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href="#Exploitation_competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Exploitation competition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Exploitation_competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apparent_competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apparent_competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Apparent competition</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Apparent_competition-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Apparent competition subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Apparent_competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Apparent_competition_and_realized_niche" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apparent_competition_and_realized_niche"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Apparent competition and realized niche</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apparent_competition_and_realized_niche-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Asymmetric_apparent_competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Asymmetric_apparent_competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Asymmetric apparent competition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Asymmetric_apparent_competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Apparent_competition_in_the_human_microbiome" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Apparent_competition_in_the_human_microbiome"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Apparent competition in the human microbiome</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Apparent_competition_in_the_human_microbiome-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Size-asymmetric_competition" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Size-asymmetric_competition"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Size-asymmetric competition</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Size-asymmetric_competition-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Within_and_between_species" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Within_and_between_species"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Within and between species</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Within_and_between_species-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Within and between species subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Within_and_between_species-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Intraspecific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Intraspecific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Intraspecific</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Intraspecific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Interspecific" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Interspecific"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.2</span> <span>Interspecific</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Interspecific-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Evolutionary_strategies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Evolutionary_strategies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Evolutionary strategies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Evolutionary_strategies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Competitive_exclusion_principle" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Competitive_exclusion_principle"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Competitive exclusion principle</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Competitive_exclusion_principle-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Character_displacement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Character_displacement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>Character displacement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Character_displacement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">10</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">11</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Competition (biology)</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 36 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-36" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">36 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompetisie_(natuurverskynsel)" title="Kompetisie (natuurverskynsel) – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kompetisie (natuurverskynsel)" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AA%D9%86%D8%A7%D9%81%D8%B3_(%D8%A3%D8%AD%D9%8A%D8%A7%D8%A1)" title="تنافس (أحياء) – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="تنافس (أحياء)" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B5%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Конкуренция (екология) – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Конкуренция (екология)" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Compet%C3%A8ncia_(biologia)" title="Competència (biologia) – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Competència (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompetice" title="Kompetice – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Kompetice" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkurrenz_(%C3%96kologie)" title="Konkurrenz (Ökologie) – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Konkurrenz (Ökologie)" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkurents_(bioloogia)" title="Konkurents (bioloogia) – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Konkurents (bioloogia)" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competencia_(biolog%C3%ADa)" title="Competencia (biología) – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Competencia (biología)" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkurado_(biologio)" title="Konkurado (biologio) – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Konkurado (biologio)" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lehia_(biologia)" title="Lehia (biologia) – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Lehia (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B1%D9%82%D8%A7%D8%A8%D8%AA_(%D8%B2%DB%8C%D8%B3%D8%AA%E2%80%8C%D8%B4%D9%86%D8%A7%D8%B3%DB%8C)" title="رقابت (زیست‌شناسی) – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="رقابت (زیست‌شناسی)" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Comp%C3%A9tition_(biologie)" title="Compétition (biologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Compétition (biologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkurrinsje_(ekology)" title="Konkurrinsje (ekology) – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Konkurrinsje (ekology)" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competencia_(biolox%C3%ADa)" title="Competencia (bioloxía) – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Competencia (bioloxía)" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%B2%BD%EC%9F%81_(%EC%83%9D%EB%AC%BC%ED%95%99)" title="경쟁 (생물학) – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="경쟁 (생물학)" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%AA%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%AF%E0%A5%8B%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%BE_(%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%80%E0%A4%B5_%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BF%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8)" title="प्रतियोगिता (जीव विज्ञान) – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="प्रतियोगिता (जीव विज्ञान)" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competizione" title="Competizione – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Competizione" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%AA%D7%97%D7%A8%D7%95%D7%AA_(%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%92%D7%99%D7%94)" title="תחרות (אקולוגיה) – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="תחרות (אקולוגיה)" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompet%C3%ADci%C3%B3" title="Kompetíció – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Kompetíció" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Concurrentie_(ecologie)" title="Concurrentie (ecologie) – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Concurrentie (ecologie)" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AB%B6%E4%BA%89_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9)" title="競争 (生物) – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="競争 (生物)" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkurranse_(biologi)" title="Konkurranse (biologi) – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Konkurranse (biologi)" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkurencja_(ekologia)" title="Konkurencja (ekologia) – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Konkurencja (ekologia)" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competi%C3%A7%C3%A3o_(biologia)" title="Competição (biologia) – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Competição (biologia)" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Конкуренция (биология) – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Конкуренция (биология)" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D0%B8%D1%8F)" title="Конкуренция (биология) – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Конкуренция (биология)" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Competition_(biology)" title="Competition (biology) – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Competition (biology)" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kompeticija_(biologija)" title="Kompeticija (biologija) – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Kompeticija (biologija)" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Konkurencija_(biologija)" title="Konkurencija (biologija) – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Konkurencija (biologija)" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AA%E0%AF%8B%E0%AE%9F%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%9F%E0%AE%BF_(%E0%AE%89%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B0%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D)" title="போட்டி (உயிரியல்) – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="போட்டி (உயிரியல்)" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rekabet_(biyoloji)" title="Rekabet (biyoloji) – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Rekabet (biyoloji)" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D0%BD%D0%BA%D1%83%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%86%D1%96%D1%8F_(%D0%B1%D1%96%D0%BE%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B3%D1%96%D1%8F)" title="Конкуренція (біологія) – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Конкуренція (біологія)" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/C%E1%BA%A1nh_tranh_sinh_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Cạnh tranh sinh học – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Cạnh tranh sinh học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%AB%9E%E4%BA%89%EF%BC%88%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%A6%EF%BC%89" title="竞争（生物学） – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="竞争（生物学）" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%88%AD%E5%98%A2_(%E7%94%9F%E7%89%A9%E5%AD%B8)" title="爭嘢 (生物學) – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="爭嘢 (生物學)" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a 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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Interaction where the fitness of one organism is lowered by the presence of another organism</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Bird_War_1_(67158617).jpeg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Bird_War_1_%2867158617%29.jpeg/300px-Bird_War_1_%2867158617%29.jpeg" decoding="async" width="300" height="187" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Bird_War_1_%2867158617%29.jpeg/450px-Bird_War_1_%2867158617%29.jpeg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/Bird_War_1_%2867158617%29.jpeg/600px-Bird_War_1_%2867158617%29.jpeg 2x" data-file-width="1845" data-file-height="1152" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Great_egret" title="Great egret">Great egret</a> and <a href="/wiki/Neotropic_cormorant" title="Neotropic cormorant">neotropic cormorant</a> competing over territory</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Competition</b> is an <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">interaction</a> between <a href="/wiki/Organism" title="Organism">organisms</a> or <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> in which both require a <a href="/wiki/Resource_(biological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource (biological)">resource</a> that is in <a href="/wiki/Limiting_factor" title="Limiting factor">limited</a> supply (such as <a href="/wiki/Food" title="Food">food</a>, <a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">water</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Territory_(animal)" title="Territory (animal)">territory</a>).<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Competition lowers the <a href="/wiki/Fitness_(biology)" title="Fitness (biology)">fitness</a> of both organisms involved since the presence of one of the organisms always reduces the amount of the resource available to the other.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the study of <a href="/wiki/Community_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Community ecology">community ecology</a>, competition within and between members of a <a href="/wiki/Species" title="Species">species</a> is an important <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">biological interaction</a>. Competition is one of many interacting <a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">biotic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">abiotic</a> factors that affect <a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">community</a> structure, species diversity, and <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">population dynamics</a> (shifts in a population over time).<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There are three major <a href="/wiki/Mechanism_(biology)" title="Mechanism (biology)">mechanisms</a> of competition: interference, exploitation, and apparent competition (in order from most direct to least direct). Interference and exploitation competition can be classed as "real" forms of competition, while apparent competition is not, as organisms do not share a resource, but instead share a predator.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Competition among members of the same species is known as <a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">intraspecific competition</a>, while competition between individuals of different species is known as <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">interspecific competition</a>. </p><p>According to the <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">competitive exclusion principle</a>, species less suited to compete for resources must either <a href="/wiki/Adaptation" title="Adaptation">adapt</a> or <a href="/wiki/Extinction" title="Extinction">die out</a>, although competitive exclusion is rarely found in natural ecosystems.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_3-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to <a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Evolutionary theory">evolutionary theory</a>, competition within and between species for resources is important in <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">natural selection</a>. More recently, however, researchers have suggested that evolutionary biodiversity for vertebrates has been driven not by competition between organisms, but by these animals adapting to colonize empty livable space; this is termed the 'Room to Roam' hypothesis.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Interference_competition">Interference competition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Interference competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Hirschkampf.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Hirschkampf.jpg/220px-Hirschkampf.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Hirschkampf.jpg/330px-Hirschkampf.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/Hirschkampf.jpg/440px-Hirschkampf.jpg 2x" data-file-width="800" data-file-height="600" /></a><figcaption>Male-male competition in <a href="/wiki/Red_deer" title="Red deer">red deer</a> during <a href="/wiki/Rut_(mammalian_reproduction)" title="Rut (mammalian reproduction)">rut</a> is an example of interference competition within a species.</figcaption></figure> <p>During interference competition, also called contest competition, organisms interact directly by fighting for scarce resources. For example, large <a href="/wiki/Aphid" title="Aphid">aphids</a> defend feeding sites on <a href="/wiki/Populus_angustifolia" title="Populus angustifolia">cottonwood</a> leaves by ejecting smaller aphids from better sites. Male-male competition in <a href="/wiki/Red_deer" title="Red deer">red deer</a> during <a href="/wiki/Rut_(mammalian_reproduction)" title="Rut (mammalian reproduction)">rut</a> is an example of interference competition that occurs within a species. </p><p>Interference competition occurs directly between individuals via <a href="/wiki/Aggression" title="Aggression">aggression</a> when the individuals interfere with the foraging, survival, and reproduction of others, or by directly preventing their physical establishment in a portion of the habitat. An example of this can be seen between the ant <i><a href="/wiki/Novomessor_cockerelli" title="Novomessor cockerelli">Novomessor cockerelli</a></i> and <a href="/wiki/Pogonomyrmex_barbatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Pogonomyrmex barbatus">red harvester ants</a>, where the former interferes with the ability of the latter to forage by plugging the entrances to their <a href="/wiki/Colony_(biology)" title="Colony (biology)">colonies</a> with small rocks.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Male <a href="/wiki/Bowerbird" title="Bowerbird">bowerbirds</a>, who create elaborate structures called <i>bowers</i> to attract potential mates, may reduce the fitness of their neighbors directly by stealing decorations from their structures.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In animals, interference competition is a strategy mainly adopted by larger and stronger organisms within a habitat. As such, populations with high interference competition have adult-driven generation cycles.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At first, the growth of juveniles is stunted by larger adult competitors. However, once the juveniles reach adulthood, they experience a secondary growth cycle.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants, on the other hand, primarily engage in interference competition with their neighbors through <a href="/wiki/Allelopathy" title="Allelopathy">allelopathy</a>, or the production of biochemicals.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Interference competition can be seen as a strategy that has a clear cost (injury or death) and benefit (obtaining resources that would have gone to other organisms).<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In order to cope with strong interference competition, other organisms often either do the same or engage in exploitation competition. For example, depending on the season, larger ungulate red deer males are competitively dominant due to interference competition. However, does and fawns have dealt with this through temporal resource partitioning — foraging for food only when adult males are not present.