gonads, or by secreting a chemical that destroys reproductive cells; or indirectly, whether by secreting a hormone or by diverting nutrients. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">trematode</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoogonus_lasius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zoogonus lasius (page does not exist)">Zoogonus lasius</a>, whose <a href="/wiki/Trematode_life_cycle_stages" title="Trematode life cycle stages">sporocysts</a> lack mouths, castrates the intertidal marine snail <a href="/wiki/Tritia_obsoleta" class="mw-redirect" title="Tritia obsoleta">Tritia obsoleta</a> chemically, developing in its gonad and killing its reproductive cells.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin2007111-26">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Cheng13-28">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Directly_transmitted">Directly transmitted</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Directly transmitted">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Male_human_head_louse.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Male_human_head_louse.jpg/220px-Male_human_head_louse.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Male_human_head_louse.jpg/330px-Male_human_head_louse.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/45/Male_human_head_louse.jpg/440px-Male_human_head_louse.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2570" data-file-height="1720" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Pediculus_humanus_capitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Pediculus humanus capitis">Human head-lice</a> are directly transmitted <a href="/wiki/Obligate_parasite" title="Obligate parasite">obligate</a> ectoparasites</figcaption></figure> Directly transmitted parasites, not requiring a vector to reach their hosts, include such parasites of terrestrial vertebrates as lice and mites; marine parasites such as <a href="/wiki/Copepod" title="Copepod">copepods</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cyamidae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyamidae">cyamid</a> amphipods; <a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">monogeneans</a>; and many species of nematodes, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses. Whether endoparasites or ectoparasites, each has a single host-species. Within that species, most individuals are free or almost free of parasites, while a minority carry a large number of parasites; this is known as an <a href="/wiki/Aggregated_distribution" title="Aggregated distribution">aggregated distribution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Trophically_transmitted">Trophically transmitted</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Trophically transmitted">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clonorchis_sinensis_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Clonorchis_sinensis_2.png/220px-Clonorchis_sinensis_2.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="75" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Clonorchis_sinensis_2.png/330px-Clonorchis_sinensis_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Clonorchis_sinensis_2.png/440px-Clonorchis_sinensis_2.png 2x" data-file-width="1122" data-file-height="382" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Clonorchis_sinensis" title="Clonorchis sinensis">Clonorchis sinensis</a>, the Chinese liver fluke, is trophically transmitted</figcaption></figure> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/trophic" class="extiw" title="wikt:trophic">Trophically</a>-transmitted parasites are transmitted by being eaten by a host. They include trematodes (all except <a href="/wiki/Schistosomes" class="mw-redirect" title="Schistosomes">schistosomes</a>), <a href="/wiki/Cestodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Cestodes">cestodes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">acanthocephalans</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pentastomida" title="Pentastomida">pentastomids</a>, many <a href="/wiki/Roundworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Roundworms">roundworms</a>, and many protozoa such as <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma" class="mw-redirect" title="Toxoplasma">Toxoplasma</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> They have complex life cycles involving hosts of two or more species. In their juvenile stages they infect and often <a href="/wiki/Encyst" class="mw-redirect" title="Encyst">encyst</a> in the intermediate host. When the intermediate-host animal is eaten by a predator, the definitive host, the parasite survives the digestion process and matures into an adult; some live as <a href="/wiki/Intestinal_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Intestinal parasite">intestinal parasites</a>. Many trophically transmitted parasites <a href="/wiki/Parasite_increased_trophic_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite increased trophic transmission">modify the behaviour</a> of their intermediate hosts, increasing their chances of being eaten by a predator. As with directly transmitted parasites, the distribution of trophically transmitted parasites among host individuals is aggregated.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coinfection" title="Coinfection">Coinfection</a> by multiple parasites is common.<a href="#cite_note-29">[27]</a> <a href="/wiki/Strongyloides_stercoralis#Autoinfection" title="Strongyloides stercoralis">Autoinfection</a>, where (by exception) the whole of the parasite's <a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">life cycle</a> takes place in a single primary host, can sometimes occur in helminths such as <a href="/wiki/Strongyloides_stercoralis" title="Strongyloides stercoralis">Strongyloides stercoralis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ASP-30">[28]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vector-transmitted">Vector-transmitted</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Vector-transmitted">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">Disease vector</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg/220px-Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="156" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg/330px-Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/23/Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg/440px-Trypanosoma_sp._PHIL_613_lores.jpg 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="496" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Vector_(epidemiology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector (epidemiology)">vector-transmitted</a> protozoan endoparasite <a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma" title="Trypanosoma">Trypanosoma</a> among human <a href="/wiki/Red_blood_cell" title="Red blood cell">red blood cells</a></figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Disease_vector" title="Disease vector">Vector-transmitted</a> parasites rely on a third party, an intermediate host, where the parasite does not reproduce sexually,<a href="#cite_note-Para-Site-14">[14]</a> to carry them from one definitive host to another.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> These parasites are microorganisms, namely <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a>, often intracellular <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogens</a> (disease-causers).<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> Their vectors are mostly <a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">hematophagic</a> arthropods such as fleas, lice, ticks, and mosquitoes.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-31">[29]</a> For example, the deer tick <a href="/wiki/Ixodes_scapularis" title="Ixodes scapularis">Ixodes scapularis</a> acts as a vector for diseases including <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Babesiosis" title="Babesiosis">babesiosis</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Human_granulocytic_anaplasmosis" title="Human granulocytic anaplasmosis">anaplasmosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-pmid11450660-32">[30]</a> Protozoan endoparasites, such as the <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malarial</a> parasites in the genus <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> and sleeping-sickness parasites in the genus <a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma" title="Trypanosoma">Trypanosoma</a>, have infective stages in the host's blood which are transported to new hosts by biting insects.<a href="#cite_note-PollittMacGregor2011-33">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Parasitoids">Parasitoids</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Parasitoids">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">Parasitoid</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid_wasp" title="Parasitoid wasp">Parasitoid wasp</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">Parasitoids</a> are insects which sooner or later kill their hosts, placing their relationship close to predation.<a href="#cite_note-34">[32]</a> Most parasitoids are <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid_wasp" title="Parasitoid wasp">parasitoid wasps</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">hymenopterans</a>; others include <a href="/wiki/Dipterans" class="mw-redirect" title="Dipterans">dipterans</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Phoridae" title="Phoridae">phorid flies</a>. They can be divided into two groups, idiobionts and koinobionts, differing in their treatment of their hosts.<a href="#cite_note-GullanCranston2010-35">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Idiobiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Idiobiont">Idiobiont</a> parasitoids sting their often-large prey on capture, either killing them outright or paralysing them immediately. The immobilised prey is then carried to a nest, sometimes alongside other prey if it is not large enough to support a parasitoid throughout its development. An <a href="/wiki/Oviposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Oviposition">egg is laid</a> on top of the prey and the nest is then sealed. The parasitoid develops rapidly through its larval and pupal stages, <a href="/wiki/Mass_provisioning" title="Mass provisioning">feeding on the provisions</a> left for it.<a href="#cite_note-GullanCranston2010-35">[33]</a> <a href="/wiki/Koinobiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinobiont">Koinobiont</a> parasitoids, which include <a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">flies</a> as well as wasps, lay their eggs inside young hosts, usually larvae. These are allowed to go on growing, so the host and parasitoid develop together for an extended period, ending when the parasitoids emerge as adults, leaving the prey dead, eaten from inside. Some koinobionts regulate their host's development, for example preventing it from <a href="/wiki/Pupa" title="Pupa">pupating</a> or making it <a href="/wiki/Ecdysis" title="Ecdysis">moult</a> whenever the parasitoid is ready to moult. They may do this by producing hormones that mimic the host's moulting hormones (<a href="/wiki/Ecdysteroid" title="Ecdysteroid">ecdysteroids</a>), or by regulating the host's endocrine system.<a href="#cite_note-GullanCranston2010-35">[33]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-packed"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155.33333333333px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 153.33333333333px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Live_Tetragnatha_montana_(RMNH.ARA.14127)_parasitized_by_Acrodactyla_quadrisculpta_larva_(RMNH.INS.593867)_-_BDJ.1.e992.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Idiobiont parasitoid wasps immediately paralyse their hosts for their larvae (Pimplinae, pictured) to eat.[22]"><img alt="Idiobiont parasitoid wasps immediately paralyse their hosts for their larvae (Pimplinae, pictured) to eat.[22]" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Live_Tetragnatha_montana_%28RMNH.ARA.14127%29_parasitized_by_Acrodactyla_quadrisculpta_larva_%28RMNH.INS.593867%29_-_BDJ.1.e992.jpg/230px-Live_Tetragnatha_montana_%28RMNH.ARA.14127%29_parasitized_by_Acrodactyla_quadrisculpta_larva_%28RMNH.INS.593867%29_-_BDJ.1.e992.jpg" decoding="async" width="154" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Live_Tetragnatha_montana_%28RMNH.ARA.14127%29_parasitized_by_Acrodactyla_quadrisculpta_larva_%28RMNH.INS.593867%29_-_BDJ.1.e992.jpg/345px-Live_Tetragnatha_montana_%28RMNH.ARA.14127%29_parasitized_by_Acrodactyla_quadrisculpta_larva_%28RMNH.INS.593867%29_-_BDJ.1.e992.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Live_Tetragnatha_montana_%28RMNH.ARA.14127%29_parasitized_by_Acrodactyla_quadrisculpta_larva_%28RMNH.INS.593867%29_-_BDJ.1.e992.jpg/460px-Live_Tetragnatha_montana_%28RMNH.ARA.14127%29_parasitized_by_Acrodactyla_quadrisculpta_larva_%28RMNH.INS.593867%29_-_BDJ.1.e992.jpg 2x" data-file-width="825" data-file-height="646" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Idiobiont <a href="/wiki/Parasitoid_wasp" title="Parasitoid wasp">parasitoid wasps</a> immediately paralyse their hosts for their larvae (<a href="/wiki/Pimplinae" title="Pimplinae">Pimplinae</a>, pictured) to eat.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 176.66666666667px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 174.66666666667px;"><a href="/wiki/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_2357_Spotted_alfalfa_aphid_being_attacked_by_parasitic_wasp.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Koinobiont parasitoid wasps like this braconid lay their eggs via an ovipositor inside their hosts, which continue to grow and moult."><img alt="Koinobiont parasitoid wasps like this braconid lay their eggs via an ovipositor inside their hosts, which continue to grow and moult." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2357_Spotted_alfalfa_aphid_being_attacked_by_parasitic_wasp.jpg/262px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2357_Spotted_alfalfa_aphid_being_attacked_by_parasitic_wasp.jpg" decoding="async" width="175" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2357_Spotted_alfalfa_aphid_being_attacked_by_parasitic_wasp.jpg/393px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2357_Spotted_alfalfa_aphid_being_attacked_by_parasitic_wasp.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/04/CSIRO_ScienceImage_2357_Spotted_alfalfa_aphid_being_attacked_by_parasitic_wasp.jpg/524px-CSIRO_ScienceImage_2357_Spotted_alfalfa_aphid_being_attacked_by_parasitic_wasp.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1772" data-file-height="1219" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Koinobiont" class="mw-redirect" title="Koinobiont">Koinobiont</a> parasitoid wasps like this <a href="/wiki/Braconidae" title="Braconidae">braconid</a> lay their eggs via an <a href="/wiki/Ovipositor" title="Ovipositor">ovipositor</a> inside their hosts, which continue to grow and moult.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 122px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 120px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Female_Apocephalus_borealis_ovipositing_into_the_abdomen_of_a_worker_honey_bee.png" class="mw-file-description" title="Phorid fly (centre left) is laying eggs in the abdomen of a worker honey-bee, altering its behaviour."><img alt="Phorid fly (centre left) is laying eggs in the abdomen of a worker honey-bee, altering its behaviour." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Female_Apocephalus_borealis_ovipositing_into_the_abdomen_of_a_worker_honey_bee.png/180px-Female_Apocephalus_borealis_ovipositing_into_the_abdomen_of_a_worker_honey_bee.png" decoding="async" width="120" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Female_Apocephalus_borealis_ovipositing_into_the_abdomen_of_a_worker_honey_bee.png/270px-Female_Apocephalus_borealis_ovipositing_into_the_abdomen_of_a_worker_honey_bee.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Female_Apocephalus_borealis_ovipositing_into_the_abdomen_of_a_worker_honey_bee.png/360px-Female_Apocephalus_borealis_ovipositing_into_the_abdomen_of_a_worker_honey_bee.png 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="700" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Phoridae" title="Phoridae">Phorid fly</a> (centre left) is <a href="/wiki/Oviposition" class="mw-redirect" title="Oviposition">laying eggs</a> in the abdomen of a worker <a href="/wiki/Honey-bee" class="mw-redirect" title="Honey-bee">honey-bee</a>, <a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasites_and_parasitoids" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavior-altering parasites and parasitoids">altering its behaviour</a>.</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Micropredators">Micropredators</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Micropredators">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Anopheles_minimus.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Anopheles_minimus.jpg/220px-Anopheles_minimus.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Anopheles_minimus.jpg/330px-Anopheles_minimus.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/da/Anopheles_minimus.jpg/440px-Anopheles_minimus.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3032" data-file-height="2008" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Mosquito" title="Mosquito">Mosquitoes</a> are micropredators and important vectors of disease</figcaption></figure> A micropredator attacks more than one host, reducing each host's fitness by at least a small amount, and is only in contact with any one host intermittently. This behavior makes micropredators suitable as vectors, as they can pass smaller parasites from one host to another.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-23">[23]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wilson2017-36">[34]</a> Most micropredators are <a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">hematophagic</a>, feeding on blood. They include annelids such as <a href="/wiki/Leech" title="Leech">leeches</a>, crustaceans such as <a href="/wiki/Branchiura" class="mw-redirect" title="Branchiura">branchiurans</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gnathiidae" title="Gnathiidae">gnathiid</a> isopods, various <a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">dipterans</a> such as mosquitoes and <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_fly" title="Tsetse fly">tsetse flies</a>, other arthropods such as fleas and ticks, vertebrates such as <a href="/wiki/Lamprey" title="Lamprey">lampreys</a>, and mammals such as <a href="/wiki/Vampire_bat" title="Vampire bat">vampire bats</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Transmission_strategies">Transmission strategies</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Transmission strategies">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Entamoeba_histolytica_life_cycle-en.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Entamoeba_histolytica_life_cycle-en.svg/370px-Entamoeba_histolytica_life_cycle-en.svg.png" decoding="async" width="370" height="351" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Entamoeba_histolytica_life_cycle-en.svg/555px-Entamoeba_histolytica_life_cycle-en.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Entamoeba_histolytica_life_cycle-en.svg/740px-Entamoeba_histolytica_life_cycle-en.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1029" data-file-height="976" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Biological_life_cycle" title="Biological life cycle">Life cycle</a> of <a href="/wiki/Entamoeba_histolytica" title="Entamoeba histolytica">Entamoeba histolytica</a>, an anaerobic parasitic protozoan transmitted by the <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral route</a></figcaption></figure> Parasites use a variety of methods to infect animal hosts, including physical contact, the <a href="/wiki/Fecal%E2%80%93oral_route" title="Fecal–oral route">fecal–oral route</a>, free-living infectious stages, and vectors, suiting their differing hosts, life cycles, and ecological contexts.<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey2013-37">[35]</a> Examples to illustrate some of the many possible combinations are given in the table. <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Examples of transmission methods in different ecological contexts<a href="#cite_note-Godfrey2013-37">[35]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Parasite</th> <th>Host</th> <th>Transmission method</th> <th>Ecological context </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Gyrodactylus_turnbulli" title="Gyrodactylus turnbulli">Gyrodactylus turnbulli</a> (a <a href="/wiki/Monogenean" class="mw-redirect" title="Monogenean">monogenean</a>)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Poecilia_reticulata" class="mw-redirect" title="Poecilia reticulata">Poecilia reticulata</a> (guppy)</td> <td>physical contact</td> <td>social behaviour </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">Nematodes</a> e.g. <a href="/wiki/Strongyloides" title="Strongyloides">Strongyloides</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Macaca_fuscata" class="mw-redirect" title="Macaca fuscata">Macaca fuscata</a> (Japanese macaque)</td> <td>fecal–oral</td> <td> social behaviour (grooming) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Heligmosomoides_polygyrus" title="Heligmosomoides polygyrus">Heligmosomoides polygyrus</a> (a nematode)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Apodemus_flavicollis" class="mw-redirect" title="Apodemus flavicollis">Apodemus flavicollis</a> (yellow-necked mouse)</td> <td>fecal–oral</td> <td>sex-biased transmission (mainly to males) </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Amblyomma" title="Amblyomma">Amblyomma</a> (a tick)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Sphenodon_punctatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Sphenodon punctatus">Sphenodon punctatus</a> (tuatara)</td> <td>free-living infectious stages</td> <td>social behaviour </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a> (<a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> parasite)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bird" title="Bird">Birds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mammal" title="Mammal">mammals</a> (inc. humans)</td> <td><a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles</a> mosquito vector, attracted by odour of infected human host<a href="#cite_note-de_Boer2017-38">[36]</a></td> <td>— </td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Variations">Variations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Variations">edit</a>]</div> Among the many variations on parasitic strategies are hyperparasitism,<a href="#cite_note-Dissanaike1957-39">[37]</a> social parasitism,<a href="#cite_note-Thomas2010-40">[38]</a> brood parasitism,<a href="#cite_note-Payne1997-41">[39]</a> kleptoparasitism,<a href="#cite_note-SlaterRosenblatt2005-42">[40]</a> sexual parasitism,<a href="#cite_note-Pietsch2005-43">[41]</a> and adelphoparasitism.