CINXE.COM

<!DOCTYPE html> <html class="client-nojs vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available" lang="en" dir="ltr"> <head> <meta charset="UTF-8"> <title>James Clerk Maxwell - Wikipedia</title> <script>(function(){var className="client-js vector-feature-language-in-header-enabled vector-feature-language-in-main-page-header-disabled vector-feature-sticky-header-disabled vector-feature-page-tools-pinned-disabled vector-feature-toc-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-main-menu-pinned-disabled vector-feature-limited-width-clientpref-1 vector-feature-limited-width-content-enabled vector-feature-custom-font-size-clientpref-1 vector-feature-appearance-pinned-clientpref-1 vector-feature-night-mode-enabled skin-theme-clientpref-day vector-toc-available";var cookie=document.cookie.match(/(?:^|; )enwikimwclientpreferences=([^;]+)/);if(cookie){cookie[1].split('%2C').forEach(function(pref){className=className.replace(new RegExp('(^| )'+pref.replace(/-clientpref-\w+$|[^\w-]+/g,'')+'-clientpref-\\w+( |$)'),'$1'+pref+'$2');});}document.documentElement.className=className;}());RLCONF={"wgBreakFrames":false,"wgSeparatorTransformTable":["",""],"wgDigitTransformTable":["",""],"wgDefaultDateFormat":"dmy", "wgMonthNames":["","January","February","March","April","May","June","July","August","September","October","November","December"],"wgRequestId":"ec850461-7393-4e4a-a777-99ce2db0a84c","wgCanonicalNamespace":"","wgCanonicalSpecialPageName":false,"wgNamespaceNumber":0,"wgPageName":"James_Clerk_Maxwell","wgTitle":"James Clerk Maxwell","wgCurRevisionId":1259340640,"wgRevisionId":1259340640,"wgArticleId":28989696,"wgIsArticle":true,"wgIsRedirect":false,"wgAction":"view","wgUserName":null,"wgUserGroups":["*"],"wgCategories":["Webarchive template wayback links","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference","Articles with short description","Short description is different from Wikidata","Good articles","Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages","EngvarB from September 2014","Use dmy dates from August 2022","Pages using Template:Post-nominals with missing parameters", "Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas","Biography with signature","Articles with hCards","Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB","Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter","Commons link is on Wikidata","Articles with Project Gutenberg links","Articles with Internet Archive links","Articles with LibriVox links","James Clerk Maxwell","1831 births","1879 deaths","19th-century Scottish mathematicians","19th-century British physicists","19th-century Scottish scientists","Academics of King's College London","Academics of the University of Aberdeen","Alumni of the University of Edinburgh","Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge","Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge","Burials in Dumfries and Galloway","Color scientists","Deaths from stomach cancer in England","People educated at Edinburgh Academy","Elders of the Church of Scotland","Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh","Fellows of the Royal Society","Fellows of King's College London","People associated with electricity", "Scientists from Edinburgh","Optical physicists","Scottish Presbyterians","Calvinist and Reformed elders","Scottish evangelicals","Scottish inventors","Scottish physicists","Second Wranglers","British textbook writers","Thermodynamicists","Mathematical physicists","British theoretical physicists","Magneticians","Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees","Cavendish Professors of Physics","Presidents of the Cambridge Philosophical Society"],"wgPageViewLanguage":"en","wgPageContentLanguage":"en","wgPageContentModel":"wikitext","wgRelevantPageName":"James_Clerk_Maxwell","wgRelevantArticleId":28989696,"wgIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRelevantPageIsProbablyEditable":false,"wgRestrictionEdit":["autoconfirmed"],"wgRestrictionMove":["autoconfirmed"],"wgNoticeProject":"wikipedia","wgCiteReferencePreviewsActive":false,"wgFlaggedRevsParams":{"tags":{"status":{"levels":1}}},"wgMediaViewerOnClick":true,"wgMediaViewerEnabledByDefault":true,"wgPopupsFlags":0,"wgVisualEditor":{"pageLanguageCode":"en" ,"pageLanguageDir":"ltr","pageVariantFallbacks":"en"},"wgMFDisplayWikibaseDescriptions":{"search":true,"watchlist":true,"tagline":false,"nearby":true},"wgWMESchemaEditAttemptStepOversample":false,"wgWMEPageLength":90000,"wgRelatedArticlesCompat":[],"wgCentralAuthMobileDomain":false,"wgEditSubmitButtonLabelPublish":true,"wgULSPosition":"interlanguage","wgULSisCompactLinksEnabled":false,"wgVector2022LanguageInHeader":true,"wgULSisLanguageSelectorEmpty":false,"wgWikibaseItemId":"Q9095","wgCheckUserClientHintsHeadersJsApi":["brands","architecture","bitness","fullVersionList","mobile","model","platform","platformVersion"],"GEHomepageSuggestedEditsEnableTopics":true,"wgGETopicsMatchModeEnabled":false,"wgGEStructuredTaskRejectionReasonTextInputEnabled":false,"wgGELevelingUpEnabledForUser":false};RLSTATE={"ext.globalCssJs.user.styles":"ready","site.styles":"ready","user.styles":"ready","ext.globalCssJs.user":"ready","user":"ready","user.options":"loading","ext.cite.styles":"ready", "skins.vector.search.codex.styles":"ready","skins.vector.styles":"ready","skins.vector.icons":"ready","jquery.makeCollapsible.styles":"ready","ext.wikimediamessages.styles":"ready","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript":"ready","ext.uls.interlanguage":"ready","wikibase.client.init":"ready","ext.wikimediaBadges":"ready"};RLPAGEMODULES=["ext.cite.ux-enhancements","mediawiki.page.media","ext.scribunto.logs","site","mediawiki.page.ready","jquery.makeCollapsible","mediawiki.toc","skins.vector.js","ext.centralNotice.geoIP","ext.centralNotice.startUp","ext.gadget.ReferenceTooltips","ext.gadget.switcher","ext.gadget.WikiMiniAtlas","ext.urlShortener.toolbar","ext.centralauth.centralautologin","mmv.bootstrap","ext.popups","ext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.init","ext.visualEditor.targetLoader","ext.echo.centralauth","ext.eventLogging","ext.wikimediaEvents","ext.navigationTiming","ext.uls.interface","ext.cx.eventlogging.campaigns","ext.cx.uls.quick.actions", "wikibase.client.vector-2022","ext.checkUser.clientHints","ext.growthExperiments.SuggestedEditSession","wikibase.sidebar.tracking"];</script> <script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.loader.impl(function(){return["user.options@12s5i",function($,jQuery,require,module){mw.user.tokens.set({"patrolToken":"+\\","watchToken":"+\\","csrfToken":"+\\"}); }];});});</script> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=ext.cite.styles%7Cext.uls.interlanguage%7Cext.visualEditor.desktopArticleTarget.noscript%7Cext.wikimediaBadges%7Cext.wikimediamessages.styles%7Cjquery.makeCollapsible.styles%7Cskins.vector.icons%2Cstyles%7Cskins.vector.search.codex.styles%7Cwikibase.client.init&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <script async="" src="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=startup&only=scripts&raw=1&skin=vector-2022"></script> <meta name="ResourceLoaderDynamicStyles" content=""> <link rel="stylesheet" href="/w/load.php?lang=en&modules=site.styles&only=styles&skin=vector-2022"> <meta name="generator" content="MediaWiki 1.44.0-wmf.4"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin"> <meta name="referrer" content="origin-when-cross-origin"> <meta name="robots" content="max-image-preview:standard"> <meta name="format-detection" content="telephone=no"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/b0/James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="1200"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1500"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg/800px-James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="800"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="1000"> <meta property="og:image" content="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg/640px-James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg"> <meta property="og:image:width" content="640"> <meta property="og:image:height" content="800"> <meta name="viewport" content="width=1120"> <meta property="og:title" content="James Clerk Maxwell - Wikipedia"> <meta property="og:type" content="website"> <link rel="preconnect" href="//upload.wikimedia.org"> <link rel="alternate" media="only screen and (max-width: 640px)" href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell"> <link rel="apple-touch-icon" href="/static/apple-touch/wikipedia.png"> <link rel="icon" href="/static/favicon/wikipedia.ico"> <link rel="search" type="application/opensearchdescription+xml" href="/w/rest.php/v1/search" title="Wikipedia (en)"> <link rel="EditURI" type="application/rsd+xml" href="//en.wikipedia.org/w/api.php?action=rsd"> <link rel="canonical" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell"> <link rel="license" href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/deed.en"> <link rel="alternate" type="application/atom+xml" title="Wikipedia Atom feed" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:RecentChanges&feed=atom"> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//meta.wikimedia.org" /> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="//login.wikimedia.org"> </head> <body class="skin--responsive skin-vector skin-vector-search-vue mediawiki ltr sitedir-ltr mw-hide-empty-elt ns-0 ns-subject page-James_Clerk_Maxwell rootpage-James_Clerk_Maxwell skin-vector-2022 action-view"><a class="mw-jump-link" href="#bodyContent">Jump to content</a> <div class="vector-header-container"> <header class="vector-header mw-header"> <div class="vector-header-start"> <nav class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-main-menu-dropdown vector-button-flush-left vector-button-flush-right" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-main-menu-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Main menu" > <label id="vector-main-menu-dropdown-label" for="vector-main-menu-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Main menu </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-main-menu" class="vector-main-menu vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-main-menu-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="main-menu-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-main-menu" data-pinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-main-menu-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Main menu</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-main-menu.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-navigation" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-navigation" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Navigation </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-mainpage-description" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Main_Page" title="Visit the main page [z]" accesskey="z">Main page</a></li><li id="n-contents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Contents" title="Guides to browsing Wikipedia">Contents</a></li><li id="n-currentevents" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Portal:Current_events" title="Articles related to current events">Current events</a></li><li id="n-randompage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:Random" title="Visit a randomly selected article [x]" accesskey="x">Random article</a></li><li id="n-aboutsite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About" title="Learn about Wikipedia and how it works">About Wikipedia</a></li><li id="n-contactpage" class="mw-list-item"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us" title="How to contact Wikipedia">Contact us</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-interaction" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-interaction" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Contribute </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="n-help" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Contents" title="Guidance on how to use and edit Wikipedia">Help</a></li><li id="n-introduction" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" title="Learn how to edit Wikipedia">Learn to edit</a></li><li id="n-portal" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Community_portal" title="The hub for editors">Community portal</a></li><li id="n-recentchanges" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChanges" title="A list of recent changes to Wikipedia [r]" accesskey="r">Recent changes</a></li><li id="n-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_upload_wizard" title="Add images or other media for use on Wikipedia">Upload file</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <a href="/wiki/Main_Page" class="mw-logo"> <img class="mw-logo-icon" src="/static/images/icons/wikipedia.png" alt="" aria-hidden="true" height="50" width="50"> <img class="mw-logo-wordmark" alt="Wikipedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-wordmark-en.svg" style="width: 7.5em; height: 1.125em;"> <img class="mw-logo-tagline" alt="The Free Encyclopedia" src="/static/images/mobile/copyright/wikipedia-tagline-en.svg" width="117" height="13" style="width: 7.3125em; height: 0.8125em;"> </a> </div> <div class="vector-header-end"> <div id="p-search" role="search" class="vector-search-box-vue vector-search-box-collapses vector-search-box-show-thumbnail vector-search-box-auto-expand-width vector-search-box"> <a href="/wiki/Special:Search" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only search-toggle" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f"> Search </a> <div class="vector-typeahead-search-container"> <div class="cdx-typeahead-search cdx-typeahead-search--show-thumbnail cdx-typeahead-search--auto-expand-width"> <form action="/w/index.php" id="searchform" class="cdx-search-input cdx-search-input--has-end-button"> <div id="simpleSearch" class="cdx-search-input__input-wrapper" data-search-loc="header-moved"> <div class="cdx-text-input cdx-text-input--has-start-icon"> <input class="cdx-text-input__input" type="search" name="search" placeholder="Search Wikipedia" aria-label="Search Wikipedia" autocapitalize="sentences" title="Search Wikipedia [f]" accesskey="f" id="searchInput" > </div> <input type="hidden" name="title" value="Special:Search"> </div> <button class="cdx-button cdx-search-input__end-button">Search</button> </form> </div> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-user-links vector-user-links-wide" aria-label="Personal tools"> <div class="vector-user-links-main"> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-preferences" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-userpage" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown " title="Change the appearance of the page's font size, width, and color" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-appearance-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Appearance </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en" class="">Donate</a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=James+Clerk+Maxwell" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory" class="">Create account</a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=James+Clerk+Maxwell" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o" class="">Log in</a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="Log in and more options" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Personal tools" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Personal tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="User menu" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:FundraiserRedirector?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=C13_en.wikipedia.org&uselang=en">Donate</a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CreateAccount&returnto=James+Clerk+Maxwell" title="You are encouraged to create an account and log in; however, it is not mandatory"> Create account</a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UserLogin&returnto=James+Clerk+Maxwell" title="You're encouraged to log in; however, it's not mandatory. [o]" accesskey="o"> Log in</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Pages for logged out editors <a href="/wiki/Help:Introduction" aria-label="Learn more about editing">learn more</a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyContributions" title="A list of edits made from this IP address [y]" accesskey="y">Contributions</a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:MyTalk" title="Discussion about edits from this IP address [n]" accesskey="n">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> </div> <div class="mw-page-container"> <div class="mw-page-container-inner"> <div class="vector-sitenotice-container"> <div id="siteNotice"></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="Contents" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Contents</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1 Life </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Life-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Life subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Early_life,_1831–1839" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Early_life,_1831–1839"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.1 Early life, 1831–1839 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Early_life,_1831–1839-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Education,_1839–1847" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Education,_1839–1847"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Education, 1839–1847 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Education,_1839–1847-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-University_of_Edinburgh,_1847–1850" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#University_of_Edinburgh,_1847–1850"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 University of Edinburgh, 1847–1850 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-University_of_Edinburgh,_1847–1850-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-University_of_Cambridge,_1850–1856" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#University_of_Cambridge,_1850–1856"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 University of Cambridge, 1850–1856 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-University_of_Cambridge,_1850–1856-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Marischal_College,_Aberdeen,_1856–1860" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Marischal_College,_Aberdeen,_1856–1860"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.5 Marischal College, Aberdeen, 1856–1860 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Marischal_College,_Aberdeen,_1856–1860-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-King's_College,_London,_1860–1865" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#King's_College,_London,_1860–1865"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.6 King's College, London, 1860–1865 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-King's_College,_London,_1860–1865-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Later_years,_1865–1879" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Later_years,_1865–1879"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.7 Later years, 1865–1879 </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Later_years,_1865–1879-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Death" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Death"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Death </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Death-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Death subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Death-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Personal_life" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Personal_life"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Personal life </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Personal_life-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Scientific_legacy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scientific_legacy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Scientific legacy </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Scientific_legacy-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Scientific legacy subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Scientific_legacy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Electromagnetism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Electromagnetism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Electromagnetism </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Electromagnetism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Colour_vision" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Colour_vision"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.2 Colour vision </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Colour_vision-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Kinetic_theory_and_thermodynamics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Kinetic_theory_and_thermodynamics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.3 Kinetic theory and thermodynamics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Kinetic_theory_and_thermodynamics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Control_theory" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Control_theory"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.4 Control theory </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Control_theory-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Honours" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Honours"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Honours </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Honours-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Publications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Publications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Publications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Publications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Notes </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">James Clerk Maxwell</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 130 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-130" aria-hidden="true" > 130 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ady mw-list-item"><a href="https://ady.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA" title="Максвелл, Джеймс Клерк – Adyghe" lang="ady" hreflang="ady" data-title="Максвелл, Джеймс Клерк" data-language-autonym="Адыгабзэ" data-language-local-name="Adyghe" class="interlanguage-link-target">Адыгабзэ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8C%84%E1%88%9D%E1%88%B5_%E1%88%9B%E1%8A%AD%E1%88%B5%E1%8B%88%E1%88%8D" title="ጄምስ ማክስወል – Amharic" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ጄምስ ማክስወል" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="Amharic" class="interlanguage-link-target">አማርኛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84" title="جيمس ماكسويل – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="جيمس ماكسويل" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Guarani" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="Guarani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Avañe'ẽ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceyms_Maksvell" title="Ceyms Maksvell – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Ceyms Maksvell" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D8%A6%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84" title="جئیمز کلرک ماکسول – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="جئیمز کلرک ماکسول" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">تۆرکجه</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%AE%E0%A6%B8_%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B2%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%95_%E0%A6%AE%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%95%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B8%E0%A6%93%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC%E0%A7%87%E0%A6%B2" title="জেমস ক্লার্ক ম্যাক্সওয়েল – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জেমস ক্লার্ক ম্যাক্সওয়েল" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Джеймс Максвелл – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Джеймс Максвелл" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Джэймс Максвел – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Джэймс Максвел" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D1%8D%D0%B9%D0%BC%D0%B7_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%9E%D1%8D%D0%BB" title="Джэймз Кларк Максўэл – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Джэймз Кларк Максўэл" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D1%83%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Джеймс Кларк Максуел – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Джеймс Кларк Максуел" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target">Brezhoneg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AD%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BA_%CE%9C%CE%AC%CE%BE%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BB" title="Τζέιμς Κλερκ Μάξγουελ – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Τζέιμς Κλερκ Μάξγουελ" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%84" title="جیمز کلرک ماکسول – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="جیمز کلرک ماکسول" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">Fiji Hindi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%BA%A6%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6" title="麦斯韦 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="麦斯韦" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target">贛語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%A0%9C%EC%9E%84%EC%8A%A4_%ED%81%B4%EB%9F%AC%ED%81%AC_%EB%A7%A5%EC%8A%A4%EC%9B%B0" title="제임스 클러크 맥스웰 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="제임스 클러크 맥스웰" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D5%A5%D5%B5%D5%B4%D5%BD_%D5%84%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%BD%D5%BE%D5%A5%D5%AC" title="Ջեյմս Մաքսվել – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջեյմս Մաքսվել" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%88%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जेम्स क्लर्क मैक्सवेल – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जेम्स क्लर्क मैक्सवेल" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Iloko" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="Iloko" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ilokano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A1_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%A8%D7%A7_%D7%9E%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%95%D7%9C" title="ג'יימס קלרק מקסוול – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="ג'יימס קלרק מקסוול" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Jawa</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%9C%E0%B3%87%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B2%E0%B2%B0%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C_%E0%B2%AE%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%AF%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%95%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B2%B5%E0%B3%86%E0%B2%B2%E0%B3%8D" title="ಜೇಮ್ಸ್‌ ಕ್ಲರ್ಕ್‌ ಮ್ಯಾಕ್ಸ್‌ವೆಲ್ – Kannada" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ಜೇಮ್ಸ್‌ ಕ್ಲರ್ಕ್‌ ಮ್ಯಾಕ್ಸ್‌ವೆಲ್" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="Kannada" class="interlanguage-link-target">ಕನ್ನಡ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pam mw-list-item"><a href="https://pam.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Pampanga" lang="pam" hreflang="pam" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Kapampangan" data-language-local-name="Pampanga" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kapampangan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%96_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%90%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ჯეიმზ კლარკ მაქსველი – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ჯეიმზ კლარკ მაქსველი" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Джеймс Клерк Максвелл – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Джеймс Клерк Максвелл" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Haitian Creole" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="Haitian Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kreyòl ayisyen</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Kurdish" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kurdî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Жеймс Клерк Максвелл – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Жеймс Клерк Максвелл" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iacobus_Clerk_Maxwell" title="Iacobus Clerk Maxwell – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Iacobus Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEeimss_Maksvels" title="Džeimss Maksvels – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Džeimss Maksvels" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Luxembourgish" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="Luxembourgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lëtzebuergesch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Livvinkarjala</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lombard</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Џејмс Кларк Максвел – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Џејмс Кларк Максвел" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%9C%E0%B5%86%E0%B4%AF%E0%B4%BF%E0%B4%82%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%BE%E0%B5%BC%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D_%E0%B4%AE%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B4%B5%E0%B5%86%E0%B5%BD" title="ജെയിംസ് ക്ലാർക്ക് മാക്സ്‌വെൽ – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="ജെയിംസ് ക്ലാർക്ക് മാക്സ്‌വെൽ" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target">മലയാളം</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%85%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जेम्स क्लार्क मॅक्सवेल – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="जेम्स क्लार्क मॅक्सवेल" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target">मराठी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%AF%E1%83%94%E1%83%98%E1%83%9B%E1%83%96_%E1%83%99%E1%83%9A%E1%83%94%E1%83%A0%E1%83%99_%E1%83%9B%E1%83%90%E1%83%A5%E1%83%A1%E1%83%95%E1%83%94%E1%83%9A%E1%83%98" title="ჯეიმზ კლერკ მაქსველი – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ჯეიმზ კლერკ მაქსველი" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target">მარგალური</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B3_%D9%85%D8%A7%D9%83%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84" title="جيمس ماكسويل – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="جيمس ماكسويل" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">مصرى</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%96%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Жеймс Клерк Максвелл – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Жеймс Клерк Максвелл" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Монгол</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%82%E1%80%BB%E1%80%AD%E1%80%99%E1%80%BA%E1%80%B8%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA_%E1%80%99%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA%E1%80%85%E1%80%BA%E1%80%9D%E1%80%B2" title="ဂျိမ်းစ် မက်စ်ဝဲ – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဂျိမ်းစ် မက်စ်ဝဲ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जेम्स क्लर्क माक्सवेल – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="जेम्स क्लर्क माक्सवेल" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AF%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जेम्स् क्लर्क म्याक्सवेल – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="जेम्स् क्लर्क म्याक्सवेल" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B8%E3%82%A7%E3%83%BC%E3%83%A0%E3%82%BA%E3%83%BB%E3%82%AF%E3%83%A9%E3%83%BC%E3%82%AF%E3%83%BB%E3%83%9E%E3%82%AF%E3%82%B9%E3%82%A6%E3%82%A7%E3%83%AB" title="ジェームズ・クラーク・マクスウェル – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="ジェームズ・クラーク・マクスウェル" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA" title="Максвелл, Джеймс Клерк – Chechen" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Максвелл, Джеймс Клерк" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="Chechen" class="interlanguage-link-target">Нохчийн</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-or mw-list-item"><a href="https://or.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AC%9C%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%AE%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%8D_%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B2%E0%AC%B0%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D_%E0%AC%AE%E0%AC%BE%E0%AC%95%E0%AD%8D%E0%AC%B8%E0%AD%B1%E0%AD%87%E0%AC%B2%E0%AD%8D%E2%80%8C" title="ଜେମ୍‌ସ୍ କ୍ଲର୍କ୍ ମାକ୍ସୱେଲ୍‌ – Odia" lang="or" hreflang="or" data-title="ଜେମ୍‌ସ୍ କ୍ଲର୍କ୍ ମାକ୍ସୱେଲ୍‌" data-language-autonym="ଓଡ଼ିଆ" data-language-local-name="Odia" class="interlanguage-link-target">ଓଡ଼ିଆ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%9C%E0%A9%87%E0%A8%AE%E0%A8%9C%E0%A8%BC_%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B2%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%95_%E0%A8%AE%E0%A9%88%E0%A8%95%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%B5%E0%A9%88%E0%A9%B1%E0%A8%B2" title="ਜੇਮਜ਼ ਕਲਰਕ ਮੈਕਸਵੈੱਲ – Punjabi" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਜੇਮਜ਼ ਕਲਰਕ ਮੈਕਸਵੈੱਲ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D9%85%DB%8C%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84" title="جیمز کلارک میکسویل – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="جیمز کلارک میکسویل" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%D9%8A%D9%85%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D9%85%D9%8A%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%D9%8A%D9%84" title="جيمز کلارک ميکسويل – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="جيمز کلارک ميکسويل" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target">پښتو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Piemontèis</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Low German" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="Low German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Plattdüütsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A4%CE%B6%CE%AD%CE%B9%CE%BC%CF%82_%CE%9A%CE%BB%CE%B5%CF%81%CE%BA_%CE%9C%CE%AC%CE%BE%CE%B3%CE%BF%CF%85%CE%B5%CE%BB" title="Τζέιμς Κλερκ Μάξγουελ – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Τζέιμς Κλερκ Μάξγουελ" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ποντιακά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Джеймс Клерк Максвелл – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Джеймс Клерк Максвелл" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB,_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA" title="Максвелл, Джеймс Клерк – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Максвелл, Джеймс Клерк" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB_%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA" title="Максвелл Джеймс Клерк – Yakut" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Максвелл Джеймс Клерк" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="Yakut" class="interlanguage-link-target">Саха тыла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-szy mw-list-item"><a href="https://szy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Canmuse.kelake.makesewiy" title="Canmuse.kelake.makesewiy – Sakizaya" lang="szy" hreflang="szy" data-title="Canmuse.kelake.makesewiy" data-language-autonym="Sakizaya" data-language-local-name="Sakizaya" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sakizaya</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa mw-list-item"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8_%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%95_%E0%A4%AE%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%95%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%B5%E0%A5%87%E0%A4%B2" title="जेम्स क्लर्क माक्सवेल – Sanskrit" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="जेम्स क्लर्क माक्सवेल" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="Sanskrit" class="interlanguage-link-target">संस्कृतम्</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sat mw-list-item"><a href="https://sat.