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class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Appearance" > <label id="vector-appearance-dropdown-label" for="vector-appearance-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-appearance mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-appearance"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Appearance</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-appearance-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-notifications" class="vector-menu mw-portlet emptyPortlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-vector-user-menu-overflow" class="vector-menu mw-portlet" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=spontaneous&uselang=km" class=""><span>បរិច្ចាគ</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-createaccount-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B8&returnto=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="អ្នកត្រូវបានលើកទឹកចិត្តបង្កើតគណនីនិងកត់ឈ្មោះចូល។ ប៉ុន្តែនេះមិនមែនជាការបង្ខំទេ។" class=""><span>បង្កើតគណនី</span></a> </li> <li id="pt-login-2" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item user-links-collapsible-item"><a data-mw="interface" href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%88%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%84%E1%9F%87%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8B&returnto=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="អ្នកត្រូវបានលើកទឹកចិត្តឱ្យកត់ឈ្មោះចូល។ ប៉ុន្តែនេះមិនមែនជាការបង្ខំទេ។ [o]" accesskey="o" class=""><span>កត់ឈ្មោះចូល</span></a> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> <div id="vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown vector-user-menu vector-button-flush-right vector-user-menu-logged-out" title="ជម្រើសផ្សេងទៀត" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-user-links-dropdown" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="ឧបករណ៍ផ្ទាល់ខ្លួន" > <label id="vector-user-links-dropdown-label" for="vector-user-links-dropdown-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-ellipsis mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-ellipsis"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">ឧបករណ៍ផ្ទាល់ខ្លួន</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="p-personal" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-personal user-links-collapsible-item" title="បញ្ជីសម្រាប់អ្នកប្រើប្រាស់" > <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-sitesupport" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="https://donate.wikimedia.org/?utm_source=donate&utm_medium=sidebar&utm_campaign=spontaneous&uselang=km"><span>បរិច្ចាគ</span></a></li><li id="pt-createaccount" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%84%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B8&returnto=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="អ្នកត្រូវបានលើកទឹកចិត្តបង្កើតគណនីនិងកត់ឈ្មោះចូល។ ប៉ុន្តែនេះមិនមែនជាការបង្ខំទេ។"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-userAdd mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-userAdd"></span> <span>បង្កើតគណនី</span></a></li><li id="pt-login" class="user-links-collapsible-item mw-list-item"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%88%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%84%E1%9F%87%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8B&returnto=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" title="អ្នកត្រូវបានលើកទឹកចិត្តឱ្យកត់ឈ្មោះចូល។ ប៉ុន្តែនេះមិនមែនជាការបង្ខំទេ។ [o]" accesskey="o"><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-logIn mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-logIn"></span> <span>កត់ឈ្មោះចូល</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> <div id="p-user-menu-anon-editor" class="vector-menu mw-portlet mw-portlet-user-menu-anon-editor" > <div class="vector-menu-heading"> ទំព័រសម្រាប់អ្នកកែសម្រួលដែលបានកត់ឈ្មោះចេញ <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%BD%E1%9E%99:Introduction" aria-label="ស្វែងយល់បន្ថែមអំពីការកែសម្រួល"><span>ស្វែងយល់បន្ថែម</span></a> </div> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li id="pt-anoncontribs" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BD%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%81%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%89%E1%9E%BB%E1%9F%86" title="បញ្ជីកំណែប្រែធ្វើឡើងពីអាសយដ្ឋាន IP នេះ [y]" accesskey="y"><span>ការរួមចំណែក</span></a></li><li id="pt-anontalk" class="mw-list-item"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%81%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%89%E1%9E%BB%E1%9F%86" title="ការពិភាក្សាអំពីកំណែប្រែដែលធ្វើឡើងចេញពីអាសយដ្ឋាន IP នេះ [n]" accesskey="n"><span>ការពិភាក្សា</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </header> 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List\u003C/a\u003E\u003C/small\u003E\n\u003C/p\u003E\n\u003C/div\u003E\u003C/div\u003E\u003C/div\u003E\u003C/div\u003E\u003C/div\u003E";}}());</script></div> </div> <div class="vector-column-start"> <div class="vector-main-menu-container"> <div id="mw-navigation"> <nav id="mw-panel" class="vector-main-menu-landmark" aria-label="Site"> <div id="vector-main-menu-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav id="mw-panel-toc" aria-label="មាតិកា" data-event-name="ui.sidebar-toc" class="mw-table-of-contents-container vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-toc-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-toc" class="vector-toc vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-toc-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="toc-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-toc" > <h2 class="vector-pinnable-header-label">មាតិកា</h2> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-pin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">ប្ដូរទីតាំងទៅរបារចំហៀង</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">លាក់</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">ក្បាលទំព័រ</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-សាខានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#សាខានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">១</span> <span>សាខានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-សាខានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ប្រវត្តិ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ប្រវត្តិ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២</span> <span>ប្រវត្តិ</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-ប្រវត្តិ-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle ប្រវត្តិ subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-ប្រវត្តិ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.១</span> <span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-បាប៊ីឡូននៀន" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#បាប៊ីឡូននៀន"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.១.១</span> <span>បាប៊ីឡូននៀន</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-បាប៊ីឡូននៀន-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ចិនបុរាណ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ចិនបុរាណ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.១.២</span> <span>ចិនបុរាណ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ចិនបុរាណ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.១.៣</span> <span>រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.១.៤</span> <span>ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ពែរ្សបុរាណ_(ផឺសៀរ)" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ពែរ្សបុរាណ_(ផឺសៀរ)"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.១.៥</span> <span>ពែរ្សបុរាណ (ផឺសៀរ)</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ពែរ្សបុរាណ_(ផឺសៀរ)-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២</span> <span>សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-អឺរ៉ុប" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#អឺរ៉ុប"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.១</span> <span>អឺរ៉ុប</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-អឺរ៉ុប-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-មជ្ឈិម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#មជ្ឈិម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.១.១</span> <span>មជ្ឈិម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-មជ្ឈិម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-សម័យបុនភព" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#សម័យបុនភព"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.១.២</span> <span>សម័យបុនភព</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-សម័យបុនភព-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-អាស៊ីខាងកើត" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#អាស៊ីខាងកើត"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.២</span> <span>អាស៊ីខាងកើត</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-អាស៊ីខាងកើត-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.២.