<a href="#cite_note-Rochat2001-44">[42]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Hyperparasitism">Hyperparasitism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Hyperparasitism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Hyperparasite" title="Hyperparasite">Hyperparasite</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Hyperparasite" title="Hyperparasite">Hyperparasites</a> feed on another parasite, as exemplified by protozoa living in helminth parasites,<a href="#cite_note-Dissanaike1957-39">[37]</a> or facultative or obligate parasitoids whose hosts are either conventional parasites or parasitoids.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-GullanCranston2010-35">[33]</a> Levels of parasitism beyond secondary also occur, especially among facultative parasitoids. In <a href="/wiki/Oak_gall" class="mw-redirect" title="Oak gall">oak gall</a> systems, there can be up to five levels of parasitism.<a href="#cite_note-45">[43]</a> Hyperparasites can control their hosts' populations, and are used for this purpose <a href="/wiki/Biological_pest_control" title="Biological pest control">in agriculture</a> and to some extent in <a href="/wiki/Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a>. The controlling effects can be seen in the way that the <a href="/wiki/Hypovirus#CHV1–Chestnut_blight_hypovirulence" title="Hypovirus">CHV1 virus</a> helps to control the damage that <a href="/wiki/Chestnut_blight" title="Chestnut blight">chestnut blight</a>, Cryphonectria parasitica, does to <a href="/wiki/American_chestnut" title="American chestnut">American chestnut</a> trees, and in the way that <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a> can limit bacterial infections. It is likely, though little researched, that most pathogenic microparasites have hyperparasites which may prove widely useful in both agriculture and medicine.<a href="#cite_note-ParrattLaine2016-46">[44]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Social_parasitism">Social parasitism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Social parasitism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ant_mimicry" title="Ant mimicry">Ant mimicry</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo_bee" title="Cuckoo bee">Cuckoo bee</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Emery%27s_rule" title="Emery's rule">Emery's rule</a></div> Social parasites take advantage of interspecific interactions between members of <a href="/wiki/Eusocial" class="mw-redirect" title="Eusocial">eusocial</a> animals such as <a href="/wiki/Ant" title="Ant">ants</a>, <a href="/wiki/Termite" title="Termite">termites</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Bumblebee" title="Bumblebee">bumblebees</a>. Examples include the large blue butterfly, <a href="/wiki/Phengaris_arion" class="mw-redirect" title="Phengaris arion">Phengaris arion</a>, its larvae employing <a href="/wiki/Ant_mimicry" title="Ant mimicry">ant mimicry</a> to parasitise certain ants,<a href="#cite_note-Thomas2010-40">[38]</a> <a href="/wiki/Bombus_bohemicus" title="Bombus bohemicus">Bombus bohemicus</a>, a bumblebee which invades the hives of other bees and takes over reproduction while their young are raised by host workers, and <a href="/wiki/Melipona_scutellaris" title="Melipona scutellaris">Melipona scutellaris</a>, a eusocial bee whose virgin queens escape killer workers and invade another colony without a queen.<a href="#cite_note-47">[45]</a> An extreme example of interspecific social parasitism is found in the ant <a href="/wiki/Tetramorium_inquilinum" title="Tetramorium inquilinum">Tetramorium inquilinum</a>, an obligate parasite which lives exclusively on the backs of other Tetramorium ants.<a href="#cite_note-48">[46]</a> A mechanism for the evolution of social parasitism was first proposed by Carlo Emery in 1909.<a href="#cite_note-49">[47]</a> Now known as "<a href="/wiki/Emery%27s_rule" title="Emery's rule">Emery's rule</a>", it states that social parasites tend to be closely related to their hosts, often being in the same genus.<a href="#cite_note-RD-50">[48]</a><a href="#cite_note-Emery_1909-51">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-52">[50]</a> Intraspecific social parasitism occurs in parasitic nursing, where some individual young take milk from unrelated females. In <a href="/wiki/Wedge-capped_capuchin" title="Wedge-capped capuchin">wedge-capped capuchins</a>, higher ranking females sometimes take milk from low ranking females without any reciprocation.<a href="#cite_note-obrien5-53">[51]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Brood_parasitism">Brood parasitism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Brood parasitism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood parasitism</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">brood parasitism</a>, the hosts suffer increased parental investment and energy expenditure to feed parasitic young, which are commonly larger than host young. The growth rate of host nestlings is slowed, reducing the host's fitness. Brood parasites include birds in different families such as <a href="/wiki/Cowbird" title="Cowbird">cowbirds</a>, <a href="/wiki/Viduidae" title="Viduidae">whydahs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">cuckoos</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Black-headed_duck" title="Black-headed duck">black-headed ducks</a>. These do not build nests of their own, but leave their eggs in nests of other <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a>. In the family <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo" title="Cuckoo">Cuculidae</a>, over 40% of cuckoo species are obligate brood parasites, while others are either facultative brood parasites or provide parental care.<a href="#cite_note-54">[52]</a> The eggs of some brood parasites <a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">mimic</a> those of their hosts, while some cowbird eggs have tough shells, making them hard for the hosts to kill by piercing, both mechanisms implying selection by the hosts against parasitic eggs.<a href="#cite_note-Payne1997-41">[39]</a><a href="#cite_note-55">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-DeMarsico2013-56">[54]</a> The adult female <a href="/wiki/European_cuckoo" class="mw-redirect" title="European cuckoo">European cuckoo</a> further mimics a predator, the <a href="/wiki/European_sparrowhawk" class="mw-redirect" title="European sparrowhawk">European sparrowhawk</a>, giving her time to lay her eggs in the host's nest unobserved.<a href="#cite_note-Welbergen2011-57">[55]</a> Host species often combat parasitic egg mimicry through egg <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(biology)" title="Polymorphism (biology)">polymorphism</a>, having two or more egg phenotypes within a single population of a species. Multiple phenotypes in host eggs decrease the probability of a parasitic species accurately "matching" their eggs to host eggs.<a href="#cite_note-58">[56]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kleptoparasitism">Kleptoparasitism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Kleptoparasitism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">Kleptoparasitism</a></div> In <a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">kleptoparasitism</a> (from Greek κλέπτης (kleptēs), "thief"), parasites steal food gathered by the host. The parasitism is often on close relatives, whether within the same species or between species in the same genus or family. For instance, the many lineages of <a href="/wiki/Cuckoo_bee" title="Cuckoo bee">cuckoo bees</a> lay their eggs in the nest cells of other <a href="/wiki/Bee" title="Bee">bees</a> in the same family.<a href="#cite_note-SlaterRosenblatt2005-42">[40]</a> Kleptoparasitism is uncommon generally but conspicuous in birds; some such as <a href="/wiki/Skuas" class="mw-redirect" title="Skuas">skuas</a> are specialised in pirating food from other seabirds, relentlessly chasing them down until they disgorge their catch.<a href="#cite_note-Furness1978-59">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Sexual_parasitism">Sexual parasitism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Sexual parasitism">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sexual_parasitism" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual parasitism">Sexual parasitism</a></div> A unique approach is seen in some species of <a href="/wiki/Anglerfish" title="Anglerfish">anglerfish</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Ceratias_holboelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratias holboelli">Ceratias holboelli</a>, where the males are reduced to tiny <a href="/wiki/Sexual_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual parasite">sexual parasites</a>, wholly dependent on females of their own species for survival, permanently attached below the female's body, and unable to fend for themselves. The female nourishes the male and protects him from predators, while the male gives nothing back except the sperm that the female needs to produce the next generation.<a href="#cite_note-Pietsch2005-43">[41]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Adelphoparasitism">Adelphoparasitism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Adelphoparasitism">edit</a>]</div> Adelphoparasitism, (from Greek <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/%E1%BC%80%CE%B4%CE%B5%CE%BB%CF%86%CF%8C%CF%82" class="extiw" title="wikt:ἀδελφός">ἀδελφός</a> (adelphós), brother<a href="#cite_note-60">[58]</a>), also known as sibling-parasitism, occurs where the host species is closely related to the parasite, often in the same family or genus.<a href="#cite_note-Rochat2001-44">[42]</a> In the citrus blackfly parasitoid, <a href="/wiki/Encarsia_perplexa" title="Encarsia perplexa">Encarsia perplexa</a>, unmated females may lay <a href="/wiki/Ploidy#haploid" title="Ploidy">haploid</a> eggs in the fully developed larvae of their own species, producing male offspring,<a href="#cite_note-61">[59]</a> while the marine worm <a href="/wiki/Bonellia_viridis" title="Bonellia viridis">Bonellia viridis</a> has a similar reproductive strategy, although the larvae are planktonic.<a href="#cite_note-BerecSchembri2005-62">[60]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Illustrations">Illustrations</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Illustrations">edit</a>]</div> Examples of the major variant strategies are illustrated. <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-nolines center"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pteromalid_hyperparasitoid.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A hyperparasitoid pteromalid wasp on the cocoons of its host, itself a parasitoid braconid wasp"><img alt="A hyperparasitoid pteromalid wasp on the cocoons of its host, itself a parasitoid braconid wasp" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pteromalid_hyperparasitoid.jpg/90px-Pteromalid_hyperparasitoid.jpg" decoding="async" width="90" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pteromalid_hyperparasitoid.jpg/135px-Pteromalid_hyperparasitoid.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Pteromalid_hyperparasitoid.jpg/180px-Pteromalid_hyperparasitoid.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3114" data-file-height="4152" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A hyperparasitoid <a href="/wiki/Pteromalidae" title="Pteromalidae">pteromalid wasp</a> on the cocoons of its host, itself a parasitoid <a href="/wiki/Braconid_wasp" class="mw-redirect" title="Braconid wasp">braconid wasp</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Maculinea_arion_Large_Blue_Upperside_SFrance_2009-07-18.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The large blue butterfly is an ant mimic and social parasite."><img alt="The large blue butterfly is an ant mimic and social parasite." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Maculinea_arion_Large_Blue_Upperside_SFrance_2009-07-18.jpg/147px-Maculinea_arion_Large_Blue_Upperside_SFrance_2009-07-18.jpg" decoding="async" width="147" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Maculinea_arion_Large_Blue_Upperside_SFrance_2009-07-18.jpg/220px-Maculinea_arion_Large_Blue_Upperside_SFrance_2009-07-18.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Maculinea_arion_Large_Blue_Upperside_SFrance_2009-07-18.jpg/293px-Maculinea_arion_Large_Blue_Upperside_SFrance_2009-07-18.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1247" data-file-height="1021" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Large_blue" title="Large blue">large blue</a> butterfly is an <a href="/wiki/Ant_mimicry" title="Ant mimicry">ant mimic</a> and social parasite.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Eastern_Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="In brood parasitism, the host raises the young of another species, here a cowbird's egg, that has been laid in its nest."><img alt="In brood parasitism, the host raises the young of another species, here a cowbird's egg, that has been laid in its nest." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Eastern_Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg/160px-Eastern_Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Eastern_Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg/240px-Eastern_Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f9/Eastern_Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg/320px-Eastern_Phoebe-nest-Brown-headed-Cowbird-egg.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">In <a href="/wiki/Brood_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Brood parasite">brood parasitism</a>, the host raises the young of another species, here a <a href="/wiki/Cowbird" title="Cowbird">cowbird</a>'s egg, that has been laid in its nest.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Great_Skua_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The great skua is a powerful kleptoparasite, relentlessly pursuing other seabirds until they disgorge their catches of food."><img alt="The great skua is a powerful kleptoparasite, relentlessly pursuing other seabirds until they disgorge their catches of food." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Great_Skua_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-Great_Skua_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Great_Skua_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-Great_Skua_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Great_Skua_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-Great_Skua_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2263" data-file-height="1321" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The <a href="/wiki/Great_skua" title="Great skua">great skua</a> is a powerful <a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">kleptoparasite</a>, relentlessly pursuing other seabirds until they disgorge their catches of food.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="The male of the anglerfish species Ceratias holboelli lives as a tiny sexual parasite permanently attached below the female's body."><img alt="The male of the anglerfish species Ceratias holboelli lives as a tiny sexual parasite permanently attached below the female's body." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_%28cropped%29.jpg/180px-%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="76" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_%28cropped%29.jpg/270px-%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b9/%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_%28cropped%29.jpg/360px-%D0%A1%D0%B5%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BD%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D1%86%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%B8%D1%8F_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1795" data-file-height="762" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">The male of the <a href="/wiki/Anglerfish" title="Anglerfish">anglerfish</a> species <a href="/wiki/Ceratias_holboelli" class="mw-redirect" title="Ceratias holboelli">Ceratias holboelli</a> lives as a tiny <a href="/wiki/Sexual_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual parasite">sexual parasite</a> permanently attached below the female's body.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 185px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 180px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Encarsia_perplexa.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Encarsia perplexa (centre), a parasitoid of citrus blackfly (lower left), is also an adelphoparasite, laying eggs in larvae of its own species"><img alt="Encarsia perplexa (centre), a parasitoid of citrus blackfly (lower left), is also an adelphoparasite, laying eggs in larvae of its own species" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Encarsia_perplexa.jpg/180px-Encarsia_perplexa.jpg" decoding="async" width="180" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Encarsia_perplexa.jpg/269px-Encarsia_perplexa.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e2/Encarsia_perplexa.jpg/359px-Encarsia_perplexa.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="514" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Encarsia_perplexa" title="Encarsia perplexa">Encarsia perplexa</a> (centre), a parasitoid of <a href="/wiki/Citrus_blackfly" class="mw-redirect" title="Citrus blackfly">citrus blackfly</a> (lower left), is also an adelphoparasite, laying eggs in larvae of its own species</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Taxonomic_range">Taxonomic range</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Taxonomic range">edit</a>]</div> Parasitism has an extremely wide taxonomic range, including animals, plants, fungi, protozoans, bacteria, and viruses.<a href="#cite_note-Rollinson2-63">[61]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animals">Animals</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Animals">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_parasitic_organisms" title="List of parasitic organisms">List of parasitic organisms</a></div> <table class="wikitable sortable"> <caption>Major parasitic animal groups<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin20076-64">[62]</a> </caption> <tbody><tr> <th>Phylum</th> <th>Class/Order </th> <th style="width: 60px;">No. of species </th> <th>Endo- paras.</th> <th>Ecto- paras.</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Invertebrate" title="Invertebrate">Invert</a> def. host</th> <th><a href="/wiki/Vertebrate" title="Vertebrate">Vert</a> def. host</th> <th>No. of hosts</th> <th>Marine</th> <th>Fresh- water</th> <th>Terres- trial </th></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Myxozoa" title="Myxozoa">Myxozoa</a></td> <td>1,350</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>2 or more</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Cnidaria" title="Cnidaria">Cnidaria</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Polypodium_(animal)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polypodium (animal)">Polypodiozoa</a></td> <td>1</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flatworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Flatworms">Flatworms</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Trematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Trematodes">Trematodes</a></td> <td>15,000</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>2 or more</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flatworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Flatworms">Flatworms</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Monogenea" title="Monogenea">Monogeneans</a></td> <td>20,000</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Flatworms" class="mw-redirect" title="Flatworms">Flatworms</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Cestoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Cestoidea">Cestodes</a></td> <td>5,000</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>2 or more</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nematomorpha" title="Nematomorpha">Horsehair worms</a></td> <td></td> <td>350</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>1 or more</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Nematodes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nematodes">Nematodes</a></td> <td></td> <td>10,500</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1 or more</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Acanthocephala" title="Acanthocephala">Acanthocephala</a></td> <td></td> <td>1,200</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>2 or more</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Annelids" class="mw-redirect" title="Annelids">Annelids</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hirudinea" class="mw-redirect" title="Hirudinea">Leeches</a></td> <td>400</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">Molluscs</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Bivalves" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalves">Bivalves</a></td> <td>600</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Molluscs" class="mw-redirect" title="Molluscs">Molluscs</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Gastropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Gastropods">Gastropods</a></td> <td>5,000</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Ixodida" class="mw-redirect" title="Ixodida">Ticks</a></td> <td>800</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1 or more</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Acari" class="mw-redirect" title="Acari">Mites</a></td> <td>30,000</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Copepods" class="mw-redirect" title="Copepods">Copepods</a></td> <td>4,000</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Phthiraptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Phthiraptera">Lice</a></td> <td>4,000</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Siphonaptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Siphonaptera">Fleas</a></td> <td>2,500</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Diptera" class="mw-redirect" title="Diptera">True flies</a></td> <td>2,300</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Strepsiptera" title="Strepsiptera">Twisted-wing insects</a></td> <td>600</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes </td></tr> <tr> <td><a href="/wiki/Arthropods" class="mw-redirect" title="Arthropods">Arthropods</a></td> <td><a href="/wiki/Hymenoptera" title="Hymenoptera">Parasitoid wasps</a></td> <td>130,000<a href="#cite_note-65">[63]</a> - 1,100,000<a href="#cite_note-Forbes_Bagley_Beer_Hippee_2018-66">[64]</a></td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td>Yes</td> <td></td> <td>1</td> <td></td> <td></td> <td>Yes </td></tr></tbody></table> Parasitism is widespread in the animal kingdom,<a href="#cite_note-67">[65]</a> and has evolved independently from free-living forms hundreds of times.