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%B1%A1%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%A5_%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%9E%E1%B1%9A%E1%B1%A8%E1%B1%A0_%E1%B1%A2%E1%B1%9F%E1%B1%A0%E1%B1%A5%E1%B1%A3%E1%B1%AE%E1%B1%9E" title="ᱡᱮᱢᱥ ᱠᱞᱚᱨᱠ ᱢᱟᱠᱥᱣᱮᱞ – Santali" lang="sat" hreflang="sat" data-title="ᱡᱮᱢᱥ ᱠᱞᱚᱨᱠ ᱢᱟᱠᱥᱣᱮᱞ" data-language-autonym="ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ" data-language-local-name="Santali" class="interlanguage-link-target">ᱥᱟᱱᱛᱟᱲᱤ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Scots" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="Scots" class="interlanguage-link-target">Scots</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xhames_Klerk_Maxwell" title="Xhames Klerk Maxwell – Albanian" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Xhames Klerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="Albanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Shqip</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%95%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8E%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8E%DA%B5" title="جەیمز کلێرک ماکسوێڵ – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="جەیمز کلێرک ماکسوێڵ" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target">کوردی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%8F%D0%B5%D1%98%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB" title="Џејмс Клерк Максвел – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Џејмс Клерк Максвел" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Sunda</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tagalog</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9C%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%B3%E0%AE%BE%E0%AE%B0%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D_%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%87%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B8%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%B5%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="ஜேம்ஸ் கிளார்க் மேக்ஸ்வெல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="ஜேம்ஸ் கிளார்க் மேக்ஸ்வெல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jayms_Klerk_Makswell" title="Jayms Klerk Makswell – Kabyle" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Jayms Klerk Makswell" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="Kabyle" class="interlanguage-link-target">Taqbaylit</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ceyms_Klerk_Makswell" title="Ceyms Klerk Makswell – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Ceyms Klerk Makswell" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%9C%E0%B1%87%E0%B0%AE%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B2%E0%B0%B0%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D_%E0%B0%AE%E0%B0%BE%E0%B0%95%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B8%E0%B1%8D%E2%80%8C%E0%B0%B5%E0%B1%86%E0%B0%B2%E0%B1%8D" title="జేమ్స్ క్లర్క్ మాక్స్‌వెల్ – Telugu" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="జేమ్స్ క్లర్క్ మాక్స్‌వెల్" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="Telugu" class="interlanguage-link-target">తెలుగు</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%88%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%AA%E0%B9%8C_%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%84%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%A3%E0%B9%8C%E0%B8%81_%E0%B9%81%E0%B8%A1%E0%B8%81%E0%B8%8B%E0%B9%8C%E0%B9%80%E0%B8%A7%E0%B8%A5%E0%B8%A5%E0%B9%8C" title="เจมส์ เคลิร์ก แมกซ์เวลล์ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="เจมส์ เคลิร์ก แมกซ์เวลล์" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%94%D0%B6%D0%B5%D0%B9%D0%BC%D1%81_%D0%9A%D0%BB%D0%B5%D1%80%D0%BA_%D0%9C%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B2%D0%B5%D0%BB%D0%BB" title="Джеймс Клерк Максвелл – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Джеймс Клерк Максвелл" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AC%DB%8C%D9%85%D8%B2_%DA%A9%D9%84%DB%8C%D8%B1%DA%A9_%D9%85%D8%A7%DA%A9%D8%B3%D9%88%DB%8C%D9%84" title="جیمز کلیرک ماکسویل – Urdu" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="جیمز کلیرک ماکسویل" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="Urdu" class="interlanguage-link-target">اردو</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Zhuang" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="Zhuang" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vahcuengh</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maksvell_D%C5%BEeims_Klerk" title="Maksvell Džeims Klerk – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Maksvell Džeims Klerk" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target">Vepsän kel’</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Waray" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="Waray" class="interlanguage-link-target">Winaray</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6" title="詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%93%D7%96%D7%A9%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%A1_%D7%A7%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%A7_%D7%9E%D7%90%D7%A7%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%95%D7%A2%D7%9C" title="דזשיימס קלארק מאקסוועל – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="דזשיימס קלארק מאקסוועל" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" class="interlanguage-link-target">ייִדיש</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Yoruba" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="Yoruba" class="interlanguage-link-target">Yorùbá</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%8D%A0%E5%A3%AB%E9%BA%A5%E5%A3%AB%E7%B6%AD" title="占士麥士維 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="占士麥士維" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">粵語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C5%BEeimsos_Klarks_Maksvels" title="Džeimsos Klarks Maksvels – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Džeimsos Klarks Maksvels" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Žemaitėška</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E8%A9%B9%E5%A7%86%E6%96%AF%C2%B7%E5%85%8B%E6%8B%89%E5%85%8B%C2%B7%E9%BA%A6%E5%85%8B%E6%96%AF%E9%9F%A6" title="詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="詹姆斯·克拉克·麦克斯韦" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">中文</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="James Clerk Maxwell – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="James Clerk Maxwell" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target">Batak Mandailing</a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9095#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="Edit interlanguage links" class="wbc-editpage">Edit links</a></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="Namespaces"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-associated-pages" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-nstab-main" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="View the content page [c]" accesskey="c">Article</a></li><li id="ca-talk" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Talk:James_Clerk_Maxwell" rel="discussion" title="Discuss improvements to the content page [t]" accesskey="t">Talk</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown emptyPortlet" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-variants-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Change language variant" > <label id="vector-variants-dropdown-label" for="vector-variants-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >English </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-variants" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-variants emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> <div id="right-navigation" class="vector-collapsible"> <nav aria-label="Views"> <div id="p-views" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet mw-portlet-views" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-view" class="selected vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell">Read</a></li><li id="ca-viewsource" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&action=edit" title="This page is protected.
You can view its source [e]" accesskey="e">View source</a></li><li id="ca-history" class="vector-tab-noicon mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&action=history" title="Past revisions of this page [h]" accesskey="h">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-tools-dropdown" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-tools-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Tools" > <label id="vector-page-tools-dropdown-label" for="vector-page-tools-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet" aria-hidden="true" >Tools </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> <div id="vector-page-tools" class="vector-page-tools vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-page-tools-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-unpinned" data-feature-name="page-tools-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-page-tools" data-pinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-page-tools-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Tools</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-page-tools.unpin">hide</button> </div> <div id="p-cactions" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-cactions emptyPortlet vector-has-collapsible-items" title="More options" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Actions </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="ca-more-view" class="selected vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell">Read</a></li><li id="ca-more-viewsource" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&action=edit">View source</a></li><li id="ca-more-history" class="vector-more-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&action=history">View history</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-tb" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-tb" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> General </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="t-whatlinkshere" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:WhatLinksHere/James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="List of all English Wikipedia pages containing links to this page [j]" accesskey="j">What links here</a></li><li id="t-recentchangeslinked" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:RecentChangesLinked/James_Clerk_Maxwell" rel="nofollow" title="Recent changes in pages linked from this page [k]" accesskey="k">Related changes</a></li><li id="t-upload" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:File_Upload_Wizard" title="Upload files [u]" accesskey="u">Upload file</a></li><li id="t-specialpages" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/Special:SpecialPages" title="A list of all special pages [q]" accesskey="q">Special pages</a></li><li id="t-permalink" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&oldid=1259340640" title="Permanent link to this revision of this page">Permanent link</a></li><li id="t-info" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&action=info" title="More information about this page">Page information</a></li><li id="t-cite" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:CiteThisPage&page=James_Clerk_Maxwell&id=1259340640&wpFormIdentifier=titleform" title="Information on how to cite this page">Cite this page</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:UrlShortener&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FJames_Clerk_Maxwell">Get shortened URL</a></li><li id="t-urlshortener-qrcode" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:QrCode&url=https%3A%2F%2Fen.wikipedia.org%2Fwiki%2FJames_Clerk_Maxwell">Download QR code</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-coll-print_export" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-coll-print_export" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> Print/export </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="coll-download-as-rl" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Special:DownloadAsPdf&page=James_Clerk_Maxwell&action=show-download-screen" title="Download this page as a PDF file">Download as PDF</a></li><li id="t-print" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&printable=yes" title="Printable version of this page [p]" accesskey="p">Printable version</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-wikibase-otherprojects" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-wikibase-otherprojects" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> In other projects </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-commons mw-list-item"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" hreflang="en">Wikimedia Commons</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikiquote mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" hreflang="en">Wikiquote</a></li><li class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikisource mw-list-item"><a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:James_Clerk_Maxwell" hreflang="en">Wikisource</a></li><li id="t-wikibase" class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q9095" title="Structured data on this page hosted by Wikidata [g]" accesskey="g">Wikidata item</a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" data-pinned-container-id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" data-unpinned-container-id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" > <div class="vector-pinnable-header-label">Appearance</div> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-appearance.unpin">hide</button> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div id="bodyContent" class="vector-body" aria-labelledby="firstHeading" data-mw-ve-target-container> <div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-good-star" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Good_articles*" title="This is a good article. Click here for more information."><img alt="This is a good article. Click here for more information." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/19px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png" decoding="async" width="19" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/29px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/94/Symbol_support_vote.svg/39px-Symbol_support_vote.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></div></div> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/30px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Scottish physicist and mathematician (1831–1879)</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox biography vcard"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="font-size:125%;"><div class="fn">James Clerk Maxwell</div><div class="honorific-suffix" style="font-size: 77%; font-weight: normal;"><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg/220px-James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="275" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg/330px-James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b0/James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg/440px-James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg 2x" data-file-width="819" data-file-height="1024" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Maxwell, <abbr title="circa">c.</abbr> 1870s</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Born</th><td class="infobox-data">(1831-06-13)13 June 1831 <div style="display:inline" class="birthplace"><a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, Scotland</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Died</th><td class="infobox-data">5 November 1879(1879-11-05) (aged 48) <div style="display:inline" class="deathplace"><a href="/wiki/Cambridge" title="Cambridge">Cambridge</a>, England</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Resting place</th><td class="infobox-data label"><a href="/wiki/Parton,_Dumfries_and_Galloway" title="Parton, Dumfries and Galloway">Parton, Dumfries and Galloway</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1156832818">.mw-parser-output .geo-default,.mw-parser-output .geo-dms,.mw-parser-output .geo-dec{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .geo-nondefault,.mw-parser-output .geo-multi-punct,.mw-parser-output .geo-inline-hidden{display:none}.mw-parser-output .longitude,.mw-parser-output .latitude{white-space:nowrap}</style><a class="external text" href="https://geohack.toolforge.org/geohack.php?pagename=James_Clerk_Maxwell&params=55.006693_N_4.03921_W_type:landmark">55°00′24″N 4°02′21″W / 55.006693°N 4.039210°W / 55.006693; -4.039210</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Alma mater</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Peterhouse,_Cambridge" title="Peterhouse, Cambridge">Peterhouse, Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Known for</th><td class="infobox-data"><div class="collapsible-list mw-collapsible mw-collapsed" style="text-align: left;"> <div style="line-height: 1.6em; font-weight: bold;"><div><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886047488">.mw-parser-output .nobold{font-weight:normal}</style>See list</div></div> <ul class="mw-collapsible-content" style="margin-top: 0; margin-bottom: 0; line-height: inherit; list-style: none; margin-left: 0;"><li style="line-height: inherit; margin: 0"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">Statistical mechanics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Displacement_current" title="Displacement current">Displacement current</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_relations" title="Maxwell relations">Maxwell relations</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Betti%27s_theorem" title="Betti's theorem">Maxwell–Betti theorem</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_statistics" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics">Maxwell–Boltzmann statistics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Stefan_diffusion" title="Maxwell–Stefan diffusion">Maxwell–Stefan diffusion</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon" title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_construction" title="Maxwell construction">Maxwell construction</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kinematic_coupling#Maxwell_coupling" title="Kinematic coupling">Maxwell coupling</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">Kinetic theory of gases</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_discs" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell's discs">Maxwell's discs</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_speed_distribution" class="mw-redirect" title="Maxwell speed distribution">Maxwell speed distribution</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Stress_functions#Maxwell_stress_functions" title="Stress functions">Maxwell stress functions</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_theorem" title="Maxwell's theorem">Maxwell's theorem</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_theorem_(geometry)" title="Maxwell's theorem (geometry)">Maxwell's theorem (geometry)</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_material" title="Maxwell material">Maxwell material</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Von_Mises_yield_criterion" title="Von Mises yield criterion">Maxwell–Huber–Hencky–von Mises theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Wagner%E2%80%93Sillars_polarization" title="Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars polarization">Maxwell–Wagner–Sillars polarization</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_bridge" title="Maxwell bridge">Maxwell bridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell_coil" title="Maxwell coil">Maxwell coil</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Luneburg_lens#Maxwell's_fish-eye_lens" title="Luneburg lens">Maxwell's fish-eye lens</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Fovea_centralis#Entoptic_effects_in_the_fovea" title="Fovea centralis">Maxwell's spot</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Additive_color" title="Additive color">Maxwell's wheel</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_thermodynamic_surface" title="Maxwell's thermodynamic surface">Maxwell's thermodynamic surface</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Rings of Saturn</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Coherence_(units_of_measurement)" title="Coherence (units of measurement)">Coherent system of units</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">Chaos theory</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Dimensional_analysis" title="Dimensional analysis">Dimensional analysis</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Generalized_conic" title="Generalized conic">Generalized conic</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Singularity_(system_theory)" class="mw-redirect" title="Singularity (system theory)">Singularity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Structural_rigidity" title="Structural rigidity">Structural rigidity</a></li></ul></div></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Spouse</th><td class="infobox-data"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1151524712">.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin2px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-2px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-line-margin3px{line-height:0;margin-bottom:-3px}.mw-parser-output .marriage-display-ws{display:inline;white-space:nowrap}</style> <div class="marriage-display-ws"><div style="display:inline-block;line-height:normal;"><a href="/wiki/Katherine_Clerk_Maxwell" title="Katherine Clerk Maxwell">Katherine Dewar</a></div> <div style="display:inline-block;"></div>(<abbr title="married">m.</abbr> 1858)</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Awards</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_Prize" title="Smith's Prize">Smith's Prize</a> (1854)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Adams_Prize" title="Adams Prize">Adams Prize</a> (1857)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Rumford_Medal" title="Rumford Medal">Rumford Medal</a> (1860)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> (1861)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_Bakerian_Medal" title="Royal Society Bakerian Medal">Bakerian Medal</a> (1866)</li><li><a href="/wiki/Keith_Medal" title="Keith Medal">Keith Medal</a> (1869–1871)</li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546">Scientific career</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Fields</th><td class="infobox-data category"><a href="/wiki/Physics" title="Physics">Physics</a> <a href="/wiki/Mathematics" title="Mathematics">Mathematics</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Institutions</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/Marischal_College" title="Marischal College">Marischal College</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen" title="University of Aberdeen">University of Aberdeen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="King's College, London">King's College, London</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Academic advisors</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/William_Hopkins" title="William Hopkins">William Hopkins</a></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Notable students</th><td class="infobox-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"><div class="plainlist"><ul><li><a href="/wiki/George_Chrystal" title="George Chrystal">George Chrystal</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Horace_Lamb" title="Horace Lamb">Horace Lamb</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/John_Henry_Poynting" title="John Henry Poynting">John Henry Poynting</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="color: #202122; background:#eee;line-height:normal;padding:0.2em;">1st <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Professor_of_Physics" title="Cavendish Professor of Physics">Cavendish Professor of Physics</a></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data" style="border-bottom:none">In office 1871–1879</td><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546"></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label" style="text-align:left">Succeeded by</th><td class="infobox-data"><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">Lord Rayleigh</a></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-below" style="border-top: 1px solid right;"><div></div></td></tr><tr style="display:none"><td colspan="2"> </td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Signature</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Clerk_Maxwell_sig.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/James_Clerk_Maxwell_sig.svg/150px-James_Clerk_Maxwell_sig.svg.png" decoding="async" width="150" height="50" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/James_Clerk_Maxwell_sig.svg/225px-James_Clerk_Maxwell_sig.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c3/James_Clerk_Maxwell_sig.svg/300px-James_Clerk_Maxwell_sig.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="202" data-file-height="68" /></a></td></tr></tbody></table> James Clerk Maxwell <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Fellow of the Royal Society">FRS</a> <a href="/wiki/Fellow_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="Fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">FRSE</a> (13 June 1831 – 5 November 1879) was a Scottish <a href="/wiki/Physicist" title="Physicist">physicist</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mathematician" title="Mathematician">mathematician</a><a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a> who was responsible for the <a href="/wiki/Classical_theory" class="mw-redirect" title="Classical theory">classical theory</a> of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">electromagnetic radiation</a>, which was the first theory to describe electricity, <a href="/wiki/Magnetism" title="Magnetism">magnetism</a> and light as different manifestations of the same phenomenon. <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a> for electromagnetism achieved the <a href="/wiki/Unification_(physics)#Unification_of_magnetism,_electricity,_light_and_related_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Unification (physics)">second great unification in physics</a>,<a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> where <a href="/wiki/Unification_(physics)#Unification_of_gravity_and_astronomy" class="mw-redirect" title="Unification (physics)">the first one</a> had been realised by <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a>. Maxwell was also key in the creation of <a href="/wiki/Statistical_mechanics" title="Statistical mechanics">statistical mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon200382–83,_164-4">[4]</a> With the publication of "<a href="/wiki/A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_Field" title="A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field">A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field</a>" in 1865, Maxwell demonstrated that <a href="/wiki/Electric_force" class="mw-redirect" title="Electric force">electric</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_field" title="Magnetic field">magnetic fields</a> travel through space as <a href="/wiki/Wave" title="Wave">waves</a> moving at the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. He proposed that light is an undulation in the same medium that is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-ADTEF-5">[5]</a> The unification of light and electrical phenomena led to his prediction of the existence of <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio waves</a>. As a result of his equations, and other important contributions such as introducing an effective method to deal with network problems and linear conductors, Maxwell is regarded as a founder of the modern field of <a href="/wiki/Electrical_engineering" title="Electrical engineering">electrical engineering</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> Maxwell was the first to derive the <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a>, a statistical means of describing aspects of the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory of gases</a>, which he worked on sporadically throughout his career.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> He is also known for presenting the first durable <a href="/wiki/Colour_photograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour photograph">colour photograph</a> in 1861 and for his foundational work on analysing the <a href="/wiki/Structural_rigidity" title="Structural rigidity">rigidity</a> of rod-and-joint frameworks (<a href="/wiki/Truss" title="Truss">trusses</a>) like those in many bridges. Maxwell helped to established the <a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">CGS system</a> of measurement.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> He is responsible for modern <a href="/wiki/Dimensional_analysis" title="Dimensional analysis">dimensional analysis</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a><a href="#cite_note-10">[10]</a> Maxwell is also recognized for laying the groundwork for <a href="/wiki/Chaos_theory" title="Chaos theory">chaos theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-11">[11]</a><a href="#cite_note-12">[12]</a> Maxwell correctly predicted that the <a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">rings of Saturn</a> were made up of many unattached small fragments.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> His 1863 paper On Governors serves as an important foundation for <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cybernetics" title="Cybernetics">cybernetics</a>, and was also the earliest mathematical analysis on <a href="/wiki/Control_system" title="Control system">control systems</a>.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon20032–3,_140-15">[15]</a> His discoveries helped usher in the era of modern physics, laying the foundations for such fields as <a href="/wiki/Theory_of_relativity" title="Theory of relativity">relativity</a>, also being the one to introduce the term into physics,<a href="#cite_note-:2-9">[9]</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quantum_mechanics" title="Quantum mechanics">quantum mechanics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon20032-16">[16]</a> Many physicists regard Maxwell as the 19th-century scientist having the greatest influence on 20th-century physics. His contributions to the science are considered by many to be of the same magnitude as those of Isaac Newton and <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a>.<a href="#cite_note-17">[17]</a> In the millennium poll—a survey of the 100 most prominent physicists—Maxwell was voted the third greatest physicist of all time, behind only Newton and Einstein,<a href="#cite_note-18">[18]</a> with another survey of rank-and-file physicists also voting him third.<a href="#cite_note-19">[19]</a> On the centenary of Maxwell's birthday, his work was described by Einstein as the "most profound and the most fruitful that physics has experienced since the time of Newton".<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> When Einstein visited the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a> in 1922, he was told by his host that he had done great things because he stood on Newton's shoulders; Einstein replied: "No I don't. I stand on the shoulders of Maxwell."<a href="#cite_note-21">[21]</a> Tom Siegfried described Maxwell as "one of those once-in-a-century geniuses who perceived the physical world with sharper senses than those around him".<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Life">Life</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Early_life,_1831–1839">Early life, 1831–1839</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Clerk_Maxwell%27s_birthplace_at_14_India_Street.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/James_Clerk_Maxwell%27s_birthplace_at_14_India_Street.jpg/170px-James_Clerk_Maxwell%27s_birthplace_at_14_India_Street.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="255" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/James_Clerk_Maxwell%27s_birthplace_at_14_India_Street.jpg/255px-James_Clerk_Maxwell%27s_birthplace_at_14_India_Street.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/34/James_Clerk_Maxwell%27s_birthplace_at_14_India_Street.jpg/340px-James_Clerk_Maxwell%27s_birthplace_at_14_India_Street.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2056" data-file-height="3088" /></a><figcaption>Clerk Maxwell's birthplace at 14 India Street in Edinburgh is now the home of the <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell_Foundation" title="James Clerk Maxwell Foundation">James Clerk Maxwell Foundation</a>.</figcaption></figure> James Clerk Maxwell was born on 13 June 1831<a href="#cite_note-23">[23]</a> at 14 India Street, <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh" title="Edinburgh">Edinburgh</a>, to <a href="/wiki/John_Clerk_Maxwell_of_Middlebie" title="John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie">John Clerk Maxwell of Middlebie</a>, an advocate, and Frances Cay,<a href="#cite_note-oxford_506-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-Waterston-25">[25]</a> daughter of <a href="/wiki/Robert_Hodshon_Cay" title="Robert Hodshon Cay">Robert Hodshon Cay</a> and sister of <a href="/wiki/John_Cay" title="John Cay">John Cay</a>. (His birthplace now houses a museum operated by the <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell_Foundation" title="James Clerk Maxwell Foundation">James Clerk Maxwell Foundation</a>.) His father was a man of comfortable means<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> of the Clerk family of <a href="/wiki/Penicuik" title="Penicuik">Penicuik</a>, holders of the <a href="/wiki/Baronetcy" class="mw-redirect" title="Baronetcy">baronetcy</a> of <a href="/wiki/Clerk_baronets" title="Clerk baronets">Clerk of Penicuik</a>. His father's brother was the <a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Clerk,_6th_Baronet" title="Sir George Clerk, 6th Baronet">6th baronet</a>.