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Exploitation_competition">Exploitation competition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Exploitation competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Exploitation competition, or <a href="/wiki/Scramble_competition" title="Scramble competition">scramble competition</a>, occurs indirectly when organisms both use a common <a href="/wiki/Limiting_resource" class="mw-redirect" title="Limiting resource">limiting resource</a> or shared food item. Instead of fighting or exhibiting aggressive behavior in order to win resources, exploitative competition occurs when resource use by one organism depletes the total amount available for other organisms. These organisms might never interact directly but compete by responding to changes in resource levels. Very obvious examples of this phenomenon include a <a href="/wiki/Diurnality" title="Diurnality">diurnal</a> species and a nocturnal species that nevertheless share the same resources or a plant that competes with neighboring plants for light, nutrients, and space for root growth.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:2_8-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>This form of competition typically rewards those organisms who claim the resource first. As such, exploitation competition is often size-dependent and smaller organisms are favored since smaller organisms typically have higher foraging rates.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Since smaller organisms have an advantage when exploitative competition is important in an ecosystem, this mechanism of competition might lead to a juvenile-driven generation cycle: individual juveniles succeed and grow fast, but once they mature they are outcompeted by smaller organisms.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_7-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In plants, exploitative competition can occur both above- and below ground. Aboveground, plants reduce the fitness of their neighbors by vying for sunlight <a href="/wiki/Plants" class="mw-redirect" title="Plants">plants</a> consume <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> by <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_assimilation" title="Nitrogen assimilation">absorbing</a> it into their roots, making nitrogen unavailable to nearby plants. Plants that produce many roots typically reduce <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen_fixation" title="Nitrogen fixation">soil nitrogen</a> to very low levels, eventually killing neighboring plants. </p><p>Exploitative competition has also been shown to occur both within species (intraspecific) and between different species (interspecific). Furthermore, many competitive interactions between organisms are some combination of exploitative and interference competition, meaning the two mechanisms are far from mutually exclusive. For example, a recent 2019 study found that the native thrip species <i>Frankliniella intonsa</i> was competitively dominant over an invasive thrip species <i>Frankliniella occidentalis</i> because it not only exhibited greater time feeding (exploitative competition) but also greater time guarding its resources (interference competition).<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plants may also exhibit both forms of competition, not only scrambling for space for root growth but also directly inhibiting other plants' development through allelopathy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Apparent_competition">Apparent competition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Apparent competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apparent competition occurs when two otherwise unrelated prey species indirectly compete for survival through a shared <a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">predator</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This form of competition typically manifests in new equilibrium abundances of each prey species. For example, suppose there are two species (species A and species B), which are preyed upon by food-limited predator species C. Scientists observe an increase in the abundance of species A and a decline in the abundance of species B. In an apparent competition model, this relationship is found to be mediated through predator C; a population explosion of species A increases the abundance of predator species C due to a greater total food source. Since there are now more predators, species A and B would be hunted at higher rates than before. Thus, the success of species A was to the detriment of species B — not because they competed for resources, but because their increased numbers had indirect effects on the predator population. </p><p>This one-predator/two-prey model has been explored by ecologists as early as 1925, but the term "apparent competition" was first coined by University of Florida ecologist Robert D. Holt in 1977.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Holt found that field ecologists at the time were erroneously attributing negative interactions among prey species to <a href="/wiki/Niche_partitioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche partitioning">niche partitioning</a> and <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">competitive exclusion</a>, ignoring the role of food-limited predators.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apparent_competition_and_realized_niche">Apparent competition and realized niche</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Apparent competition and realized niche"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apparent competition can help shape a species' <a href="/wiki/Realized_niche" class="mw-redirect" title="Realized niche">realized niche</a>, or the area or resources the species can <i>actually</i> persist due to interspecific interactions. The effect on realized niches could be incredibly strong, especially when there is an absence of more traditional interference or exploitative competition. A real-world example was studied in the late 1960s, when the introduction of snowshoe hares (<i><a href="/wiki/Snowshoe_hare" title="Snowshoe hare">Lepus americanus</a></i>) to Newfoundland reduced the habitat range of native arctic hares (<i><a href="/wiki/Arctic_hare" title="Arctic hare">Lepus arcticus</a></i>). While some ecologists hypothesized that this was due to an overlap in the niche, other ecologists argued that the more plausible mechanism was that snowshoe hare populations led to an explosion in food-limited <a href="/wiki/Lynx" title="Lynx">lynx</a> populations, a shared predator of both prey species. Since the arctic hare has a relatively weaker defense tactic than the snowshoe hare, they were excluded from woodland areas on the basis of differential predation. However, both apparent competition and exploitation competition might help explain the situation to some degree.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_13-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Support for the impact of competition on the breadth of the realized niche with respect to diet is becoming more common in a variety of systems based upon isotopic and spatial data, including both carnivores<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and small mammals.<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Asymmetric_apparent_competition">Asymmetric apparent competition</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Asymmetric apparent competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apparent competition can be symmetric or asymmetric.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Symmetric apparent competition negatively impacts both species equally (-,-), from which it can be inferred that both species will persist. However, asymmetric apparent competition occurs when one species is affected less than the other. The most extreme scenario of asymmetric apparent competition is when one species is not affected at all by the increase in the predator, which can be seen as a form of <a href="/wiki/Amensalism" class="mw-redirect" title="Amensalism">amensalism</a> (0, -).<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Human impacts on endangered prey species have been characterized by conservation scientists as an extreme form of asymmetric apparent competition, often through <a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">introducing</a> predator species into ecosystems or resource subsidies. An example of fully asymmetric apparent competition which often occurs near urban centers is subsidies in the form of human garbage or waste. In the early 2000s, the common raven (<i><a href="/wiki/Common_raven" title="Common raven">Corvus corax</a></i>) population in the <a href="/wiki/Mojave_Desert" title="Mojave Desert">Mojave Desert</a> increased due to an influx of human garbage, leading to an indirect negative effect on juvenile desert tortoises (<i><a href="/wiki/Desert_tortoise" title="Desert tortoise">Gopherus agassizii</a></i>).<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Asymmetry in apparent competition can also arise as a consequence of resource competition. An empirical example is provided by two small fish species in postglacial lakes in Western Canada, where resource competition between prickly sculpin and threespine stickleback fish leads to a spatial niche shift mainly in threespine stickleback.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a consequence of this shift, predation by a shared trout predator increases for stickleback but decreases for sculpin in lakes where the two species co-occur compared to lakes in which each species occurs on its own together with trout predators. Because sharing predators often comes together with competition for shared food resources, apparent competition and resource competition may often interplay in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Apparent_competition_in_the_human_microbiome">Apparent competition in the human microbiome</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Apparent competition in the human microbiome"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Apparent competition has also been viewed in and on the human body. The human immune system can acts as the generalist predator, and a high abundance of a certain bacteria may induce an immune response, damaging all pathogens in the body. Another example of this is of two populations of bacteria that can both support a predatory bacteriophage. In most situations, the one that is most resistant to infection by the shared predator will replace the other.