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> Many types of <a href="/wiki/Helminth" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminth">helminth</a> including <a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">flukes</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cestoidea" class="mw-redirect" title="Cestoidea">cestodes</a> have complete life cycles involving two or more hosts. By far the largest group is the parasitoid wasps in the Hymenoptera.<a href="#cite_note-PoulinRandhawa2015-22">[22]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Phylum" title="Phylum">phyla</a> and <a href="/wiki/Class_(biology)" title="Class (biology)">classes</a> with the largest numbers of parasitic species are listed in the table. Numbers are conservative minimum estimates. The columns for Endo- and Ecto-parasitism refer to the definitive host, as documented in the Vertebrate and Invertebrate columns.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin20076-64">[62]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Plants">Plants</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">Parasitic plant</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG/170px-Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG/255px-Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/12/Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG/340px-Cuscuta_parasite_plant.JPG 2x" data-file-width="480" data-file-height="640" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cuscuta" title="Cuscuta">Cuscuta</a> (a dodder), a stem <a href="/wiki/Holoparasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Holoparasite">holoparasite</a>, on an <a href="/wiki/Acacia" title="Acacia">acacia</a> tree</figcaption></figure> A <a href="/wiki/Hemiparasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Hemiparasite">hemiparasite</a> or partial parasite such as <a href="/wiki/Mistletoe" title="Mistletoe">mistletoe</a> derives some of its nutrients from another living plant, whereas a <a href="/wiki/Obligate_parasite" title="Obligate parasite">holoparasite</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Cuscuta" title="Cuscuta">Cuscuta</a> derives all of its nutrients from another plant.<a href="#cite_note-Rastogi-68">[66]</a> <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_plant" title="Parasitic plant">Parasitic plants</a> make up about one per cent of <a href="/wiki/Angiosperms" class="mw-redirect" title="Angiosperms">angiosperms</a> and are in almost every <a href="/wiki/Biome" title="Biome">biome</a> in the world.<a href="#cite_note-Kokla_Melnyk_2010-69">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Heide-Jørgensen,_H._2008-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nickrent2002-71">[69]</a> All these plants have modified roots, <a href="/wiki/Haustorium" title="Haustorium">haustoria</a>, which penetrate the host plants, connecting them to the conductive system—either the <a href="/wiki/Xylem" title="Xylem">xylem</a>, the <a href="/wiki/Phloem" title="Phloem">phloem</a>, or both. This provides them with the ability to extract water and nutrients from the host. A parasitic plant is classified depending on where it latches onto the host, either the stem or the root, and the amount of nutrients it requires. Since holoparasites have no <a href="/wiki/Chlorophyll" title="Chlorophyll">chlorophyll</a> and therefore cannot make food for themselves by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a>, they are always obligate parasites, deriving all their food from their hosts.<a href="#cite_note-Heide-Jørgensen,_H._2008-70">[68]</a> Some parasitic plants can locate their <a href="/wiki/Host_(biology)" title="Host (biology)">host</a> plants by detecting <a href="/wiki/Chemical_substance" title="Chemical substance">chemicals</a> in the air or soil given off by host <a href="/wiki/Shoot_(botany)" title="Shoot (botany)">shoots</a> or <a href="/wiki/Root" title="Root">roots</a>, respectively. About 4,500 <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> of parasitic plant in approximately 20 <a href="/wiki/Family_(biology)" title="Family (biology)">families</a> of <a href="/wiki/Flowering_plant" title="Flowering plant">flowering plants</a> are known.<a href="#cite_note-Heide-Jørgensen,_H._2008-70">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-NickrentMusselman2004-72">[70]</a> Species within the <a href="/wiki/Orobanchaceae" title="Orobanchaceae">Orobanchaceae</a> (broomrapes) are among the most economically destructive of all plants. Species of <a href="/wiki/Striga" title="Striga">Striga</a> (witchweeds) are estimated to cost billions of dollars a year in crop yield loss, infesting over 50 million hectares of cultivated land within Sub-Saharan Africa alone. Striga infects both grasses and grains, including <a href="/wiki/Zea_mays" class="mw-redirect" title="Zea mays">corn</a>, <a href="/wiki/Oryza_sativa" title="Oryza sativa">rice</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Sorghum" title="Sorghum">sorghum</a>, which are among the world's most important food crops. <a href="/wiki/Orobanche" title="Orobanche">Orobanche</a> also threatens a wide range of other important crops, including <a href="/wiki/Peas" class="mw-redirect" title="Peas">peas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cicer_arietinum" class="mw-redirect" title="Cicer arietinum">chickpeas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Solanum_lycopersicum" class="mw-redirect" title="Solanum lycopersicum">tomatoes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Carrot" title="Carrot">carrots</a>, and varieties of <a href="/wiki/Cabbage" title="Cabbage">cabbage</a>. Yield loss from Orobanche can be total; despite extensive research, no method of control has been entirely successful.<a href="#cite_note-WestwoodYoder2010-73">[71]</a> Many <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> and <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> exchange carbon and nutrients in mutualistic <a href="/wiki/Mycorrhizal" class="mw-redirect" title="Mycorrhizal">mycorrhizal</a> relationships. Some 400 species of <a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">myco-heterotrophic</a> plants, mostly in the tropics, however effectively <a href="/wiki/Cheating_(biology)" title="Cheating (biology)">cheat</a> by taking carbon from a fungus rather than exchanging it for minerals. They have much reduced roots, as they do not need to absorb water from the soil; their stems are slender with few <a href="/wiki/Vascular_bundle" title="Vascular bundle">vascular bundles</a>, and their leaves are reduced to small scales, as they do not photosynthesize. Their seeds are small and numerous, so they appear to rely on being infected by a suitable fungus soon after germinating.<a href="#cite_note-74">[72]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Armillaria_mellea,_Honey_Fungus,_UK_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Armillaria_mellea%2C_Honey_Fungus%2C_UK_1.jpg/220px-Armillaria_mellea%2C_Honey_Fungus%2C_UK_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Armillaria_mellea%2C_Honey_Fungus%2C_UK_1.jpg/330px-Armillaria_mellea%2C_Honey_Fungus%2C_UK_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/84/Armillaria_mellea%2C_Honey_Fungus%2C_UK_1.jpg/440px-Armillaria_mellea%2C_Honey_Fungus%2C_UK_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5184" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption>The honey fungus, <a href="/wiki/Armillaria_mellea" title="Armillaria mellea">Armillaria mellea</a>, is a parasite of trees, and a <a href="/wiki/Saprophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprophyte">saprophyte</a> feeding on the trees it has killed.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fungi">Fungi</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Fungi">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_fungus" title="Pathogenic fungus">Pathogenic fungus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Plant_pathology" title="Plant pathology">Plant pathology</a></div> Parasitic <a href="/wiki/Fungi" class="mw-redirect" title="Fungi">fungi</a> derive some or all of their nutritional requirements from plants, other fungi, or animals. Plant pathogenic fungi are classified into three categories depending on their mode of nutrition: biotrophs, <a href="/wiki/Hemibiotrophs" title="Hemibiotrophs">hemibiotrophs</a> and necrotrophs. Biotrophic fungi derive nutrients from living plant cells, and during the course of infection they colonise their plant host in such a way as to keep it alive for a maximally long time.<a href="#cite_note-75">[73]</a> One well-known example of a biotrophic pathogen is <a href="/wiki/Corn_smut" title="Corn smut">Ustilago maydis</a>, causative agent of the corn smut disease. Necrotrophic pathogens on the other hand, kill host cells and feed <a href="/wiki/Saprophytic" class="mw-redirect" title="Saprophytic">saprophytically</a>, an example being the root-colonising honey fungi in the genus <a href="/wiki/Armillaria" title="Armillaria">Armillaria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-RHS-76">[74]</a> Hemibiotrophic pathogens begin their colonising their hosts as biotrophs, and subsequently killing off host cells and feeding as necrotrophs, a phenomenon termed the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Biotrophy-necrotrophy_switch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Biotrophy-necrotrophy switch (page does not exist)">biotrophy-necrotrophy switch</a>.<a href="#cite_note-77">[75]</a> Pathogenic fungi are well-known causative agents of diseases on animals as well as humans. Fungal infections (<a href="/wiki/Fungal_infection" title="Fungal infection">mycosis</a>) are estimated to kill 1.6 million people each year.<a href="#cite_note-78">[76]</a> One example of a potent fungal animal pathogen are <a href="/wiki/Microsporidia" title="Microsporidia">Microsporidia</a> - obligate intracellular parasitic fungi that largely affect insects, but may also affect vertebrates including humans, causing the intestinal infection <a href="/wiki/Microsporidiosis" title="Microsporidiosis">microsporidiosis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Didier-79">[77]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Borrelia_burgdorferi-cropped.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Borrelia_burgdorferi-cropped.jpg/170px-Borrelia_burgdorferi-cropped.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Borrelia_burgdorferi-cropped.jpg/255px-Borrelia_burgdorferi-cropped.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Borrelia_burgdorferi-cropped.jpg/340px-Borrelia_burgdorferi-cropped.jpg 2x" data-file-width="346" data-file-height="395" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Borrelia_burgdorferi" title="Borrelia burgdorferi">Borrelia burgdorferi</a>, the bacterium that causes <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a>, is transmitted by <a href="/wiki/Ixodes" title="Ixodes">Ixodes</a> ticks.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Protozoa">Protozoa</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Protozoa">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_parasite#Protozoa" title="Human parasite">Human parasite § Protozoa</a></div> Protozoa such as <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a>, <a href="/wiki/Trypanosoma" title="Trypanosoma">Trypanosoma</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Entamoeba" title="Entamoeba">Entamoeba</a><a href="#cite_note-Esch2013-80">[78]</a> are endoparasitic. They cause serious diseases in vertebrates including humans—in these examples, malaria, sleeping sickness, and <a href="/wiki/Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">amoebic dysentery</a>—and have complex life cycles.<a href="#cite_note-PollittMacGregor2011-33">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Bacteria">Bacteria</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Bacteria">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">Pathogenic bacteria</a></div> Many bacteria are parasitic, though they are more generally thought of as <a href="/wiki/Pathogenic_bacteria" title="Pathogenic bacteria">pathogens</a> causing disease.<a href="#cite_note-McFall-Ngai2007-81">[79]</a> Parasitic bacteria are extremely diverse, and infect their hosts by a variety of routes. To give a few examples, <a href="/wiki/Bacillus_anthracis" title="Bacillus anthracis">Bacillus anthracis</a>, the cause of <a href="/wiki/Anthrax" title="Anthrax">anthrax</a>, is spread by contact with infected <a href="/wiki/Domestic_animal" class="mw-redirect" title="Domestic animal">domestic animals</a>; its <a href="/wiki/Spore" title="Spore">spores</a>, which can survive for years outside the body, can enter a host through an abrasion or may be inhaled. <a href="/wiki/Borrelia" title="Borrelia">Borrelia</a>, the cause of <a href="/wiki/Lyme_disease" title="Lyme disease">Lyme disease</a> and <a href="/wiki/Relapsing_fever" title="Relapsing fever">relapsing fever</a>, is transmitted by vectors, ticks of the genus <a href="/wiki/Ixodes" title="Ixodes">Ixodes</a>, from the diseases' reservoirs in animals such as <a href="/wiki/Deer" title="Deer">deer</a>. <a href="/wiki/Campylobacter_jejuni" title="Campylobacter jejuni">Campylobacter jejuni</a>, a cause of <a href="/wiki/Gastroenteritis" title="Gastroenteritis">gastroenteritis</a>, is spread by the fecal–oral route from animals, or by eating insufficiently cooked <a href="/wiki/Poultry" title="Poultry">poultry</a>, or by contaminated water. <a href="/wiki/Haemophilus_influenzae" title="Haemophilus influenzae">Haemophilus influenzae</a>, an agent of <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_meningitis" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacterial meningitis">bacterial meningitis</a> and respiratory tract infections such as <a href="/wiki/Influenza" title="Influenza">influenza</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bronchitis" title="Bronchitis">bronchitis</a>, is transmitted by droplet contact. <a href="/wiki/Treponema_pallidum" title="Treponema pallidum">Treponema pallidum</a>, the cause of <a href="/wiki/Syphilis" title="Syphilis">syphilis</a>, is <a href="/wiki/Sexually_transmitted_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexually transmitted disease">spread</a> by <a href="/wiki/Sexual_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Sexual activity">sexual activity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Lippincott-82">[80]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tevenphage.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Tevenphage.svg/220px-Tevenphage.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Tevenphage.svg/330px-Tevenphage.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Tevenphage.svg/440px-Tevenphage.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1498" data-file-height="1070" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Enterobacteria_phage_T4" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterobacteria phage T4">Enterobacteria phage T4</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophage</a> virus. It infects its host, <a href="/wiki/Escherichia_coli" title="Escherichia coli">Escherichia coli</a>, by injecting its DNA through its tail, which attaches to the bacterium's surface.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Viruses">Viruses</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Viruses">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Virus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">Viruses</a> are obligate intracellular parasites, characterised by extremely limited biological function, to the point where, while they are evidently able to infect all other organisms from bacteria and <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> to animals, plants and fungi, it is unclear whether they can themselves be described as living. They can be either <a href="/wiki/Orthornavirae" title="Orthornavirae">RNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/DNA_virus" title="DNA virus">DNA viruses</a> consisting of a single or double strand of <a href="/wiki/Genetic_material" class="mw-redirect" title="Genetic material">genetic material</a> (<a href="/wiki/RNA" title="RNA">RNA</a> or <a href="/wiki/DNA" title="DNA">DNA</a>, respectively), covered in a <a href="/wiki/Protein" title="Protein">protein</a> coat and sometimes a <a href="/wiki/Lipid" title="Lipid">lipid</a> envelope. They thus lack all the usual machinery of the <a href="/wiki/Cell_(biology)" title="Cell (biology)">cell</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Enzyme" title="Enzyme">enzymes</a>, relying entirely on the host cell's ability to replicate DNA and synthesise proteins. Most viruses are <a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">bacteriophages</a>, infecting bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-Koonin2006-83">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-Breitbart_M,_Rohwer_F_2005_278–84-84">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-Lawrence-85">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[84]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_ecology">Evolutionary ecology</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Evolutionary ecology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tyrannosaurus_with_infection.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tyrannosaurus_with_infection.jpg/220px-Tyrannosaurus_with_infection.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tyrannosaurus_with_infection.jpg/330px-Tyrannosaurus_with_infection.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8e/Tyrannosaurus_with_infection.jpg/440px-Tyrannosaurus_with_infection.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1799" data-file-height="1345" /></a><figcaption>Restoration of a <a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a> with holes possibly caused by a <a href="/wiki/Trichomonas" title="Trichomonas">Trichomonas</a>-like parasite</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></div> Parasitism is a major aspect of evolutionary ecology; for example, almost all free-living animals are host to at least one species of parasite. Vertebrates, the best-studied group, are hosts to between 75,000 and 300,000 species of helminths and an uncounted number of parasitic microorganisms. On average, a mammal species hosts four species of nematode, two of trematodes, and two of cestodes.<a href="#cite_note-Dobson2008-87">[85]</a> Humans have 342 species of helminth parasites, and 70 species of protozoan parasites.<a href="#cite_note-Sukhdeo2012-88">[86]</a> Some three-quarters of the links in <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a> include a parasite, important in regulating host numbers. Perhaps 40 per cent of described species are parasitic.<a href="#cite_note-Dobson2008-87">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fossil_record">Fossil record</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Fossil record">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Paleoparasitology" title="Paleoparasitology">Paleoparasitology</a></div> Parasitism is hard to demonstrate from the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>, but holes in the <a href="/wiki/Mandible" title="Mandible">mandibles</a> of several specimens of <a href="/wiki/Tyrannosaurus" title="Tyrannosaurus">Tyrannosaurus</a> may have been caused by <a href="/wiki/Trichomonas" title="Trichomonas">Trichomonas</a>-like parasites.<a href="#cite_note-89">[87]</a> <a href="/wiki/Saurophthirus" title="Saurophthirus">Saurophthirus</a>, the Early Cretaceous <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">flea</a>, parasitized <a href="/wiki/Pterosauria" class="mw-redirect" title="Pterosauria">pterosaurs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-90">[88]</a><a href="#cite_note-91">[89]</a> Eggs that belonged to <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> worms and probably <a href="/wiki/Protozoa" title="Protozoa">protozoan</a> <a href="/wiki/Cyst" title="Cyst">cysts</a> were found in the Late Triassic <a href="/wiki/Coprolite" title="Coprolite">coprolite</a> of <a href="/wiki/Phytosaur" title="Phytosaur">phytosaur</a>. This rare find in Thailand reveals more about the ecology of prehistoric parasites.<a href="#cite_note-92">[90]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Coevolution">Coevolution</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Coevolution">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">Host–parasite coevolution</a></div> As hosts and parasites evolve together, their relationships often change. When a parasite is in a sole relationship with a host, selection drives the relationship to become more benign, even mutualistic, as the parasite can reproduce for longer if its host lives longer.<a href="#cite_note-Rook2007-93">[91]</a> But where parasites are competing, selection favours the parasite that reproduces fastest, leading to increased virulence. There are thus varied possibilities in <a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">host–parasite coevolution</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MasseyBuckling2004-94">[92]</a> <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_epidemiology" title="Evolutionary epidemiology">Evolutionary epidemiology</a> analyses how parasites spread and evolve, whereas <a href="/wiki/Darwinian_medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Darwinian medicine">Darwinian medicine</a> applies similar evolutionary thinking to non-parasitic diseases like <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a> and <a href="/wiki/Autoimmune_disease" title="Autoimmune disease">autoimmune conditions</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ewald1994-95">[93]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Long-term_partnerships_favouring_mutualism">Long-term partnerships favouring mutualism</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Long-term partnerships favouring mutualism">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Wolbachia.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Wolbachia.png/220px-Wolbachia.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="128" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Wolbachia.png/330px-Wolbachia.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3b/Wolbachia.png/440px-Wolbachia.png 2x" data-file-width="1651" data-file-height="958" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Wolbachia" title="Wolbachia">Wolbachia</a> bacteria within an insect cell</figcaption></figure> Long-term partnerships can lead to a relatively stable relationship tending to <a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">commensalism</a> or <a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">mutualism</a>, as, all else being equal, it is in the evolutionary interest of the parasite that its host thrives. A parasite may evolve to become less harmful for its host or a host may evolve to cope with the unavoidable presence of a parasite—to the point that the parasite's absence causes the host harm. For example, although animals parasitised by <a href="/wiki/Helminth" class="mw-redirect" title="Helminth">worms</a> are often clearly harmed, such infections may also reduce the prevalence and effects of <a href="/wiki/Autoimmunity" title="Autoimmunity">autoimmune</a> disorders in animal hosts, including humans.