<a href="#cite_note-preface-27">[27]</a> He had been born "John Clerk", adding "Maxwell" to his own after he inherited (as an infant in 1793) the Middlebie estate, a Maxwell property in Dumfriesshire.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_506-24">[24]</a> James was a first cousin of both the artist <a href="/wiki/Jemima_Blackburn" title="Jemima Blackburn">Jemima Blackburn</a><a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a> (the daughter of his father's sister) and the civil engineer <a href="/wiki/William_Dyce_Cay" title="William Dyce Cay">William Dyce Cay</a> (the son of his mother's brother). Cay and Maxwell were close friends and Cay acted as his best man when Maxwell married.<a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> Maxwell's parents met and married when they were well into their thirties;<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> his mother was nearly 40 when he was born. They had had one earlier child, a daughter named Elizabeth, who died in infancy.<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> When Maxwell was young his family moved to <a href="/wiki/Glenlair_House" title="Glenlair House">Glenlair</a>, in Kirkcudbrightshire, which his parents had built on the estate which comprised 1,500 acres (610 ha).<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> All indications suggest that Maxwell had maintained an unquenchable curiosity from an early age.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> By the age of three, everything that moved, shone, or made a noise drew the question: "what's the go o' that?"<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a> In a passage added to a letter from his father to his sister-in-law Jane Cay in 1834, his mother described this innate sense of inquisitiveness: <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote">He is a very happy man, and has improved much since the weather got moderate; he has great work with doors, locks, keys, etc., and "show me how it doos" is never out of his mouth. He also investigates the hidden course of streams and bell-wires, the way the water gets from the pond through the wall....<a href="#cite_note-Campbell_p_27-35">[35]</a></blockquote> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Education,_1839–1847">Education, 1839–1847</h3></div> Recognising the boy's potential, Maxwell's mother Frances took responsibility for his early education, which in the <a href="/wiki/Victorian_times" class="mw-redirect" title="Victorian times">Victorian era</a> was largely the job of the woman of the house.<a href="#cite_note-:0-36">[36]</a> At eight he could recite long passages of <a href="/wiki/John_Milton" title="John Milton">John Milton</a> and the whole of the <a href="/wiki/Psalm_119" title="Psalm 119">119th psalm</a> (176 verses). Indeed, his knowledge of <a href="/wiki/Religious_text" title="Religious text">scripture</a> was already detailed; he could give chapter and verse for almost any quotation from the Psalms. His mother was taken ill with <a href="/wiki/Abdominal_cancer" class="mw-redirect" title="Abdominal cancer">abdominal cancer</a> and, after an unsuccessful operation, died in December 1839 when he was eight years old. His education was then overseen by his father and his father's sister-in-law Jane, both of whom played pivotal roles in his life.<a href="#cite_note-:0-36">[36]</a> His formal schooling began unsuccessfully under the guidance of a 16-year-old hired tutor. Little is known about the young man hired to instruct Maxwell, except that he treated the younger boy harshly, chiding him for being slow and wayward.<a href="#cite_note-:0-36">[36]</a> The tutor was dismissed in November 1841. James' father took him to <a href="/wiki/Robert_Davidson_(inventor)" title="Robert Davidson (inventor)">Robert Davidson</a>'s demonstration of electric propulsion and magnetic force on 12 February 1842, an experience with profound implications for the boy.<a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> Maxwell was sent to the prestigious <a href="/wiki/Edinburgh_Academy" title="Edinburgh Academy">Edinburgh Academy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> He lodged during term times at the house of his aunt Isabella. During this time his passion for drawing was encouraged by his older cousin Jemima.<a href="#cite_note-mahon_p_12-14-39">[39]</a> The 10-year-old Maxwell, having been raised in isolation on his father's countryside estate, did not fit in well at school.<a href="#cite_note-mahon_p_10-40">[40]</a> The first year had been full, obliging him to join the second year with classmates a year his senior.<a href="#cite_note-mahon_p_10-40">[40]</a> His mannerisms and <a href="/wiki/Galloway" title="Galloway">Galloway</a> accent struck the other boys as rustic. Having arrived on his first day of school wearing a pair of homemade shoes and a tunic, he earned the unkind nickname of "<a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/daft" class="extiw" title="wikt:daft">Daftie</a>".<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> He never seemed to resent the epithet, bearing it without complaint for many years.<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a> Social isolation at the Academy ended when he met <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Campbell_(classicist)" title="Lewis Campbell (classicist)">Lewis Campbell</a> and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Guthrie_Tait" title="Peter Guthrie Tait">Peter Guthrie Tait</a>, two boys of a similar age who were to become notable scholars later in life. They remained lifelong friends.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_506-24">[24]</a> Maxwell was fascinated by <a href="/wiki/Geometry" title="Geometry">geometry</a> at an early age, rediscovering the <a href="/wiki/Regular_polyhedra" class="mw-redirect" title="Regular polyhedra">regular polyhedra</a> before he received any formal instruction.<a href="#cite_note-mahon_p_12-14-39">[39]</a> Despite his winning the school's scripture biography prize in his second year, his academic work remained unnoticed<a href="#cite_note-mahon_p_12-14-39">[39]</a> until, at the age of 13, he won the school's mathematical medal and first prize for both English and poetry.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell,_p_43-43">[43]</a> Maxwell's interests ranged far beyond the school syllabus and he did not pay particular attention to examination performance.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell,_p_43-43">[43]</a> He wrote his first <a href="/wiki/Scientific_paper" class="mw-redirect" title="Scientific paper">scientific paper</a> at the age of 14. In it, he described a mechanical means of drawing <a href="/wiki/Curve" title="Curve">mathematical curves</a> with a piece of twine, and the properties of <a href="/wiki/Ellipse" title="Ellipse">ellipses</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cartesian_ovals" class="mw-redirect" title="Cartesian ovals">Cartesian ovals</a>, and related curves with more than two <a href="/wiki/Focus_(geometry)" title="Focus (geometry)">foci</a>. The work,<a href="#cite_note-oxford_506-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-gardner-44">[44]</a> of 1846, "On the description of oval curves and those having a plurality of foci"<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> was presented to the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Royal Society of Edinburgh</a> by <a href="/wiki/James_David_Forbes" title="James David Forbes">James Forbes</a>, a professor of <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a> at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>,<a href="#cite_note-oxford_506-24">[24]</a><a href="#cite_note-gardner-44">[44]</a> because Maxwell was deemed too young to present the work himself.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_2003_p_16-46">[46]</a> The work was not entirely original, since <a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a> had also examined the properties of such <a href="/wiki/Multifocal_ellipse" class="mw-redirect" title="Multifocal ellipse">multifocal ellipses</a> in the 17th century, but Maxwell had simplified their construction.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_2003_p_16-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_of_Edinburgh,_1847–1850">University of Edinburgh, 1847–1850</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg/220px-Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="157" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg/330px-Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg/440px-Edinburgh_University_1827.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1202" data-file-height="860" /></a><figcaption>Old College, University of Edinburgh</figcaption></figure> Maxwell left the Academy in 1847 at age 16 and began attending classes at the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Edinburgh" title="University of Edinburgh">University of Edinburgh</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Harman_p_662-47">[47]</a> He had the opportunity to attend the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>, but decided, after his first term, to complete the full course of his undergraduate studies at Edinburgh. The academic staff of the university included some highly regarded names; his first-year tutors included <a href="/wiki/Sir_William_Hamilton,_9th_Baronet" title="Sir William Hamilton, 9th Baronet">Sir William Hamilton</a>, who lectured him on <a href="/wiki/Logic" title="Logic">logic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Metaphysics" title="Metaphysics">metaphysics</a>, <a href="/wiki/Philip_Kelland" title="Philip Kelland">Philip Kelland</a> on mathematics, and <a href="/wiki/James_David_Forbes" title="James David Forbes">James Forbes</a> on <a href="/wiki/Natural_philosophy" title="Natural philosophy">natural philosophy</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_506-24">[24]</a> He did not find his classes demanding,<a href="#cite_note-48">[48]</a> and was, therefore, able to immerse himself in private study during free time at the university and particularly when back home at Glenlair.<a href="#cite_note-49">[49]</a> There he would experiment with improvised chemical, electric, and magnetic apparatus; however, his chief concerns regarded the properties of <a href="/wiki/Polarized_light" class="mw-redirect" title="Polarized light">polarised light</a>.<a href="#cite_note-50">[50]</a> He constructed shaped blocks of <a href="/wiki/Gelatine" class="mw-redirect" title="Gelatine">gelatine</a>, subjected them to various <a href="/wiki/Stress_(physics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stress (physics)">stresses</a>, and with a pair of <a href="/wiki/Nicol_prism" title="Nicol prism">polarising prisms</a> given to him by <a href="/wiki/William_Nicol_(inventor)" class="mw-redirect" title="William Nicol (inventor)">William Nicol</a>, viewed the coloured fringes that had developed within the jelly.<a href="#cite_note-51">[51]</a> Through this practice he discovered <a href="/wiki/Photoelasticity" title="Photoelasticity">photoelasticity</a>, which is a means of determining the stress distribution within physical structures.<a href="#cite_note-52">[52]</a> At age 18, Maxwell contributed two papers for the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Royal Society of Edinburgh">Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>. One of these, "On the Equilibrium of Elastic Solids", laid the foundation for an important discovery later in his life, which was the temporary <a href="/wiki/Double_refraction" class="mw-redirect" title="Double refraction">double refraction</a> produced in <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscous</a> liquids by <a href="/wiki/Shear_stress" title="Shear stress">shear stress</a>.<a href="#cite_note-53">[53]</a> His other paper was "Rolling Curves" and, just as with the paper "Oval Curves" that he had written at the Edinburgh Academy, he was again considered too young to stand at the rostrum to present it himself. The paper was delivered to the Royal Society by his tutor Kelland instead.<a href="#cite_note-54">[54]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="University_of_Cambridge,_1850–1856">University of Cambridge, 1850–1856</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg/170px-YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="205" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg/255px-YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ac/YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg/340px-YoungJamesClerkMaxwell.jpg 2x" data-file-width="425" data-file-height="513" /></a><figcaption>A young Maxwell at <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity College, Cambridge</a>, holding one of his <a href="/wiki/Colour_wheel" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour wheel">colour wheels</a></figcaption></figure> In October 1850, already an accomplished mathematician, Maxwell left Scotland for the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Cambridge" title="University of Cambridge">University of Cambridge</a>. He initially attended <a href="/wiki/Peterhouse,_Cambridge" title="Peterhouse, Cambridge">Peterhouse</a>, but before the end of his first term transferred to <a href="/wiki/Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Trinity College, Cambridge">Trinity</a>, where he believed it would be easier to obtain a <a href="/wiki/Fellow" title="Fellow">fellowship</a>.<a href="#cite_note-55">[55]</a> At Trinity he was elected to the elite secret society known as the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Apostles" title="Cambridge Apostles">Cambridge Apostles</a>.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Maxwell's intellectual understanding of his Christian faith and of science grew rapidly during his Cambridge years. He joined the "Apostles", an exclusive debating society of the intellectual elite, where through his essays he sought to work out this understanding. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">Now my great plan, which was conceived of old, ... is to let nothing be wilfully left unexamined. Nothing is to be holy ground consecrated to Stationary Faith, whether positive or negative. All fallow land is to be ploughed up and a regular system of rotation followed. ... Never hide anything, be it weed or no, nor seem to wish it hidden. ... Again I assert the Right of Trespass on any plot of Holy Ground which any man has set apart. ... Now I am convinced that no one but a Christian can actually purge his land of these holy spots. ... I do not say that no Christians have enclosed places of this sort. Many have a great deal, and every one has some. But there are extensive and important tracts in the territory of the Scoffer, the Pantheist, the Quietist, Formalist, Dogmatist, Sensualist, and the rest, which are openly and solemnly Tabooed. ..." Christianity—that is, the religion of the Bible—is the only scheme or form of belief which disavows any possessions on such a tenure. Here alone all is free. You may fly to the ends of the world and find no God but the Author of Salvation. You may search the Scriptures and not find a text to stop you in your explorations. ... The Old Testament and the Mosaic Law and Judaism are commonly supposed to be "Tabooed" by the orthodox. Sceptics pretend to have read them and have found certain witty objections ... which too many of the orthodox unread admit, and shut up the subject as haunted. But a Candle is coming to drive out all Ghosts and Bugbears. Let us follow the light.<a href="#cite_note-MIT_IAP_Seminar-57">[57]</a></blockquote> In the summer of his third year, Maxwell spent some time at the <a href="/wiki/Otley,_Suffolk" title="Otley, Suffolk">Suffolk</a> home of the Rev. <a href="/wiki/Charles_Benjamin_Tayler" title="Charles Benjamin Tayler">C. B. Tayler</a>, the uncle of a classmate, G. W. H. Tayler. The love of God shown by the family impressed Maxwell, particularly after he was nursed back from ill health by the minister and his wife.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> On his return to Cambridge, Maxwell writes to his recent host a chatty and affectionate letter including the following testimony,<a href="#cite_note-MIT_IAP_Seminar-57">[57]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... I have the capacity of being more wicked than any example that man could set me, and ... if I escape, it is only by God's grace helping me to get rid of myself, partially in science, more completely in society, —but not perfectly except by committing myself to God ...</blockquote> In November 1851, Maxwell studied under <a href="/wiki/William_Hopkins" title="William Hopkins">William Hopkins</a>, whose success in nurturing mathematical genius had earned him the nickname of "<a href="/wiki/Senior_Wrangler_(University_of_Cambridge)" class="mw-redirect" title="Senior Wrangler (University of Cambridge)">senior wrangler</a>-maker".<a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> In 1854, Maxwell graduated from Trinity with a degree in mathematics. He scored second highest in the final examination, coming behind <a href="/wiki/Edward_Routh" title="Edward Routh">Edward Routh</a> and earning himself the title of Second Wrangler. He was later declared equal with Routh in the more exacting ordeal of the <a href="/wiki/Smith%27s_Prize" title="Smith's Prize">Smith's Prize</a> examination.<a href="#cite_note-Tolstoy_p_62-60">[60]</a> Immediately after earning his degree, Maxwell read his paper "On the Transformation of Surfaces by Bending" to the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society" title="Cambridge Philosophical Society">Cambridge Philosophical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-61">[61]</a> This is one of the few purely mathematical papers he had written, demonstrating his growing stature as a mathematician.<a href="#cite_note-62">[62]</a> Maxwell decided to remain at Trinity after graduating and applied for a fellowship, which was a process that he could expect to take a couple of years.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_p_47-48-63">[63]</a> Buoyed by his success as a research student, he would be free, apart from some tutoring and examining duties, to pursue scientific interests at his own leisure.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_p_47-48-63">[63]</a> The nature and perception of colour was one such interest which he had begun at the University of Edinburgh while he was a student of Forbes.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_p_51-64">[64]</a> With the coloured <a href="/wiki/Spinning_top" title="Spinning top">spinning tops</a> invented by Forbes, Maxwell was able to demonstrate that white light would result from a mixture of red, green, and blue light.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_p_51-64">[64]</a> His paper "Experiments on Colour" laid out the principles of colour combination and was presented to the Royal Society of Edinburgh in March 1855.<a href="#cite_note-Tolstoy_p_64-65-65">[65]</a> Maxwell was this time able to deliver it himself.<a href="#cite_note-Tolstoy_p_64-65-65">[65]</a> Maxwell was made a fellow of Trinity on 10 October 1855, sooner than was the norm,<a href="#cite_note-Tolstoy_p_64-65-65">[65]</a> and was asked to prepare lectures on <a href="/wiki/Hydrostatics" title="Hydrostatics">hydrostatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Optics" title="Optics">optics</a> and to set examination papers.<a href="#cite_note-Glazebrook_p_43-46-66">[66]</a> The following February he was urged by Forbes to apply for the newly vacant <a href="/wiki/Chair_(academic)" class="mw-redirect" title="Chair (academic)">Chair</a> of Natural Philosophy at <a href="/wiki/Marischal_College" title="Marischal College">Marischal College</a>, <a href="/wiki/Aberdeen" title="Aberdeen">Aberdeen</a>.<a href="#cite_note-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-Campbell_p_126-68">[68]</a> His father assisted him in the task of preparing the necessary references, but died on 2 April at Glenlair before either knew the result of Maxwell's candidacy.<a href="#cite_note-Campbell_p_126-68">[68]</a> He accepted the professorship at Aberdeen, leaving Cambridge in November 1856.<a href="#cite_note-Glazebrook_p_43-46-66">[66]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Marischal_College,_Aberdeen,_1856–1860">Marischal College, Aberdeen, 1856–1860</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Saturn_HST_2004-03-22.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saturn_HST_2004-03-22.jpg/220px-Saturn_HST_2004-03-22.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saturn_HST_2004-03-22.jpg/330px-Saturn_HST_2004-03-22.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0e/Saturn_HST_2004-03-22.jpg/440px-Saturn_HST_2004-03-22.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2200" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Maxwell proved that the <a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">rings of Saturn</a> were made of numerous small particles.</figcaption></figure> The 25-year-old Maxwell was a good 15 years younger than any other professor at Marischal. He engaged himself with his new responsibilities as head of a department, devising the syllabus and preparing lectures.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_p_69-71-69">[69]</a> He committed himself to lecturing 15 hours a week, including a weekly <a href="/wiki/Pro_bono" title="Pro bono">pro bono</a> lecture to the local working men's college.<a href="#cite_note-Mahon_p_69-71-69">[69]</a> He lived in Aberdeen with his cousin <a href="/wiki/William_Dyce_Cay" title="William Dyce Cay">William Dyce Cay</a>, a Scottish civil engineer, during the six months of the academic year and spent the summers at Glenlair, which he had inherited from his father.<a href="#cite_note-preface-27">[27]</a> Later, his former student described Maxwell as follows: <blockquote>In the late 1850s shortly before 9 am any winter’s morning you might well have seen the young James Clerk Maxwell, in his mid to late 20s, a man of middling height, with frame strongly knit, and a certain spring and elasticity in his gait; dressed for comfortable ease rather than elegance; a face expressive at once of sagacity and good humour, but overlaid with a deep shade of thoughtfulness; features boldly put pleasingly marked; eyes dark and glowing; hair and beard perfectly black, and forming a strong contrast to the pallor of his complexion.<a href="#cite_note-70">[70]</a></blockquote> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Clark_Maxwell_and_his_wife_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/James_Clark_Maxwell_and_his_wife_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg/220px-James_Clark_Maxwell_and_his_wife_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="290" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/James_Clark_Maxwell_and_his_wife_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg/330px-James_Clark_Maxwell_and_his_wife_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a1/James_Clark_Maxwell_and_his_wife_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg/440px-James_Clark_Maxwell_and_his_wife_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1584" /></a><figcaption>James Clerk Maxwell and his wife, painted by <a href="/wiki/Jemima_Blackburn" title="Jemima Blackburn">Jemima Blackburn</a></figcaption></figure> He focused his attention on a problem that had eluded scientists for 200 years: the nature of <a href="/wiki/Rings_of_Saturn" title="Rings of Saturn">Saturn's rings</a>. It was unknown how they could remain stable without breaking up, drifting away or crashing into Saturn.<a href="#cite_note-71">[71]</a> The problem took on a particular resonance at that time because <a href="/wiki/St_John%27s_College,_Cambridge" title="St John's College, Cambridge">St John's College, Cambridge</a>, had chosen it as the topic for the 1857 <a href="/wiki/Adams_Prize" title="Adams Prize">Adams Prize</a>.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_508-72">[72]</a> Maxwell devoted two years to studying the problem, proving that a regular solid ring could not be stable, while a fluid ring would be forced by wave action to break up into blobs. Since neither was observed, he concluded that the rings must be composed of numerous small particles he called "brick-bats", each independently orbiting Saturn.<a href="#cite_note-oxford_508-72">[72]</a> Maxwell was awarded the £130 Adams Prize in 1859 for his essay "On the stability of the motion of Saturn's rings";<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> he was the only entrant to have made enough headway to submit an entry.<a href="#cite_note-74">[74]</a> His work was so detailed and convincing that when <a href="/wiki/George_Biddell_Airy" title="George Biddell Airy">George Biddell Airy</a> read it he commented, "It is one of the most remarkable applications of mathematics to physics that I have ever seen."<a href="#cite_note-mactutor-75">[75]</a> It was considered the final word on the issue until direct observations by the <a href="/wiki/Voyager_program" title="Voyager program">Voyager</a> flybys of the 1980s confirmed Maxwell's prediction that the rings were composed of particles.<a href="#cite_note-76">[76]</a> It is now understood, however, that the rings' particles are not totally stable, being pulled by gravity onto Saturn. The rings are expected to vanish entirely over the next 300 million years.<a href="#cite_note-77">[77]</a> In 1857 Maxwell befriended the Reverend Daniel Dewar, who was then the Principal of Marischal.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> Through him Maxwell met Dewar's daughter, <a href="/wiki/Katherine_Clerk_Maxwell" title="Katherine Clerk Maxwell">Katherine Mary Dewar</a>. They were engaged in February 1858 and married in Aberdeen on 2 June 1858. On the marriage record, Maxwell is listed as Professor of Natural Philosophy in Marischal College, Aberdeen.<a href="#cite_note-79">[79]</a> Katherine was seven years Maxwell's senior. Comparatively little is known of her, although it is known that she helped in his lab and worked on experiments in <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a>.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> Maxwell's biographer and friend, Lewis Campbell, adopted an uncharacteristic reticence on the subject of Katherine, though describing their married life as "one of unexampled devotion".<a href="#cite_note-81">[81]</a> In 1860 Marischal College merged with the neighbouring <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_Aberdeen" title="King's College, Aberdeen">King's College</a> to form the <a href="/wiki/University_of_Aberdeen" title="University of Aberdeen">University of Aberdeen</a>. There was no room for two professors of Natural Philosophy, so Maxwell, despite his scientific reputation, found himself laid off. He was unsuccessful in applying for Forbes's recently vacated chair at Edinburgh, the post instead going to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Tait_(physicist)" class="mw-redirect" title="Peter Tait (physicist)">Tait</a>. Maxwell was granted the Chair of Natural Philosophy at <a href="/wiki/King%27s_College,_London" class="mw-redirect" title="King's College, London">King's College, London</a>, instead.<a href="#cite_note-Glazebrook_p_54-82">[82]</a> After recovering from a near-fatal bout of <a href="/wiki/Smallpox" title="Smallpox">smallpox</a> in 1860, he moved to London with his wife.<a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="King's_College,_London,_1860–1865">King's College, London, 1860–1865</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maxwell_IEEE_Plaque_KCL.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Maxwell_IEEE_Plaque_KCL.jpg/290px-Maxwell_IEEE_Plaque_KCL.jpg" decoding="async" width="290" height="218" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Maxwell_IEEE_Plaque_KCL.jpg/435px-Maxwell_IEEE_Plaque_KCL.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/69/Maxwell_IEEE_Plaque_KCL.jpg/580px-Maxwell_IEEE_Plaque_KCL.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>Commemoration of Maxwell's equations at King's College. Two identical <a href="/wiki/Institute_of_Electrical_and_Electronics_Engineers" title="Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers">IEEE</a> Milestone Plaques are at Maxwell's birthplace in Edinburgh and the family home at Glenlair.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a></figcaption></figure> Maxwell's time at King's was probably the most productive of his career. He was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Society" title="Royal Society">Royal Society's</a> <a href="/wiki/Rumford_Medal" title="Rumford Medal">Rumford Medal</a> in 1860 for his work on colour and was later elected to the Society in 1861.<a href="#cite_note-Tolstoy_p_103-104-85">[85]</a> This period of his life would see him display the world's first light-fast colour photograph, further develop his ideas on the <a href="/wiki/Viscosity" title="Viscosity">viscosity</a> of gases, and propose a system of defining physical quantities—now known as <a href="/wiki/Dimensional_analysis" title="Dimensional analysis">dimensional analysis</a>. Maxwell would often attend lectures at the <a href="/wiki/Royal_Institution" title="Royal Institution">Royal Institution</a>, where he came into regular contact with <a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a>. The relationship between the two men could not be described as being close, because Faraday was 40 years Maxwell's senior and showed signs of <a href="/wiki/Senility" class="mw-redirect" title="Senility">senility</a>. They nevertheless maintained a strong respect for each other's talents.<a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> This time is especially noteworthy for the advances Maxwell made in the fields of electricity and magnetism. He examined the nature of both electric and magnetic fields in his two-part paper "<a href="/wiki/On_physical_lines_of_force" class="mw-redirect" title="On physical lines of force">On physical lines of force</a>", which was published in 1861. In it, he provided a conceptual model for <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_induction" title="Electromagnetic induction">electromagnetic induction</a>, consisting of tiny spinning cells of <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_flux" title="Magnetic flux">magnetic flux</a>. Two more parts were later added to and published in that same paper in early 1862. In the first additional part, he discussed the nature of <a href="/wiki/Electrostatics" title="Electrostatics">electrostatics</a> and <a href="/wiki/Displacement_current" title="Displacement current">displacement current</a>. In the second additional part, he dealt with the rotation of the plane of the <a href="/wiki/Polarization_(waves)" title="Polarization (waves)">polarisation of light</a> in a magnetic field, a phenomenon that had been discovered by Faraday and is now known as the <a href="/wiki/Faraday_effect" title="Faraday effect">Faraday effect</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Later_years,_1865–1879">Later years, 1865–1879</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:JCM_Grave-1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/JCM_Grave-1.jpg/220px-JCM_Grave-1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/JCM_Grave-1.jpg/330px-JCM_Grave-1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/JCM_Grave-1.jpg/440px-JCM_Grave-1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="756" data-file-height="1024" /></a><figcaption>The gravestone at Parton Kirk (Galloway) of James Clerk Maxwell, his parents and his wife</figcaption></figure> In 1865 Maxwell resigned the chair at King's College, London, and returned to Glenlair with Katherine. In his paper "On governors" (1868) he mathematically described the behaviour of <a href="/wiki/Governor_(device)" title="Governor (device)">governors</a>—devices that control the speed of steam engines—thereby establishing the theoretical basis of control engineering.<a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> In his paper "On reciprocal figures, frames and diagrams of forces" (1870) he discussed the rigidity of various designs of lattice.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a><a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> He wrote the textbook Theory of Heat (1871) and the treatise Matter and Motion (1876). Maxwell was also the first to make explicit use of <a href="/wiki/Dimensional_analysis" title="Dimensional analysis">dimensional analysis</a>, in 1871.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> In 1871 he returned to Cambridge to become the first <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Professor_of_Physics" title="Cavendish Professor of Physics">Cavendish Professor of Physics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Maxwell was put in charge of the development of the <a href="/wiki/Cavendish_Laboratory" title="Cavendish Laboratory">Cavendish Laboratory</a>, supervising every step in the progress of the building and of the purchase of the collection of apparatus.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> One of Maxwell's last great contributions to science was the editing (with copious original notes) of the research of <a href="/wiki/Henry_Cavendish" title="Henry Cavendish">Henry Cavendish</a>, from which it appeared that Cavendish researched, amongst other things, such questions as the <a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> of the Earth and the composition of water.<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> He was elected as a member to the <a href="/wiki/American_Philosophical_Society" title="American Philosophical Society">American Philosophical Society</a> in 1876.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Death">Death</h2></div> In April 1879 Maxwell began to have difficulty in swallowing, the first symptom of his fatal illness.<a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> Maxwell died in Cambridge of abdominal cancer on 5 November 1879 at the age of 48.<a href="#cite_note-Harman_p_662-47">[47]</a> His mother had died at the same age of the same type of cancer.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> The minister who regularly visited him in his last weeks was astonished at his lucidity and the immense power and scope of his memory, but comments more particularly, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">... his illness drew out the whole heart and soul and spirit of the man: his firm and undoubting faith in the Incarnation and all its results; in the full sufficiency of the Atonement; in the work of the Holy Spirit. He had gauged and fathomed all the schemes and systems of philosophy, and had found them utterly empty and unsatisfying—"unworkable" was his own word about them—and he turned with simple faith to the Gospel of the Saviour.</blockquote> As death approached Maxwell told a Cambridge colleague,<a href="#cite_note-MIT_IAP_Seminar-57">[57]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote">I have been thinking how very gently I have always been dealt with. I have never had a violent shove all my life. The only desire which I can have is like David to serve my own generation by the will of God, and then fall asleep.