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Apparent competition has also been suggested as an exploitable phenomenon for cancer treatments. Highly specialized viruses that are developed to target malignant cancer cells often go locally extinct prior to eradicating all cancer. However, if a virus were developed that targets both healthy and unhealthy host cells to some degree, the large number of healthy cells would support the predatory virus for long enough to eliminate all malignant cells.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_17-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Size-asymmetric_competition">Size-asymmetric competition</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Size-asymmetric competition"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Size-asymmetric_competition" title="Size-asymmetric competition">Size-asymmetric competition</a></div> <p>Competition can be either <a href="/wiki/Size-asymmetric_competition" title="Size-asymmetric competition">complete symmetric</a> (all individuals receive the same amount of resources, irrespective of their size), <a href="/wiki/Size-asymmetric_competition" title="Size-asymmetric competition">perfectly size symmetric</a> (all individuals exploit the same amount of resource per unit biomass), or absolutely <a href="/wiki/Size-asymmetric_competition" title="Size-asymmetric competition">size-asymmetric</a> (the largest individuals exploit all the available resource). </p><p>Among plants, size asymmetry is context-dependent and competition can be both asymmetric and symmetric depending on the most limiting resource. In forest stands, below-ground competition for nutrients and water is size-symmetric, because a tree's root system is typically proportionate to the biomass of the entire tree.<sup id="cite_ref-22" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, above-ground competition for light is size-asymmetric — since light has directionality, the forest canopy is dominated entirely by the largest trees. These trees disproportionately exploit most of the resource for their biomass, making the interaction size asymmetric.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whether above-ground or below-ground resources are more limiting can have major effects on the structure and diversity of ecological communities; in mixed beech stands, for example, size-asymmetric competition for light is a stronger predictor of growth compared with competition for soil resources.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Within_and_between_species">Within and between species</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Within and between species"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Female_intrasexual_competition" title="Female intrasexual competition">Female intrasexual competition</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Clone_war_of_sea_anemones_2-17-08-2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Clone_war_of_sea_anemones_2-17-08-2.jpg/220px-Clone_war_of_sea_anemones_2-17-08-2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Clone_war_of_sea_anemones_2-17-08-2.jpg/330px-Clone_war_of_sea_anemones_2-17-08-2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/96/Clone_war_of_sea_anemones_2-17-08-2.jpg/440px-Clone_war_of_sea_anemones_2-17-08-2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1650" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Sea_anemones" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea anemones">Sea anemones</a> compete for the territory in <a href="/wiki/Tide_pools" class="mw-redirect" title="Tide pools">tide pools</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Competition can occur between individuals of the same species, called intraspecific competition, or between different species, called interspecific competition. Studies show that intraspecific competition can regulate population dynamics (changes in population size over time). This occurs because individuals become crowded as the population grows. Since individuals within a population require the same resources, crowding causes resources to become more limited. Some individuals (typically small juveniles) eventually do not acquire enough resources and die or do not reproduce. This reduces population size and slows population growth.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>Species also interact with other species that require the same resources. Consequently, interspecific competition can alter the sizes of many species populations at the same time. Experiments demonstrate that when species compete for a limited resource, one species eventually drives the populations of other species extinct. These experiments suggest that competing species cannot coexist (they cannot live together in the same area) because the best competitor will exclude all other competing species.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (January 2017)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Intraspecific">Intraspecific</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Intraspecific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></div> <p>Intraspecific competition occurs when members of the same species compete for the same <a href="/wiki/Natural_resource" title="Natural resource">resources</a> in an ecosystem.<sup id="cite_ref-Townsend2008_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Townsend2008-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A simple example is a stand of equally-spaced plants, which are all of the same age. The higher the <a href="/wiki/Plant_density" title="Plant density">density of plants</a>, the more plants will be present per unit ground area, and the stronger the competition will be for resources such as light, water, or nutrients. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interspecific">Interspecific</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Interspecific"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></div> <p>Interspecific competition may occur when individuals of two separate species share a limiting resource in the same area. If the resource cannot support both populations, then lowered <a href="/wiki/Fecundity" title="Fecundity">fecundity</a>, growth, or survival may result in at least one species. Interspecific competition has the potential to alter <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">populations</a>, communities, and the evolution of interacting species. An example among animals could be the case of <a href="/wiki/Cheetah" title="Cheetah">cheetahs</a> and <a href="/wiki/Lion" title="Lion">lions</a>; since both species feed on similar prey, they are negatively impacted by the presence of the other because they will have less food, however, they still persist together, despite the prediction that under competition one will displace the other. In fact, lions sometimes steal prey items killed by cheetahs. Potential competitors can also kill each other, in so-called '<a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">intraguild predation</a>'. For example, in southern California coyotes often kill and eat gray foxes and bobcats, all three carnivores sharing the same stable prey (small mammals).<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>An example among protozoa involves <i><a href="/wiki/Paramecium_aurelia" title="Paramecium aurelia">Paramecium aurelia</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Paramecium_caudatum" title="Paramecium caudatum">Paramecium caudatum</a>.</i> Russian ecologist, <a href="/wiki/Georgy_Gause" title="Georgy Gause">Georgy Gause</a>, studied the competition between the two species of <i>Paramecium</i> that occurred as a result of their coexistence. Through his studies, Gause proposed the <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a>, observing the competition that occurred when their different ecological niches overlapped.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Competition has been observed between individuals, populations, and species, but there is little evidence that competition has been the driving force in the evolution of large groups. For example, mammals lived beside reptiles for many millions of years of time but were unable to gain a competitive edge until dinosaurs were devastated by the <a href="/wiki/Cretaceous%E2%80%93Paleogene_extinction_event" title="Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event">Cretaceous–Paleogene extinction event</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_4-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Evolutionary_strategies">Evolutionary strategies</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Evolutionary strategies"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Verhulst_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Verhulst equation">Verhulst equation</a></div> <p>In evolutionary contexts, competition is related to the concept of r/K selection theory, which relates to the <a href="/wiki/Natural_selection" title="Natural selection">selection</a> of <a href="/wiki/Trait_(biological)" class="mw-redirect" title="Trait (biological)">traits</a> which promote success in particular environments. The theory originates from work on <a href="/wiki/Island_biogeography" class="mw-redirect" title="Island biogeography">island biogeography</a> by the ecologists <a href="/wiki/Robert_MacArthur" class="mw-redirect" title="Robert MacArthur">Robert MacArthur</a> and <a href="/wiki/E._O._Wilson" title="E. O. Wilson">E. O. Wilson</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In <a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory">r/K selection theory</a>, selective pressures are hypothesized to drive evolution in one of two stereotyped directions: <i>r</i>- or <i>K</i>-selection.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These terms, r, and K, are derived from standard ecological <a href="/wiki/Algebra" title="Algebra">algebra</a>, as illustrated in the simple <a href="/wiki/Verhulst_equation#Verhulst_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Verhulst equation">Verhulst equation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">population dynamics</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-Verhulst_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhulst-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)\qquad \!