<a href="#cite_note-Rook2007-93">[91]</a> In a more extreme example, some <a href="/wiki/Nematode" title="Nematode">nematode</a> worms cannot reproduce, or even survive, without infection by <a href="/wiki/Wolbachia" title="Wolbachia">Wolbachia</a> bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-96">[94]</a> <a href="/wiki/Lynn_Margulis" title="Lynn Margulis">Lynn Margulis</a> and others have argued, following <a href="/wiki/Peter_Kropotkin" title="Peter Kropotkin">Peter Kropotkin</a>'s 1902 <a href="/wiki/Mutual_Aid:_A_Factor_of_Evolution" title="Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution">Mutual Aid: A Factor of Evolution</a>, that natural selection drives relationships from parasitism to mutualism when resources are limited. This process may have been involved in the <a href="/wiki/Symbiogenesis" title="Symbiogenesis">symbiogenesis</a> which formed the <a href="/wiki/Eukaryote" title="Eukaryote">eukaryotes</a> from an intracellular relationship between <a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">archaea</a> and bacteria, though the sequence of events remains largely undefined.<a href="#cite_note-97">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[96]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Competition_favouring_virulence">Competition favouring virulence</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Competition favouring virulence">edit</a>]</div> Competition between parasites can be expected to favour faster reproducing and therefore more <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulent</a> parasites, by <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MasseyBuckling2004-94">[92]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rigaud2010-99">[97]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pink_Flamingos_with_Duck_-_Camargue,_France_-_April_2007_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Pink_Flamingos_with_Duck_-_Camargue%2C_France_-_April_2007_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Pink_Flamingos_with_Duck_-_Camargue%2C_France_-_April_2007_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Pink_Flamingos_with_Duck_-_Camargue%2C_France_-_April_2007_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Pink_Flamingos_with_Duck_-_Camargue%2C_France_-_April_2007_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6d/Pink_Flamingos_with_Duck_-_Camargue%2C_France_-_April_2007_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Pink_Flamingos_with_Duck_-_Camargue%2C_France_-_April_2007_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1320" data-file-height="1320" /></a><figcaption>Biologists long suspected <a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">cospeciation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Flamingo" title="Flamingo">flamingos</a> and <a href="/wiki/Duck" title="Duck">ducks</a> with their parasitic <a href="/wiki/Louse" title="Louse">lice</a>, which were similar in the two families. Cospeciation did occur, but it led to flamingos and <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>, with a later <a href="/wiki/Host_switch" title="Host switch">host switch</a> of flamingo lice to ducks.</figcaption></figure> Among competing parasitic insect-killing bacteria of the genera <a href="/wiki/Photorhabdus" title="Photorhabdus">Photorhabdus</a> and <a href="/wiki/Xenorhabdus" title="Xenorhabdus">Xenorhabdus</a>, virulence depended on the relative potency of the antimicrobial <a href="/wiki/Toxin" title="Toxin">toxins</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bacteriocins" class="mw-redirect" title="Bacteriocins">bacteriocins</a>) produced by the two strains involved. When only one bacterium could kill the other, the other strain was excluded by the competition. But when <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar" title="Caterpillar">caterpillars</a> were infected with bacteria both of which had toxins able to kill the other strain, neither strain was excluded, and their virulence was less than when the insect was infected by a single strain.<a href="#cite_note-MasseyBuckling2004-94">[92]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cospeciation">Cospeciation</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Cospeciation">edit</a>]</div> A parasite sometimes undergoes <a href="/wiki/Cospeciation" title="Cospeciation">cospeciation</a> with its host, resulting in the pattern described in <a href="/wiki/Fahrenholz%27s_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Fahrenholz's rule">Fahrenholz's rule</a>, that the phylogenies of the host and parasite come to mirror each other.<a href="#cite_note-Page-100">[98]</a> An example is between the <a href="/wiki/Simian_foamy_virus" class="mw-redirect" title="Simian foamy virus">simian foamy virus</a> (SFV) and its primate hosts. The phylogenies of SFV polymerase and the mitochondrial <a href="/wiki/Cytochrome_c_oxidase_subunit_II" class="mw-redirect" title="Cytochrome c oxidase subunit II">cytochrome c oxidase subunit II</a> from African and Asian primates were found to be closely congruent in branching order and divergence times, implying that the simian foamy viruses cospeciated with Old World primates for at least 30 million years.<a href="#cite_note-SwitzerSalemi2005-101">[99]</a> The presumption of a shared evolutionary history between parasites and hosts can help elucidate how host taxa are related. For instance, there has been a dispute about whether <a href="/wiki/Phoenicopteriformes" title="Phoenicopteriformes">flamingos</a> are more closely related to <a href="/wiki/Ciconiiformes" class="mw-redirect" title="Ciconiiformes">storks</a> or <a href="/wiki/Anseriformes" title="Anseriformes">ducks</a>. The fact that flamingos share parasites with ducks and geese was initially taken as evidence that these groups were more closely related to each other than either is to storks. However, evolutionary events such as the duplication, or the extinction of parasite species (without similar events on the host phylogeny) often erode similarities between host and parasite phylogenies. In the case of flamingos, they have similar lice to those of <a href="/wiki/Grebe" title="Grebe">grebes</a>. Flamingos and grebes do have a common ancestor, implying cospeciation of birds and lice in these groups. Flamingo lice then <a href="/wiki/Host_switch" title="Host switch">switched hosts</a> to ducks, creating the situation which had confused biologists.<a href="#cite_note-JohnsonKennedy2006-102">[100]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Toxoplasma_gondii_(2).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Toxoplasma_gondii_%282%29.jpg/220px-Toxoplasma_gondii_%282%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0d/Toxoplasma_gondii_%282%29.jpg/330px-Toxoplasma_gondii_%282%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0d/Toxoplasma_gondii_%282%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption>The protozoan <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a> facilitates its transmission by <a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavior-altering parasites">inducing behavioral changes</a> in rats through infection of neurons in their <a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system" title="Central nervous system">central nervous system</a>.</figcaption></figure> Parasites infect <a href="/wiki/Sympatry" title="Sympatry">sympatric</a> hosts (those within their same geographical area) more effectively, as has been shown with <a href="/wiki/Digenea" title="Digenea">digenetic trematodes</a> infecting lake snails.<a href="#cite_note-Lively00-103">[101]</a> This is in line with the <a href="/wiki/Red_Queen_hypothesis" title="Red Queen hypothesis">Red Queen hypothesis</a>, which states that interactions between species lead to constant natural selection for coadaptation. Parasites track the locally common hosts' phenotypes, so the parasites are less infective to <a href="/wiki/Allopatric_speciation" title="Allopatric speciation">allopatric</a> hosts, those from different geographical regions.<a href="#cite_note-Lively00-103">[101]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modifying_host_behaviour">Modifying host behaviour</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Modifying host behaviour">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavior-altering parasites">Behavior-altering parasites</a></div> Some parasites <a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasites" class="mw-redirect" title="Behavior-altering parasites">modify host behaviour</a> in order to increase their transmission between hosts, often in relation to predator and prey (<a href="/wiki/Parasite_increased_trophic_transmission" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasite increased trophic transmission">parasite increased trophic transmission</a>). For example, in the <a href="/wiki/California_coastal_salt_marsh" title="California coastal salt marsh">California coastal salt marsh</a>, the fluke <a href="/wiki/Euhaplorchis_californiensis" class="mw-redirect" title="Euhaplorchis californiensis">Euhaplorchis californiensis</a> reduces the ability of its <a href="/wiki/Killifish" title="Killifish">killifish</a> host to avoid predators.<a href="#cite_note-104">[102]</a> This parasite matures in <a href="/wiki/Egret" title="Egret">egrets</a>, which are more likely to feed on infected killifish than on uninfected fish. Another example is the protozoan <a href="/wiki/Toxoplasma_gondii" title="Toxoplasma gondii">Toxoplasma gondii</a>, a parasite that matures in <a href="/wiki/Felis_silvestris_catus" class="mw-redirect" title="Felis silvestris catus">cats</a> but can be carried by many other <a href="/wiki/Mammalia" class="mw-redirect" title="Mammalia">mammals</a>. Uninfected <a href="/wiki/Rattus_rattus" class="mw-redirect" title="Rattus rattus">rats</a> avoid cat odors, but rats infected with T. gondii are drawn to this scent, which may increase transmission to feline hosts.<a href="#cite_note-105">[103]</a> The malaria parasite modifies the skin odour of its human hosts, increasing their attractiveness to mosquitoes and hence improving the chance for the parasite to be transmitted.<a href="#cite_note-de_Boer2017-38">[36]</a> The spider <a href="/wiki/Cyclosa_argenteoalba" title="Cyclosa argenteoalba">Cyclosa argenteoalba</a> often have parasitoid wasp larvae attached to them which alter their web-building behavior. Instead of producing their normal sticky spiral shaped webs, they made simplified webs when the parasites were attached. This manipulated behavior lasted longer and was more prominent the longer the parasites were left on the spiders.<a href="#cite_note-106">[104]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bed_bug,_Cimex_lectularius.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bed_bug%2C_Cimex_lectularius.jpg/220px-Bed_bug%2C_Cimex_lectularius.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="154" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bed_bug%2C_Cimex_lectularius.jpg/330px-Bed_bug%2C_Cimex_lectularius.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/87/Bed_bug%2C_Cimex_lectularius.jpg/440px-Bed_bug%2C_Cimex_lectularius.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1122" /></a><figcaption>Trait loss: bedbug <a href="/wiki/Cimex_lectularius" title="Cimex lectularius">Cimex lectularius</a> is flightless, like many insect ectoparasites.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Trait_loss">Trait loss</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Trait loss">edit</a>]</div> Parasites can exploit their hosts to carry out a number of functions that they would otherwise have to carry out for themselves. Parasites which lose those functions then have a selective advantage, as they can divert resources to reproduction. Many insect ectoparasites including <a href="/wiki/Cimex" title="Cimex">bedbugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Polyctenidae" title="Polyctenidae">batbugs</a>, <a href="/wiki/Lice" class="mw-redirect" title="Lice">lice</a> and <a href="/wiki/Flea" title="Flea">fleas</a> have lost their <a href="/wiki/Insect_flight" title="Insect flight">ability to fly</a>, relying instead on their hosts for transport.<a href="#cite_note-107">[105]</a> Trait loss more generally is widespread among parasites.<a href="#cite_note-108">[106]</a> An extreme example is the <a href="/wiki/Myxosporea" title="Myxosporea">myxosporean</a> <a href="/wiki/Henneguya_zschokkei" title="Henneguya zschokkei">Henneguya zschokkei</a>, an ectoparasite of fish and the only animal known to have lost the ability to respire aerobically: its cells lack <a href="/wiki/Mitochondria" class="mw-redirect" title="Mitochondria">mitochondria</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PNAS-109">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Host_defences">Host defences</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Host defences">edit</a>]</div> Hosts have evolved a variety of defensive measures against their parasites, including physical barriers like the skin of vertebrates,<a href="#cite_note-Colorado-110">[108]</a> the immune system of mammals,<a href="#cite_note-Maizels2009-111">[109]</a> insects actively removing parasites,<a href="#cite_note-Jeanne1979-112">[110]</a> and defensive chemicals in plants.<a href="#cite_note-Runyon2010-113">[111]</a> The evolutionary biologist <a href="/wiki/W._D._Hamilton" title="W. D. Hamilton">W. D. Hamilton</a> suggested that <a href="/wiki/Sexual_reproduction" title="Sexual reproduction">sexual reproduction</a> could have evolved to help to defeat multiple parasites by enabling <a href="/wiki/Genetic_recombination" title="Genetic recombination">genetic recombination</a>, the shuffling of genes to create varied combinations. Hamilton showed by mathematical modelling that sexual reproduction would be evolutionarily stable in different situations, and that the theory's predictions matched the actual ecology of sexual reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-Hamilton1990-114">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-EbertHamilton1996-115">[113]</a> However, there may be a trade-off between <a href="/wiki/Immunocompetence" title="Immunocompetence">immunocompetence</a> and breeding male vertebrate hosts' <a href="/wiki/Secondary_sex_characteristic" title="Secondary sex characteristic">secondary sex characteristics</a>, such as the plumage of <a href="/wiki/Peacock" class="mw-redirect" title="Peacock">peacocks</a> and the manes of <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a>. This is because the male hormone <a href="/wiki/Testosterone" title="Testosterone">testosterone</a> encourages the growth of secondary sex characteristics, favouring such males in <a href="/wiki/Sexual_selection" title="Sexual selection">sexual selection</a>, at the price of reducing their immune defences.<a href="#cite_note-FolstadKarter1992-116">[114]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Vertebrates">Vertebrates</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Vertebrates">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Short_Horned_Lizard_(4457945238).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Short_Horned_Lizard_%284457945238%29.jpg/220px-Short_Horned_Lizard_%284457945238%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Short_Horned_Lizard_%284457945238%29.jpg/330px-Short_Horned_Lizard_%284457945238%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/80/Short_Horned_Lizard_%284457945238%29.jpg/440px-Short_Horned_Lizard_%284457945238%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>The dry <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> of vertebrates such as the <a href="/wiki/Short-horned_lizard" class="mw-redirect" title="Short-horned lizard">short-horned lizard</a> prevents the entry of many parasites.</figcaption></figure> The physical barrier of the tough and often dry and waterproof <a href="/wiki/Skin" title="Skin">skin</a> of reptiles, birds and mammals keeps invading microorganisms from entering the body. <a href="/wiki/Human_skin" title="Human skin">Human skin</a> also secretes <a href="/wiki/Sebum" class="mw-redirect" title="Sebum">sebum</a>, which is toxic to most microorganisms.<a href="#cite_note-Colorado-110">[108]</a> On the other hand, larger parasites such as <a href="/wiki/Trematode" class="mw-redirect" title="Trematode">trematodes</a> detect chemicals produced by the skin to locate their hosts when they enter the water. Vertebrate <a href="/wiki/Saliva" title="Saliva">saliva</a> and tears contain <a href="/wiki/Lysozyme" title="Lysozyme">lysozyme</a>, an enzyme that breaks down the <a href="/wiki/Bacterial_cell_structure#Cell_wall" title="Bacterial cell structure">cell walls</a> of invading bacteria.<a href="#cite_note-Colorado-110">[108]</a> Should the organism pass the mouth, the <a href="/wiki/Stomach" title="Stomach">stomach</a> with its <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a>, toxic to most microorganisms, is the next line of defence.<a href="#cite_note-Colorado-110">[108]</a> Some intestinal parasites have a thick, tough outer coating which is digested slowly or not at all, allowing the parasite to pass through the stomach alive, at which point they enter the intestine and begin the next stage of their life. Once inside the body, parasites must overcome the <a href="/wiki/Immune_system" title="Immune system">immune system</a>'s <a href="/wiki/Serum_proteins" class="mw-redirect" title="Serum proteins">serum proteins</a> and <a href="/wiki/Pattern_recognition_receptor" title="Pattern recognition receptor">pattern recognition receptors</a>, intracellular and cellular, that trigger the adaptive immune system's <a href="/wiki/Lymphocyte" title="Lymphocyte">lymphocytes</a> such as <a href="/wiki/T_cell" title="T cell">T cells</a> and antibody-producing <a href="/wiki/B_cell" title="B cell">B cells</a>. These have receptors that recognise parasites.<a href="#cite_note-Maizels2009-111">[109]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Insects">Insects</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Insects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Leaf_Spot_on_Oak_in_Gunnersbury_Triangle.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Leaf_Spot_on_Oak_in_Gunnersbury_Triangle.jpg/220px-Leaf_Spot_on_Oak_in_Gunnersbury_Triangle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Leaf_Spot_on_Oak_in_Gunnersbury_Triangle.jpg/330px-Leaf_Spot_on_Oak_in_Gunnersbury_Triangle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/Leaf_Spot_on_Oak_in_Gunnersbury_Triangle.jpg/440px-Leaf_Spot_on_Oak_in_Gunnersbury_Triangle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4608" data-file-height="3456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Leaf_spot" title="Leaf spot">Leaf spot</a> on <a href="/wiki/Oak" title="Oak">oak</a>. The spread of the parasitic fungus is limited by defensive chemicals produced by the tree, resulting in circular patches of damaged tissue.</figcaption></figure> Insects often adapt their nests to reduce parasitism. For example, one of the key reasons why the wasp <a href="/wiki/Polistes_canadensis" title="Polistes canadensis">Polistes canadensis</a> nests across multiple <a href="/wiki/Honeycomb" title="Honeycomb">combs</a>, rather than building a single comb like much of the rest of its genus, is to avoid infestation by <a href="/wiki/Tineid_moth" class="mw-redirect" title="Tineid moth">tineid moths</a>. The tineid moth lays its eggs within the wasps' nests and then these eggs hatch into larvae that can burrow from cell to cell and prey on wasp pupae. Adult wasps attempt to remove and kill moth eggs and larvae by chewing down the edges of cells, coating the cells with an oral secretion that gives the nest a dark brownish appearance.<a href="#cite_note-Jeanne1979-112">[110]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Plants_2">Plants</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Plants">edit</a>]</div> Plants respond to parasite attack with a series of chemical defences, such as <a href="/wiki/Polyphenol_oxidase" title="Polyphenol oxidase">polyphenol oxidase</a>, under the control of the <a href="/wiki/Jasmonic_acid" title="Jasmonic acid">jasmonic acid</a>-insensitive (JA) and <a href="/wiki/Salicylic_acid" title="Salicylic acid">salicylic acid</a> (SA) signalling pathways.<a href="#cite_note-Runyon2010-113">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Thaler2002-117">[115]</a> The different biochemical pathways are activated by different attacks, and the two pathways can interact positively or negatively. In general, plants can either initiate a specific or a non-specific response.<a href="#cite_note-Thaler2002-117">[115]</a><a href="#cite_note-Frank_2000-118">[116]</a> Specific responses involve recognition of a parasite by the plant's cellular receptors, leading to a strong but localised response: defensive chemicals are produced around the area where the parasite was detected, blocking its spread, and avoiding wasting defensive production where it is not needed.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_2000-118">[116]</a> Non-specific defensive responses are systemic, meaning that the responses are not confined to an area of the plant, but spread throughout the plant, making them costly in energy. These are effective against a wide range of parasites.<a href="#cite_note-Frank_2000-118">[116]</a> When damaged, such as by <a href="/wiki/Lepidoptera" title="Lepidoptera">lepidopteran</a> <a href="/wiki/Caterpillar" title="Caterpillar">caterpillars</a>, leaves of plants including <a href="/wiki/Maize" title="Maize">maize</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cotton" title="Cotton">cotton</a> release increased amounts of volatile chemicals such as <a href="/wiki/Terpene" title="Terpene">terpenes</a> that signal they are being attacked; one effect of this is to attract parasitoid wasps, which in turn attack the caterpillars.<a href="#cite_note-Paré_Tumlinson_pp._325–332-119">[117]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Biology_and_conservation">Biology and conservation</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Biology and conservation">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ecology_and_parasitology">Ecology and parasitology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Ecology and parasitology">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Condor_in_flight.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Condor_in_flight.JPG/170px-Condor_in_flight.JPG" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Condor_in_flight.JPG/255px-Condor_in_flight.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/Condor_in_flight.JPG/340px-Condor_in_flight.