</blockquote> Maxwell is buried at <a href="/wiki/Parton,_Dumfries_and_Galloway" title="Parton, Dumfries and Galloway">Parton</a> Kirk, near <a href="/wiki/Castle_Douglas" title="Castle Douglas">Castle Douglas</a> in Galloway close to where he grew up.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> The extended biography The Life of James Clerk Maxwell, by his former schoolfellow and lifelong friend Professor <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Campbell_(classicist)" title="Lewis Campbell (classicist)">Lewis Campbell</a>, was published in 1882.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a><a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> His collected works were issued in two volumes by the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_University_Press" title="Cambridge University Press">Cambridge University Press</a> in 1890.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The executors of Maxwell's estate were his physician <a href="/wiki/George_Edward_Paget" title="George Edward Paget">George Edward Paget</a>, <a href="/wiki/G._G._Stokes" class="mw-redirect" title="G. G. Stokes">G. G. Stokes</a>, and Colin Mackenzie, who was Maxwell's cousin. Overburdened with work, Stokes passed Maxwell's papers to <a href="/wiki/William_Garnett_(professor)" title="William Garnett (professor)">William Garnett</a>, who had effective custody of the papers until about 1884.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> There is a memorial inscription to him near the choir screen at <a href="/wiki/Westminster_Abbey" title="Westminster Abbey">Westminster Abbey</a>.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Clark_Maxwell_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/James_Clark_Maxwell_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg/220px-James_Clark_Maxwell_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="300" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/James_Clark_Maxwell_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg/330px-James_Clark_Maxwell_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d3/James_Clark_Maxwell_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg/440px-James_Clark_Maxwell_by_Jemima_Blackburn.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1200" data-file-height="1636" /></a><figcaption>James Clerk Maxwell, painted by <a href="/wiki/Jemima_Blackburn" title="Jemima Blackburn">Jemima Blackburn</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Personal_life">Personal life</h3></div> As a great lover of <a href="/wiki/Scottish_poetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Scottish poetry">Scottish poetry</a>, Maxwell memorised poems and wrote his own.<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The best known is Rigid Body Sings, closely based on "<a href="/wiki/Comin%27_Through_the_Rye" class="mw-redirect" title="Comin' Through the Rye">Comin' Through the Rye</a>" by <a href="/wiki/Robert_Burns" title="Robert Burns">Robert Burns</a>, which he apparently used to sing while accompanying himself on a guitar. It has the opening lines<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1244412712"><blockquote class="templatequote"><div class="poem"> Gin a body meet a body Flyin' through the air. Gin a body hit a body, Will it fly? And where? </div></blockquote> A collection of his poems was published by his friend <a href="/wiki/Lewis_Campbell_(classicist)" title="Lewis Campbell (classicist)">Lewis Campbell</a> in 1882.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Descriptions of Maxwell remark upon his remarkable intellectual qualities being matched by social awkwardness.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> Maxwell wrote the following aphorism for his own conduct as a scientist: <blockquote>He that would enjoy life and act with freedom must have the work of the day continually before his eyes. Not yesterday's work, lest he fall into despair, not to-morrow's, lest he become a visionary not that which ends with the day, which is a worldly work, nor yet that only which remains to eternity, for by it he cannot shape his action. Happy is the man who can recognize in the work of to-day a connected portion of the work of life, and an embodiment of the work of eternity. The foundations of his confidence are unchangeable, for he has been made a partaker of Infinity. He strenuously works out his daily enterprises, because the present is given him for a possession.<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a></blockquote> Maxwell was an evangelical <a href="/wiki/Presbyterianism" title="Presbyterianism">Presbyterian</a> and in his later years became an <a href="/wiki/Elder_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" class="mw-redirect" title="Elder of the Church of Scotland">Elder</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Church_of_Scotland" title="Church of Scotland">Church of Scotland</a>.<a href="#cite_note-The_Aberdeen_University_Press-109">[109]</a> Maxwell's religious beliefs and related activities have been the focus of a number of papers.<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rel00-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-Rel1-112">[112]</a><a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Attending both Church of Scotland (his father's denomination) and <a href="/wiki/Scottish_Episcopal_Church" title="Scottish Episcopal Church">Episcopalian</a> (his mother's denomination) services as a child, Maxwell underwent an <a href="/wiki/Evangelicalism" title="Evangelicalism">evangelical</a> conversion in April 1853. One facet of this conversion may have aligned him with an <a href="/wiki/Antipositivism" title="Antipositivism">antipositivist</a> position.<a href="#cite_note-Rel1-112">[112]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scientific_legacy">Scientific legacy</h2></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</h3></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetism" title="Electromagnetism">Electromagnetism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Postcard-from-Maxwell-to-Tait.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Postcard-from-Maxwell-to-Tait.jpg/220px-Postcard-from-Maxwell-to-Tait.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="164" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/32/Postcard-from-Maxwell-to-Tait.jpg/330px-Postcard-from-Maxwell-to-Tait.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/3/32/Postcard-from-Maxwell-to-Tait.jpg 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="306" /></a><figcaption>A postcard from Maxwell to <a href="/wiki/Peter_Guthrie_Tait" title="Peter Guthrie Tait">Peter Tait</a></figcaption></figure> Maxwell had studied and commented on electricity and magnetism as early as 1855 when his paper "On Faraday's lines of force" was read to the <a href="/wiki/Cambridge_Philosophical_Society" title="Cambridge Philosophical Society">Cambridge Philosophical Society</a>.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> The paper presented a simplified model of Faraday's work and how electricity and magnetism are related. He reduced all of the current knowledge into a linked set of <a href="/wiki/Differential_equation" title="Differential equation">differential equations</a> with 20 equations in 20 variables. This work was later published as "<a href="/wiki/On_Physical_Lines_of_Force" title="On Physical Lines of Force">On Physical Lines of Force</a>" in March 1861.<a href="#cite_note-115">[115]</a> Around 1862, while lecturing at King's College, Maxwell calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic field is approximately that of the <a href="/wiki/Speed_of_light" title="Speed of light">speed of light</a>. He considered this to be more than just a coincidence, commenting, "We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which is the cause of electric and magnetic phenomena.<a href="#cite_note-mactutor-75">[75]</a> Working on the problem further, Maxwell showed that the <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_wave_equation" title="Electromagnetic wave equation">equations</a> predict the existence of waves of <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_radiation" title="Electromagnetic radiation">oscillating electric and magnetic fields</a> that travel through empty space at a speed that could be predicted from simple electrical experiments; using the data available at the time, Maxwell obtained a velocity of 310,740,000 metres per second (1.0195×109 ft/s).<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a> In his 1865 paper "<a href="/wiki/A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_Field" title="A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field">A Dynamical Theory of the Electromagnetic Field</a>", Maxwell wrote, "The agreement of the results seems to show that light and magnetism are affections of the same substance, and that light is an electromagnetic disturbance propagated through the field according to electromagnetic laws".<a href="#cite_note-ADTEF-5">[5]</a> His famous twenty equations, in their modern form of <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">partial differential equations</a>, first appeared in fully developed form in his textbook <a href="/wiki/A_Treatise_on_Electricity_and_Magnetism" title="A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism">A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism</a> in 1873.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a> Most of this work was done by Maxwell at Glenlair during the period between holding his London post and his taking up the Cavendish chair.<a href="#cite_note-mactutor-75">[75]</a> <a href="/wiki/Oliver_Heaviside" title="Oliver Heaviside">Oliver Heaviside</a> reduced the complexity of Maxwell's theory down to four <a href="/wiki/Partial_differential_equation" title="Partial differential equation">partial differential equations</a>,<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a> known now collectively as Maxwell's Laws or <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_equations" title="Maxwell's equations">Maxwell's equations</a>. Although potentials became much less popular in the nineteenth century,<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a> the use of scalar and vector potentials is now standard in the solution of Maxwell's equations.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> As Barrett and Grimes (1995) describe:<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a> <blockquote>Maxwell expressed electromagnetism in the algebra of <a href="/wiki/Quaternions" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternions">quaternions</a> and made the electromagnetic potential the centerpiece of his theory. In 1881 Heaviside replaced the electromagnetic potential field by force fields as the centerpiece of electromagnetic theory. According to Heaviside, the electromagnetic potential field was arbitrary and needed to be "assassinated". (sic) A few years later there was a debate between Heaviside and <a href="/wiki/Peter_Guthrie_Tait" title="Peter Guthrie Tait">[Peter Guthrie] Tate</a> (sic) about the relative merits of <a href="/wiki/Vector_analysis" class="mw-redirect" title="Vector analysis">vector analysis</a> and <a href="/wiki/Quaternions" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternions">quaternions</a>. The result was the realization that there was no need for the greater physical insights provided by <a href="/wiki/Quaternions" class="mw-redirect" title="Quaternions">quaternions</a> if the theory was purely local, and vector analysis became commonplace. </blockquote> Maxwell was proved correct, and his quantitative connection between light and electromagnetism is considered one of the great accomplishments of 19th-century <a href="/wiki/Mathematical_physics" title="Mathematical physics">mathematical physics</a>.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a> Maxwell also introduced the concept of the electromagnetic field in comparison to force lines that Faraday described.<a href="#cite_note-tef-123">[123]</a> By understanding the propagation of electromagnetism as a field emitted by active particles, Maxwell could advance his work on light. At that time, Maxwell believed that the propagation of light required a medium for the waves, dubbed the <a href="/wiki/Luminiferous_aether" title="Luminiferous aether">luminiferous aether</a>.<a href="#cite_note-tef-123">[123]</a> Over time, the existence of such a medium, permeating all space and yet apparently undetectable by mechanical means, proved impossible to reconcile with experiments such as the <a href="/wiki/Michelson%E2%80%93Morley_experiment" title="Michelson–Morley experiment">Michelson–Morley experiment</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> Moreover, it seemed to require an absolute <a href="/wiki/Frame_of_reference" title="Frame of reference">frame of reference</a> in which the equations were valid, with the distasteful result that the equations changed form for a moving observer. These difficulties inspired <a href="/wiki/Albert_Einstein" title="Albert Einstein">Albert Einstein</a> to formulate the theory of <a href="/wiki/Special_relativity" title="Special relativity">special relativity</a>; in the process, Einstein dispensed with the requirement of a stationary luminiferous aether.<a href="#cite_note-125">[125]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Colour_vision">Colour vision</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Tartan_Ribbon.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg/220px-Tartan_Ribbon.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="180" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg/330px-Tartan_Ribbon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7f/Tartan_Ribbon.jpg/440px-Tartan_Ribbon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1100" data-file-height="900" /></a><figcaption>First durable colour photographic image, demonstrated by Maxwell in an 1861 lecture</figcaption></figure> Along with most physicists of the time, Maxwell had a strong interest in psychology. Following in the steps of <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a>, he was particularly interested in the study of <a href="/wiki/Colour_vision" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour vision">colour vision</a>. From 1855 to 1872, Maxwell published at intervals a series of investigations concerning the perception of colour, <a href="/wiki/Colour-blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour-blindness">colour-blindness</a>, and colour theory, and was awarded the <a href="/wiki/Rumford_Medal" title="Rumford Medal">Rumford Medal</a> for "On the Theory of Colour Vision".<a href="#cite_note-126">[126]</a> <a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> had demonstrated, using prisms, that white light, such as <a href="/wiki/Sunlight" title="Sunlight">sunlight</a>, is composed of a number of <a href="/wiki/Spectral_color" title="Spectral color">monochromatic components</a> which could then be recombined into white light.<a href="#cite_note-127">[127]</a> Newton also showed that an orange paint made of yellow and red could look exactly like a monochromatic orange light, although being composed of two monochromatic yellow and red lights. Hence the paradox that puzzled physicists of the time: two complex lights (composed of more than one monochromatic light) could look alike but be physically different, called <a href="/wiki/Metamerism_(color)" title="Metamerism (color)">metameres</a>. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Young_(scientist)" title="Thomas Young (scientist)">Thomas Young</a> later proposed that this paradox could be explained by colours being perceived through a limited number of channels in the eyes, which he proposed to be threefold,<a href="#cite_note-128">[128]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Young%E2%80%93Helmholtz_theory" title="Young–Helmholtz theory">trichromatic colour theory</a>. Maxwell used the recently developed <a href="/wiki/Linear_algebra" title="Linear algebra">linear algebra</a> to prove Young's theory. Any monochromatic light stimulating three receptors should be able to be equally stimulated by a set of three different monochromatic lights (in fact, by any set of three different lights). He demonstrated that to be the case,<a href="#cite_note-129">[129]</a> inventing colour matching experiments and <a href="/wiki/Colourimetry" class="mw-redirect" title="Colourimetry">Colourimetry</a>. Maxwell was also interested in applying his theory of colour perception, namely in <a href="/wiki/Colour_photography" class="mw-redirect" title="Colour photography">colour photography</a>. Stemming directly from his psychological work on colour perception: if a sum of any three lights could reproduce any perceivable colour, then colour photographs could be produced with a set of three coloured filters. In the course of his 1855 paper, Maxwell proposed that, if three black-and-white photographs of a scene were taken through <a href="/wiki/RGB_color_model" title="RGB color model">red, green, and blue</a> <a href="/wiki/Filter_(optics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Filter (optics)">filters</a>, and transparent prints of the images were projected onto a screen using three projectors equipped with similar filters, when superimposed on the screen the result would be perceived by the human eye as a complete reproduction of all the colours in the scene.<a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> During an 1861 Royal Institution lecture on colour theory, Maxwell presented the world's first demonstration of colour photography by this principle of three-colour analysis and synthesis. <a href="/wiki/Thomas_Sutton_(photographer)" title="Thomas Sutton (photographer)">Thomas Sutton</a>, inventor of the <a href="/wiki/Single-lens_reflex_camera" title="Single-lens reflex camera">single-lens reflex camera</a>, took the picture. He photographed a <a href="/wiki/Tartan" title="Tartan">tartan</a> ribbon three times, through red, green, and blue filters, also making a fourth photograph through a yellow filter, which, according to Maxwell's account, was not used in the demonstration. Because Sutton's <a href="/wiki/Photographic_plate" title="Photographic plate">photographic plates</a> were insensitive to red and barely sensitive to green, the results of this pioneering experiment were far from perfect. It was remarked in the published account of the lecture that "if the red and green images had been as fully photographed as the blue", it "would have been a truly-coloured image of the riband. By finding photographic materials more sensitive to the less refrangible rays, the representation of the colours of objects might be greatly improved."<a href="#cite_note-Tolstoy_p_103-104-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a><a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> Researchers in 1961 concluded that the seemingly impossible partial success of the red-filtered exposure was due to <a href="/wiki/Ultraviolet" title="Ultraviolet">ultraviolet</a> light, which is strongly reflected by some red dyes, not entirely blocked by the red filter used, and within the range of sensitivity of the <a href="/wiki/Collodion_process" title="Collodion process">wet collodion process</a> Sutton employed.<a href="#cite_note-133">[133]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Kinetic_theory_and_thermodynamics">Kinetic theory and thermodynamics</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maxwell%27s_demon.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Maxwell%27s_demon.svg/220px-Maxwell%27s_demon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="81" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Maxwell%27s_demon.svg/330px-Maxwell%27s_demon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Maxwell%27s_demon.svg/440px-Maxwell%27s_demon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="608" data-file-height="224" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon" title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a>, a thought experiment where entropy decreases</figcaption></figure> Maxwell also investigated the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory</a> of gases. Originating with <a href="/wiki/Daniel_Bernoulli" title="Daniel Bernoulli">Daniel Bernoulli</a>, this theory was advanced by the successive labours of <a href="/wiki/John_Herapath" title="John Herapath">John Herapath</a>, <a href="/wiki/John_James_Waterston" title="John James Waterston">John James Waterston</a>, <a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Joule</a>, and particularly <a href="/wiki/Rudolf_Clausius" title="Rudolf Clausius">Rudolf Clausius</a>, to such an extent as to put its general accuracy beyond a doubt; but it received enormous development from Maxwell, who in this field appeared as an experimenter (on the laws of gaseous friction) as well as a mathematician.<a href="#cite_note-134">[134]</a> Between 1859 and 1866, he developed the theory of the distributions of velocities in particles of a gas, work later generalised by <a href="/wiki/Ludwig_Boltzmann" title="Ludwig Boltzmann">Ludwig Boltzmann</a>.<a href="#cite_note-135">[135]</a><a href="#cite_note-136">[136]</a> The formula, called the <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann_distribution" title="Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution">Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution</a>, gives the fraction of gas molecules moving at a specified velocity at any given temperature. In the <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">kinetic theory</a>, temperatures and heat involve only molecular movement. This approach generalised the previously established laws of thermodynamics and explained existing observations and experiments in a better way than had been achieved previously. His work on <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> led him to devise the <a href="/wiki/Thought_experiment" title="Thought experiment">thought experiment</a> that came to be known as <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_demon" title="Maxwell's demon">Maxwell's demon</a>, where the <a href="/wiki/Second_law_of_thermodynamics" title="Second law of thermodynamics">second law of thermodynamics</a> is violated by an imaginary being capable of sorting particles by energy.<a href="#cite_note-137">[137]</a> In 1871, he established <a href="/wiki/Maxwell_relations" title="Maxwell relations">Maxwell's thermodynamic relations</a>, which are statements of equality among the second derivatives of the <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_potentials" class="mw-redirect" title="Thermodynamic potentials">thermodynamic potentials</a> with respect to different thermodynamic variables. In 1874, he constructed a <a href="/wiki/Maxwell%27s_thermodynamic_surface" title="Maxwell's thermodynamic surface">plaster thermodynamic visualisation</a> as a way of exploring phase transitions, based on the American scientist <a href="/wiki/Josiah_Willard_Gibbs" title="Josiah Willard Gibbs">Josiah Willard Gibbs</a>'s graphical <a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">thermodynamics</a> papers.<a href="#cite_note-138">[138]</a><a href="#cite_note-139">[139]</a> <a href="/wiki/Peter_Guthrie_Tait" title="Peter Guthrie Tait">Peter Guthrie Tait</a> called Maxwell the "leading molecular scientist" of his time.<a href="#cite_note-:1-7">[7]</a> Another person added after Maxwell's death that "only one man lived who could understand Gibbs's papers. That was Maxwell, and now he is dead."<a href="#cite_note-140">[140]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Control_theory">Control theory</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">Control theory</a></div> Maxwell published the paper "On governors" in the Proceedings of the Royal Society, vol. 16 (1867–1868).<a href="#cite_note-Maxwell1867-141">[141]</a> This paper is considered a central paper of the early days of <a href="/wiki/Control_theory" title="Control theory">control theory</a>.<a href="#cite_note-142">[142]</a> Here "governors" refers to the <a href="/wiki/Governor_(device)" title="Governor (device)">governor</a> or the <a href="/wiki/Centrifugal_governor" title="Centrifugal governor">centrifugal governor</a> used to regulate <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engines</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:James_Clerk_Maxwell_statue_in_George_Street,_Edinburgh.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/James_Clerk_Maxwell_statue_in_George_Street%2C_Edinburgh.jpg/170px-James_Clerk_Maxwell_statue_in_George_Street%2C_Edinburgh.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="227" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/James_Clerk_Maxwell_statue_in_George_Street%2C_Edinburgh.jpg/255px-James_Clerk_Maxwell_statue_in_George_Street%2C_Edinburgh.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/James_Clerk_Maxwell_statue_in_George_Street%2C_Edinburgh.jpg/340px-James_Clerk_Maxwell_statue_in_George_Street%2C_Edinburgh.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1920" data-file-height="2560" /></a><figcaption>The James Clerk Maxwell Monument in Edinburgh, by <a href="/wiki/Alexander_Stoddart" title="Alexander Stoddart">Alexander Stoddart</a>. Commissioned by The Royal Society of Edinburgh; unveiled in 2008.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Honours">Honours</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/List_of_things_named_after_James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="List of things named after James Clerk Maxwell">List of things named after James Clerk Maxwell</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Publications">Publications</h2></div> <ul><li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1873" class="citation cs2">Maxwell, James Clerk (1873), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricandmagne01maxwrich">A treatise on electricity and magnetism Vol I</a>, Oxford : Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+treatise+on+electricity+and+magnetism+Vol+I&rft.pub=Oxford+%3A+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1873&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectricandmagne01maxwrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1873" class="citation cs2">Maxwell, James Clerk (1873), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/electricandmag02maxwrich">A treatise on electricity and magnetism Vol II</a>, Oxford : Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+treatise+on+electricity+and+magnetism+Vol+II&rft.pub=Oxford+%3A+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1873&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felectricandmag02maxwrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1876" class="citation cs2">Maxwell, James Clerk (1876), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=3jMKAAAAIAAJ&pg=PR1">Matter and Motion</a>, London and New York: Society for Promoting Christian Knowledge and Pott, Young & Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Matter+and+Motion&rft.place=London+and+New+York&rft.pub=Society+for+Promoting+Christian+Knowledge+and+Pott%2C+Young+%26+Co.&rft.date=1876&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D3jMKAAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPR1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1881" class="citation cs2">Maxwell, James Clerk (1881), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/elementarytreati00maxwrich">An Elementary treatise on electricity</a>, Oxford : Clarendon Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=An+Elementary+treatise+on+electricity&rft.pub=Oxford+%3A+Clarendon+Press&rft.date=1881&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Felementarytreati00maxwrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1890" class="citation cs2">Maxwell, James Clerk (1890), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificpapers01maxw">The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell Vol I</a>, Dover Publication</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+scientific+papers+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell+Vol+I&rft.pub=Dover+Publication&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificpapers01maxw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1890" class="citation cs2">Maxwell, James Clerk (1890), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/scientificpapers02maxwuoft">The scientific papers of James Clerk Maxwell Vol II</a>, Cambridge, University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+scientific+papers+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell+Vol+II&rft.pub=Cambridge%2C+University+Press&rft.date=1890&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fscientificpapers02maxwuoft&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1908" class="citation cs2">Maxwell, James Clerk (1908), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/theoryofheat00maxwrich">Theory of heat</a>, Longmans Green Co.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+heat&rft.pub=Longmans+Green+Co.&rft.date=1908&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Ftheoryofheat00maxwrich&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"><a href="#cite_note-143">[143]</a></li> <li>Three of Maxwell's contributions to Encyclopædia Britannica appeared in the Ninth Edition (1878): Atom,<a href="#cite_note-144">[144]</a> Attraction,<a href="#cite_note-145">[145]</a> and Ether;<a href="#cite_note-146">[146]</a> and three in the Eleventh Edition (1911): Capillary Action,<a href="#cite_note-147">[147]</a> Diagram,<a href="#cite_note-148">[148]</a> and Faraday, Michael<a href="#cite_note-149">[149]</a></li></ul> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Knots_and_physics.html">"Topology and Scottish mathematical physics"</a>. University of St Andrews. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130912050227/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/HistTopics/Knots_and_physics.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 September 2013. Retrieved 9 September 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Topology+and+Scottish+mathematical+physics&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk%2FHistTopics%2FKnots_and_physics.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNahin,_P.J.1992" class="citation journal cs1">Nahin, P.J. (1992). "Maxwell's grand unification". IEEE Spectrum. 29 (3): 45. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2F6.123329">10.1109/6.123329</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:28991366">28991366</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=IEEE+Spectrum&rft.atitle=Maxwell%27s+grand+unification&rft.volume=29&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=45&rft.date=1992&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2F6.123329&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A28991366%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=Nahin%2C+P.J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><a href="#cite_ref-3">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKeithley1999" class="citation book cs1">Keithley, Joseph F. (1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=uwgNAtqSHuQC&pg=PA180">The Story of Electrical and Magnetic Measurements: From 500 BC to the 1940s</a>. New York: IEEE Press. p. 180. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7803-1193-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7803-1193-0"><bdi>978-0-7803-1193-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Story+of+Electrical+and+Magnetic+Measurements%3A+From+500+BC+to+the+1940s&rft.place=New+York&rft.pages=180&rft.pub=IEEE+Press&rft.date=1999&rft.isbn=978-0-7803-1193-0&rft.aulast=Keithley&rft.aufirst=Joseph+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DuwgNAtqSHuQC%26pg%3DPA180&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon200382–83,_164-4"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon200382–83,_164_4-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, pp. 82–83, 164. </li> <li id="cite_note-ADTEF-5">^ <a href="#cite_ref-ADTEF_5-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-ADTEF_5-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1865" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (1865). <a class="external text" href="https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_Field.pdf">"A dynamical theory of the electromagnetic field"</a> (PDF). Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society of London. 155: 459–512. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1865RSPT..155..459M">1865RSPT..155..459M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1865.0008">10.1098/rstl.1865.0008</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:186207827">186207827</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110728140123/http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/19/A_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_Field.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 28 July 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=A+dynamical+theory+of+the+electromagnetic+field&rft.volume=155&rft.pages=459-512&rft.date=1865&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A186207827%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1865.0008&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1865RSPT..155..459M&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fupload.wikimedia.org%2Fwikipedia%2Fcommons%2F1%2F19%2FA_Dynamical_Theory_of_the_Electromagnetic_Field.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> (This article accompanied an 8 December 1864 presentation by Maxwell to the Royal Society. His statement that "light and magnetism are affections of the same substance" is at page 499.) </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSarkarSalazar-PalmaSengupta2010" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Tapan_Sarkar" title="Tapan Sarkar">Sarkar, Tapan K.</a>; Salazar-Palma, Magdalena; Sengupta, Dipak L. (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ieeexplore.ieee.org/document/5735323">"James Clerk Maxwell: The Founder of Electrical Engineering"</a>. 2010 Second Region 8 IEEE Conference on the History of Communications. pp. 1–7. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1109%2FHISTELCON.2010.5735323">10.1109/HISTELCON.2010.5735323</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-7450-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4244-7450-9"><bdi>978-1-4244-7450-9</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:42295662">42295662</a> – via IEEE.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+The+Founder+of+Electrical+Engineering&rft.btitle=2010+Second+Region+8+IEEE+Conference+on+the+History+of+Communications&rft.pages=1-7&rft.date=2010&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A42295662%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1109%2FHISTELCON.2010.5735323&rft.isbn=978-1-4244-7450-9&rft.aulast=Sarkar&rft.aufirst=Tapan+K.&rft.au=Salazar-Palma%2C+Magdalena&rft.au=Sengupta%2C+Dipak+L.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fieeexplore.ieee.org%2Fdocument%2F5735323&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:1-7">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:1_7-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Kevin. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Projects/Johnson/chapter-6/">"Kinetic Theory of Gases"</a>. Maths History. Retrieved 7 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Maths+History&rft.atitle=Kinetic+Theory+of+Gases&rft.aulast=Johnson&rft.aufirst=Kevin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FProjects%2FJohnson%2Fchapter-6%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTaylor2001" class="citation book cs1">Taylor, Barry N., ed. (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physics.nist.gov/cuu/pdf/sp330.pdf">The International System of Units (SI)</a> (PDF) (7th ed.). <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_of_Standards_and_Technology" title="National Institute of Standards and Technology">National Institute of Standards and Technology</a>. p. 2.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+International+System+of+Units+%28SI%29&rft.pages=2&rft.edition=7th&rft.pub=National+Institute+of+Standards+and+Technology&rft.date=2001&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysics.nist.gov%2Fcuu%2Fpdf%2Fsp330.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-:2-9">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:2_9-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEverett2006" class="citation web cs1">Everett, Francis (1 December 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/james-clerk-maxwell-a-force-for-physics/">"James Clerk Maxwell: a force for physics"</a>. Physics World. Retrieved 7 November 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physics+World&rft.atitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+a+force+for+physics&rft.date=2006-12-01&rft.aulast=Everett&rft.aufirst=Francis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fjames-clerk-maxwell-a-force-for-physics%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><a href="#cite_ref-10">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBramwell2017" class="citation journal cs1">Bramwell, Steven T. (2 August 2017). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nature.com/articles/nphys4229">"The invention of dimension"</a>. Nature Physics. 13 (8): 820. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2017NatPh..13..820B">2017NatPh..13..820B</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnphys4229">10.1038/nphys4229</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1745-2481">1745-2481</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:125401842">125401842</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+Physics&rft.atitle=The+invention+of+dimension&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=820&rft.date=2017-08-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnphys4229&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A125401842%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=1745-2481&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2017NatPh..13..820B&rft.aulast=Bramwell&rft.aufirst=Steven+T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Farticles%2Fnphys4229&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><a href="#cite_ref-11">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHuntYorke1993" class="citation journal cs1">Hunt, Brian R.; Yorke, James A. (1993). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://yorke.umd.edu/Yorke_papers_most_cited_and_post2000/1993_04_Hunt_%20Nonlin-Science-Today%20_Maxwell%20on%20Chaos.PDF">"Maxwell on Chaos"</a> (PDF). Nonlinear Science Today. 3 (1).</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nonlinear+Science+Today&rft.atitle=Maxwell+on+Chaos&rft.volume=3&rft.issue=1&rft.date=1993&rft.aulast=Hunt&rft.aufirst=Brian+R.&rft.au=Yorke%2C+James+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fyorke.umd.edu%2FYorke_papers_most_cited_and_post2000%2F1993_04_Hunt_%2520Nonlin-Science-Today%2520_Maxwell%2520on%2520Chaos.PDF&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-12"><a href="#cite_ref-12">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardiniGrebogiLenci2020" class="citation journal cs1">Gardini, Laura; Grebogi, Celso; Lenci, Stefano (1 October 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11071-020-05903-0">"Chaos theory and applications: a retrospective on lessons learned and missed or new opportunities"</a>. Nonlinear Dynamics. 102 (2): 643–644. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2020NonDy.102..643G">2020NonDy.102..643G</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2Fs11071-020-05903-0">10.1007/s11071-020-05903-0</a>. <a href="/wiki/Hdl_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Hdl (identifier)">hdl</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://hdl.handle.net/2164%2F17003">2164/17003</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1573-269X">1573-269X</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nonlinear+Dynamics&rft.atitle=Chaos+theory+and+applications%3A+a+retrospective+on+lessons+learned+and+missed+or+new+opportunities&rft.volume=102&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=643-644&rft.date=2020-10-01&rft_id=info%3Ahdl%2F2164%2F17003&rft.issn=1573-269X&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2Fs11071-020-05903-0&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2020NonDy.102..643G&rft.aulast=Gardini&rft.aufirst=Laura&rft.au=Grebogi%2C+Celso&rft.au=Lenci%2C+Stefano&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1007%252Fs11071-020-05903-0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-13"><a href="#cite_ref-13">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBittanti2015" class="citation journal cs1">Bittanti, Sergio (2 December 2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tandfonline.com/doi/full/10.1080/00207179.2015.1098783">"James Clerk Maxwell, a precursor of system identification and control science"</a>. International Journal of Control. 88 (12): 2427–2432. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F00207179.2015.1098783">10.1080/00207179.2015.1098783</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0020-7179">0020-7179</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=International+Journal+of+Control&rft.atitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell%2C+a+precursor+of+system+identification+and+control+science&rft.volume=88&rft.issue=12&rft.pages=2427-2432&rft.date=2015-12-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F00207179.2015.1098783&rft.issn=0020-7179&rft.aulast=Bittanti&rft.aufirst=Sergio&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.tandfonline.com%2Fdoi%2Ffull%2F10.1080%2F00207179.2015.1098783&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><a href="#cite_ref-14">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1971" class="citation journal cs1">Mayr, Otto (1971). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/229816">"Maxwell and the Origins of Cybernetics"</a>. Isis. 62 (4): 425–444. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0021-1753">0021-1753</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Maxwell+and+the+Origins+of+Cybernetics&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=425-444&rft.date=1971&rft.issn=0021-1753&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Otto&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F229816&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon20032–3,_140-15"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon20032–3,_140_15-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, pp. 2–3, 140. </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMahon20032-16"><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMahon20032_16-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 2. </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolstoy1981" class="citation book cs1">Tolstoy, Ivan (1981). James Clerk Maxwell : a biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 2. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1"><bdi>0-226-80785-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8688302">8688302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+%3A+a+biography&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=2&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8688302&rft.isbn=0-226-80785-1&rft.aulast=Tolstoy&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><a href="#cite_ref-18">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation news cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/541840.stm">"Einstein the greatest"</a>. BBC News. BBC. 29 November 1999. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090111155707/http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/sci/tech/541840.stm">Archived</a> from the original on 11 January 2009. Retrieved 2 April 2010.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=BBC+News&rft.atitle=Einstein+the+greatest&rft.date=1999-11-29&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnews.bbc.co.uk%2F1%2Fhi%2Fsci%2Ftech%2F541840.stm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://physicsworld.com/a/newton-tops-physicsweb-poll/">"Newton tops PhysicsWeb poll"</a>. Physics World. 29 November 1999. Retrieved 23 November 2024.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Physics+World&rft.atitle=Newton+tops+PhysicsWeb+poll&rft.date=1999-11-29&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fphysicsworld.com%2Fa%2Fnewton-tops-physicsweb-poll%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><a href="#cite_ref-20">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcFall2006" class="citation web cs1">McFall, Patrick (23 April 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.maxwellyear2006.org/html/press_coverage.html#Press5">"Brainy young James wasn't so daft after all"</a>. The Sunday Post. maxwellyear2006.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130620031659/http://www.maxwellyear2006.org/html/press_coverage.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 June 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Sunday+Post&rft.atitle=Brainy+young+James+wasn%27t+so+daft+after+all&rft.date=2006-04-23&rft.aulast=McFall&rft.aufirst=Patrick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.maxwellyear2006.org%2Fhtml%2Fpress_coverage.html%23Press5&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><a href="#cite_ref-21">^</a> Mary Shine Thompson, 2009, The Fire l' the Flint, p. 103; Four Courts </li> <li id="cite_note-22"><a href="#cite_ref-22">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSiegfried2006" class="citation book cs1">Siegfried, Tom (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/beautifulmathjoh0000sieg/page/134/mode/2up">A Beautiful Math: John Nash, Game Theory, and the Modern Quest for a Code of Nature</a>. Joseph Henry Press. p. 135. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0309101929" title="Special:BookSources/978-0309101929"><bdi>978-0309101929</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Beautiful+Math%3A+John+Nash%2C+Game+Theory%2C+and+the+Modern+Quest+for+a+Code+of+Nature&rft.pages=135&rft.pub=Joseph+Henry+Press&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=978-0309101929&rft.aulast=Siegfried&rft.aufirst=Tom&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fbeautifulmathjoh0000sieg%2Fpage%2F134%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><a href="#cite_ref-23">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.parliament.uk/edm/2005-06/2048">"Early day motion 2048"</a>. UK Parliament. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130530165850/http://www.parliament.uk/edm/2005-06/2048">Archived</a> from the original on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Early+day+motion+2048&rft.pub=UK+Parliament&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.parliament.uk%2Fedm%2F2005-06%2F2048&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford_506-24">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_506_24-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_506_24-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_506_24-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_506_24-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_506_24-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_506_24-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarman2004">Harman 2004</a>, p. 506 </li> <li id="cite_note-Waterston-25"><a href="#cite_ref-Waterston_25-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWaterstonMacmillan_Shearer2006">Waterston & Macmillan Shearer 2006</a>, p. 633 </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><a href="#cite_ref-26">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLaidler2002" class="citation book cs1">Laidler, Keith James (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=MwTNCEoGsfYC&pg=PA49">Energy and the Unexpected</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 49. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852516-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-852516-5"><bdi>978-0-19-852516-5</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160424071517/https://books.google.com/books?id=MwTNCEoGsfYC&pg=PA49">Archived</a> from the original on 24 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Energy+and+the+Unexpected&rft.pages=49&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-19-852516-5&rft.aulast=Laidler&rft.aufirst=Keith+James&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DMwTNCEoGsfYC%26pg%3DPA49&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-preface-27">^ <a href="#cite_ref-preface_27-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-preface_27-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell2011" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jrzq_7NhGRkC&pg=PR90BARONET">"Preface"</a>. The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01225-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01225-6"><bdi>978-1-108-01225-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20201216132606/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jrzq_7NhGRkC&pg=PR90baronet">Archived</a> from the original on 16 December 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Preface&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Papers+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-108-01225-6&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJrzq_7NhGRkC%26pg%3DPR90BARONET&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scottish-places.info/scotgaz/people/famousfirst2374.html">"Jemima Blackburn"</a>. Gazetteer for Scotland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131112214008/http://www.scottish-places.info/scotgaz/people/famousfirst2374.html">Archived</a> from the original on 12 November 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Jemima+Blackburn&rft.pub=Gazetteer+for+Scotland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scottish-places.info%2Fscotgaz%2Fpeople%2Ffamousfirst2374.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full.php?id=404238">"William Dyce Cay"</a>. scottisharchitects.org.uk. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150925234918/http://www.scottisharchitects.org.uk/architect_full.php?id=404238">Archived</a> from the original on 25 September 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=scottisharchitects.org.uk&rft.atitle=William+Dyce+Cay&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scottisharchitects.org.uk%2Farchitect_full.php%3Fid%3D404238&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><a href="#cite_ref-30">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolstoy1981" class="citation book cs1">Tolstoy, Ivan (1981). James Clerk Maxwell: a biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 11. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1"><bdi>0-226-80785-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8688302">8688302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+a+biography&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=11&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8688302&rft.isbn=0-226-80785-1&rft.aulast=Tolstoy&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, p. 1 </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, pp. 186–187 </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><a href="#cite_ref-33">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolstoy1981" class="citation book cs1">Tolstoy, Ivan (1981). James Clerk Maxwell: a biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. p. 13. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1"><bdi>0-226-80785-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8688302">8688302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+a+biography&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8688302&rft.isbn=0-226-80785-1&rft.aulast=Tolstoy&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><a href="#cite_ref-34">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell_p_27-35"><a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_p_27_35-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, p. 27 </li> <li id="cite_note-:0-36">^ <a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-:0_36-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolstoy1981" class="citation book cs1">Tolstoy, Ivan (1981). James Clerk Maxwell : a biography. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. pp. 15–16. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-80785-1"><bdi>0-226-80785-1</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8688302">8688302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+%3A+a+biography&rft.place=Chicago&rft.pages=15-16&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1981&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8688302&rft.isbn=0-226-80785-1&rft.aulast=Tolstoy&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><a href="#cite_ref-37">^</a> Anthony F. Anderson (11 June 1981) <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=ONm4--sv5mcC&pg=PA712">Forces of Inspiration</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211202072916/https://books.google.ca/books?lr=&id=ONm4--sv5mcC&pg=PA712">Archived</a> 2 December 2021 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a>, <a href="/wiki/The_New_Scientist" class="mw-redirect" title="The New Scientist">The New Scientist</a>, pages 712,3 via <a href="/wiki/Google_Books" title="Google Books">Google Books</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><a href="#cite_ref-38">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, pp. 19–21 </li> <li id="cite_note-mahon_p_12-14-39">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mahon_p_12-14_39-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mahon_p_12-14_39-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mahon_p_12-14_39-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, pp. 12–14 </li> <li id="cite_note-mahon_p_10-40">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mahon_p_10_40-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mahon_p_10_40-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 10 </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><a href="#cite_ref-41">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 4 </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><a href="#cite_ref-42">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, pp. 23–24 </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell,_p_43-43">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell,_p_43_43-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell,_p_43_43-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, p. 43 </li> <li id="cite_note-gardner-44">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gardner_44-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-gardner_44-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGardner2007">Gardner 2007</a>, pp. 46–49 </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><a href="#cite_ref-45">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/key_facts_about_maxwell.html">"Key dates in the life of James Clerk Maxwell"</a>. <a href="/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell_Foundation" title="James Clerk Maxwell Foundation">James Clerk Maxwell Foundation</a>. www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200305045153/http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/key_facts_about_maxwell.html">Archived</a> from the original on 5 March 2020. Retrieved 8 December 2023.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft.atitle=Key+dates+in+the+life+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org%2Fhtml%2Fkey_facts_about_maxwell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahon_2003_p_16-46">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_2003_p_16_46-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_2003_p_16_46-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 16 </li> <li id="cite_note-Harman_p_662-47">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Harman_p_662_47-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Harman_p_662_47-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarman2004">Harman 2004</a>, p. 662 </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><a href="#cite_ref-48">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, p. 46 </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><a href="#cite_ref-49">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, p. 64 </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><a href="#cite_ref-50">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, pp. 30–31 </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><a href="#cite_ref-51">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimoshenko1983">Timoshenko 1983</a>, p. 58 </li> <li id="cite_note-52"><a href="#cite_ref-52">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFRusso1996">Russo 1996</a>, p. 73 </li> <li id="cite_note-53"><a href="#cite_ref-53">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTimoshenko1983">Timoshenko 1983</a>, pp. 268–278 </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><a href="#cite_ref-54">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlazebrook1896">Glazebrook 1896</a>, p. 23 </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><a href="#cite_ref-55">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlazebrook1896">Glazebrook 1896</a>, p. 28 </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><a href="#cite_ref-56">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlazebrook1896">Glazebrook 1896</a>, p. 30 </li> <li id="cite_note-MIT_IAP_Seminar-57">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MIT_IAP_Seminar_57-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MIT_IAP_Seminar_57-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MIT_IAP_Seminar_57-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://silas.psfc.mit.edu/maxwell">"James Clerk Maxwell and the Christian Proposition"</a>. MIT IAP Seminar. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141025173206/http://silas.psfc.mit.edu/maxwell/">Archived</a> from the original on 25 October 2014. Retrieved 13 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+and+the+Christian+Proposition&rft.pub=MIT+IAP+Seminar&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsilas.psfc.mit.edu%2Fmaxwell&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><a href="#cite_ref-58">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8_iS-4ec9wwC&pg=PA170">169–170</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><a href="#cite_ref-59">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFWarwick2003">Warwick 2003</a>, pp. 84–85 </li> <li id="cite_note-Tolstoy_p_62-60"><a href="#cite_ref-Tolstoy_p_62_60-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, p. 62 </li> <li id="cite_note-61"><a href="#cite_ref-61">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarman1998">Harman 1998</a>, p. 3 </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><a href="#cite_ref-62">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, p. 61 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahon_p_47-48-63">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_p_47-48_63-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_p_47-48_63-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, pp. 47–48 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahon_p_51-64">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_p_51_64-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_p_51_64-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 51 </li> <li id="cite_note-Tolstoy_p_64-65-65">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tolstoy_p_64-65_65-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tolstoy_p_64-65_65-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tolstoy_p_64-65_65-2">c</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, pp. 64–65. The full title of Maxwell's paper was "Experiments on colour, as perceived by the eye, with remarks on colour-blindness". </li> <li id="cite_note-Glazebrook_p_43-46-66">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Glazebrook_p_43-46_66-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Glazebrook_p_43-46_66-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlazebrook1896">Glazebrook 1896</a>, pp. 43–46 </li> <li id="cite_note-67"><a href="#cite_ref-67">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130531131420/http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/People/James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%20183179.aspx">"James Clerk Maxwell"</a>. The Science Museum, London. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/onlinestuff/People/James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%20183179.aspx">the original</a> on 31 May 2013. Retrieved 22 April 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=The+Science+Museum%2C+London&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sciencemuseum.org.uk%2Fonlinestuff%2FPeople%2FJames%2520Clerk%2520Maxwell%2520183179.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Campbell_p_126-68">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_p_126_68-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Campbell_p_126_68-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFCampbell1882">Campbell 1882</a>, p. 126 </li> <li id="cite_note-Mahon_p_69-71-69">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_p_69-71_69-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Mahon_p_69-71_69-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, pp. 69–71 </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><a href="#cite_ref-70">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReid" class="citation web cs1">Reid, John S. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://studylib.net/doc/18046724/james-clerk-maxwell-plaque-%E2%80%93-129-union-street">"James Clerk Maxwell plaque – 129 Union Street"</a>. The Scientific Tourist: Aberdeen.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+plaque+%E2%80%93+129+Union+Street&rft.pub=The+Scientific+Tourist%3A+Aberdeen&rft.aulast=Reid&rft.aufirst=John+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fstudylib.net%2Fdoc%2F18046724%2Fjames-clerk-maxwell-plaque-%25E2%2580%2593-129-union-street&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><a href="#cite_ref-71">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarman1998">Harman 1998</a>, pp. 48–53 </li> <li id="cite_note-oxford_508-72">^ <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_508_72-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-oxford_508_72-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFHarman2004">Harman 2004</a>, p. 508 </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><a href="#cite_ref-73">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/onstabilityofmot00maxw">"On the stability of the motion of Saturn's rings"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150616221114/https://archive.org/details/onstabilityofmot00maxw">Archived</a> from the original on 16 June 2015. Retrieved 24 March 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=On+the+stability+of+the+motion+of+Saturn%27s+rings&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fonstabilityofmot00maxw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><a href="#cite_ref-74">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 75 </li> <li id="cite_note-mactutor-75">^ <a href="#cite_ref-mactutor_75-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mactutor_75-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-mactutor_75-2">c</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson1997" class="citation web cs1">O'Connor, J.J.; Robertson, E.F. (November 1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Maxwell/">"James Clerk Maxwell"</a>. School of Mathematical and Computational Sciences University of St Andrews. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20211105081645/https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Maxwell/">Archived</a> from the original on 5 November 2021. Retrieved 19 June 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=School+of+Mathematical+and+Computational+Sciences+University+of+St+Andrews&rft.date=1997-11&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=J.J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+E.F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FMaxwell%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><a href="#cite_ref-76">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.nls.uk/scientists/biographies/james-clerk-maxwell/index.html">"James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)"</a>. National Library of Scotland. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131006063943/http://digital.nls.uk/scientists/biographies/james-clerk-maxwell/index.html">Archived</a> from the original on 6 October 2013. Retrieved 27 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+%281831%E2%80%931879%29&rft.pub=National+Library+of+Scotland&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.nls.uk%2Fscientists%2Fbiographies%2Fjames-clerk-maxwell%2Findex.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><a href="#cite_ref-77">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://earthsky.org/space/saturns-rings-disappearing-ring-rain-video">"Goodbye to Saturn's Rings"</a>. EarthSky. 19 December 2018. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190221113238/https://earthsky.org/space/saturns-rings-disappearing-ring-rain-video">Archived</a> from the original on 21 February 2019. Retrieved 20 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Goodbye+to+Saturn%27s+Rings&rft.pub=EarthSky&rft.date=2018-12-19&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fearthsky.org%2Fspace%2Fsaturns-rings-disappearing-ring-rain-video&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><a href="#cite_ref-78">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.stanford.edu/group/auden/cgi-bin/auden/individual.php?pid=I20494&ged=auden-bicknell.ged">"Very Rev. Daniel Dewar DD (I20494)"</a>. Stanford University. Retrieved 27 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Very+Rev.+Daniel+Dewar+DD+%28I20494%29&rft.pub=Stanford+University&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.stanford.edu%2Fgroup%2Fauden%2Fcgi-bin%2Fauden%2Findividual.php%3Fpid%3DI20494%26ged%3Dauden-bicknell.ged&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><a href="#cite_ref-79">^</a> James Clerk Maxwell and Katherine Mary Dewar marriage certificate, Family History Library film #280176, district 168/2 (Old Machar, Aberdeen), page 83, certificate No. 65. </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><a href="#cite_ref-80">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMaxwell2001">Maxwell 2001</a>, p. 351 </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><a href="#cite_ref-81">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, pp. 88–91 </li> <li id="cite_note-Glazebrook_p_54-82"><a href="#cite_ref-Glazebrook_p_54_82-0">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFGlazebrook1896">Glazebrook 1896</a>, p. 54 </li> <li id="cite_note-83"><a href="#cite_ref-83">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, p. 98 </li> <li id="cite_note-84"><a href="#cite_ref-84">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/JCMF_brochure_v2.pdf">"James Clerk Maxwell Foundation"</a> (PDF). James Clerk Maxwell Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20150819023911/http://clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/JCMF_brochure_v2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2015. Retrieved 28 May 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft.pub=James+Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org%2FJCMF_brochure_v2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Tolstoy_p_103-104-85">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Tolstoy_p_103-104_85-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Tolstoy_p_103-104_85-1">b</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, p. 103 </li> <li id="cite_note-86"><a href="#cite_ref-86">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFTolstoy1982">Tolstoy 1982</a>, pp. 100–101 </li> <li id="cite_note-87"><a href="#cite_ref-87">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFMahon2003">Mahon 2003</a>, p. 109 </li> <li id="cite_note-88"><a href="#cite_ref-88">^</a> Maxwell, J.C. (1868), "On governors", from the proceedings of the Royal Society, No. 100 </li> <li id="cite_note-89"><a href="#cite_ref-89">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell2013" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell, J. Clerk (2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://digital.nls.uk/scientists/pageturner.cfm?id=74629052">"I.—On Reciprocal Figures, Frames, and Diagrams of Forces"</a>. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 26: 1–40. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0080456800026351">10.1017/S0080456800026351</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123687168">123687168</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140512223948/http://digital.nls.uk/scientists/pageturner.cfm?id=74629052">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=I.%E2%80%94On+Reciprocal+Figures%2C+Frames%2C+and+Diagrams+of+Forces&rft.volume=26&rft.pages=1-40&rft.date=2013&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0080456800026351&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123687168%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=J.+Clerk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fdigital.nls.uk%2Fscientists%2Fpageturner.cfm%3Fid%3D74629052&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-90"><a href="#cite_ref-90">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCrapo1979" class="citation journal cs1">Crapo, Henry (1979). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iri.upc.edu/people/ros/StructuralTopology/ST1/st1-06-a3-ocr.pdf">"Structural rigidity"</a> (PDF). Structural Topology (1): 26–45. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20141023180547/http://www.iri.upc.edu/people/ros/StructuralTopology/ST1/st1-06-a3-ocr.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 23 October 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Structural+Topology&rft.atitle=Structural+rigidity&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=26-45&rft.date=1979&rft.aulast=Crapo&rft.aufirst=Henry&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iri.upc.edu%2Fpeople%2Fros%2FStructuralTopology%2FST1%2Fst1-06-a3-ocr.