}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>N</mi> </mrow> <mrow> <mi>d</mi> <mi>t</mi> </mrow> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> <mi>r</mi> <mi>N</mi> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>N</mi> <mi>K</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mspace width="2em" /> <mspace width="negativethinmathspace" /> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)\qquad \!}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/a4b3301cc378f9edb4b3bc0af356684723aa2b18" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -2.505ex; margin-right: -0.387ex; width:25.685ex; height:6.176ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\frac {dN}{dt}}=rN\left(1-{\frac {N}{K}}\right)\qquad \!}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <i>r</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Population_growth_rate" class="mw-redirect" title="Population growth rate">growth rate</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Population" title="Population">population</a> (<i>N</i>), and <i>K</i> is the <a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">carrying capacity</a> of its local environmental setting. Typically, r-selected species exploit empty <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">niches</a>, and produce many <a href="/wiki/Offspring" title="Offspring">offspring</a>, each of whom has a relatively low <a href="/wiki/Probability" title="Probability">probability</a> of surviving to adulthood. In contrast, K-selected species are strong competitors in crowded niches, and <a href="/wiki/Parental_investment" title="Parental investment">invest</a> more heavily in much fewer offspring, each with a relatively high probability of surviving to adulthood.<sup id="cite_ref-Verhulst_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Verhulst-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Competitive_exclusion_principle">Competitive exclusion principle</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Competitive exclusion principle"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Competitive-20Exclusion-20Principle.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Competitive-20Exclusion-20Principle.svg/220px-Competitive-20Exclusion-20Principle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Competitive-20Exclusion-20Principle.svg/330px-Competitive-20Exclusion-20Principle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/56/Competitive-20Exclusion-20Principle.svg/440px-Competitive-20Exclusion-20Principle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="385" /></a><figcaption>1: a smaller (yellow) species of bird forages across whole tree.<br />2: a larger (red) species competes for resources.<br />3: red dominates in middle for the more abundant resources. Yellow adapts to a new niches, avoiding competition.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></div> <p>To explain how species coexist, in 1934 <a href="/wiki/Georgii_Gause" class="mw-redirect" title="Georgii Gause">Georgii Gause</a> proposed the <a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">competitive exclusion principle</a> which is also called the Gause principle: species cannot coexist if they have the same <a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">ecological niche</a>. The word "niche" refers to a species' requirements for survival and reproduction. These requirements include both resources (like food) and proper <a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">habitat</a> conditions (like temperature or pH). Gause reasoned that if two species had identical niches (required identical resources and habitats) they would attempt to live in exactly the same area and would compete for exactly the same resources. If this happened, the species that was the best competitor would always exclude its competitors from that area. Therefore, species must at least have slightly different niches in order to coexist.<sup id="cite_ref-hardin60_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-hardin60-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Pocheville2015_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pocheville2015-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Character_displacement">Character displacement</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Character displacement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Geospiza_fortis.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Geospiza_fortis.jpg/220px-Geospiza_fortis.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="150" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Geospiza_fortis.jpg/330px-Geospiza_fortis.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/14/Geospiza_fortis.jpg/440px-Geospiza_fortis.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2444" data-file-height="1668" /></a><figcaption>Medium ground finch (<i><a href="/wiki/Geospiza_fortis" class="mw-redirect" title="Geospiza fortis">Geospiza fortis</a></i>) on Santa Cruz Island in the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Character_displacement" title="Character displacement">Character displacement</a></div> <p>Competition can cause species to evolve differences in traits. This occurs because the individuals of a species with traits similar to competing species always experience strong interspecific competition. These individuals have less reproduction and survival than individuals with traits that differ from their competitors. Consequently, they will not contribute many offspring to future generations. For example, <a href="/wiki/Darwin%27s_finches" title="Darwin's finches">Darwin's finches</a> can be found alone or together on the <a href="/wiki/Galapagos_Islands" class="mw-redirect" title="Galapagos Islands">Galapagos Islands</a>. Both species populations actually have more individuals with intermediate-sized beaks when they live on islands without the other species present. However, when both species are present on the same island, competition is intense between individuals that have intermediate-sized beaks of both species because they all require intermediate-sized seeds. Consequently, individuals with small and large beaks have greater survival and reproduction on these islands than individuals with intermediate-sized beaks. Different finch species can coexist if they have traits—for instance, beak size—that allow them to specialize in particular resources. When <i><a href="/wiki/Geospiza_fortis" class="mw-redirect" title="Geospiza fortis">Geospiza fortis</a></i> and <i><a href="/wiki/Geospiza_fuliginosa" class="mw-redirect" title="Geospiza fuliginosa">Geospiza fuliginosa</a></i> are present on the same island, <i>G. fuliginosa</i> tends to evolve a small beak and <i>G. fortis</i> a large beak. The observation that competing species' traits are more different when they live in the same area than when competing species live in different areas is called character displacement. For the two finch species, beak size was displaced: Beaks became smaller in one species and larger in the other species. Studies of character displacement are important because they provide evidence that competition is important in determining ecological and evolutionary patterns in nature.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Character_displacement" title="Character displacement">Character displacement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scramble_competition" title="Scramble competition">Scramble competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource (biology)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_partitioning" class="mw-redirect" title="Resource partitioning">Resource partitioning</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Competition_(biology)&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Begon, M.; Harper, J. L.; Townsend, C. R. (1996) <i><a href="/wiki/Ecology:_Individuals,_populations_and_communities" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecology: Individuals, populations and communities">Ecology: Individuals, populations and communities</a></i> Blackwell Science.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://globalchange.umich.edu/globalchange1/current/lectures/competition/competition.html">"Competition"</a>. <i>globalchange.umich.edu</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. 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abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Template talk:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Biological_interaction-footer" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Biological interaction-footer"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Inter-species_biological_interactions" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Inter-species <a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">biological interactions</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Amensalism" title="Biological interaction">Amensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deception_in_animals" title="Deception in animals">Deception in animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Tactical_deception_in_animals" title="Tactical deception in animals">Tactical</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inquilinism" class="mw-redirect" title="Inquilinism">Inquilinism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Neutralism" title="Biological interaction">Neutralism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction#Competition" title="Biological interaction">Synnecrosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Behavior-altering_parasite" title="Behavior-altering parasite">Behavior-altering parasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brood_parasitism" title="Brood parasitism">Brood parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Host%E2%80%93parasite_coevolution" title="Host–parasite