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1414" data-file-height="2121" /></a><figcaption>The rescuing from extinction of the <a href="/wiki/California_condor" title="California condor">California condor</a> was a successful and expensive project, but its <a href="/wiki/Ectoparasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Ectoparasite">ectoparasite</a>, the louse <a href="/wiki/Colpocephalum_californici" title="Colpocephalum californici">Colpocephalum californici</a>, was made extinct.</figcaption></figure> Parasitism and parasite evolution were until the twenty-first century studied by <a href="/wiki/Parasitologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitologist">parasitologists</a>, in a science dominated by medicine, rather than by <a href="/wiki/Ecologist" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecologist">ecologists</a> or <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_biologists" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary biologists">evolutionary biologists</a>. Even though parasite-host interactions were plainly ecological and important in evolution, the history of parasitology caused what the evolutionary ecologist Robert Poulin called a "takeover of parasitism by parasitologists", leading ecologists to ignore the area. This was in his opinion "unfortunate", as parasites are "omnipresent agents of natural selection" and significant forces in evolution and ecology.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin2007x,_1–2-120">[118]</a> In his view, the long-standing split between the sciences limited the exchange of ideas, with separate conferences and separate journals. The technical languages of ecology and parasitology sometimes involved different meanings for the same words. There were philosophical differences, too: Poulin notes that, influenced by medicine, "many parasitologists accepted that evolution led to a decrease in parasite virulence, whereas modern evolutionary theory would have predicted a greater range of outcomes".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin2007x,_1–2-120">[118]</a> Their complex relationships make parasites difficult to place in food webs: a trematode with multiple hosts for its various life cycle stages would occupy many positions in a <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food web</a> simultaneously, and would set up loops of energy flow, confusing the analysis. Further, since nearly every animal has (multiple) parasites, parasites would occupy the top levels of every food web.<a href="#cite_note-Sukhdeo2012-88">[86]</a> Parasites can play a role in the proliferation of non-native species. For example, invasive <a href="/wiki/Carcinus_maenas" title="Carcinus maenas">green crabs</a> are minimally affected by native <a href="/wiki/Trematoda" title="Trematoda">trematodes</a> on the Eastern Atlantic coast. This helps them outcompete native crabs such as the <a href="/wiki/Cancer_irroratus" title="Cancer irroratus">Atlantic Rock</a> and <a href="/wiki/Jonah_crab" title="Jonah crab">Jonah crabs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-121">[119]</a> Ecological parasitology can be important to attempts at control, like during the <a href="/wiki/Eradication_of_dracunculiasis" title="Eradication of dracunculiasis">campaign for eradicating the Guinea worm</a>. Even though the parasite was eradicated in all but four countries, the worm began using frogs as an intermediary host before infecting dogs, making control more difficult than it would have been if the relationships had been better understood.<a href="#cite_note-122">[120]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Rationale_for_conservation">Rationale for conservation</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Rationale for conservation">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Conservation_biology_of_parasites" title="Conservation biology of parasites">Conservation biology of parasites</a></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox" style="width: 210px; clear: right; float:right;margin:0 0 1.5em 1.5em"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:115%">External videos</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="text-align: left"><img alt="video icon" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/16px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/24px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/1b/Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg/32px-Nuvola_apps_kaboodle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="128" data-file-height="128" /> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://knowablemagazine.org/article/living-world/2018/why-you-should-care-about-parasites">"Why you should care about parasites"</a>, 14 December 2018, <a href="/wiki/Knowable_Magazine" title="Knowable Magazine">Knowable Magazine</a></td></tr></tbody></table> Although parasites are widely considered to be harmful, the eradication of all parasites would not be beneficial. Parasites account for at least half of life's diversity; they perform important ecological roles; and without parasites, organisms might tend to asexual reproduction, diminishing the diversity of traits brought about by sexual reproduction.<a href="#cite_note-Holt2010-123">[121]</a> Parasites provide an opportunity for the transfer of genetic material between species, facilitating evolutionary change.<a href="#cite_note-Combes-124">[122]</a> Many parasites require multiple hosts of different species to complete their life cycles and rely on predator-prey or other stable ecological interactions to get from one host to another. The presence of parasites thus indicates that an ecosystem is healthy.<a href="#cite_note-HudsonDobson2006-125">[123]</a> An ectoparasite, the California condor louse, <a href="/wiki/Colpocephalum_californici" title="Colpocephalum californici">Colpocephalum californici</a>, became a well-known conservation issue. A large and costly captive breeding program was run in the United States to rescue the <a href="/wiki/California_condor" title="California condor">California condor</a>. It was host to a louse, which lived only on it. Any lice found were "deliberately killed" during the program, to keep the condors in the best possible health. The result was that one species, the condor, was saved and returned to the wild, while another species, the parasite, became extinct.<a href="#cite_note-Stringer2014-126">[124]</a> Although parasites are often omitted in depictions of <a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">food webs</a>, they usually occupy the top position. Parasites can function like <a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">keystone species</a>, reducing the dominance of superior competitors and allowing <a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">competing species</a> to co-exist.<a href="#cite_note-Sukhdeo2012-88">[86]</a><a href="#cite_note-LaffertyAllesina2008-127">[125]</a><a href="#cite_note-Chase2013-128">[126]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Aggregated_distribution_of_parasites_on_hosts.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aggregated_distribution_of_parasites_on_hosts.svg/300px-Aggregated_distribution_of_parasites_on_hosts.svg.png" decoding="async" width="300" height="247" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aggregated_distribution_of_parasites_on_hosts.svg/450px-Aggregated_distribution_of_parasites_on_hosts.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/62/Aggregated_distribution_of_parasites_on_hosts.svg/600px-Aggregated_distribution_of_parasites_on_hosts.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1135" data-file-height="936" /></a><figcaption>Parasites are <a href="/wiki/Aggregated_distribution" title="Aggregated distribution">distributed unevenly</a> among their hosts, most hosts having no parasites, and a few hosts harbouring most of the parasite population. This distribution makes sampling difficult and requires careful use of statistics.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Quantitative_ecology">Quantitative ecology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Quantitative ecology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Aggregated_distribution" title="Aggregated distribution">Aggregated distribution</a></div> A single parasite species usually has an aggregated distribution across host animals, which means that most hosts carry few parasites, while a few hosts carry the vast majority of parasite individuals. This poses considerable problems for students of parasite ecology, as it renders <a href="/wiki/Parametric_statistics" title="Parametric statistics">parametric statistics</a> as commonly used by biologists invalid. <a href="/wiki/Data_transformation_(statistics)" title="Data transformation (statistics)">Log-transformation</a> of data before the application of parametric test, or the use of <a href="/wiki/Non-parametric_statistics" class="mw-redirect" title="Non-parametric statistics">non-parametric statistics</a> is recommended by several authors, but this can give rise to further problems, so quantitative parasitology is based on more advanced biostatistical methods.<a href="#cite_note-pmid10780537-129">[127]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ancient">Ancient</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: Ancient">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Human_parasite" title="Human parasite">Human parasite</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Human_parasite" title="Human parasite">Human parasites</a> including roundworms, the <a href="/wiki/Guinea_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Guinea worm">Guinea worm</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pinworm_(parasite)" title="Pinworm (parasite)">threadworms</a> and tapeworms are mentioned in Egyptian papyrus records from 3000 BC onwards; the <a href="/wiki/Ebers_Papyrus" title="Ebers Papyrus">Ebers Papyrus</a> describes <a href="/wiki/Hookworm" title="Hookworm">hookworm</a>. In <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Greece" title="Ancient Greece">ancient Greece</a>, parasites including the <a href="/wiki/Bladder_worm" class="mw-redirect" title="Bladder worm">bladder worm</a> are described in the <a href="/wiki/Hippocratic_Corpus" title="Hippocratic Corpus">Hippocratic Corpus</a>, while the comic playwright <a href="/wiki/Aristophanes" title="Aristophanes">Aristophanes</a> called tapeworms "hailstones". The Roman physicians Celsus and <a href="/wiki/Galen" title="Galen">Galen</a> documented the roundworms <a href="/wiki/Ascaris_lumbricoides" title="Ascaris lumbricoides">Ascaris lumbricoides</a> and <a href="/wiki/Enterobius_vermicularis" class="mw-redirect" title="Enterobius vermicularis">Enterobius vermicularis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Cox2004-130">[128]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medieval">Medieval</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=45" title="Edit section: Medieval">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Francesco_Redi_Osservazioni_intorno_agli_animali_viventi_che_si_trovano_negli_animali_viventi_Plate_14.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Francesco_Redi_Osservazioni_intorno_agli_animali_viventi_che_si_trovano_negli_animali_viventi_Plate_14.jpg/170px-Francesco_Redi_Osservazioni_intorno_agli_animali_viventi_che_si_trovano_negli_animali_viventi_Plate_14.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="234" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Francesco_Redi_Osservazioni_intorno_agli_animali_viventi_che_si_trovano_negli_animali_viventi_Plate_14.jpg/255px-Francesco_Redi_Osservazioni_intorno_agli_animali_viventi_che_si_trovano_negli_animali_viventi_Plate_14.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/35/Francesco_Redi_Osservazioni_intorno_agli_animali_viventi_che_si_trovano_negli_animali_viventi_Plate_14.jpg/340px-Francesco_Redi_Osservazioni_intorno_agli_animali_viventi_che_si_trovano_negli_animali_viventi_Plate_14.jpg 2x" data-file-width="580" data-file-height="800" /></a><figcaption>A plate from <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a>'s Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi (Observations on living animals found inside living animals), 1684</figcaption></figure> In his <a href="/wiki/The_Canon_of_Medicine" title="The Canon of Medicine">Canon of Medicine</a>, completed in 1025, the Persian physician <a href="/wiki/Avicenna" title="Avicenna">Avicenna</a> recorded human and animal parasites including roundworms, threadworms, the Guinea worm and tapeworms.<a href="#cite_note-Cox2004-130">[128]</a> In his 1397 book Traité de l'état, science et pratique de l'art de la Bergerie (Account of the state, science and practice of the art of shepherding), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jehan_de_Brie&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jehan de Brie (page does not exist)">Jehan de Brie</a> [<a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jean_de_Brie" class="extiw" title="fr:Jean de Brie">fr</a>] wrote the first description of a trematode endoparasite, the sheep liver fluke <a href="/wiki/Fasciola_hepatica" title="Fasciola hepatica">Fasciola hepatica</a>.<a href="#cite_note-ChengHistory-131">[129]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[130]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_modern">Early modern</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Early modern">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Early_modern_period" title="Early modern period">early modern period</a>, <a href="/wiki/Francesco_Redi" title="Francesco Redi">Francesco Redi</a>'s 1668 book Esperienze Intorno alla Generazione degl'Insetti (Experiences of the Generation of Insects), explicitly described ecto- and endoparasites, illustrating <a href="/wiki/Ticks" class="mw-redirect" title="Ticks">ticks</a>, the larvae of <a href="/wiki/Cephenemyiinae" class="mw-redirect" title="Cephenemyiinae">nasal flies of deer</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Fasciola_hepatica" title="Fasciola hepatica">sheep liver fluke</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ioli1997-133">[131]</a> Redi noted that parasites develop from eggs, contradicting the theory of <a href="/wiki/Spontaneous_generation" title="Spontaneous generation">spontaneous generation</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Bush2001-134">[132]</a> In his 1684 book Osservazioni intorno agli animali viventi che si trovano negli animali viventi (Observations on Living Animals found in Living Animals), Redi described and illustrated over 100 parasites including the <a href="/wiki/Ascaris_lumbricoides" title="Ascaris lumbricoides">large roundworm</a> in humans that causes <a href="/wiki/Ascariasis" title="Ascariasis">ascariasis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Ioli1997-133">[131]</a> Redi was the first to name the cysts of <a href="/wiki/Echinococcus_granulosus" title="Echinococcus granulosus">Echinococcus granulosus</a> seen in dogs and sheep as parasitic; a century later, in 1760, <a href="/wiki/Peter_Simon_Pallas" title="Peter Simon Pallas">Peter Simon Pallas</a> correctly suggested that these were the larvae of tapeworms.<a href="#cite_note-Cox2004-130">[128]</a> In 1681, <a href="/wiki/Antonie_van_Leeuwenhoek" title="Antonie van Leeuwenhoek">Antonie van Leeuwenhoek</a> observed and illustrated the protozoan parasite <a href="/wiki/Giardia_lamblia" class="mw-redirect" title="Giardia lamblia">Giardia lamblia</a>, and linked it to "his own loose stools". This was the first protozoan parasite of humans to be seen under a microscope.<a href="#cite_note-Cox2004-130">[128]</a> A few years later, in 1687, the Italian biologists <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Cosimo_Bonomo" title="Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo">Giovanni Cosimo Bonomo</a> and <a href="/wiki/Diacinto_Cestoni" class="mw-redirect" title="Diacinto Cestoni">Diacinto Cestoni</a> described <a href="/wiki/Scabies" title="Scabies">scabies</a> as caused by the parasitic mite <a href="/wiki/Sarcoptes_scabiei" title="Sarcoptes scabiei">Sarcoptes scabiei</a>, marking it as the first disease of humans with a known microscopic causative agent.<a href="#cite_note-135">[133]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ross,_20.Aug.1897.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ross%2C_20.Aug.1897.jpg/170px-Ross%2C_20.Aug.1897.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ross%2C_20.Aug.1897.jpg/255px-Ross%2C_20.Aug.1897.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4e/Ross%2C_20.Aug.1897.jpg/340px-Ross%2C_20.Aug.1897.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2020" data-file-height="2966" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a> won the 1902 <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize" title="Nobel Prize">Nobel Prize</a> for showing that the <a href="/wiki/Malaria_parasite" class="mw-redirect" title="Malaria parasite">malaria parasite</a> is transmitted by mosquitoes. This 1897 notebook page records his first observations of the parasite in mosquitoes.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Parasitology">Parasitology</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: Parasitology">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">Parasitology</a></div> Modern <a href="/wiki/Parasitology" title="Parasitology">parasitology</a> developed in the 19th century with accurate observations and experiments by many researchers and clinicians;<a href="#cite_note-ChengHistory-131">[129]</a> the term was first used in 1870.<a href="#cite_note-136">[134]</a> In 1828, James Annersley described <a href="/wiki/Amoebiasis" title="Amoebiasis">amoebiasis</a>, protozoal infections of the intestines and the liver, though the pathogen, <a href="/wiki/Entamoeba_histolytica" title="Entamoeba histolytica">Entamoeba histolytica</a>, was not discovered until 1873 by Friedrich Lösch. <a href="/wiki/James_Paget" title="James Paget">James Paget</a> discovered the intestinal nematode <a href="/wiki/Trichinella_spiralis" title="Trichinella spiralis">Trichinella spiralis</a> in humans in 1835. James McConnell described the human liver fluke, <a href="/wiki/Clonorchis_sinensis" title="Clonorchis sinensis">Clonorchis sinensis</a>, in 1875.<a href="#cite_note-Cox2004-130">[128]</a> <a href="/wiki/Algernon_Thomas" title="Algernon Thomas">Algernon Thomas</a> and <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Leuckart" title="Rudolf Leuckart">Rudolf Leuckart</a> independently made the first discovery of the life cycle of a trematode, the sheep liver fluke, by experiment in 1881–1883.<a href="#cite_note-ChengHistory-131">[129]</a> In 1877 <a href="/wiki/Patrick_Manson" title="Patrick Manson">Patrick Manson</a> discovered the life cycle of the <a href="/wiki/Filarioidea" title="Filarioidea">filarial worms</a> that cause <a href="/wiki/Lymphatic_filariasis" title="Lymphatic filariasis">elephantiasis</a> transmitted by mosquitoes. Manson further predicted that the <a href="/wiki/Malaria" title="Malaria">malaria</a> parasite, <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium" title="Plasmodium">Plasmodium</a>, had a mosquito vector, and persuaded <a href="/wiki/Ronald_Ross" title="Ronald Ross">Ronald Ross</a> to investigate. Ross confirmed that the prediction was correct in 1897–1898. At the same time, <a href="/wiki/Giovanni_Battista_Grassi" title="Giovanni Battista Grassi">Giovanni Battista Grassi</a> and others described the malaria parasite's life cycle stages in <a href="/wiki/Anopheles" title="Anopheles">Anopheles</a> mosquitoes. Ross was <a href="/wiki/Nobel_Prize_controversies#Physiology_or_medicine" title="Nobel Prize controversies">controversially awarded the 1902 Nobel prize</a> for his work, while Grassi was not.<a href="#cite_note-Cox2004-130">[128]</a> In 1903, <a href="/wiki/David_Bruce_(microbiologist)" title="David Bruce (microbiologist)">David Bruce</a> identified the protozoan parasite and the <a href="/wiki/Tsetse_fly" title="Tsetse fly">tsetse fly</a> vector of <a href="/wiki/African_trypanosomiasis" title="African trypanosomiasis">African trypanosomiasis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-137">[135]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Vaccine">Vaccine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=48" title="Edit section: Vaccine">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">Malaria vaccine</a></div> Given the importance of malaria, with some 220 million people infected annually, many attempts have been made to interrupt its transmission. Various methods of <a href="/wiki/Malaria_prophylaxis" title="Malaria prophylaxis">malaria prophylaxis</a> have been tried including the use of <a href="/wiki/Antimalarial_drug" class="mw-redirect" title="Antimalarial drug">antimalarial drugs</a> to kill off the parasites in the blood, the eradication of its mosquito vectors with <a href="/wiki/Insecticide" title="Insecticide">organochlorine and other insecticides</a>, and the development of a <a href="/wiki/Malaria_vaccine" title="Malaria vaccine">malaria vaccine</a>. All of these have proven problematic, with <a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">drug resistance</a>, <a href="/wiki/Insecticide_resistance" class="mw-redirect" title="Insecticide resistance">insecticide resistance</a> among mosquitoes, and repeated failure of vaccines as the parasite mutates.<a href="#cite_note-138">[136]</a> The first and as of 2015 the only licensed vaccine for any parasitic disease of humans is <a href="/wiki/RTS,S" title="RTS,S">RTS,S</a> for <a href="/wiki/Plasmodium_falciparum" title="Plasmodium falciparum">Plasmodium falciparum</a> malaria.<a href="#cite_note-BBC2015-139">[137]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Biological_control">Biological control</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=49" title="Edit section: Biological control">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Biological_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological control">Biological control</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Encarsia_formosa,_an_endoparasitic_wasp,_is_used_for_whitefly_control.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Encarsia_formosa%2C_an_endoparasitic_wasp%2C_is_used_for_whitefly_control.jpg/220px-Encarsia_formosa%2C_an_endoparasitic_wasp%2C_is_used_for_whitefly_control.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Encarsia_formosa%2C_an_endoparasitic_wasp%2C_is_used_for_whitefly_control.jpg/330px-Encarsia_formosa%2C_an_endoparasitic_wasp%2C_is_used_for_whitefly_control.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a7/Encarsia_formosa%2C_an_endoparasitic_wasp%2C_is_used_for_whitefly_control.jpg/440px-Encarsia_formosa%2C_an_endoparasitic_wasp%2C_is_used_for_whitefly_control.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3264" data-file-height="2448" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Encarsia_formosa" title="Encarsia formosa">Encarsia formosa</a>, widely used in <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse" title="Greenhouse">greenhouse</a> horticulture, was one of the first biological control agents developed.