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-91"><a href="#cite_ref-91">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLestienne1998" class="citation book cs1">Lestienne, Rémy (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creativepowerofc0000lest">The Creative Power of Chance</a>. University of Illinois Press. pp. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/creativepowerofc0000lest/page/20">20</a>–21. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06686-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-252-06686-3"><bdi>978-0-252-06686-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Creative+Power+of+Chance&rft.pages=20-21&rft.pub=University+of+Illinois+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=978-0-252-06686-3&rft.aulast=Lestienne&rft.aufirst=R%C3%A9my&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fcreativepowerofc0000lest&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-92"><a href="#cite_ref-92">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history/cavprof.php">"The Cavendish Professorship of Physics"</a>. University of Cambridge, Department of Physics. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130703172354/http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history/cavprof.php">Archived</a> from the original on 3 July 2013. Retrieved 27 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Cavendish+Professorship+of+Physics&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge%2C+Department+of+Physics&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phy.cam.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2Fcavprof.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-93"><a href="#cite_ref-93">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMoralee,_Dennis" class="citation web cs1">Moralee, Dennis. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130915013523/http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history/old_maxwell.php">"The Old Cavendish – "The First Ten Years""</a>. University of Cambridge Department of Physics. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phy.cam.ac.uk/history/old_maxwell.php">the original</a> on 15 September 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Old+Cavendish+%E2%80%93+%22The+First+Ten+Years%22&rft.pub=University+of+Cambridge+Department+of+Physics&rft.au=Moralee%2C+Dennis&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phy.cam.ac.uk%2Fhistory%2Fold_maxwell.php&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-94"><a href="#cite_ref-94">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJones2009" class="citation book cs1">Jones, Roger (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=46Rx1U5x70QC&pg=PA40">What's Who?: A Dictionary of Things Named After People and the People They are Named After</a>. Troubador Publishing. p. 40. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-84876-047-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-84876-047-9"><bdi>978-1-84876-047-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160520064247/https://books.google.com/books?id=46Rx1U5x70QC&pg=PA40">Archived</a> from the original on 20 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What%27s+Who%3F%3A+A+Dictionary+of+Things+Named+After+People+and+the+People+They+are+Named+After&rft.pages=40&rft.pub=Troubador+Publishing&rft.date=2009&rft.isbn=978-1-84876-047-9&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=Roger&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D46Rx1U5x70QC%26pg%3DPA40&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-95"><a href="#cite_ref-95">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=1875&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">"APS Member History"</a>. search.amphilsoc.org. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210505132641/https://search.amphilsoc.org/memhist/search?creator=&title=&subject=&subdiv=&mem=&year=1875&year-max=&dead=&keyword=&smode=advanced">Archived</a> from the original on 5 May 2021. Retrieved 5 May 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=search.amphilsoc.org&rft.atitle=APS+Member+History&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fsearch.amphilsoc.org%2Fmemhist%2Fsearch%3Fcreator%3D%26title%3D%26subject%3D%26subdiv%3D%26mem%3D%26year%3D1875%26year-max%3D%26dead%3D%26keyword%3D%26smode%3Dadvanced&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-96"><a href="#cite_ref-96">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell,_Lewis1882" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lewis (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015059009939&view=1up&seq=453">The life of James Clerk Maxwell</a>. London: Macmillan. p. 411. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200321182711/https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=mdp.39015059009939&view=1up&seq=453">Archived</a> from the original on 21 March 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+life+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.place=London&rft.pages=411&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1882&rft.au=Campbell%2C+Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbabel.hathitrust.org%2Fcgi%2Fpt%3Fid%3Dmdp.39015059009939%26view%3D1up%26seq%3D453&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-97"><a href="#cite_ref-97">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/JCMF_brochure_v2.pdf">"James Clerk Maxwell Foundation"</a> (PDF). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130827222612/http://clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/JCMF_brochure_v2.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 27 August 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org%2FJCMF_brochure_v2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-98"><a href="#cite_ref-98">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/parton.html">"Parton & Sam Callander"</a>. James Clerk Maxwell Foundation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130602221421/http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/html/parton.html">Archived</a> from the original on 2 June 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Parton+%26+Sam+Callander&rft.pub=James+Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org%2Fhtml%2Fparton.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-99"><a href="#cite_ref-99">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell2010" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lewis (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=8_iS-4ec9wwC">The Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With a Selection from His Correspondence and Occasional Writings and a Sketch of His Contributions to Science</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01370-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01370-3"><bdi>978-1-108-01370-3</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160529034539/https://books.google.com/books?id=8_iS-4ec9wwC">Archived</a> from the original on 29 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+With+a+Selection+from+His+Correspondence+and+Occasional+Writings+and+a+Sketch+of+His+Contributions+to+Science&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-108-01370-3&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D8_iS-4ec9wwC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-100"><a href="#cite_ref-100">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbell1882" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lewis (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lifejamesclerkm01garngoog">The Life of James Clerk Maxwell: With a Selection from His Correspondence and Occasional Writings and a Sketch of His Contributions to Science</a> (1 ed.). London: Macmillan. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140905095353/https://archive.org/details/lifejamesclerkm01garngoog">Archived</a> from the original on 5 September 2014. Retrieved 16 June 2014.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+With+a+Selection+from+His+Correspondence+and+Occasional+Writings+and+a+Sketch+of+His+Contributions+to+Science&rft.place=London&rft.edition=1&rft.pub=Macmillan&rft.date=1882&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flifejamesclerkm01garngoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-101"><a href="#cite_ref-101">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell2011" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Jrzq_7NhGRkC">The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01225-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-108-01225-6"><bdi>978-1-108-01225-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160502054439/https://books.google.com/books?id=Jrzq_7NhGRkC">Archived</a> from the original on 2 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Papers+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-1-108-01225-6&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DJrzq_7NhGRkC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-102"><a href="#cite_ref-102">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1990" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (1990). Harman, P. M. (ed.). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=zfM8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR18">The Scientific Letters and Papers of James Clerk Maxwell: 1846–1862</a>. CUP Archive. p. xviii. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780521256254" title="Special:BookSources/9780521256254"><bdi>9780521256254</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200312120659/https://books.google.com/books?id=zfM8AAAAIAAJ&pg=PR18">Archived</a> from the original on 12 March 2020. Retrieved 1 February 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Letters+and+Papers+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+1846%E2%80%931862&rft.pages=xviii&rft.pub=CUP+Archive&rft.date=1990&rft.isbn=9780521256254&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DzfM8AAAAIAAJ%26pg%3DPR18&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-103"><a href="#cite_ref-103">^</a> 'The Abbey Scientists' Hall, A.R. p58: London; Roger & Robert Nicholson; 1966 </li> <li id="cite_note-104"><a href="#cite_ref-104">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFSeitz" class="citation web cs1">Seitz, Frederick. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20111018052416/http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/Seitz.pdf">"James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879); Member APS 1875"</a> (PDF). Philadelphia: <a href="/wiki/The_American_Philosophical_Society" class="mw-redirect" title="The American Philosophical Society">The American Philosophical Society</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.amphilsoc.org/sites/default/files/Seitz.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 18 October 2011. Retrieved 20 May 2011.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+%281831%E2%80%931879%29%3B+Member+APS+1875&rft.place=Philadelphia&rft.pub=The+American+Philosophical+Society&rft.aulast=Seitz&rft.aufirst=Frederick&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.amphilsoc.org%2Fsites%2Fdefault%2Ffiles%2FSeitz.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-105"><a href="#cite_ref-105">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.haverford.edu/physics-astro/songs/rigid.htm">"Rigid Body Sings"</a>. Haverford College. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130404194532/http://www.haverford.edu/physics-astro/songs/rigid.htm">Archived</a> from the original on 4 April 2013. Retrieved 26 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Rigid+Body+Sings&rft.pub=Haverford+College&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.haverford.edu%2Fphysics-astro%2Fsongs%2Frigid.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-106"><a href="#cite_ref-106">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/html/1807/4350/poet400.html">"Selected Poetry of James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)"</a>. University of Toronto Libraries. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160507035146/https://tspace.library.utoronto.ca/html/1807/4350/poet400.html">Archived</a> from the original on 7 May 2016. Retrieved 27 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Selected+Poetry+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell+%281831%E2%80%931879%29&rft.pub=University+of+Toronto+Libraries&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Ftspace.library.utoronto.ca%2Fhtml%2F1807%2F4350%2Fpoet400.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-107"><a href="#cite_ref-107">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKlein2010" class="citation book cs1">Klein, Maury (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=w0o5Ld53wAEC&pg=PT88">The Power Makers: Steam, Electricity, and the Men Who Invented Modern America</a>. Bloomsbury Publishing USA. p. 88. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-834-4" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-59691-834-4"><bdi>978-1-59691-834-4</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160508170756/https://books.google.com/books?id=w0o5Ld53wAEC&pg=PT88">Archived</a> from the original on 8 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Power+Makers%3A+Steam%2C+Electricity%2C+and+the+Men+Who+Invented+Modern+America&rft.pages=88&rft.pub=Bloomsbury+Publishing+USA&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-59691-834-4&rft.aulast=Klein&rft.aufirst=Maury&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dw0o5Ld53wAEC%26pg%3DPT88&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-108"><a href="#cite_ref-108">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMacfarlane1919" class="citation book cs1">Macfarlane, Alexander (1919). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesontenbri00macfrich/page/12/mode/2up?view=theater">Lectures on ten British physicists of the nineteenth century</a>. John Wiley, New York. p. 13. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lecturesontenbri00macfrich/page/12/mode/2up">Archived</a> from the original on 14 December 2006.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Lectures+on+ten+British+physicists+of+the+nineteenth+century&rft.pages=13&rft.pub=John+Wiley%2C+New+York&rft.date=1919&rft.aulast=Macfarlane&rft.aufirst=Alexander&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flecturesontenbri00macfrich%2Fpage%2F12%2Fmode%2F2up%3Fview%3Dtheater&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Aberdeen_University_Press-109"><a href="#cite_ref-The_Aberdeen_University_Press_109-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation journal cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/aberdeenuniversi03univuoft/aberdeenuniversi03univuoft_djvu.txt">"The Aberdeen university review"</a>. The Aberdeen University Review. III. The Aberdeen University Press. 1916. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120625055930/http://www.archive.org/stream/aberdeenuniversi03univuoft/aberdeenuniversi03univuoft_djvu.txt">Archived</a> from the original on 25 June 2012.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Aberdeen+University+Review&rft.atitle=The+Aberdeen+university+review&rft.volume=III&rft.date=1916&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Faberdeenuniversi03univuoft%2Faberdeenuniversi03univuoft_djvu.txt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-110"><a href="#cite_ref-110">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJerrold2004" class="citation web cs1">Jerrold, L. McNatt (3 September 2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20120707132916/http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2004/PSCF9-04McNatt.pdf">"James Clerk Maxwell's Refusal to Join the Victoria Institute"</a> (PDF). American Scientific Affiliation. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.asa3.org/ASA/PSCF/2004/PSCF9-04McNatt.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 7 July 2012. Retrieved 25 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell%27s+Refusal+to+Join+the+Victoria+Institute&rft.pub=American+Scientific+Affiliation&rft.date=2004-09-03&rft.aulast=Jerrold&rft.aufirst=L.+McNatt&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.asa3.org%2FASA%2FPSCF%2F2004%2FPSCF9-04McNatt.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rel00-111"><a href="#cite_ref-Rel00_111-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMarston2007" class="citation journal cs1">Marston, Philip L. (2007). "Maxwell and creation: Acceptance, criticism, and his anonymous publication". American Journal of Physics. 75 (8): 731–740. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007AmJPh..75..731M">2007AmJPh..75..731M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.2735631">10.1119/1.2735631</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=Maxwell+and+creation%3A+Acceptance%2C+criticism%2C+and+his+anonymous+publication&rft.volume=75&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=731-740&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.2735631&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007AmJPh..75..731M&rft.aulast=Marston&rft.aufirst=Philip+L.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rel1-112">^ <a href="#cite_ref-Rel1_112-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-Rel1_112-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTheerman1986" class="citation journal cs1">Theerman, Paul (1986). "James Clerk Maxwell and religion". American Journal of Physics. 54 (4): 312–317. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1986AmJPh..54..312T">1986AmJPh..54..312T</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1119%2F1.14636">10.1119/1.14636</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Physics&rft.atitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+and+religion&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=312-317&rft.date=1986&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1119%2F1.14636&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1986AmJPh..54..312T&rft.aulast=Theerman&rft.aufirst=Paul&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-113"><a href="#cite_ref-113">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHutchinson2006" class="citation web cs1">Hutchinson, Ian (2006) [January 1998]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121231001816/http://silas.psfc.mit.edu/maxwell/">"James Clerk Maxwell and the Christian Proposition"</a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://silas.psfc.mit.edu/maxwell/">the original</a> on 31 December 2012. Retrieved 26 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+and+the+Christian+Proposition&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Hutchinson&rft.aufirst=Ian&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fsilas.psfc.mit.edu%2Fmaxwell%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-114"><a href="#cite_ref-114">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1855" class="citation web cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.scribd.com/doc/39568221/maxwell-on-faraday-s-lines-of-force">"On Faraday's Lines of Force"</a>. Transactions of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. blazelabs.com. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317170056/http://www.scribd.com/doc/39568221/maxwell-on-faraday-s-lines-of-force">Archived</a> from the original on 17 March 2014. Retrieved 27 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Cambridge+Philosophical+Society&rft.atitle=On+Faraday%27s+Lines+of+Force&rft.date=1855&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.scribd.com%2Fdoc%2F39568221%2Fmaxwell-on-faraday-s-lines-of-force&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-115"><a href="#cite_ref-115">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.kcl.ac.uk/newsevents/news/newsrecords/2011/04Apr/JamesClerkMaxwell.aspx">"1861: James Clerk Maxwell's greatest year"</a>. King's College London. 18 April 2011. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130622095747/http://www.kcl.ac.uk/newsevents/news/newsrecords/2011/04Apr/JamesClerkMaxwell.aspx">Archived</a> from the original on 22 June 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=1861%3A+James+Clerk+Maxwell%27s+greatest+year&rft.pub=King%27s+College+London&rft.date=2011-04-18&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.kcl.ac.uk%2Fnewsevents%2Fnews%2Fnewsrecords%2F2011%2F04Apr%2FJamesClerkMaxwell.aspx&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-116"><a href="#cite_ref-116">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140317170802/http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen3410/ECEN3410-FirstClass.pdf">"ECEN3410 Electromagnetic Waves"</a> (PDF). University of Colorado. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://ecee.colorado.edu/~ecen3410/ECEN3410-FirstClass.pdf">the original</a> (PDF) on 17 March 2014. Retrieved 30 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=ECEN3410+Electromagnetic+Waves&rft.pub=University+of+Colorado&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fecee.colorado.edu%2F~ecen3410%2FECEN3410-FirstClass.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-117"><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://libraries.mit.edu/150books/2011/01/19/1873/">"Year 13 – 1873: A Treatise on Electricity and Magnetism by James Clerk Maxwell"</a>. MIT Libraries. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130707121529/http://libraries.mit.edu/150books/2011/01/19/1873/">Archived</a> from the original on 7 July 2013. Retrieved 30 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Year+13+%E2%80%93+1873%3A+A+Treatise+on+Electricity+and+Magnetism+by+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=MIT+Libraries&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Flibraries.mit.edu%2F150books%2F2011%2F01%2F19%2F1873%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-118"><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNahin2002" class="citation book cs1">Nahin, Paul J. (13 November 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=e9wEntQmA0IC">Oliver Heaviside: The Life, Work, and Times of an Electrical Genius of the Victorian Age</a>. JHU Press. p. 109. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6909-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-8018-6909-9"><bdi>978-0-8018-6909-9</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200727165123/https://books.google.com/books?id=e9wEntQmA0IC">Archived</a> from the original on 27 July 2020. Retrieved 27 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oliver+Heaviside%3A+The+Life%2C+Work%2C+and+Times+of+an+Electrical+Genius+of+the+Victorian+Age&rft.pages=109&rft.pub=JHU+Press&rft.date=2002-11-13&rft.isbn=978-0-8018-6909-9&rft.aulast=Nahin&rft.aufirst=Paul+J.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3De9wEntQmA0IC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-119"><a href="#cite_ref-119">^</a> B.J. Hunt (1991) <a href="/wiki/The_Maxwellians" title="The Maxwellians">The Maxwellians</a>, pages 165,6, Cornell University Press <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0801482348" title="Special:BookSources/0801482348">0801482348</a> </li> <li id="cite_note-120"><a href="#cite_ref-120">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFEyges1972">Eyges 1972</a>, p. section 11.6. </li> <li id="cite_note-121"><a href="#cite_ref-121">^</a> <a href="#CITEREFBarrettGrimes1995">Barrett & Grimes 1995</a>, pp. 7–8 </li> <li id="cite_note-122"><a href="#cite_ref-122">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWheen2010" class="citation book cs1">Wheen, Andrew (2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA86">Dot-Dash to Dot.Com: How Modern Telecommunications Evolved from the Telegraph to the Internet</a>. Springer. p. 86. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6760-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-1-4419-6760-2"><bdi>978-1-4419-6760-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160617122830/https://books.google.com/books?id=B6shu_hAiGkC&pg=PA86">Archived</a> from the original on 17 June 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Dot-Dash+to+Dot.Com%3A+How+Modern+Telecommunications+Evolved+from+the+Telegraph+to+the+Internet&rft.pages=86&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2010&rft.isbn=978-1-4419-6760-2&rft.aulast=Wheen&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DB6shu_hAiGkC%26pg%3DPA86&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-tef-123">^ <a href="#cite_ref-tef_123-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-tef_123-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_Kevin2002" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Kevin (May 2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110827131533/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_4.html">"The Electromagnetic Field"</a>. University of St Andrews. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_4.html">the original</a> on 27 August 2011. Retrieved 30 June 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Electromagnetic+Field&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.date=2002-05&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk%2FProjects%2FJohnson%2FChapters%2FCh4_4.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-124"><a href="#cite_ref-124">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMichelsonMorley1887" class="citation journal cs1">Michelson, Albert Abraham; Morley, Edward Williams (1887). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/1450060">"On the Relative Motion of the Earth and the Luminiferous Ether"</a>. American Journal of Science. 34 (203): 333–345. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1887AmJS...34..333M">1887AmJS...34..333M</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2475%2Fajs.s3-34.203.333">10.2475/ajs.s3-34.203.333</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:124333204">124333204</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801231624/https://zenodo.org/record/1450060">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 13 September 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=American+Journal+of+Science&rft.atitle=On+the+Relative+Motion+of+the+Earth+and+the+Luminiferous+Ether&rft.volume=34&rft.issue=203&rft.pages=333-345&rft.date=1887&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A124333204%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2475%2Fajs.s3-34.203.333&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1887AmJS...34..333M&rft.aulast=Michelson&rft.aufirst=Albert+Abraham&rft.au=Morley%2C+Edward+Williams&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F1450060&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-125"><a href="#cite_ref-125">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEinstein" class="citation web cs1">Einstein, Albert. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Einstein_ether.html">"Ether and the Theory of Relativity"</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20131121211828/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Extras/Einstein_ether.html">Archived</a> from the original on 21 November 2013. Retrieved 19 December 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Ether+and+the+Theory+of+Relativity&rft.aulast=Einstein&rft.aufirst=Albert&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk%2FExtras%2FEinstein_ether.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-126"><a href="#cite_ref-126">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJohnson,_Kevin2012" class="citation web cs1">Johnson, Kevin (May 2012). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html">"Colour Vision"</a>. University of St Andrews. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20121111044045/http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/Projects/Johnson/Chapters/Ch4_2.html">Archived</a> from the original on 11 November 2012. Retrieved 20 May 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Colour+Vision&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.date=2012-05&rft.au=Johnson%2C+Kevin&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk%2FProjects%2FJohnson%2FChapters%2FCh4_2.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-127"><a href="#cite_ref-127">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFNewton1704" class="citation book cs1">Newton, Isaac (1704). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/opticksortreatisnewt">Opticks: or a treatise of the reflexions, refractions, inflexions and colours of light</a>. London: Printed for Sam. Smith, and Benj. Walford, Printers to the Royal Society, at the Prince's Arms in St. Paul's Church-yard. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151224071454/https://archive.org/details/opticksortreatisnewt">Archived</a> from the original on 24 December 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Opticks%3A+or+a+treatise+of+the+reflexions%2C+refractions%2C+inflexions+and+colours+of+light&rft.place=London&rft.pub=Printed+for+Sam.+Smith%2C+and+Benj.+Walford%2C+Printers+to+the+Royal+Society%2C+at+the+Prince%27s+Arms+in+St.+Paul%27s+Church-yard&rft.date=1704&rft.aulast=Newton&rft.aufirst=Isaac&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fopticksortreatisnewt&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-128"><a href="#cite_ref-128">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYoung1804" class="citation journal cs1">Young, Thomas (1804). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1">"Bakerian Lecture: Experiments and calculations relative to physical optics"</a>. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society. 94: 1–16. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1804RSPT...94....1Y">1804RSPT...94....1Y</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frstl.1804.0001">10.1098/rstl.1804.0001</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:110408369">110408369</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160427130034/https://books.google.com/books?id=7AZGAAAAMAAJ&pg=PA1">Archived</a> from the original on 27 April 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Philosophical+Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society&rft.atitle=Bakerian+Lecture%3A+Experiments+and+calculations+relative+to+physical+optics&rft.volume=94&rft.pages=1-16&rft.date=1804&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A110408369%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frstl.1804.0001&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1804RSPT...94....1Y&rft.aulast=Young&rft.aufirst=Thomas&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D7AZGAAAAMAAJ%26pg%3DPA1&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-129"><a href="#cite_ref-129">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1857" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (1857). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2041790">"XVIII.—Experiments on Colour, as perceived by the Eye, with Remarks on Colour-Blindness"</a>. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 21 (2). Royal Society of Edinburgh: 275–298. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0080456800032117">10.1017/S0080456800032117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123930770">123930770</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801221025/https://zenodo.org/record/2041790">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=XVIII.%E2%80%94Experiments+on+Colour%2C+as+perceived+by+the+Eye%2C+with+Remarks+on+Colour-Blindness&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=275-298&rft.date=1857&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0080456800032117&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123930770%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2041790&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell1855" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (1855). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zenodo.org/record/2041790">"Experiments on Colour, as Perceived by the Eye, with Remarks on Colour-Blindness"</a>. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh. 21 (2): 275–298. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FS0080456800032117">10.1017/S0080456800032117</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:123930770">123930770</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200801221025/https://zenodo.org/record/2041790">Archived</a> from the original on 1 August 2020. Retrieved 10 March 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Transactions+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.atitle=Experiments+on+Colour%2C+as+Perceived+by+the+Eye%2C+with+Remarks+on+Colour-Blindness&rft.volume=21&rft.issue=2&rft.pages=275-298&rft.date=1855&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1017%2FS0080456800032117&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A123930770%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fzenodo.org%2Frecord%2F2041790&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> (This thought-experiment is described on pages 283–284. The short-wavelength filter is specified as "violet", but during the 19th century "violet" could be used to describe a deep violet-blue such as the colour of cobalt glass.) </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell,_J._Clerk2011" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, J. Clerk (2011) [1890]. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20110823104203/http://notesonphotographs.org/index.php?title=Maxwell%2C_J._Clerk._%22On_the_Theory_of_Three_Primary_Colours.%22">"On the Theory of Three Primary Colours"</a>. The Scientific Papers of James Clerk Maxwell. Vol. 1. Cambridge University Press. pp. 445–450. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-511-69809-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-511-69809-5"><bdi>978-0-511-69809-5</bdi></a>. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://notesonphotographs.org/index.php?title=Maxwell,_J._Clerk._%22On_the_Theory_of_Three_Primary_Colours.%22">the original</a> on 23 August 2011. Retrieved 28 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=On+the+Theory+of+Three+Primary+Colours&rft.btitle=The+Scientific+Papers+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pages=445-450&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.isbn=978-0-511-69809-5&rft.au=Maxwell%2C+J.+Clerk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnotesonphotographs.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3DMaxwell%2C_J._Clerk._%2522On_the_Theory_of_Three_Primary_Colours.%2522&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell,_J._Clerk1861" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell, J. Clerk (1861). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130612071037/http://notesonphotographs.org/index.php?title=%22The_Theory_of_the_Primary_Colours.%22_The_British_Journal_of_Photography,_August_9,_1861">"The Theory of the Primary Colours"</a>. The British Journal of Photography. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://notesonphotographs.org/index.php?title=%22The_Theory_of_the_Primary_Colours.%22_The_British_Journal_of_Photography,_August_9,_1861">the original</a> on 12 June 2013. Retrieved 28 March 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+British+Journal+of+Photography&rft.atitle=The+Theory+of+the+Primary+Colours&rft.date=1861&rft.au=Maxwell%2C+J.+Clerk&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fnotesonphotographs.org%2Findex.php%3Ftitle%3D%2522The_Theory_of_the_Primary_Colours.