coevolution">Host–parasite coevolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyperparasite" title="Hyperparasite">Hyperparasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleptoparasitism" title="Kleptoparasitism">Kleptoparasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitic_castration" title="Parasitic castration">Parasitic castration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitoid" title="Parasitoid">Parasitoid</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivore</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild</a></span></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a> <ul><li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Cleaning_symbiosis" title="Cleaning symbiosis">Cleaning symbiosis</a></span></li> <li><span style="font-size:85%;"><a href="/wiki/Mycorrhiza" title="Mycorrhiza">Mycorrhiza</a></span></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Template talk:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling_ecosystems" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Modelling ecosystems"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Ecology:_Modelling_ecosystems:_Trophic_components" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Ecology" title="Ecology">Ecology</a>: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Modelling ecosystems</a>: <a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic</a> components</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_component" title="Abiotic component">Abiotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Abiotic_stress" title="Abiotic stress">Abiotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Behavioral_ecology" title="Behavioral ecology">Behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biogeochemical_cycle" title="Biogeochemical cycle">Biogeochemical cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biomass_(ecology)" title="Biomass (ecology)">Biomass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_component" class="mw-redirect" title="Biotic component">Biotic component</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biotic_stress" title="Biotic stress">Biotic stress</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carrying_capacity" title="Carrying capacity">Carrying capacity</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem" title="Ecosystem">Ecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_ecology" title="Ecosystem ecology">Ecosystem ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_model" title="Ecosystem model">Ecosystem model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Green_world_hypothesis" title="Green world hypothesis">Green world hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Keystone_species" title="Keystone species">Keystone species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_feeding_behaviours" title="List of feeding behaviours">List of feeding behaviours</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metabolic_theory_of_ecology" title="Metabolic theory of ecology">Metabolic theory of ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Productivity_(ecology)" title="Productivity (ecology)">Productivity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_(biology)" title="Resource (biology)">Resource</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Restoration_ecology" class="mw-redirect" title="Restoration ecology">Restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Producers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Autotroph" title="Autotroph">Autotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemosynthesis" title="Chemosynthesis">Chemosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemotroph" title="Chemotroph">Chemotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foundation_species" title="Foundation species">Foundation species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetotroph" title="Kinetotroph">Kinetotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixotroph" title="Mixotroph">Mixotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Myco-heterotrophy" title="Myco-heterotrophy">Myco-heterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mycotroph" title="Mycotroph">Mycotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Organotroph" title="Organotroph">Organotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photoheterotroph" title="Photoheterotroph">Photoheterotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">Photosynthesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Photosynthetic_efficiency" title="Photosynthetic efficiency">Photosynthetic efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phototroph" title="Phototroph">Phototrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_nutritional_groups" title="Primary nutritional groups">Primary nutritional groups</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Primary_production" title="Primary production">Primary production</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Consumer_(food_chain)" title="Consumer (food chain)">Consumers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Apex_predator" title="Apex predator">Apex predator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacterivore" title="Bacterivore">Bacterivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carnivore" title="Carnivore">Carnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganotroph" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganotroph">Chemoorganotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foraging" title="Foraging">Foraging</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Generalist_and_specialist_species" title="Generalist and specialist species">Generalist and specialist species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraguild_predation" title="Intraguild predation">Intraguild predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore" title="Herbivore">Herbivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotroph" title="Heterotroph">Heterotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heterotrophic_nutrition" title="Heterotrophic nutrition">Heterotrophic nutrition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insectivore" title="Insectivore">Insectivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator" title="Mesopredator">Mesopredators</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesopredator_release_hypothesis" title="Mesopredator release hypothesis">Mesopredator release hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Omnivore" title="Omnivore">Omnivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Optimal_foraging_theory" title="Optimal foraging theory">Optimal foraging theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planktivore" title="Planktivore">Planktivore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Predation" title="Predation">Predation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Prey_switching" title="Prey switching">Prey switching</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Decomposer" title="Decomposer">Decomposers</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Chemoorganoheterotrophy" class="mw-redirect" title="Chemoorganoheterotrophy">Chemoorganoheterotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Decomposition" title="Decomposition">Decomposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritivore" title="Detritivore">Detritivores</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detritus" title="Detritus">Detritus</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Microorganism#Habitats_and_ecology" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Archaea" title="Archaea">Archaea</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bacteriophage" title="Bacteriophage">Bacteriophage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithoautotroph" title="Lithoautotroph">Lithoautotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lithotroph" title="Lithotroph">Lithotrophy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_microorganisms" title="Marine microorganisms">Marine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_cooperation" title="Microbial cooperation">Microbial cooperation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_ecology" title="Microbial ecology">Microbial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_food_web" title="Microbial food web">Microbial food web</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_intelligence" title="Microbial intelligence">Microbial intelligence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_loop" title="Microbial loop">Microbial loop</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_mat" title="Microbial mat">Microbial mat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microbial_metabolism" title="Microbial metabolism">Microbial metabolism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phage_ecology" title="Phage ecology">Phage ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Food_web" title="Food web">Food webs</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biomagnification" title="Biomagnification">Biomagnification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_efficiency" title="Ecological efficiency">Ecological efficiency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_pyramid" title="Ecological pyramid">Ecological pyramid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Energy flow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Food_chain" title="Food chain">Food chain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_level" title="Trophic level">Trophic level</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Example webs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Lake_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="Lake ecosystem">Lakes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_ecosystem#Trophic_relationships" title="River ecosystem">Rivers</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soil_food_web" title="Soil food web">Soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritrophic_interactions_in_plant_defense" title="Tritrophic