<a href="#cite_note-Hoddle_1998-140">[138]</a></figcaption></figure> Several groups of parasites, including microbial pathogens and parasitoidal wasps have been used as <a href="/wiki/Biological_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Biological control">biological control</a> agents in <a href="/wiki/Agriculture" title="Agriculture">agriculture</a> and <a href="/wiki/Horticulture" title="Horticulture">horticulture</a>.<a href="#cite_note-141">[139]</a><a href="#cite_note-142">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Resistance">Resistance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=50" title="Edit section: Resistance">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Drug_resistance" title="Drug resistance">Drug resistance</a></div> Poulin observes that the widespread <a href="/wiki/Prophylactic" class="mw-redirect" title="Prophylactic">prophylactic</a> use of <a href="/wiki/Anthelmintic" title="Anthelmintic">anthelmintic drugs</a> in domestic sheep and cattle constitutes a worldwide un<a href="/wiki/Controlled_experiment" class="mw-redirect" title="Controlled experiment">controlled experiment</a> in the life-history evolution of their parasites. The outcomes depend on whether the drugs decrease the chance of a helminth larva reaching adulthood. If so, natural selection can be expected to favour the production of eggs at an earlier age. If on the other hand the drugs mainly affects adult <a href="/wiki/Parasitic_worm" title="Parasitic worm">parasitic worms</a>, selection could cause delayed maturity and increased <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a>. Such changes appear to be underway: the nematode <a href="/wiki/Teladorsagia_circumcincta" title="Teladorsagia circumcincta">Teladorsagia circumcincta</a> is changing its adult size and <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">reproductive rate</a> in response to drugs.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin2007265–266-143">[141]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Cultural_significance">Cultural significance</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=51" title="Edit section: Cultural significance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:THE_CRINOLETTA_DISFIGURANS_AnOldParasite_in_aNewForm.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/THE_CRINOLETTA_DISFIGURANS_AnOldParasite_in_aNewForm.png/170px-THE_CRINOLETTA_DISFIGURANS_AnOldParasite_in_aNewForm.png" decoding="async" width="170" height="186" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/THE_CRINOLETTA_DISFIGURANS_AnOldParasite_in_aNewForm.png/255px-THE_CRINOLETTA_DISFIGURANS_AnOldParasite_in_aNewForm.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/79/THE_CRINOLETTA_DISFIGURANS_AnOldParasite_in_aNewForm.png/340px-THE_CRINOLETTA_DISFIGURANS_AnOldParasite_in_aNewForm.png 2x" data-file-width="2804" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>"An Old Parasite in a New Form": an 1881 <a href="/wiki/Punch_(magazine)" title="Punch (magazine)">Punch</a> cartoon by <a href="/wiki/Edward_Linley_Sambourne" title="Edward Linley Sambourne">Edward Linley Sambourne</a> compares a <a href="/wiki/Crinoline" title="Crinoline">crinoletta</a> bustle to a parasitic insect's <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">exoskeleton</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classical_times">Classical times</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=52" title="Edit section: Classical times">edit</a>]</div> In the <a href="/wiki/Classical_era" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical era">classical era</a>, the concept of the parasite was not strictly pejorative: the parasitus was an <a href="/wiki/Patronage_in_ancient_Rome" title="Patronage in ancient Rome">accepted role in Roman society</a>, in which a person could live off the hospitality of others, in return for "flattery, simple services, and a willingness to endure humiliation".<a href="#cite_note-144">[142]</a><a href="#cite_note-145">[143]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Society">Society</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=53" title="Edit section: Society">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Parasitism_(social_offense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitism (social offense)">Parasitism (social offense)</a></div> Parasitism has <a href="/wiki/Parasitism_(social_offense)" class="mw-redirect" title="Parasitism (social offense)">a derogatory sense</a> in popular usage. According to the immunologist John Playfair,<a href="#cite_note-Playfair2007-146">[144]</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">In everyday speech, the term 'parasite' is loaded with derogatory meaning. A parasite is a sponger, a lazy profiteer, a drain on society.<a href="#cite_note-Playfair2007-146">[144]</a></blockquote> The <a href="/wiki/Satirical" class="mw-redirect" title="Satirical">satirical</a> cleric <a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Jonathan Swift</a> alludes to hyperparasitism in his 1733 poem "On Poetry: A Rhapsody", comparing poets to "vermin" who "teaze and pinch their foes":<a href="#cite_note-Swift1733-147">[145]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> The vermin only teaze and pinch Their foes superior by an inch. So nat'ralists observe, a flea Hath smaller fleas that on him prey; And these have smaller fleas to bite 'em. And so proceeds <a href="/wiki/Ad_infinitum" title="Ad infinitum">ad infinitum</a>. Thus every poet, in his kind, Is bit by him that comes behind: </div></blockquote> A 2022 study examined the naming of some 3000 parasite species discovered in the previous two decades. Of those named after scientists, over 80% were named for men, whereas about a third of authors of papers on parasites were women. The study found that the percentage of parasite species named for relatives or friends of the author has risen sharply in the same period.<a href="#cite_note-Poulin_McDougall_Presswell_2022-148">[146]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Fiction">Fiction</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=54" title="Edit section: Fiction">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/List_of_fictional_parasites" title="List of fictional parasites">List of fictional parasites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Parasites_in_fiction" title="Parasites in fiction">Parasites in fiction</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Parasites_Katrin_Alvarez.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Parasites_Katrin_Alvarez.jpg/220px-Parasites_Katrin_Alvarez.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="183" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Parasites_Katrin_Alvarez.jpg/330px-Parasites_Katrin_Alvarez.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/03/Parasites_Katrin_Alvarez.jpg/440px-Parasites_Katrin_Alvarez.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2531" data-file-height="2100" /></a><figcaption>Fictional parasitism: oil painting Parasites by Katrin Alvarez, 2011</figcaption></figure> In <a href="/wiki/Bram_Stoker" title="Bram Stoker">Bram Stoker</a>'s 1897 <a href="/wiki/Gothic_fiction" title="Gothic fiction">Gothic horror</a> novel <a href="/wiki/Dracula" title="Dracula">Dracula</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Dracula_in_popular_culture" class="mw-redirect" title="Dracula in popular culture">its many film adaptations</a>, the eponymous <a href="/wiki/Count_Dracula" title="Count Dracula">Count Dracula</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">blood-drinking</a> parasite (a vampire). The critic <a href="/wiki/Laura_Otis" title="Laura Otis">Laura Otis</a> argues that as a "thief, seducer, creator, and mimic, Dracula is the ultimate parasite. The whole point of vampirism is sucking other people's blood—living at other people's expense."<a href="#cite_note-149">[147]</a> Disgusting and terrifying <a href="/wiki/Parasites_in_fiction" title="Parasites in fiction">parasitic alien species</a> are widespread in <a href="/wiki/Science_fiction" title="Science fiction">science fiction</a>,<a href="#cite_note-150">[148]</a><a href="#cite_note-Dove2011-151">[149]</a> as for instance in <a href="/wiki/Ridley_Scott" title="Ridley Scott">Ridley Scott</a>'s 1979 film <a href="/wiki/Alien_(film)" title="Alien (film)">Alien</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Pappas2012-152">[150]</a><a href="#cite_note-Sercel2017-153">[151]</a> In one scene, a <a href="/wiki/Alien_(creature_in_Alien_franchise)" class="mw-redirect" title="Alien (creature in Alien franchise)">Xenomorph</a> bursts out of the chest of a dead man, with blood squirting out under high pressure assisted by <a href="/wiki/Bullet_hit_squib" title="Bullet hit squib">explosive squibs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Organ_(anatomy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Organ (anatomy)">Animal organs</a> were used to reinforce the shock effect. The scene was filmed in a single take, and the startled reaction of the actors was genuine.<a href="#cite_note-Guardian2009-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-Nordine2017-154">[152]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Entomopathogenic_fungus" title="Entomopathogenic fungus">entomopathogenic fungus</a> <a href="/wiki/Cordyceps" title="Cordyceps">Cordyceps</a> is represented culturally as a deadly threat to the human race. The video game series <a href="/wiki/The_Last_of_Us_(franchise)" title="The Last of Us (franchise)">The Last of Us</a> (2013–present) and its <a href="/wiki/The_Last_of_Us_(TV_series)" title="The Last of Us (TV series)">television adaptation</a> present Cordyceps as a parasite of humans, causing a <a href="/wiki/Zombie_apocalypse" title="Zombie apocalypse">zombie apocalypse</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Hill_2013_SciAm-155">[153]</a> Its human hosts initially become violent "infected" beings, before turning into blind zombie "clickers", complete with fruiting bodies growing out from their faces.<a href="#cite_note-Hill_2013_SciAm-155">[153]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=55" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antiparasitic" title="Antiparasitic">Antiparasitic</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carcinogenic_parasite" title="Carcinogenic parasite">Carcinogenic parasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_parasitic_worms_on_the_immune_system" title="Effects of parasitic worms on the immune system">Effects of parasitic worms on the immune system</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_parasites_of_humans" title="List of parasites of humans">List of parasites of humans</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=56" title="Edit section: Notes">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-lower-alpha"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-24"><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a> Trophically-transmitted parasites are transmitted to their definitive host, a predator, when their intermediate host is eaten. These parasites often modify the behaviour of their intermediate hosts, causing them to behave in a way that makes them likely to be eaten, such as by climbing to a conspicuous point: this gets the parasites transmitted at the cost of the intermediate host's life. </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><a href="#cite_ref-25">^</a> The <a href="/wiki/Wolf" title="Wolf">wolf</a> is a social predator, hunting in packs; the <a href="/wiki/Cougar" title="Cougar">cougar</a> is a solitary predator, hunting alone. Neither strategy is conventionally considered parasitic.<a href="#cite_note-LaffertyKuris2002-23">[23]</a> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=57" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPoulin20074–5-1"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPoulin20074–5_1-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFPoulin2007">Poulin 2007</a>, pp. 4–5. </li> <li id="cite_note-Wilson2014-2">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson2014_2-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Wilson2014_2-1">b</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFWilson2014" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">Wilson, Edward O.</a> (2014). The Meaning of Human Existence. W. W. Norton & Company. p. 112. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-480-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-87140-480-0"><bdi>978-0-87140-480-0</bdi></a>. <q>Parasites, in a phrase, are predators that eat prey in units of less than one. Tolerable parasites are those that have evolved to ensure their own survival and reproduction but at the same time with minimum pain and cost to the host.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Meaning+of+Human+Existence&rft.pages=112&rft.pub=W.+W.+Norton+%26+Company&rft.date=2014&rft.isbn=978-0-87140-480-0&rft.aulast=Wilson&rft.aufirst=Edward+O.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-pmid21199247-3"><a href="#cite_ref-pmid21199247_3-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGetz2011" class="citation journal cs1">Getz, W. M. (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032891">"Biomass transformation webs provide a unified approach to consumer-resource modelling"</a>. Ecology Letters. 14 (2): 113–124. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2011EcolL..14..113G">2011EcolL..14..113G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2010.01566.x">10.1111/j.1461-0248.2010.01566.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3032891">3032891</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/21199247">21199247</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Ecology+Letters&rft.atitle=Biomass+transformation+webs+provide+a+unified+approach+to+consumer-resource+modelling&rft.volume=14&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=113-124&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032891%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F21199247&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1461-0248.2010.01566.x&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011EcolL..14..113G&rft.aulast=Getz&rft.aufirst=W.+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC3032891&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Guardian2009-4">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian2009_4-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Guardian2009_4-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theguardian.com/film/2009/oct/13/making-of-alien-chestburster">"The Making of Alien's Chestburster Scene"</a>. <a href="/wiki/The_Guardian" title="The Guardian">The Guardian</a>. 13 October 2009. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20100430221033/http://www.guardian.co.uk/film/2009/oct/13/making-of-alien-chestburster">Archived</a> from the original on 30 April 2010. Retrieved 29 May 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Guardian&rft.atitle=The+Making+of+Alien%27s+Chestburster+Scene&rft.date=2009-10-13&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theguardian.com%2Ffilm%2F2009%2Foct%2F13%2Fmaking-of-alien-chestburster&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><a href="#cite_ref-5">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpara%2Fsitos">παράσιτος</a>, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dpara%2F">παρά</a>, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsi%3Dtos">σῖτος</a>, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3Dsitismo%2Fs">σιτισμός</a>, Liddell, Henry George; Scott, Robert, A Greek–English Lexicon, on Perseus Digital Library </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://parasite.org.au/para-site/introduction/introduction-essay.html">Overview of Parasitology</a>. Australian Society of Parasitology and Australian Research Council/National Health and Medical Research Council) Research Network for Parasitology. July 2010. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-86499-991-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-86499-991-4"><bdi>978-1-86499-991-4</bdi></a>. <q>Parasitism is a form of symbiosis, an intimate relationship between two different species. There is a biochemical interaction between host and parasite; i.e. they recognize each other, ultimately at the molecular level, and host tissues are stimulated to react in some way. This explains why parasitism may lead to disease, but not always.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Overview+of+Parasitology&rft.pub=Australian+Society+of+Parasitology+and+Australian+Research+Council%2FNational+Health+and+Medical+Research+Council%29+Research+Network+for+Parasitology&rft.date=2010-07&rft.isbn=978-1-86499-991-4&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fparasite.org.au%2Fpara-site%2Fintroduction%2Fintroduction-essay.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-SuzukiSasaki2019-10"><a href="#cite_ref-SuzukiSasaki2019_10-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSuzukiSasaki2019" class="citation journal cs1">Suzuki, Sayaki U.; Sasaki, Akira (2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://pure.iiasa.ac.at/id/eprint/15927/1/703485.pdf">"Ecological and Evolutionary Stabilities of Biotrophism, Necrotrophism, and Saprotrophism"</a> (PDF). 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Pitambar Publishing. p. 115. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-81-209-0496-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-81-209-0496-5"><bdi>978-81-209-0496-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Modern+Biology&rft.pages=115&rft.pub=Pitambar+Publishing&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-81-209-0496-5&rft.aulast=Rastogi&rft.aufirst=V.+B.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DD-85x6Jhji0C%26q%3Dpartial%2Bparasite%26pg%3DSA1-PA115&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Kokla_Melnyk_2010-69"><a href="#cite_ref-Kokla_Melnyk_2010_69-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKoklaMelnyk2018" class="citation journal cs1">Kokla, Anna; Melnyk, Charles W. (1 October 2018). 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Developmental Biology. 442 (1): 53–59. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ydbio.2018.06.013">10.1016/j.ydbio.2018.06.013</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0012-1606">0012-1606</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29935146">29935146</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:49394142">49394142</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Developmental+Biology&rft.atitle=Developing+a+thief%3A+Haustoria+formation+in+parasitic+plants&rft.volume=442&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=53-59&rft.date=2018-10-01&rft.issn=0012-1606&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A49394142%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29935146&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.ydbio.2018.06.013&rft.aulast=Kokla&rft.aufirst=Anna&rft.au=Melnyk%2C+Charles+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Heide-Jørgensen,_H._2008-70">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Heide-Jørgensen,_H._2008_70-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heide-Jørgensen,_H._2008_70-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Heide-Jørgensen,_H._2008_70-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHeide-Jørgensen2008" class="citation book cs1">Heide-Jørgensen, Henning S. (2008). Parasitic flowering plants. Brill. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16750-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-90-04-16750-6"><bdi>978-90-04-16750-6</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parasitic+flowering+plants&rft.pub=Brill&rft.date=2008&rft.isbn=978-90-04-16750-6&rft.aulast=Heide-J%C3%B8rgensen&rft.aufirst=Henning+S.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nickrent2002-71"><a href="#cite_ref-Nickrent2002_71-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickrent2002" class="citation web cs1"><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Lee_Nickrent" title="Daniel Lee Nickrent">Nickrent, Daniel L.</a> (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://nickrentlab.siu.edu/NickrentPDFs/Chapter2.pdf">"Parasitic Plants of the World"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160306062557/http://nickrentlab.siu.edu/NickrentPDFs/Chapter2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 6 March 2016. Retrieved 10 April 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parasitic+Plants+of+the+World&rft.date=2002&rft.aulast=Nickrent&rft.aufirst=Daniel+L.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnickrentlab.siu.edu%2FNickrentPDFs%2FChapter2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> which appeared in Spanish as Chapter 2, pp. 7–27 in: J. A. López-Sáez, P. Catalán and L. Sáez [eds.], Parasitic Plants of the Iberian Peninsula and Balearic Islands. </li> <li id="cite_note-NickrentMusselman2004-72"><a href="#cite_ref-NickrentMusselman2004_72-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNickrentMusselman2004" class="citation journal cs1">Nickrent, D. L.; Musselman, L. J. (2004). "Introduction to Parasitic Flowering Plants". The Plant Health Instructor. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1094%2FPHI-I-2004-0330-01">10.1094/PHI-I-2004-0330-01</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Plant+Health+Instructor&rft.atitle=Introduction+to+Parasitic+Flowering+Plants&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1094%2FPHI-I-2004-0330-01&rft.aulast=Nickrent&rft.aufirst=D.+L.&rft.au=Musselman%2C+L.+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-WestwoodYoder2010-73"><a href="#cite_ref-WestwoodYoder2010_73-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWestwoodYoderTimkodePamphilis2010" class="citation journal cs1">Westwood, James H.; Yoder, John I.; Timko, Michael P.; dePamphilis, Claude W. (2010). "The evolution of parasitism in plants". Trends in Plant Science. 15 (4): 227–235. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010TPS....15..227W">2010TPS....15..227W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2010.01.004">10.1016/j.tplants.2010.01.004</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/20153240">20153240</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Trends+in+Plant+Science&rft.atitle=The+evolution+of+parasitism+in+plants&rft.volume=15&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=227-235&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F20153240&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.tplants.2010.01.004&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010TPS....15..227W&rft.aulast=Westwood&rft.aufirst=James+H.&rft.au=Yoder%2C+John+I.&rft.au=Timko%2C+Michael+P.&rft.au=dePamphilis%2C+Claude+W.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLeake1994" class="citation journal cs1">Leake, J. R. (1994). "The biology of myco-heterotrophic ('saprophytic') plants". New Phytologist. 