%2522_The_British_Journal_of_Photography%2C_August_9%2C_1861&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-133"><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEvans1961" class="citation journal cs1">Evans, R. (November 1961). "Maxwell's Color Photography". Scientific American. 205 (5): 117–128. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1961SciAm.205e.118E">1961SciAm.205e.118E</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1161-118">10.1038/scientificamerican1161-118</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Scientific+American&rft.atitle=Maxwell%27s+Color+Photography&rft.volume=205&rft.issue=5&rft.pages=117-128&rft.date=1961-11&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fscientificamerican1161-118&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1961SciAm.205e.118E&rft.aulast=Evans&rft.aufirst=R.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-134"><a href="#cite_ref-134">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.theiet.org/resources/library/archives/biographies/maxwell.cfm">"Archives Biographies: James Clerk Maxwell"</a>. The Institution of Engineering and Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20130627090441/http://www.theiet.org/resources/library/archives/biographies/maxwell.cfm">Archived</a> from the original on 27 June 2013. Retrieved 1 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Archives+Biographies%3A+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=The+Institution+of+Engineering+and+Technology&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.theiet.org%2Fresources%2Flibrary%2Farchives%2Fbiographies%2Fmaxwell.cfm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-135"><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHill" class="citation web cs1">Hill, Melanie. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://users.ece.gatech.edu/~alan/ECE6451/Lectures/StudentLectures/Hill_5p4_MaxwellBoltzmannDistribution.pdf">"The Maxwell–Boltzmann distribution"</a> (PDF). Georgia Institute of Technology. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20140103232904/http://users.ece.gatech.edu/~alan/ECE6451/Lectures/StudentLectures/Hill_5p4_MaxwellBoltzmannDistribution.pdf">Archived</a> (PDF) from the original on 3 January 2014. Retrieved 28 August 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Maxwell%E2%80%93Boltzmann+distribution&rft.pub=Georgia+Institute+of+Technology&rft.aulast=Hill&rft.aufirst=Melanie&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fusers.ece.gatech.edu%2F~alan%2FECE6451%2FLectures%2FStudentLectures%2FHill_5p4_MaxwellBoltzmannDistribution.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-136"><a href="#cite_ref-136">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFXiang2005" class="citation book cs1">Xiang, Hong Wei (2005). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=DWRkfjIFdOIC&pg=PA51">The Corresponding-States Principle and its Practice: Thermodynamic, Transport and Surface Properties of Fluids</a>. Elsevier. p. 51. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045904-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-08-045904-2"><bdi>978-0-08-045904-2</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160512213205/https://books.google.com/books?id=DWRkfjIFdOIC&pg=PA51">Archived</a> from the original on 12 May 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Corresponding-States+Principle+and+its+Practice%3A+Thermodynamic%2C+Transport+and+Surface+Properties+of+Fluids&rft.pages=51&rft.pub=Elsevier&rft.date=2005&rft.isbn=978-0-08-045904-2&rft.aulast=Xiang&rft.aufirst=Hong+Wei&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DDWRkfjIFdOIC%26pg%3DPA51&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-137"><a href="#cite_ref-137">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMerali2010" class="citation news cs1">Merali, Zeeya (14 November 2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101114/full/news.2010.606.html">"Demonic device converts information to energy"</a>. Nature News. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1038%2Fnews.2010.606">10.1038/news.2010.606</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170819040059/http://www.nature.com/news/2010/101114/full/news.2010.606.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 August 2017. Retrieved 5 August 2017.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Nature+News&rft.atitle=Demonic+device+converts+information+to+energy&rft.date=2010-11-14&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1038%2Fnews.2010.606&rft.aulast=Merali&rft.aufirst=Zeeya&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.nature.com%2Fnews%2F2010%2F101114%2Ffull%2Fnews.2010.606.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-138"><a href="#cite_ref-138">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWest,_Thomas_G.1999" class="citation journal cs1">West, Thomas G. (February 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.siggraph.org/publications/newsletter/v33n1/columns/west.html">"Images and reversals: James Clerk Maxwell, working in wet clay"</a>. ACM SIGGRAPH Computer Graphics. 33 (1): 15–17. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1145%2F563666.563671">10.1145/563666.563671</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:13968486">13968486</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20210419091357/http://www.siggraph.org/publications/newsletter/v33n1/columns/west.html">Archived</a> from the original on 19 April 2021. Retrieved 1 July 2013.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=ACM+SIGGRAPH+Computer+Graphics&rft.atitle=Images+and+reversals%3A+James+Clerk+Maxwell%2C+working+in+wet+clay&rft.volume=33&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=15-17&rft.date=1999-02&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1145%2F563666.563671&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A13968486%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.au=West%2C+Thomas+G.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.siggraph.org%2Fpublications%2Fnewsletter%2Fv33n1%2Fcolumns%2Fwest.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-139"><a href="#cite_ref-139">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCropper2004" class="citation book cs1">Cropper, William H. (2004). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=UqbxZpELwHYC">Great Physicists: The Life and Times of Leading Physicists from Galileo to Hawking</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 118. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517324-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-19-517324-6"><bdi>978-0-19-517324-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20161203175602/https://books.google.com/books?id=UqbxZpELwHYC">Archived</a> from the original on 3 December 2016.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Great+Physicists%3A+The+Life+and+Times+of+Leading+Physicists+from+Galileo+to+Hawking&rft.pages=118&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft.isbn=978-0-19-517324-6&rft.aulast=Cropper&rft.aufirst=William+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DUqbxZpELwHYC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-140"><a href="#cite_ref-140">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRukeyser1942" class="citation book cs1">Rukeyser, Muriel (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/willardgibbs0000muri/page/n4/mode/1up">Willard Gibbs</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doubleday_(publisher)" title="Doubleday (publisher)">Doubleday</a>. p. 251.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Willard+Gibbs&rft.pages=251&rft.pub=Doubleday&rft.date=1942&rft.aulast=Rukeyser&rft.aufirst=Muriel&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fwillardgibbs0000muri%2Fpage%2Fn4%2Fmode%2F1up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-Maxwell1867-141"><a href="#cite_ref-Maxwell1867_141-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell,_James_Clerk1868" class="citation journal cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (1868). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1867.0055">"On Governors"</a>. Proceedings of the Royal Society of London. 16: 270–283. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1098%2Frspl.1867.0055">10.1098/rspl.1867.0055</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/112510">112510</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Proceedings+of+the+Royal+Society+of+London&rft.atitle=On+Governors&rft.volume=16&rft.pages=270-283&rft.date=1868&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1098%2Frspl.1867.0055&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F112510%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.au=Maxwell%2C+James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1098%252Frspl.1867.0055&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-142"><a href="#cite_ref-142">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMayr1971" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Otto_Mayr" title="Otto Mayr">Mayr, Otto</a> (1971). "Maxwell and the Origins of Cybernetics". Isis. 62 (4): 424–444. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1086%2F350788">10.1086/350788</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:144250314">144250314</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Isis&rft.atitle=Maxwell+and+the+Origins+of+Cybernetics&rft.volume=62&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=424-444&rft.date=1971&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1086%2F350788&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A144250314%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Mayr&rft.aufirst=Otto&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-143"><a href="#cite_ref-143">^</a> See also: <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMaxwell2001" class="citation book cs1">Maxwell, James Clerk (2001). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qE50pbHfQtgC">Theory of Heat</a> (9th ed.). Courier Dover Publications. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-41735-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-41735-6"><bdi>978-0-486-41735-6</bdi></a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200606100814/https://books.google.com/books?id=qE50pbHfQtgC">Archived</a> from the original on 6 June 2020. Retrieved 5 September 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Theory+of+Heat&rft.edition=9th&rft.pub=Courier+Dover+Publications&rft.date=2001&rft.isbn=978-0-486-41735-6&rft.aulast=Maxwell&rft.aufirst=James+Clerk&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DqE50pbHfQtgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-144"><a href="#cite_ref-144">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Atom">"Atom" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. III (9th ed.). 1878. p. 36.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Atom&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=36&rft.edition=9th&rft.date=1878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-145"><a href="#cite_ref-145">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Attraction">"Attraction" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. III (9th ed.). 1878. p. 63.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Attraction&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.pages=63&rft.edition=9th&rft.date=1878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-146"><a href="#cite_ref-146">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica,_Ninth_Edition/Ether">"Ether" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica" title="Encyclopædia Britannica">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. VIII (9th ed.). 1878.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Ether&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=9th&rft.date=1878&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-147"><a href="#cite_ref-147">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Capillary_Action">"Capillary Action" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 05 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Capillary_Action&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-148"><a href="#cite_ref-148">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Diagram">"Diagram" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 08 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Diagram&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-149"><a href="#cite_ref-149">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Faraday,_Michael">"Faraday, Michael" </a>. <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 10 (11th ed.). 1911.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Faraday%2C+Michael&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.date=1911&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBarrettGrimes1995" class="citation book cs1">Barrett, Terence William; Grimes, Dale Mills (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lA8tgLMRu2kC">Advanced Electromagnetism: Foundations, Theory and Applications</a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2095-2" title="Special:BookSources/978-981-02-2095-2"><bdi>978-981-02-2095-2</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Advanced+Electromagnetism%3A+Foundations%2C+Theory+and+Applications&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1995&rft.isbn=978-981-02-2095-2&rft.aulast=Barrett&rft.aufirst=Terence+William&rft.au=Grimes%2C+Dale+Mills&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlA8tgLMRu2kC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFDuhem2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Duhem" title="Pierre Duhem">Duhem, Pierre Maurice Marie</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isidore.co/calibre/browse/book/4976">The Electric Theories of J. Clerk Maxwell</a>. Boston Studies in the Philosophy and History of Science. Vol. 314. Translated by Aversa, Alan. Springer. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1007%2F978-3-319-18515-6">10.1007/978-3-319-18515-6</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-3-319-18515-6" title="Special:BookSources/978-3-319-18515-6"><bdi>978-3-319-18515-6</bdi></a>. Retrieved 8 July 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Electric+Theories+of+J.+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.series=Boston+Studies+in+the+Philosophy+and+History+of+Science&rft.pub=Springer&rft.date=2015&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1007%2F978-3-319-18515-6&rft.isbn=978-3-319-18515-6&rft.aulast=Duhem&rft.aufirst=Pierre+Maurice+Marie&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fisidore.co%2Fcalibre%2Fbrowse%2Fbook%2F4976&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCampbellGarnett,_William1882" class="citation book cs1">Campbell, Lewis; Garnett, William (1882). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.sonnetsoftware.com/bio/maxbio.pdf">The Life of James Clerk Maxwell</a> (PDF). Edinburgh: MacMillan. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/2472869">2472869</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Life+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=MacMillan&rft.date=1882&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F2472869&rft.aulast=Campbell&rft.aufirst=Lewis&rft.au=Garnett%2C+William&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.sonnetsoftware.com%2Fbio%2Fmaxbio.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFEyges1972" class="citation book cs1">Eyges, Leonard (1972). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=4U_2KXNi5pgC">The Classical Electromagnetic Field</a>. New York: Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9780486639475" title="Special:BookSources/9780486639475"><bdi>9780486639475</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Classical+Electromagnetic+Field&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Dover&rft.date=1972&rft.isbn=9780486639475&rft.aulast=Eyges&rft.aufirst=Leonard&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D4U_2KXNi5pgC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGardner2007" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Martin_Gardner" title="Martin Gardner">Gardner, Martin</a> (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/lastrecreationsh00gard_0">The Last Recreations: Hydras, Eggs, and Other Mathematical Mystifications</a>. Springer-Verlag. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-387-25827-0" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-387-25827-0"><bdi>978-0-387-25827-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Last+Recreations%3A+Hydras%2C+Eggs%2C+and+Other+Mathematical+Mystifications&rft.pub=Springer-Verlag&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-387-25827-0&rft.aulast=Gardner&rft.aufirst=Martin&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Flastrecreationsh00gard_0&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGlazebrook1896" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Richard_Glazebrook" title="Richard Glazebrook">Glazebrook, R.T.</a> (1896). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/stream/jamesclerkmaxwel00glaziala#page/n7/mode/2up">James Clerk Maxwell and Modern Physics</a>. 811951455. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/811951455">811951455</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell+and+Modern+Physics&rft.pub=811951455&rft.date=1896&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F811951455&rft.aulast=Glazebrook&rft.aufirst=R.T.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fstream%2Fjamesclerkmaxwel00glaziala%23page%2Fn7%2Fmode%2F2up&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarman1998" class="citation book cs1">Harman, Peter M. (1998). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=v4xjVtszqssC">The Natural Philosophy of James Clerk Maxwell</a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-00585-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-00585-X"><bdi>0-521-00585-X</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Natural+Philosophy+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1998&rft.isbn=0-521-00585-X&rft.aulast=Harman&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dv4xjVtszqssC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHarman2004" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Harman, Peter M. (2004). "Maxwell, James". <a href="/wiki/Dictionary_of_National_Biography#Oxford_Dictionary_of_National_Biography" title="Dictionary of National Biography">Oxford Dictionary of National Biography</a> (online ed.). Oxford University Press. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F5624">10.1093/ref:odnb/5624</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maxwell%2C+James&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+National+Biography&rft.edition=online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2004&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1093%2Fref%3Aodnb%2F5624&rft.aulast=Harman&rft.aufirst=Peter+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"> (Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oxforddnb.com/help/subscribe#public">UK public library membership</a> required.)</li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMahon2003" class="citation book cs1">Mahon, Basil (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=mGo_jtHwL0sC">The Man Who Changed Everything – the Life of James Clerk Maxwell</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-470-86171-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-470-86171-1"><bdi>0-470-86171-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Man+Who+Changed+Everything+%E2%80%93+the+Life+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-470-86171-1&rft.aulast=Mahon&rft.aufirst=Basil&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DmGo_jtHwL0sC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRusso1996" class="citation book cs1">Russo, Remigio (1996). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=qe05dx_hpVsC">Mathematical Problems in Elasticity</a>. World Scientific. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/981-02-2576-8" title="Special:BookSources/981-02-2576-8"><bdi>981-02-2576-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Mathematical+Problems+in+Elasticity&rft.pub=World+Scientific&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=981-02-2576-8&rft.aulast=Russo&rft.aufirst=Remigio&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3Dqe05dx_hpVsC&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTait1911" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1">Tait, Peter Guthrie (1911). <a class="external text" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Maxwell,_James_Clerk">"Maxwell, James Clerk" </a>. In <a href="/wiki/Hugh_Chisholm" title="Hugh Chisholm">Chisholm, Hugh</a> (ed.). <a href="/wiki/Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a>. Vol. 17 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maxwell%2C+James+Clerk&rft.btitle=Encyclop%C3%A6dia+Britannica&rft.edition=11th&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1911&rft.aulast=Tait&rft.aufirst=Peter+Guthrie&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTimoshenko1983" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Stephen_Timoshenko" title="Stephen Timoshenko">Timoshenko, Stephen</a> (1983). History of Strength of Materials. Courier Dover. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61187-7" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-486-61187-7"><bdi>978-0-486-61187-7</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=History+of+Strength+of+Materials&rft.pub=Courier+Dover&rft.date=1983&rft.isbn=978-0-486-61187-7&rft.aulast=Timoshenko&rft.aufirst=Stephen&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTolstoy1982" class="citation book cs1">Tolstoy, Ivan (1982). James Clerk Maxwell: A Biography. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-80787-8" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-80787-8"><bdi>0-226-80787-8</bdi></a>. <a href="/wiki/OCLC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="OCLC (identifier)">OCLC</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/oclc/8688302">8688302</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell%3A+A+Biography&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=1982&rft_id=info%3Aoclcnum%2F8688302&rft.isbn=0-226-80787-8&rft.aulast=Tolstoy&rft.aufirst=Ivan&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWarwick2003" class="citation book cs1">Warwick, Andrew (2003). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/mastersoftheoryc0000warw">Masters of Theory: Cambridge and the Rise of Mathematical Physics</a>. University of Chicago Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-226-87374-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-226-87374-9"><bdi>0-226-87374-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Masters+of+Theory%3A+Cambridge+and+the+Rise+of+Mathematical+Physics&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rft.date=2003&rft.isbn=0-226-87374-9&rft.aulast=Warwick&rft.aufirst=Andrew&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Fmastersoftheoryc0000warw&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWaterstonMacmillan_Shearer2006" class="citation book cs1">Waterston, Charles D; Macmillan Shearer, A. (July 2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.rse.org.uk/cms/files/fellows/biographical_index/fells_indexp2.pdf">Former Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh 1783–2002: Biographical Index</a> (PDF). Vol. II. Edinburgh: <a href="/wiki/The_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" class="mw-redirect" title="The Royal Society of Edinburgh">The Royal Society of Edinburgh</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-902198-84-5" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-902198-84-5"><bdi>978-0-902198-84-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Former+Fellows+of+the+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh+1783%E2%80%932002%3A+Biographical+Index&rft.place=Edinburgh&rft.pub=The+Royal+Society+of+Edinburgh&rft.date=2006-07&rft.isbn=978-0-902198-84-5&rft.aulast=Waterston&rft.aufirst=Charles+D&rft.au=Macmillan+Shearer%2C+A.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.rse.org.uk%2Fcms%2Ffiles%2Ffellows%2Fbiographical_index%2Ffells_indexp2.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWilczek2015" class="citation book cs1"><a href="/wiki/Frank_Wilczek" title="Frank Wilczek">Wilczek, Frank</a> (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=Oh3ICAAAQBAJ&pg=PT107">"Maxwell I: God's Esthetics. II: The Doors of Perception"</a>. A Beautiful Question: Finding Nature's Deep Design. Allen Lane. pp. 117–164. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7181-9946-3" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7181-9946-3"><bdi>978-0-7181-9946-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Maxwell+I%3A+God%27s+Esthetics.+II%3A+The+Doors+of+Perception&rft.btitle=A+Beautiful+Question%3A+Finding+Nature%27s+Deep+Design&rft.pages=117-164&rft.pub=Allen+Lane&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=978-0-7181-9946-3&rft.aulast=Wilczek&rft.aufirst=Frank&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DOh3ICAAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPT107&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/James_Clerk_Maxwell" class="extiw" title="commons:James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/34px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="34" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/51px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/Wikiquote-logo.svg/68px-Wikiquote-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="300" data-file-height="355" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Special:Search/James_Clerk_Maxwell" class="extiw" title="q:Special:Search/James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a>.</div></div> </div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1235681985"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1237033735"><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1126788409"> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/38px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="38" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/57px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg/76px-Wikisource-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="410" data-file-height="430" /></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist"><a href="/wiki/Wikisource" title="Wikisource">Wikisource</a> has original works by or about: <a href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Author:James_Clerk_Maxwell" class="extiw" title="s:Author:James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a></div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.npg.org.uk/collections/search/person.php?LinkID=mp00914">Portraits of James Clerk Maxwell</a> at the <a href="/wiki/National_Portrait_Gallery,_London" title="National Portrait Gallery, London">National Portrait Gallery, London</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9095#P1816" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.gutenberg.org/ebooks/author/1586">Works by James Clerk Maxwell</a> at <a href="/wiki/Project_Gutenberg" title="Project Gutenberg">Project Gutenberg</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/search.php?query=%28%28subject%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%20Clerk%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%20C%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20J%2E%20C%2E%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22James%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22J%2E%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%22%20OR%20subject%3A%22James%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22James%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22J%2E%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22J%2E%20Clerk%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%20Clerk%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%20C%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20J%2E%20C%2E%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20J%2E%20Clerk%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22James%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20creator%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%22%20OR%20title%3A%22James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20title%3A%22James%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20title%3A%22J%2E%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20title%3A%22James%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22James%20Clerk%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22James%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22J%2E%20C%2E%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%20Clerk%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%20C%2E%22%20OR%20description%3A%22James%20Maxwell%22%20OR%20description%3A%22Maxwell%2C%20James%22%29%20OR%20%28%221831-1879%22%20AND%20Maxwell%29%29%20AND%20%28-mediatype:software%29">Works by or about James Clerk Maxwell</a> at the <a href="/wiki/Internet_Archive" title="Internet Archive">Internet Archive</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://librivox.org/author/736">Works by James Clerk Maxwell</a> at <a href="/wiki/LibriVox" title="LibriVox">LibriVox</a> (public domain audiobooks) <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/15px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png" decoding="async" width="15" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/23px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/21/Speaker_Icon.svg/30px-Speaker_Icon.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="500" /></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFO'ConnorRobertson" class="citation cs2">O'Connor, John J.; <a href="/wiki/Edmund_F._Robertson" title="Edmund F. Robertson">Robertson, Edmund F.</a>, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk/Biographies/Maxwell.html">"James Clerk Maxwell"</a>, <a href="/wiki/MacTutor_History_of_Mathematics_Archive" title="MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive">MacTutor History of Mathematics Archive</a>, <a href="/wiki/University_of_St_Andrews" title="University of St Andrews">University of St Andrews</a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.btitle=MacTutor+History+of+Mathematics+Archive&rft.pub=University+of+St+Andrews&rft.aulast=O%27Connor&rft.aufirst=John+J.&rft.au=Robertson%2C+Edmund+F.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fmathshistory.st-andrews.ac.uk%2FBiographies%2FMaxwell.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.numericana.com/arms/maxwell.htm">"Genealogy and Coat of Arms of James Clerk Maxwell (1831–1879)"</a>. Numericana.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Genealogy+and+Coat+of+Arms+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell+%281831%E2%80%931879%29&rft.pub=Numericana&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.numericana.com%2Farms%2Fmaxwell.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/">"The James Clerk Maxwell Foundation"</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+James+Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20061230185305/http://www.scotlandspeople.gov.uk/content/help/index.aspx?r=546&1145">"Maxwell, James Clerk (Maxwell's last will and testament)"</a>. scotlandspeople.gov.uk. 31 May 2013. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.scotlandspeople.gov.uk/content/help/index.aspx?r=546&1145">the original</a> on 30 December 2006. Retrieved 25 November 2008.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Maxwell%2C+James+Clerk+%28Maxwell%27s+last+will+and+testament%29&rft.pub=scotlandspeople.gov.uk&rft.date=2013-05-31&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.scotlandspeople.gov.uk%2Fcontent%2Fhelp%2Findex.aspx%3Fr%3D546%261145&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/PUBLISHED_SCIENTIFIC_PAPERS.pdf">"The Published Scientific Papers and Books of James Clerk Maxwell"</a> (PDF). Clerk Maxwell Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=The+Published+Scientific+Papers+and+Books+of+James+Clerk+Maxwell&rft.pub=Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org%2FPUBLISHED_SCIENTIFIC_PAPERS.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org/Bibliography.pdf">"Bibliography"</a> (PDF). Clerk Maxwell Foundation.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Bibliography&rft.pub=Clerk+Maxwell+Foundation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.clerkmaxwellfoundation.org%2FBibliography.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AJames+Clerk+Maxwell" class="Z3988"></li> <li>James Clerk Maxwell, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://lhldigital.lindahall.org/cdm/ref/collection/color/id/29023">"Experiments on colour as perceived by the Eye, with remarks on colour-blindness"</a>. Proceedings of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, vol. 3, no. 45, pp. 299–301. (digital facsimile from the <a href="/wiki/Linda_Hall_Library" title="Linda Hall Library">Linda Hall Library</a>)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/p005491g">Maxwell</a>, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Simon Schaffer, Peter Harman & Joanna Haigh (In Our Time, 2 October 2003)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.bbc.co.uk/programmes/b06rd56j">Scotland's Einstein: James Clerk Maxwell – The Man Who Changed the World</a>, BBC Two documentary 2015.</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ul{display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist .mw-empty-li{display:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dt::after{content:": "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li::after{content:" · ";font-weight:bold}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li:last-child::after{content:none}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:first-child::before{content:" (";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dd li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt li:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dd:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li dt:last-child::after,.mw-parser-output .hlist li li:last-child::after{content:")";font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol{counter-reset:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li{counter-increment:listitem}.mw-parser-output .hlist ol>li::before{content:" "counter(listitem)"\a0 "}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt ol>li:first-child::before,.mw-parser-output .hlist li ol>li:first-child::before{content:" ("counter(listitem)"\a0 "}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236075235">.mw-parser-output .navbox{box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #a2a9b1;width:100%;clear:both;font-size:88%;text-align:center;padding:1px;margin:1em auto 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbox{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox+.navbox-styles+.navbox{margin-top:-1px}.mw-parser-output .navbox-inner,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{width:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-title,.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow{padding:0.25em 1em;line-height:1.