interactions in plant defense">Tritrophic interactions in plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_food_web" title="Marine food web">Marine food webs</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cold_seep" title="Cold seep">cold seeps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrothermal_vent#Biological_communities" title="Hydrothermal vent">hydrothermal vents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_ecology" title="Intertidal ecology">intertidal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kelp_forest#Trophic_ecology" title="Kelp forest">kelp forests</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/North_Pacific_Gyre" title="North Pacific Gyre">North Pacific Gyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecology_of_the_San_Francisco_Estuary#Food_web" title="Ecology of the San Francisco Estuary">San Francisco Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">tide pool</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Processes</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ascendency" title="Ascendency">Ascendency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioaccumulation" title="Bioaccumulation">Bioaccumulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cascade_effect_(ecology)" title="Cascade effect (ecology)">Cascade effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Climax_community" title="Climax community">Climax community</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Competitive_exclusion_principle" title="Competitive exclusion principle">Competitive exclusion principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Consumer%E2%80%93resource_interactions" title="Consumer–resource interactions">Consumer–resource interactions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Copiotroph" title="Copiotroph">Copiotrophs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dominance_(ecology)" title="Dominance (ecology)">Dominance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_network" title="Ecological network">Ecological network</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_succession" title="Ecological succession">Ecological succession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_quality" title="Energy quality">Energy quality</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_systems_language" title="Energy systems language">Energy systems language</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/F-ratio_(oceanography)" title="F-ratio (oceanography)">f-ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feed_conversion_ratio" title="Feed conversion ratio">Feed conversion ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeding_frenzy" title="Feeding frenzy">Feeding frenzy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mesotrophic_soil" title="Mesotrophic soil">Mesotrophic soil</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nutrient_cycle" title="Nutrient cycle">Nutrient cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oligotroph" title="Oligotroph">Oligotroph</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Paradox_of_the_plankton" title="Paradox of the plankton">Paradox of the plankton</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_cascade" title="Trophic cascade">Trophic cascade</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_mutualism" title="Trophic mutualism">Trophic mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trophic_state_index" title="Trophic state index">Trophic state index</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Defense,<br />counter</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animal_coloration" title="Animal coloration">Animal coloration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anti-predator_adaptation" title="Anti-predator adaptation">Anti-predator adaptations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Camouflage" title="Camouflage">Camouflage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deimatic_behaviour" title="Deimatic behaviour">Deimatic behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Herbivore_adaptations_to_plant_defense" title="Herbivore adaptations to plant defense">Herbivore adaptations to plant defense</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mimicry" title="Mimicry">Mimicry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plant_defense_against_herbivory" title="Plant defense against herbivory">Plant defense against herbivory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoaling_and_schooling#Predator_avoidance" title="Shoaling and schooling">Predator avoidance in schooling fish</a></li></ul> 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href="/wiki/Consumer-resource_model" title="Consumer-resource model">Consumer-resource model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Depensation" title="Depensation">Depensation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_yield" title="Ecological yield">Ecological yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effective_population_size" title="Effective population size">Effective population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intraspecific_competition" title="Intraspecific competition">Intraspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Logistic_function" title="Logistic function">Logistic function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Malthusian_growth_model" title="Malthusian growth model">Malthusian growth model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_sustainable_yield" title="Maximum sustainable yield">Maximum sustainable yield</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overpopulation" title="Overpopulation">Overpopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overexploitation" title="Overexploitation">Overexploitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_cycle" title="Population cycle">Population cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_dynamics" title="Population dynamics">Population dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_model" title="Population model">Population modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_size" title="Population size">Population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_equations" title="Lotka–Volterra equations">Predator–prey (Lotka–Volterra) equations</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Recruitment_(biology)" title="Recruitment (biology)">Recruitment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Small_population_size" title="Small population size">Small population size</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stability" title="Ecological stability">Stability</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_resilience" title="Ecological resilience">Resilience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resistance_(ecology)" title="Resistance (ecology)">Resistance</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Random_generalized_Lotka%E2%80%93Volterra_model" title="Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model">Random generalized Lotka–Volterra model</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biodiversity" title="Biodiversity">Biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Density_dependence" title="Density dependence">Density-dependent inhibition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_effects_of_biodiversity" title="Ecological effects of biodiversity">Ecological effects of biodiversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_extinction" title="Ecological extinction">Ecological extinction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endemism" title="Endemism">Endemic species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flagship_species" title="Flagship species">Flagship species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ordination_(statistics)" title="Ordination (statistics)">Gradient analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioindicator" title="Bioindicator">Indicator species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Introduced_species" title="Introduced species">Introduced species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Invasive_species" title="Invasive species">Invasive species</a> / <a href="/wiki/Native_species" title="Native species">Native species</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latitudinal_gradients_in_species_diversity" title="Latitudinal gradients in species diversity">Latitudinal gradients in species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Minimum_viable_population" title="Minimum viable population">Minimum viable population</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unified_neutral_theory_of_biodiversity" title="Unified neutral theory of biodiversity">Neutral theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Occupancy%E2%80%93abundance_relationship" title="Occupancy–abundance relationship">Occupancy–abundance relationship</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Population_viability_analysis" title="Population viability analysis">Population viability analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Priority_effect" title="Priority effect">Priority effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapoport%27s_rule" title="Rapoport's rule">Rapoport's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_abundance_distribution" title="Relative abundance distribution">Relative abundance distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_species_abundance" title="Relative species abundance">Relative species abundance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_diversity" title="Species diversity">Species diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_homogeneity" title="Species homogeneity">Species homogeneity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_richness" title="Species richness">Species richness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution" title="Species distribution">Species distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species%E2%80%93area_relationship" title="Species–area relationship">Species–area