127 (2): 171–216. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1994NewPh.127..171L">1994NewPh.127..171L</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x">10.1111/j.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/33874520">33874520</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:85142620">85142620</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=New+Phytologist&rft.atitle=The+biology+of+myco-heterotrophic+%28%27saprophytic%27%29+plants&rft.volume=127&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=171-216&rft.date=1994&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1111%2Fj.1469-8137.1994.tb04272.x&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85142620%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F33874520&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1994NewPh.127..171L&rft.aulast=Leake&rft.aufirst=J.+R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-75"><a href="#cite_ref-75">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFFeiLiu2022" class="citation journal cs1">Fei, Wang; Liu, Ye (11 August 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1007/s12010-022-04087-0">"Biotrophic Fungal Pathogens: a Critical Overview"</a>. Applied Biochemistry and Biotechnology. 195 (1): 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs12010-022-04087-0">10.1007/s12010-022-04087-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0273-2289">0273-2289</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35951248">35951248</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:251474576">251474576</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Applied+Biochemistry+and+Biotechnology&rft.atitle=Biotrophic+Fungal+Pathogens%3A+a+Critical+Overview&rft.volume=195&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=2022-08-11&rft.issn=0273-2289&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A251474576%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35951248&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs12010-022-04087-0&rft.aulast=Fei&rft.aufirst=Wang&rft.au=Liu%2C+Ye&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1007%2Fs12010-022-04087-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-RHS-76"><a href="#cite_ref-RHS_76-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.rhs.org.uk/advice/profile?PID=180">"What is honey fungus?"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Royal_Horticultural_Society" title="Royal Horticultural Society">Royal Horticultural Society</a>. Retrieved 12 October 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+is+honey+fungus%3F&rft.pub=Royal+Horticultural+Society&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.rhs.org.uk%2Fadvice%2Fprofile%3FPID%3D180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChowdhuryBasuKundu2017" class="citation journal cs1">Chowdhury, Supriyo; Basu, Arpita; Kundu, Surekha (8 December 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1038/s41598-017-17248-7">"Biotrophy-necrotrophy switch in pathogen evoke differential response in resistant and susceptible sesame involving multiple signaling pathways at different phases"</a>. Scientific Reports. 7 (1): 17251. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatSR...717251C">2017NatSR...717251C</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fs41598-017-17248-7">10.1038/s41598-017-17248-7</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/2045-2322">2045-2322</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5722813">5722813</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29222513">29222513</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+Reports&rft.atitle=Biotrophy-necrotrophy+switch+in+pathogen+evoke+differential+response+in+resistant+and+susceptible+sesame+involving+multiple+signaling+pathways+at+different+phases&rft.volume=7&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=17251&rft.date=2017-12-08&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC5722813%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatSR...717251C&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F29222513&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-017-17248-7&rft.issn=2045-2322&rft.aulast=Chowdhury&rft.aufirst=Supriyo&rft.au=Basu%2C+Arpita&rft.au=Kundu%2C+Surekha&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdx.doi.org%2F10.1038%2Fs41598-017-17248-7&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmicrobiol.2017.120">"Stop neglecting fungi"</a>. Nature Microbiology. 2 (8): 17120. 25 July 2017. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnmicrobiol.2017.120">10.1038/nmicrobiol.2017.120</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28741610">28741610</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Microbiology&rft.atitle=Stop+neglecting+fungi&rft.volume=2&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=17120&rft.date=2017-07-25&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnmicrobiol.2017.120&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F28741610&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1038%252Fnmicrobiol.2017.120&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Didier-79"><a href="#cite_ref-Didier_79-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDidierStovallGreenBrindley2004" class="citation journal cs1">Didier, E. 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Veterinary Parasitology. 126 (1–2): 145–166. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.vetpar.2004.09.006">10.1016/j.vetpar.2004.09.006</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15567583">15567583</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Veterinary+Parasitology&rft.atitle=Epidemiology+of+microsporidiosis%3A+sources+and+modes+of+transmission&rft.volume=126&rft.issue=1%E2%80%932&rft.pages=145-166&rft.date=2004-12-09&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.vetpar.2004.09.006&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15567583&rft.aulast=Didier&rft.aufirst=E.+S.&rft.au=Stovall%2C+M.+E.&rft.au=Green%2C+L.+C.&rft.au=Brindley%2C+P.+J.&rft.au=Sestak%2C+K.&rft.au=Didier%2C+P.+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F8159085&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Esch2013-80"><a href="#cite_ref-Esch2013_80-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEschPetersen2013" class="citation journal cs1">Esch, K. 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G. (June 2004). "History of human parasitic diseases". Infectious Disease Clinics of North America. 18 (2): 173–174. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.idc.2004.01.001">10.1016/j.idc.2004.01.001</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/15145374">15145374</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Infectious+Disease+Clinics+of+North+America&rft.atitle=History+of+human+parasitic+diseases&rft.volume=18&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=173-174&rft.date=2004-06&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.idc.2004.01.001&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F15145374&rft.aulast=Cox&rft.aufirst=Francis+E.+G.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ChengHistory-131">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ChengHistory_131-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChengHistory_131-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ChengHistory_131-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCheng1973" class="citation book cs1">Cheng, Thomas C. (1973). General Parasitology. Academic Press. pp. 120–134. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-12-170750-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-12-170750-7"><bdi>978-0-12-170750-7</bdi></a>. <q>The 19th century might be thought of as the genesis of modern parasitology.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=General+Parasitology&rft.pages=120-134&rft.pub=Academic+Press&rft.date=1973&rft.isbn=978-0-12-170750-7&rft.aulast=Cheng&rft.aufirst=Thomas+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHumphrey-Smith,_Ian1993" class="citation book cs1 cs1-prop-foreign-lang-source">Humphrey-Smith, Ian, ed. (1993). 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The Mask of the Parasite: A Pathology of Roman Patronage. University of Michigan Press. p. 148. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10760-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-10760-5"><bdi>978-0-472-10760-5</bdi></a>. <q>A satirist seeking to portray client misery naturally focuses on the relationship with the greatest dependency, that in which a client gets his food from his patron, and for this the prefabricated persona of the parasite proved itself extremely useful.</q></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=5&rft.btitle=The+Mask+of+the+Parasite%3A+A+Pathology+of+Roman+Patronage&rft.pages=148&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=978-0-472-10760-5&rft.aulast=Damon&rft.aufirst=Cynthia&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmEJ-aA_XQQQC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Playfair2007-146">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Playfair2007_146-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Playfair2007_146-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPlayfair2007" class="citation book cs1">Playfair, John (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=kSyDYxLPtDoC&pg=PT19">Living with Germs: In health and disease</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 19. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157934-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-157934-9"><bdi>978-0-19-157934-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Living+with+Germs%3A+In+health+and+disease&rft.pages=19&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-19-157934-9&rft.aulast=Playfair&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DkSyDYxLPtDoC%26pg%3DPT19&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> Playfair is comparing the popular usage to a biologist's view of parasitism, which he calls (heading the same page) "an ancient and respectable view of life". </li> <li id="cite_note-Swift1733-147"><a href="#cite_ref-Swift1733_147-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSwift1733" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Jonathan_Swift" title="Jonathan Swift">Swift, Jonathan</a> (1733). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=GmIJAAAAQAAJ">On Poetry: A Rapsody</a>. And sold by J. Huggonson, next to Kent's Coffee-house, near Serjeant's-inn, in Chancery-lane; [and] at the bookseller's and pamphletshops.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=On+Poetry%3A+A+Rapsody&rft.pub=And+sold+by+J.+Huggonson%2C+next+to+Kent%27s+Coffee-house%2C+near+Serjeant%27s-inn%2C+in+Chancery-lane%3B+%5Band%5D+at+the+bookseller%27s+and+pamphletshops&rft.date=1733&rft.aulast=Swift&rft.aufirst=Jonathan&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DGmIJAAAAQAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Poulin_McDougall_Presswell_2022-148"><a href="#cite_ref-Poulin_McDougall_Presswell_2022_148-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoulinMcDougallPresswell2022" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Poulin_(zoologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Poulin (zoologist)">Poulin, Robert</a>; McDougall, Cameron; Presswell, Bronwen (11 May 2022). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9091844">"What's in a name? Taxonomic and gender biases in the etymology of new species names"</a>. Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 289 (1974). <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspb.2021.2708">10.1098/rspb.2021.2708</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC9091844">9091844</a>. <a href="/wiki/PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35538778">35538778</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+B%3A+Biological+Sciences&rft.atitle=What%27s+in+a+name%3F+Taxonomic+and+gender+biases+in+the+etymology+of+new+species+names&rft.volume=289&rft.issue=1974&rft.date=2022-05-11&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9091844%23id-name%3DPMC&rft_id=info%3Apmid%2F35538778&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspb.2021.2708&rft.aulast=Poulin&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft.au=McDougall%2C+Cameron&rft.au=Presswell%2C+Bronwen&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov%2Fpmc%2Farticles%2FPMC9091844&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFOtis2001" class="citation book cs1">Otis, Laura (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=VEimJkOmW1kC&pg=PA216">Networking: Communicating with Bodies and Machines in the Nineteenth Century</a>. University of Michigan Press. p. 216. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11213-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-472-11213-5"><bdi>978-0-472-11213-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Networking%3A+Communicating+with+Bodies+and+Machines+in+the+Nineteenth+Century&rft.pages=216&rft.pub=University+of+Michigan+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-472-11213-5&rft.aulast=Otis&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DVEimJkOmW1kC%26pg%3DPA216&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-150"><a href="#cite_ref-150">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sf-encyclopedia.com/entry/parasitism_and_symbiosis">"Parasitism and Symbiosis"</a>. The Encyclopedia of Science Fiction. 10 January 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Parasitism+and+Symbiosis&rft.btitle=The+Encyclopedia+of+Science+Fiction&rft.date=2016-01-10&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sf-encyclopedia.com%2Fentry%2Fparasitism_and_symbiosis&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dove2011-151"><a href="#cite_ref-Dove2011_151-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDove2011" class="citation web cs1">Dove, Alistair (9 May 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deepseanews.com/2011/05/this-is-clearly-an-important-species-were-dealing-with/">"This is clearly an important species we're dealing with"</a>. Deep Sea News.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=This+is+clearly+an+important+species+we%27re+dealing+with&rft.pub=Deep+Sea+News&rft.date=2011-05-09&rft.aulast=Dove&rft.aufirst=Alistair&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.deepseanews.com%2F2011%2F05%2Fthis-is-clearly-an-important-species-were-dealing-with%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pappas2012-152"><a href="#cite_ref-Pappas2012_152-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPappas2012" class="citation web cs1">Pappas, Stephanie (29 May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.livescience.com/20624-5-alien-parasites-real-inspiration.html">"5 Alien Parasites and Their Real-World Counterparts"</a>. Live Science.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=5+Alien+Parasites+and+Their+Real-World+Counterparts&rft.pub=Live+Science&rft.date=2012-05-29&rft.aulast=Pappas&rft.aufirst=Stephanie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.livescience.com%2F20624-5-alien-parasites-real-inspiration.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Sercel2017-153"><a href="#cite_ref-Sercel2017_153-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSercel2017" class="citation web cs1">Sercel, Alex (19 May 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20230326033850/http://www.signaltonoisemag.com/allarticles/2017/5/19/parasitism-in-the-alien-movies">"Parasitism in the Alien Movies"</a>. Signal to Noise Magazine. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.signaltonoisemag.com/allarticles/2017/5/19/parasitism-in-the-alien-movies">the original</a> on 26 March 2023. Retrieved 11 February 2018.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parasitism+in+the+Alien+Movies&rft.pub=Signal+to+Noise+Magazine&rft.date=2017-05-19&rft.aulast=Sercel&rft.aufirst=Alex&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.signaltonoisemag.com%2Fallarticles%2F2017%2F5%2F19%2Fparasitism-in-the-alien-movies&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Nordine2017-154"><a href="#cite_ref-Nordine2017_154-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNordine2017" class="citation news cs1">Nordine, Michael (25 April 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.indiewire.com/2017/04/alien-xenomorph-life-cycle-1201808503/">"'Alien' Evolution: Explore Every Stage in the Xenomorph's Gruesome Life Cycle. Celebrate Alien Day with a look at the past, present and future of cinema's most terrifying extraterrestrial"</a>. IndieWire.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IndieWire&rft.atitle=%27Alien%27+Evolution%3A+Explore+Every+Stage+in+the+Xenomorph%27s+Gruesome+Life+Cycle.+Celebrate+Alien+Day+with+a+look+at+the+past%2C+present+and+future+of+cinema%27s+most+terrifying+extraterrestrial&rft.date=2017-04-25&rft.aulast=Nordine&rft.aufirst=Michael&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.indiewire.com%2F2017%2F04%2Falien-xenomorph-life-cycle-1201808503%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Hill_2013_SciAm-155">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Hill_2013_SciAm_155-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Hill_2013_SciAm_155-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill2013" class="citation magazine cs1">Hill, Kyle (25 June 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://blogs.scientificamerican.com/but-not-simpler/the-fungus-that-reduced-humanity-to-the-last-of-us/">"The Fungus that Reduced Humanity to The Last of Us"</a>. <a href="/wiki/Scientific_American" title="Scientific American">Scientific American</a>. Retrieved 4 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=The+Fungus+that+Reduced+Humanity+to+The+Last+of+Us&rft.date=2013-06-25&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Kyle&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fblogs.scientificamerican.com%2Fbut-not-simpler%2Fthe-fungus-that-reduced-humanity-to-the-last-of-us%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Sources">Sources</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=58" title="Edit section: Sources">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFPoulin2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Poulin_(zoologist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Poulin (zoologist)">Poulin, Robert</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/evolutionaryecol0000poul">Evolutionary Ecology of Parasites</a>. <a href="/wiki/Princeton_University_Press" title="Princeton University Press">Princeton University Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12085-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-691-12085-0"><bdi>978-0-691-12085-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Evolutionary+Ecology+of+Parasites&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-691-12085-0&rft.aulast=Poulin&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fevolutionaryecol0000poul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=59" title="Edit section: Further reading">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Claude_Combes" title="Claude Combes">Combes, Claude</a> (2005). The Art of Being a Parasite. <a href="/wiki/The_University_of_Chicago_Press" class="mw-redirect" title="The University of Chicago Press">The University of Chicago Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-226-11438-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-226-11438-5"><bdi>978-0-226-11438-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Art+of+Being+a+Parasite&rft.pub=The+University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-226-11438-5&rft.aulast=Combes&rft.aufirst=Claude&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Robert_Desowitz" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert Desowitz">Desowitz, Robert</a> (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/whogavepintatosa00deso">Who Gave Pinta to the Santa Maria?</a>. Harvest Books. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-15-600585-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-15-600585-2"><bdi>978-0-15-600585-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Who+Gave+Pinta+to+the+Santa+Maria%3F&rft.pub=Harvest+Books&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-15-600585-2&rft.aulast=Desowitz&rft.aufirst=Robert&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwhogavepintatosa00deso&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Carl_Zimmer" title="Carl Zimmer">Zimmer, Carl</a> (2001). <a href="/wiki/Parasite_Rex" title="Parasite Rex">Parasite Rex</a>. <a href="/wiki/Free_Press_(publisher)" title="Free Press (publisher)">Free Press</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-0011-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7432-0011-0"><bdi>978-0-7432-0011-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Parasite+Rex&rft.pub=Free+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-7432-0011-0&rft.aulast=Zimmer&rft.aufirst=Carl&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AParasitism" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Parasitism&action=edit&section=60" title="Edit section: External links">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Parasites" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Parasites">Parasites</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/40px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="40" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/60px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/80px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikibooks has more on the topic of: <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Special:Search/Parasitism" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Special:Search/Parasitism">Parasitism</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/File:Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/16px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/24px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/df/Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg/32px-Wikibooks-logo-en-noslogan.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a> <a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Parasitic_Insects,_Mites_and_Ticks:_Genera_of_Medical_and_Veterinary_Importance/%27%27Parasitic_Insects,_Mites_and_Ticks:_Genera_of_Medical_and_Veterinary_Importance%27%27" class="extiw" title="wikibooks:Parasitic Insects, Mites and Ticks: Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance/''Parasitic Insects, Mites and Ticks: Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance''">Parasitic Insects, Mites and Ticks: Genera of Medical and Veterinary Importance</a> at Wikibooks</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110801045926/http://www.aber.ac.uk/~mpgwww/Edu/EduIndex.html">Aberystwyth University: Parasitology</a>—class outline with links to full text articles on parasitism and parasitology.