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .navbox-group{white-space:nowrap;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .navbox,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup{background-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list{line-height:1.5em;border-color:#fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-list-with-group{text-align:left;border-left-width:2px;border-left-style:solid}.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-image,.mw-parser-output tr+tr>.navbox-list{border-top:2px solid #fdfdfd}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title{background-color:#ccf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini abbr{font-variant:small-caps;border-bottom:none;text-decoration:none;cursor:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-full{font-size:114%;margin:0 7em}.mw-parser-output .navbar-ct-mini{font-size:114%;margin:0 4em}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}@media(prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .navbar li a abbr{color:var(--color-base)!important}}@media print{.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:none!important}}</style><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Template talk:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Scientists whose names are used as units"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Scientists whose names are used as units</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI base units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Andr%C3%A9-Marie_Amp%C3%A8re" title="André-Marie Ampère">André-Marie Ampère</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ampere" title="Ampere">ampere</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lord_Kelvin" title="Lord Kelvin">Lord Kelvin</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">SI derived units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Henri_Becquerel" title="Henri Becquerel">Henri Becquerel</a> (<a href="/wiki/Becquerel" title="Becquerel">becquerel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Celsius" title="Anders Celsius">Anders Celsius</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Celsius" title="Celsius">Celsius</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charles-Augustin_de_Coulomb" title="Charles-Augustin de Coulomb">Charles-Augustin de Coulomb</a> (<a href="/wiki/Coulomb" title="Coulomb">coulomb</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Farad" title="Farad">farad</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Louis_Harold_Gray" title="Louis Harold Gray">Louis Harold Gray</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gray_(unit)" title="Gray (unit)">gray</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Joseph_Henry" title="Joseph Henry">Joseph Henry</a> (<a href="/wiki/Henry_(unit)" title="Henry (unit)">henry</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Hertz" title="Heinrich Hertz">Heinrich Hertz</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hertz" title="Hertz">hertz</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Prescott_Joule" title="James Prescott Joule">James Prescott Joule</a> (<a href="/wiki/Joule" title="Joule">joule</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isaac_Newton" title="Isaac Newton">Isaac Newton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Newton_(unit)" title="Newton (unit)">newton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Georg_Ohm" title="Georg Ohm">Georg Ohm</a> (<a href="/wiki/Ohm" title="Ohm">ohm</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blaise_Pascal" title="Blaise Pascal">Blaise Pascal</a> (<a href="/wiki/Pascal_(unit)" title="Pascal (unit)">pascal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Werner_von_Siemens" title="Werner von Siemens">Werner von Siemens</a> (<a href="/wiki/Siemens_(unit)" title="Siemens (unit)">siemens</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rolf_Maximilian_Sievert" title="Rolf Maximilian Sievert">Rolf Maximilian Sievert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Sievert" title="Sievert">sievert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nikola_Tesla" title="Nikola Tesla">Nikola Tesla</a> (<a href="/wiki/Tesla_(unit)" title="Tesla (unit)">tesla</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alessandro_Volta" title="Alessandro Volta">Alessandro Volta</a> (<a href="/wiki/Volt" title="Volt">volt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/James_Watt" title="James Watt">James Watt</a> (<a href="/wiki/Watt" title="Watt">watt</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_Eduard_Weber" title="Wilhelm Eduard Weber">Wilhelm Eduard Weber</a> (<a href="/wiki/Weber_(unit)" title="Weber (unit)">weber</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-SI metric (<a href="/wiki/Centimetre%E2%80%93gram%E2%80%93second_system_of_units" title="Centimetre–gram–second system of units">cgs</a>) units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anders_Jonas_%C3%85ngstr%C3%B6m" title="Anders Jonas Ångström">Anders Jonas Ångström</a> (<a href="/wiki/Angstrom" title="Angstrom">angstrom</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peter_Debye" title="Peter Debye">Peter Debye</a> (<a href="/wiki/Debye" title="Debye">debye</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lor%C3%A1nd_E%C3%B6tv%C3%B6s" title="Loránd Eötvös">Loránd Eötvös</a> (<a href="/wiki/Eotvos_(unit)" title="Eotvos (unit)">eotvos</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Galileo_Galilei" title="Galileo Galilei">Galileo Galilei</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gal_(unit)" title="Gal (unit)">gal</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carl_Friedrich_Gauss" title="Carl Friedrich Gauss">Carl Friedrich Gauss</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gauss_(unit)" title="Gauss (unit)">gauss</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/William_Gilbert_(physicist)" title="William Gilbert (physicist)">William Gilbert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Gilbert_(unit)" title="Gilbert (unit)">gilbert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Kayser" title="Heinrich Kayser">Heinrich Kayser</a> (<a href="/wiki/Kayser_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Kayser (unit)">kayser</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Lambert_(unit)" title="Lambert (unit)">lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Samuel_Langley" title="Samuel Langley">Samuel Langley</a> (<a href="/wiki/Langley_(unit)" title="Langley (unit)">langley</a>)</li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">James Clerk Maxwell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Maxwell_(unit)" title="Maxwell (unit)">maxwell</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hans_Christian_%C3%98rsted" title="Hans Christian Ørsted">Hans Christian Ørsted</a> (<a href="/wiki/Oersted" title="Oersted">oersted</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jean_L%C3%A9onard_Marie_Poiseuille" title="Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille">Jean Léonard Marie Poiseuille</a> (<a href="/wiki/Poise_(unit)" title="Poise (unit)">poise</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sir_George_Stokes,_1st_Baronet" title="Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet">Sir George Stokes, 1st Baronet</a> (<a href="/wiki/Stokes_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Stokes (unit)">stokes</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_William_Strutt,_3rd_Baron_Rayleigh" title="John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh">John William Strutt, 3rd Baron Rayleigh</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rayl" title="Rayl">rayl</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Imperial_units" title="Imperial units">Imperial</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_States_customary_units" title="United States customary units">US customary</a> units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Daniel_Gabriel_Fahrenheit" title="Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit">Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit</a> (degree <a href="/wiki/Fahrenheit" title="Fahrenheit">Fahrenheit</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Johann_Heinrich_Lambert" title="Johann Heinrich Lambert">Johann Heinrich Lambert</a> (<a href="/wiki/Foot-lambert" title="Foot-lambert">foot-lambert</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Macquorn_Rankine" class="mw-redirect" title="Macquorn Rankine">William John Macquorn Rankine</a> (<a href="/wiki/Rankine_scale" title="Rankine scale">degree Rankine</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-systematic units</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alexander_Graham_Bell" title="Alexander Graham Bell">Alexander Graham Bell</a> (<a href="/wiki/Bel_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bel (unit)">bel</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marie_Curie" title="Marie Curie">Marie Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pierre_Curie" title="Pierre Curie">Pierre Curie</a> (<a href="/wiki/Curie_(unit)" title="Curie (unit)">curie</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Dalton" title="John Dalton">John Dalton</a> (<a href="/wiki/Dalton_(unit)" title="Dalton (unit)">dalton</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Michael_Faraday" title="Michael Faraday">Michael Faraday</a> (<a href="/wiki/Faraday_(unit)" class="mw-redirect" title="Faraday (unit)">faraday</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heinrich_Mache" title="Heinrich Mache">Heinrich Mache</a> (<a href="/wiki/Mache_(unit)" title="Mache (unit)">Mache</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/John_Napier" title="John Napier">John Napier</a> (<a href="/wiki/Neper" title="Neper">neper</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Antoine_Ferchault_de_R%C3%A9aumur" title="René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur">René Antoine Ferchault de Réaumur</a> (<a href="/wiki/R%C3%A9aumur_scale" title="Réaumur scale">degree Réaumur</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wilhelm_R%C3%B6ntgen" title="Wilhelm Röntgen">Wilhelm Röntgen</a> (<a href="/wiki/Roentgen_(unit)" title="Roentgen (unit)">roentgen</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/J._J._Thomson" title="J. J. Thomson">J. J. Thomson</a> (<a href="/wiki/Thomson_(unit)" title="Thomson (unit)">thomson</a>)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evangelista_Torricelli" title="Evangelista Torricelli">Evangelista Torricelli</a> (<a href="/wiki/Torr" title="Torr">torr</a>)</li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div><a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_units" title="List of scientists whose names are used as units">List of scientists whose names are used as units</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_scientists_whose_names_are_used_in_physical_constants" title="List of scientists whose names are used in physical constants">Scientists whose names are used in physical constants</a> · <a href="/wiki/List_of_chemical_elements_named_after_people" title="List of chemical elements named after people">People whose names are used in chemical element names</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9095#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9095#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Help:Authority_control" title="Help:Authority control">Authority control databases</a> <a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q9095#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://isni.org/isni/0000000121364370">ISNI</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://viaf.org/viaf/64037507">VIAF</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.worldcat.org/fast/40685/">FAST</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.oclc.org/worldcat/entity/E39PBJrGqf3TWthMmC6CYtRVG3">WorldCat</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/11873220X">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/n79089636">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12113496h">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb12113496h">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00524280">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://opac.sbn.it/nome/IEIV012824">Italy</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://nla.gov.au/anbd.aut-an35336156">Australia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=jn20000701194&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://catalogo.bne.es/uhtbin/authoritybrowse.cgi?action=display&authority_id=XX1008534">Spain</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://id.bnportugal.gov.pt/aut/catbnp/571383">Portugal</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.bibliotheken.nl/id/thes/p070343888">Netherlands</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://authority.bibsys.no/authority/rest/authorities/html/90146644">Norway</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000041646&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.bncatalogo.cl/F?func=direct&local_base=red10&doc_number=000333378">Chile</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.nlg.gr/cgi-bin/koha/opac-authoritiesdetail.pl?authid=241369">Greece</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lod.nl.go.kr/resource/KAC201623205">Korea</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://libris.kb.se/rp35618937s9clp">Sweden</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dbn.bn.org.pl/descriptor-details/9810617061405606">Poland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://olduli.nli.org.il/F/?func=find-b&local_base=NLX10&find_code=UID&request=987007265289505171">Israel</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://urn.fi/URN:NBN:fi:au:finaf:000105986">Finland</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://cantic.bnc.cat/registre/981058517401906706">Catalonia</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Academics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ci.nii.ac.jp/author/DA00892683?l=en">CiNii</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.mathgenealogy.org/id.php?id=105806">Mathematics Genealogy Project</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://zbmath.org/authors/?q=ai:maxwell.james-clerk">zbMATH</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://mathscinet.ams.org/mathscinet/MRAuthorID/121735">MathSciNet</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Artists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://rkd.nl/en/explore/artists/407170">RKD Artists</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.musee-orsay.fr/en/ressources/repertoire-artistes-personnalites/60350">Musée d'Orsay</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pic.nypl.org/constituents/284276">Photographers' Identities</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">People</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://trove.nla.gov.au/people/916263">Trove</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-biographie.de/pnd11873220X.html?language=en">Deutsche Biographie</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.deutsche-digitale-bibliothek.de/person/gnd/11873220X">DDB</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.idref.fr/027640116">IdRef</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://snaccooperative.org/ark:/99166/w68k7dpr">SNAC</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&oldid=1259340640">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&oldid=1259340640</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:James_Clerk_Maxwell" title="Category:James Clerk Maxwell">James Clerk Maxwell</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1831_births" title="Category:1831 births">1831 births</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:1879_deaths" title="Category:1879 deaths">1879 deaths</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_Scottish_mathematicians" title="Category:19th-century Scottish mathematicians">19th-century Scottish mathematicians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_British_physicists" title="Category:19th-century British physicists">19th-century British physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:19th-century_Scottish_scientists" title="Category:19th-century Scottish scientists">19th-century Scottish scientists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academics_of_King%27s_College_London" title="Category:Academics of King's College London">Academics of King's College London</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Academics_of_the_University_of_Aberdeen" title="Category:Academics of the University of Aberdeen">Academics of the University of Aberdeen</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_the_University_of_Edinburgh" title="Category:Alumni of the University of Edinburgh">Alumni of the University of Edinburgh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_Trinity_College,_Cambridge" title="Category:Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge">Alumni of Trinity College, Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Alumni_of_Peterhouse,_Cambridge" title="Category:Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge">Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Burials_in_Dumfries_and_Galloway" title="Category:Burials in Dumfries and Galloway">Burials in Dumfries and Galloway</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Color_scientists" title="Category:Color scientists">Color scientists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Deaths_from_stomach_cancer_in_England" title="Category:Deaths from stomach cancer in England">Deaths from stomach cancer in England</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_educated_at_Edinburgh_Academy" title="Category:People educated at Edinburgh Academy">People educated at Edinburgh Academy</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Elders_of_the_Church_of_Scotland" title="Category:Elders of the Church of Scotland">Elders of the Church of Scotland</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society_of_Edinburgh" title="Category:Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh">Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_the_Royal_Society" title="Category:Fellows of the Royal Society">Fellows of the Royal Society</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Fellows_of_King%27s_College_London" title="Category:Fellows of King's College London">Fellows of King's College London</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:People_associated_with_electricity" title="Category:People associated with electricity">People associated with electricity</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scientists_from_Edinburgh" title="Category:Scientists from Edinburgh">Scientists from Edinburgh</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Optical_physicists" title="Category:Optical physicists">Optical physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scottish_Presbyterians" title="Category:Scottish Presbyterians">Scottish Presbyterians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Calvinist_and_Reformed_elders" title="Category:Calvinist and Reformed elders">Calvinist and Reformed elders</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scottish_evangelicals" title="Category:Scottish evangelicals">Scottish evangelicals</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scottish_inventors" title="Category:Scottish inventors">Scottish inventors</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scottish_physicists" title="Category:Scottish physicists">Scottish physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Second_Wranglers" title="Category:Second Wranglers">Second Wranglers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_textbook_writers" title="Category:British textbook writers">British textbook writers</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Thermodynamicists" title="Category:Thermodynamicists">Thermodynamicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Mathematical_physicists" title="Category:Mathematical physicists">Mathematical physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:British_theoretical_physicists" title="Category:British theoretical physicists">British theoretical physicists</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Magneticians" title="Category:Magneticians">Magneticians</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Scottish_Engineering_Hall_of_Fame_inductees" title="Category:Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees">Scottish Engineering Hall of Fame inductees</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Cavendish_Professors_of_Physics" title="Category:Cavendish Professors of Physics">Cavendish Professors of Physics</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Presidents_of_the_Cambridge_Philosophical_Society" title="Category:Presidents of the Cambridge Philosophical Society">Presidents of the Cambridge Philosophical Society</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Webarchive_template_wayback_links" title="Category:Webarchive template wayback links">Webarchive template wayback links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_EB9" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from EB9</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_1911_Encyclopaedia_Britannica_with_Wikisource_reference" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the 1911 Encyclopaedia Britannica with Wikisource reference</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Good_articles" title="Category:Good articles">Good articles</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_indefinitely_semi-protected_pages" title="Category:Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages">Wikipedia indefinitely semi-protected pages</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:EngvarB_from_September_2014" title="Category:EngvarB from September 2014">EngvarB from September 2014</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Use_dmy_dates_from_August_2022" title="Category:Use dmy dates from August 2022">Use dmy dates from August 2022</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_Template:Post-nominals_with_missing_parameters" title="Category:Pages using Template:Post-nominals with missing parameters">Pages using Template:Post-nominals with missing parameters</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_gadget_WikiMiniAtlas" title="Category:Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas">Pages using gadget WikiMiniAtlas</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Biography_with_signature" title="Category:Biography with signature">Biography with signature</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_hCards" title="Category:Articles with hCards">Articles with hCards</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Wikipedia_articles_incorporating_a_citation_from_the_ODNB" title="Category:Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB">Wikipedia articles incorporating a citation from the ODNB</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Pages_using_cite_ODNB_with_id_parameter" title="Category:Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter">Pages using cite ODNB with id parameter</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Commons_link_is_on_Wikidata" title="Category:Commons link is on Wikidata">Commons link is on Wikidata</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Project_Gutenberg_links" title="Category:Articles with Project Gutenberg links">Articles with Project Gutenberg links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_Internet_Archive_links" title="Category:Articles with Internet Archive links">Articles with Internet Archive links</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_LibriVox_links" title="Category:Articles with LibriVox links">Articles with LibriVox links</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 24 November 2024, at 17:12 (UTC).</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. By using this site, you agree to the <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms_of_Use" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Terms of Use">Terms of Use</a> and <a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy" class="extiw" title="foundation:Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy policy">Privacy Policy</a>. Wikipedia® is a registered trademark of the <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/">Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.</a>, a non-profit organization.</li> </ul> <ul id="footer-places"> <li id="footer-places-privacy"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Privacy_policy">Privacy policy</a></li> <li id="footer-places-about"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:About">About Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-disclaimers"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:General_disclaimer">Disclaimers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-contact"><a href="//en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wikipedia:Contact_us">Contact Wikipedia</a></li> <li id="footer-places-wm-codeofconduct"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Universal_Code_of_Conduct">Code of Conduct</a></li> <li id="footer-places-developers"><a href="https://developer.wikimedia.org">Developers</a></li> <li id="footer-places-statslink"><a href="https://stats.wikimedia.org/#/en.wikipedia.org">Statistics</a></li> <li id="footer-places-cookiestatement"><a href="https://foundation.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:MyLanguage/Policy:Cookie_statement">Cookie statement</a></li> <li id="footer-places-mobileview"><a href="//en.m.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=James_Clerk_Maxwell&mobileaction=toggle_view_mobile" class="noprint stopMobileRedirectToggle">Mobile view</a></li> </ul> <ul id="footer-icons" class="noprint"> <li id="footer-copyrightico"><a href="https://wikimediafoundation.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/static/images/footer/wikimedia-button.svg" width="84" height="29" alt="Wikimedia Foundation" loading="lazy"></a></li> <li id="footer-poweredbyico"><a href="https://www.mediawiki.org/" class="cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--size-large cdx-button--fake-button--enabled"><img src="/w/resources/assets/poweredby_mediawiki.svg" alt="Powered by MediaWiki" width="88" height="31" loading="lazy"></a></li> </ul> </footer> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-settings" id="p-dock-bottom"> <ul></ul> </div><script>(RLQ=window.RLQ||[]).push(function(){mw.config.set({"wgHostname":"mw-web.codfw.main-f69cdc8f6-bgqhr","wgBackendResponseTime":200,"wgPageParseReport":{"limitreport":{"cputime":"2.034","walltime":"2.385","ppvisitednodes":{"value":20040,"limit":1000000},"postexpandincludesize":{"value":339075,"limit":2097152},"templateargumentsize":{"value":17888,"limit":2097152},"expansiondepth":{"value":18,"limit":100},"expensivefunctioncount":{"value":13,"limit":500},"unstrip-depth":{"value":1,"limit":20},"unstrip-size":{"value":462699,"limit":5000000},"entityaccesscount":{"value":1,"limit":400},"timingprofile":["100.00% 2127.987 1 -total"," 33.34% 709.451 1 Template:Reflist"," 20.84% 443.443 1 Template:Infobox_scientist"," 10.09% 214.680 41 Template:Cite_book"," 8.71% 185.445 42 Template:Cite_web"," 6.56% 139.561 1 Template:Infobox_officeholder"," 6.20% 131.910 21 Template:Cite_journal"," 5.07% 107.920 7 Template:Citation"," 4.93% 104.891 1 Template:Scientists_whose_names_are_used_as_non_SI_units"," 4.63% 98.427 1 Template:Navbox"]},"scribunto":{"limitreport-timeusage":{"value":"1.270","limit":"10.000"},"limitreport-memusage":{"value":16065022,"limit":52428800},"limitreport-logs":"table#1 {\n}\n\"\"\nanchor_id_list = table#1 {\n [\"CITEREFBarrettGrimes1995\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBaynes1878\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFBittanti2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFBramwell2017\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell,_Lewis1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbell2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCampbellGarnett,_William1882\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFChisholm1911\"] = 3,\n [\"CITEREFCrapo1979\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFCropper2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFDuhem2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEinstein\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEvans1961\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEverett2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFEyges1972\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardiniGrebogiLenci2020\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGardner2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFGlazebrook1896\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarman1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHarman2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHill\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHuntYorke1993\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFHutchinson2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJerrold2004\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson,_Kevin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJohnson,_Kevin2012\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFJones2009\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKeithley1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFKlein2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLaidler2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFLestienne1998\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMacfarlane1919\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMahon2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMarston2007\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell,_J._Clerk1861\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell,_J._Clerk2011\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell,_James_Clerk1868\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1855\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1857\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1865\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1873\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1876\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1881\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1890\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1908\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell1990\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell2011\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMaxwell2013\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMayr1971\"] = 2,\n [\"CITEREFMcFall2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMerali2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMichelsonMorley1887\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFMoralee,_Dennis\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNahin,_P.J.1992\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNahin2002\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFNewton1704\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFO\u0026#039;ConnorRobertson1997\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFReid\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRukeyser1942\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFRusso1996\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSarkarSalazar-PalmaSengupta2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSeitz\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFSiegfried2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTait1911\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTaylor2001\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTheerman1986\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTimoshenko1983\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFTolstoy1981\"] = 4,\n [\"CITEREFTolstoy1982\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWarwick2003\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWaterstonMacmillan_Shearer2006\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWest,_Thomas_G.1999\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWheen2010\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFWilczek2015\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFXiang2005\"] = 1,\n [\"CITEREFYoung1804\"] = 1,\n}\ntemplate_list = table#1 {\n [\"Authority control\"] = 1,\n [\"Birth date\"] = 1,\n [\"Blockquote\"] = 5,\n [\"Circa\"] = 1,\n [\"Citation\"] = 7,\n [\"Cite EB1911\"] = 4,\n [\"Cite EB9\"] = 3,\n [\"Cite ODNB\"] = 1,\n [\"Cite book\"] = 41,\n [\"Cite journal\"] = 21,\n [\"Cite news\"] = 2,\n [\"Cite web\"] = 42,\n [\"Clear\"] = 1,\n [\"Collapsible list\"] = 1,\n [\"Commons\"] = 1,\n [\"Convert\"] = 2,\n [\"Coord\"] = 1,\n [\"DEFAULTSORT:Maxwell, James Clerk\"] = 1,\n [\"Death date and age\"] = 1,\n [\"EngvarB\"] = 1,\n [\"Good article\"] = 1,\n [\"Gutenberg author\"] = 1,\n [\"Harvnb\"] = 47,\n [\"ISBN\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox officeholder\"] = 1,\n [\"Infobox scientist\"] = 1,\n [\"Internet Archive author\"] = 1,\n [\"Librivox author\"] = 1,\n [\"MacTutor Biography\"] = 1,\n [\"Main\"] = 4,\n [\"Marriage\"] = 1,\n [\"NPG name\"] = 1,\n [\"Nobold\"] = 1,\n [\"Poemquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Post-nominals\"] = 2,\n [\"Pp\"] = 1,\n [\"Reflist\"] = 1,\n [\"Scientists whose names are used as non SI units\"] = 1,\n [\"Sfn\"] = 3,\n [\"Short description\"] = 1,\n [\"Ubl\"] = 5,\n [\"Use dmy dates\"] = 1,\n [\"Webarchive\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikiquote\"] = 1,\n [\"Wikisource author\"] = 1,\n}\narticle_whitelist = table#1 {\n}\n","limitreport-profile":[["?","380","27.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::callParserFunction","220","16.2"],["dataWrapper \u003Cmw.lua:672\u003E","140","10.3"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::sub","60","4.4"],["recursiveClone \u003CmwInit.lua:45\u003E","60","4.4"],["[main chunk] \u003Cpackage.lua\u003E","40","2.9"],["makeMessage \u003Cmw.message.lua:76\u003E","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::plain","40","2.9"],["MediaWiki\\Extension\\Scribunto\\Engines\\LuaSandbox\\LuaSandboxCallback::gsub","40","2.9"],["\u003Cmw.lua:694\u003E","40","2.9"],["[others]","300","22.1"]]},"cachereport":{"origin":"mw-api-ext.codfw.main-7556f8b5dd-pn5x5","timestamp":"20241124171256","ttl":2592000,"transientcontent":false}}});});</script> <script type="application/ld+json">{"@context":"https:\/\/schema.org","@type":"Article","name":"James Clerk Maxwell","url":"https:\/\/en.wikipedia.org\/wiki\/James_Clerk_Maxwell","sameAs":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9095","mainEntity":"http:\/\/www.wikidata.org\/entity\/Q9095","author":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Contributors to Wikimedia projects"},"publisher":{"@type":"Organization","name":"Wikimedia Foundation, Inc.","logo":{"@type":"ImageObject","url":"https:\/\/www.wikimedia.org\/static\/images\/wmf-hor-googpub.png"}},"datePublished":"2001-09-18T11:08:51Z","dateModified":"2024-11-24T17:12:53Z","image":"https:\/\/upload.wikimedia.org\/wikipedia\/commons\/b\/b0\/James-Clerk-Maxwell-1831-1879.jpg","headline":"Scottish physicist (1831\u20131879)"}</script> </body> </html>