curve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Umbrella_species" title="Umbrella species">Umbrella species</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Species<br />interaction</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Antibiosis" title="Antibiosis">Antibiosis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_interaction" title="Biological interaction">Biological interaction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commensalism" title="Commensalism">Commensalism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Community_(ecology)" title="Community (ecology)">Community ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_facilitation" title="Ecological facilitation">Ecological facilitation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interspecific_competition" title="Interspecific competition">Interspecific competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mutualism_(biology)" title="Mutualism (biology)">Mutualism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Parasitism" title="Parasitism">Parasitism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storage_effect" title="Storage effect">Storage effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Symbiosis" title="Symbiosis">Symbiosis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Spatial_ecology" title="Spatial ecology">Spatial<br />ecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Biogeography" title="Biogeography">Biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cross-boundary_subsidy" title="Cross-boundary subsidy">Cross-boundary subsidy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cline_(biology)" title="Cline (biology)">Ecocline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotone" title="Ecotone">Ecotone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecotype" title="Ecotype">Ecotype</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Disturbance_(ecology)" title="Disturbance (ecology)">Disturbance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Edge_effects" title="Edge effects">Edge effects</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foster%27s_rule" title="Foster's rule">Foster's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat_fragmentation" title="Habitat fragmentation">Habitat fragmentation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_free_distribution" title="Ideal free distribution">Ideal free distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intermediate_disturbance_hypothesis" title="Intermediate disturbance hypothesis">Intermediate disturbance hypothesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Insular_biogeography" title="Insular biogeography">Insular biogeography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_change_modeling" title="Land change modeling">Land change modeling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_ecology" title="Landscape ecology">Landscape ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_epidemiology" title="Landscape epidemiology">Landscape epidemiology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Landscape_limnology" title="Landscape limnology">Landscape limnology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapopulation" title="Metapopulation">Metapopulation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Patch_dynamics" title="Patch dynamics">Patch dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/R/K_selection_theory" title="R/K selection theory"><i>r</i>/<i>K</i> selection theory</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Resource_selection_function" title="Resource selection function">Resource selection function</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Source%E2%80%93sink_dynamics" title="Source–sink dynamics">Source–sink dynamics</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Niche</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_niche" title="Ecological niche">Ecological niche</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_trap" title="Ecological trap">Ecological trap</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineer" title="Ecosystem engineer">Ecosystem engineer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Species_distribution_modelling" title="Species distribution modelling">Environmental niche modelling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Guild_(ecology)" title="Guild (ecology)">Guild</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Habitat" title="Habitat">Habitat</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marine_habitat" title="Marine habitat">marine habitats</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limiting_similarity" title="Limiting similarity">Limiting similarity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_apportionment_models" title="Niche apportionment models">Niche apportionment models</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_construction" title="Niche construction">Niche construction</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Niche_differentiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Niche differentiation">Niche differentiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ontogenetic_niche_shift" title="Ontogenetic niche shift">Ontogenetic niche shift</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em"><a href="/wiki/Non-trophic_networks" title="Non-trophic networks">Other<br />networks</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Assembly_rules" title="Assembly rules">Assembly rules</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bateman%27s_principle" title="Bateman's principle">Bateman's principle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioluminescence" title="Bioluminescence">Bioluminescence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_collapse" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecological collapse">Ecological collapse</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_debt" title="Ecological debt">Ecological deficit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Energy_flow_(ecology)" title="Energy flow (ecology)">Ecological energetics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_indicator" title="Ecological indicator">Ecological indicator</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_threshold" title="Ecological threshold">Ecological threshold</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_diversity" title="Ecosystem diversity">Ecosystem diversity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergence" title="Emergence">Emergence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extinction_debt" title="Extinction debt">Extinction debt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kleiber%27s_law" title="Kleiber's law">Kleiber's law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liebig%27s_law_of_the_minimum" title="Liebig's law of the minimum">Liebig's law of the minimum</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marginal_value_theorem" title="Marginal value theorem">Marginal value theorem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thorson%27s_rule" title="Thorson's rule">Thorson's rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xerosere" title="Xerosere">Xerosere</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:7.5em">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Allometry" title="Allometry">Allometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alternative_stable_state" title="Alternative stable state">Alternative stable state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Balance_of_nature" title="Balance of nature">Balance of nature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Biological_data_visualization" title="Biological data visualization">Biological data visualization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_economics" title="Ecological economics">Ecological economics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_footprint" title="Ecological footprint">Ecological footprint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_forecasting" title="Ecological forecasting">Ecological forecasting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Environmental_humanities" title="Environmental humanities">Ecological humanities</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecological_stoichiometry" title="Ecological stoichiometry">Ecological stoichiometry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecopath" title="Ecopath">Ecopath</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_based_fisheries" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem based fisheries">Ecosystem based fisheries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Endolith" title="Endolith">Endolith</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evolutionary_ecology" title="Evolutionary ecology">Evolutionary ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Functional_ecology" title="Functional ecology">Functional ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Industrial_ecology" title="Industrial ecology">Industrial ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macroecology" title="Macroecology">Macroecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microecosystem" title="Microecosystem">Microecosystem</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_environment" title="Natural environment">Natural environment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regime_shift" title="Regime shift">Regime shift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sexecology" title="Sexecology">Sexecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Systems_ecology" title="Systems ecology">Systems ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Urban_ecology" title="Urban ecology">Urban ecology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theoretical_ecology" title="Theoretical ecology">Theoretical ecology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_ecology" title="Outline of ecology">Outline of ecology</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-label="Navbox" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" 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