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/ncidod/dpd/">Division of Parasitic Diseases</a>, <a href="/wiki/Centers_for_Disease_Control_and_Prevention" title="Centers for Disease Control and Prevention">Centers for Disease Control and Prevention</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.k-state.edu/parasitology">KSU: Parasitology Research</a>—parasitology articles and links</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://academic.oup.com/cid/article/37/5/694/311910">Parasitology Resources on the World Wide Web: A Powerful Tool for Infectious Disease Practitioners</a> (Oxford University Press)</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl 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evolution">Parallel evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Divergent_evolution" title="Divergent evolution">Divergent evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predator_satiation" title="Predator satiation">Predator satiation</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Signals</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Signalling_theory" title="Signalling theory">Signalling theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alarm_signal" title="Alarm signal">Alarm signal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aposematism" title="Aposematism">Aposematism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apparent_death" title="Apparent death">Apparent death</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Distraction_display" title="Distraction display">Distraction display</a></li></ul></li> <li class="mw-empty-elt"></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Crypsis" title="Crypsis">Crypsis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unkenreflex" title="Unkenreflex">Unkenreflex</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Inter-species_biological_interactions" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template talk:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inter-species_biological_interactions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inter-species <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">biological interactions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Amensalism" title="Biological interaction">Amensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology)">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_deception_in_animals" title="Tactical deception in animals">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquilinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inquilinism">Inquilinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Neutralism" title="Biological interaction">Neutralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Competition" title="Biological interaction">Synnecrosis</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parasitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasite" title="Behavior-altering parasite">Behavior-altering parasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">Host–parasite coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperparasite" title="Hyperparasite">Hyperparasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">Kleptoparasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castration" title="Parasitic castration">Parasitic castration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">Parasitoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">Cleaning symbiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">Mycorrhiza</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Feeding_behaviours" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible mw-collapsed navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Feeding" title="Template:Feeding"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Feeding" title="Template talk:Feeding"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Feeding" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Feeding"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Feeding_behaviours" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">Feeding behaviours</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">adult</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Avivore" title="Avivore">Avivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_predation" title="Egg predation">Egg predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hematophagy" title="Hematophagy">Hematophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lepidophagy" title="Lepidophagy">Lepidophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Man-eating_animal" title="Man-eating animal">Man-eating animal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Molluscivore" title="Molluscivore">Molluscivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mucophagy" title="Mucophagy">Mucophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myrmecophagy" title="Myrmecophagy">Myrmecophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ophiophagy" title="Ophiophagy">Ophiophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Piscivore" title="Piscivore">Piscivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spongivore" title="Spongivore">Spongivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vermivore" title="Vermivore">Vermivore</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">reproductive</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Oophagy" title="Oophagy">Oophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paedophagy" title="Paedophagy">Paedophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Placentophagy" title="Placentophagy">Placentophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breastfeeding" title="Breastfeeding">Breastfeeding</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weaning" title="Weaning">Weaning</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">cannibalistic</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cannibalism_(zoology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cannibalism (zoology)">Animal cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Human_cannibalism" title="Human cannibalism">Human cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-cannibalism" title="Self-cannibalism">Self-cannibalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexual_cannibalism" title="Sexual cannibalism">Sexual cannibalism</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="5" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/160px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg" decoding="async" width="160" height="102" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/240px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5f/Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg/320px-Starling_Feeding_Offspring.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1300" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Folivore" title="Folivore">Folivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Florivore" title="Florivore">Florivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frugivore" title="Frugivore">Frugivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graminivore" title="Graminivore">Graminivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seed_predation" title="Seed predation">Seed predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nectarivore" title="Nectarivore">Nectarivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mellivory" title="Mellivory">Mellivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Palynivore" title="Palynivore">Palynivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xylophagy" title="Xylophagy">Xylophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Osteophagy" title="Osteophagy">Osteophagy</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Cellular</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Phagocytosis" title="Phagocytosis">Phagocytosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myzocytosis" title="Myzocytosis">Myzocytosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Others</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Microbivory" title="Microbivory">Microbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fungivore" title="Fungivore">Fungivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coprophagia" title="Coprophagia">Coprophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geophagia" title="Geophagia">Geophagia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saprophagy" title="Saprophagy">Saprophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xenophagy" title="Xenophagy">Xenophagy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plastivore" title="Plastivore">Plastivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pica_(disorder)" title="Pica (disorder)">Pica</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Methods</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ambush_predator" title="Ambush predator">Ambush predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Egg_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Egg predator">Egg predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Intraguild predator">Intraguild predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pursuit_predator" class="mw-redirect" title="Pursuit predator">Pursuit predator</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Aquatic predation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Lunge_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Lunge feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Pivot_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Pivot feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Ram_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Ram feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aquatic_feeding_mechanisms#Suction_feeding" title="Aquatic feeding mechanisms">Suction feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bait_ball" title="Bait ball">Bait balls</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bottom_feeder" title="Bottom feeder">Bottom feeder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Filter_feeder" title="Filter feeder">Filter feeder</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Browsing_(herbivory)" title="Browsing (herbivory)">Browsing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cattle_feeding" title="Cattle feeding">Cattle feeding</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Fodder" title="Fodder">Fodder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grazing" title="Grazing">Grazing</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Forage" title="Forage">Forage</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypercarnivore" title="Hypercarnivore">Hypercarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hypocarnivore" title="Hypocarnivore">Hypocarnivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesocarnivore" title="Mesocarnivore">Mesocarnivore</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scavenger" title="Scavenger">Scavenger</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surplus_killing" title="Surplus killing">Surplus killing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophallaxis" title="Trophallaxis">Trophallaxis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antipredator_adaptation" class="mw-redirect" title="Antipredator adaptation">Antipredator adaptation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_plant" title="Carnivorous plant">Carnivorous plant</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_fungus" title="Carnivorous fungus">Carnivorous fungus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivorous_protist" class="mw-redirect" title="Carnivorous protist">Carnivorous protist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Category:Eating_behaviors" title="Category:Eating behaviors">Category:Eating behaviors</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q186517#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4173322-8">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85097918">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120099541">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb120099541">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00565985">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph908347&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000147687&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007563147705171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; 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4 Template:Navbox"," 3.79% 91.236 2 Template:Sister_project"," 3.70% 89.086 1 Template:Evo_ecol"," 3.70% 89.085 1 Template:Commons_category"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.499","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":21750662,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"anchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"Autoinfection\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAlexander2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFAskew1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerdoyWebsterMacdonald2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBerecSchembriBoukal2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBlakesleeKeoghFowlerGriffen2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBourkeFranks1991\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBreitbart,_M.Rohwer,_F.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBushFernández,_J._C.Esch,_G._W.Seed,_J._R.2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCairaBenzBorucinskaKohler1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCardé2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChase2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheng1973\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCheng2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChowdhuryBasuKundu2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCombes2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCox2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDamon1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDe_MarsicoGloagUrsinoReboreda2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDeslippe2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDidierStovallGreenBrindley2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDissanaike1957\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDobsonLaffertyKurisHechinger2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDove2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEberhard2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEbertHamilton1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEdwardsRohwer2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEllis2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFElumalaiViswanathanPravinkumarRaffi2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEmery1909\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFEschPetersen2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEwald1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFeiLiu2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFisherHarveyChampe2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFolstadKarter1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFForbesBagleyBeerHippee2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFrank2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFFurness1978\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGarcia1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGetz2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGodfrey2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGullanCranston2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHamiltonAxelrodTanese1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHeide-Jørgensen2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHoddle,_M._S.Van_Driesche,_R._G.Sanderson,_J._P.1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHolt2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHudsonDobsonLafferty2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHumphrey-Smith,_Ian1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFIoliPetithoryTheodorides1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJeanne1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnsonKennedyMcCracken2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKoklaMelnyk2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKooninSenkevichDolja,_V._V.2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaffertyAllesinaArimBriggs2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaffertyKuris2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaffertyMorris1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence,_C._M.Menon,_S.Eilers,_B._J.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLawrence1981\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLeake1994\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLivelyDybdahl2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaggentiMaggentiGardner2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaizels2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMargulisSaganEldredge,_Niles1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMasseyBucklingffrench-Constant2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMatyszak2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMcFall-Ngai2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMorandKrasnovLittlewood2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNickrent2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNickrentMusselman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNordine2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;Brien1988\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFOtis2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPage2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPappas2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParrattLaine2016\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFParéTumlinson1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPayne2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPietsch2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPlayfair2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPolaszekVilhemsen2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPollittMacGregorMatthewsReece2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulin1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulin2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulin2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulinMcDougallPresswell2022\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFPoulinRandhawa2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRandleCannonFaust2018\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRastogi1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRigaudPerrot-MinnotBrown2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRochatGutierrez2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRollinsonHay2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRook2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRothstein1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRozsaGaray2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRunyonMescher,_M._C.De_Moraes,_C._M.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRózsaReiczigelMajoros2000\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkarPlutynski2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSercel2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSlaterRosenblattSnowdon,_Charles_T.Roper,_Timothy_J.2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSteere2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStevens2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFStringerLinklater2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSukhdeo2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSuzukiSasaki2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwift1733\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSwitzerSalemiShanmugamGao2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTakasuka2019\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThalerKarbanUllmanBoege2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThanit_Nonsrirach,_Serge_Morand,_Alexis_Ribas,_Sita_Manitkoon,_Komsorn_Lauprasert,_Julien_Claude2023\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFThomasSchönroggeBonelli,_S.Barbero,_F.2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVan_OystaeyenAraujo_AlvesCaliari_OliveiraLima_do_Nascimento2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFVecchioneAznar2008\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWalsh2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWelbergenDavies2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWerren2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWestwoodYoderTimkodePamphilis2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2014\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilson2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWolffSalisbury,_Steven_W.Horner,_John_R.Varrichio,_David_J.2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYahalomAtkinsonNeuhofChang2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYang,_C.,_X._Si,_W._Liang,_and_A._P._Møller2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFZhangShihRasnitsynRen2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFde_BoerRobinsonPowersBurgers2017\"] = 1,\n [\"Ecology\"] = 1,\n [\"Ectoparasite\"] = 2,\n [\"Endoparasite\"] = 2,\n [\"Evolution\"] = 1,\n [\"Macroparasite\"] = 1,\n [\"Microparasite\"] = 1,\n [\"Micropredator\"] = 1,\n [\"Semiparasite\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"!\"] = 1,\n [\"Anchor\"] = 8,\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Biological interaction-footer\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 32,\n [\"Cite encyclopedia\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 92,\n [\"Cite magazine\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 16,\n [\"Commons category\"] = 1,\n [\"Dead link\"] = 1,\n [\"Efn\"] = 2,\n [\"Ety\"] = 1,\n [\"Evo ecol\"] = 1,\n [\"External media\"] = 1,\n [\"Feeding\"] = 1,\n [\"Font color\"] = 14,\n [\"Further\"] = 20,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Hyp\"] = 1,\n [\"Ill\"] = 1,\n [\"Lang\"] = 2,\n [\"Main\"] = 8,\n [\"Notelist\"] = 1,\n [\"Open access\"] = 3,\n [\"Poemquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Pp-pc\"] = 1,\n [\"Redirect\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"See also\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 8,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Use British English\"] = 1,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikibooks\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikibooks inline\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","200","13.7"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","160","11.0"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","140","9.6"],["recursiveClone 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