១</span> <span>ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ជប៉ុន" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ជប៉ុន"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.២.២</span> <span>ជប៉ុន</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ជប៉ុន-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-កូរ៉េ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#កូរ៉េ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.២.៣</span> <span>កូរ៉េ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-កូរ៉េ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ដើមបូព៌ា" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ដើមបូព៌ា"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.៣</span> <span>ដើមបូព៌ា</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ដើមបូព៌ា-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ឥស្លាម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ឥស្លាម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.២.៣.១</span> <span>ឥស្លាម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ឥស្លាម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-សតវត្សទី១៧-ទី២១" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#សតវត្សទី១៧-ទី២១"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.៣</span> <span>សតវត្សទី១៧-ទី២១</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-សតវត្សទី១៧-ទី២១-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-អឺរ៉ុប_2" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#អឺរ៉ុប_2"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.៣.១</span> <span>អឺរ៉ុប</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-អឺរ៉ុប_2-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាដើមសម័យទំនើប" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ទស្សនវិជ្ជាដើមសម័យទំនើប"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.៣.១.១</span> <span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាដើមសម័យទំនើប</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាដើមសម័យទំនើប-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី១៩" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី១៩"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.៣.១.២</span> <span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី១៩</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី១៩-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី២០" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី២០"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">២.៣.១.៣</span> <span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី២០</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី២០-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-និរុត្តិវិទ្យា" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#និរុត្តិវិទ្យា"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៣</span> <span>និរុត្តិវិទ្យា</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-និរុត្តិវិទ្យា-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤</span> <span>ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Realism_and_nominalism" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Realism_and_nominalism"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.១</span> <span>Realism and nominalism</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Realism_and_nominalism-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-សនិទាននិយម_និង_ពិសោធន៍និយម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#សនិទាននិយម_និង_ពិសោធន៍និយម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.២</span> <span>សនិទាននិយម និង ពិសោធន៍និយម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-សនិទាននិយម_និង_ពិសោធន៍និយម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-សង្ស័យនិយម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#សង្ស័យនិយម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.៣</span> <span>សង្ស័យនិយម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-សង្ស័យនិយម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ឩត្តមគតិនិយម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ឩត្តមគតិនិយម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.៤</span> <span>ឩត្តមគតិនិយម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ឩត្តមគតិនិយម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-មនោនិយមនិងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#មនោនិយមនិងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.៥</span> <span>មនោនិយមនិងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-មនោនិយមនិងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-បាតុភូតវិទ្យា" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#បាតុភូតវិទ្យា"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.៦</span> <span>បាតុភូតវិទ្យា</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-បាតុភូតវិទ្យា-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-អត្ថិភាពនិយម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#អត្ថិភាពនិយម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.៧</span> <span>អត្ថិភាពនិយម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-អត្ថិភាពនិយម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម_និង_ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម_និង_ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.៨</span> <span>រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម និង ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម_និង_ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៤.៩</span> <span>ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៥</span> <span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស_និង_ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស_និង_ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៥.១</span> <span>ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស និង ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស_និង_ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Consequentialism,_deontology,_and_the_aretaic_turn" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Consequentialism,_deontology,_and_the_aretaic_turn"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៥.២</span> <span>Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Consequentialism,_deontology,_and_the_aretaic_turn-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Applied_philosophy" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Applied_philosophy"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៦</span> <span>Applied philosophy</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Applied_philosophy-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៧</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៨</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-អំណានបន្ថែម" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#អំណានបន្ថែម"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៩</span> <span>អំណានបន្ថែម</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-អំណានបន្ថែម-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle អំណានបន្ថែម subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-អំណានបន្ថែម-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Introductions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Introductions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៩.១</span> <span>Introductions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Introductions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Topical_introductions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Topical_introductions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៩.២</span> <span>Topical introductions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Topical_introductions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Anthologies" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Anthologies"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៩.៣</span> <span>Anthologies</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Anthologies-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reference_works" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reference_works"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">៩.៤</span> <span>Reference works</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reference_works-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">១០</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជា" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#ទស្សនវិជ្ជា"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">១១</span> <span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជា</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-ទស្សនវិជ្ជា-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="មាតិកា" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">ទស្សនវិជ្ជា</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in ២៣៥ languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-235" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">២៣៥ ភាសា</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ace mw-list-item"><a href="https://ace.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalam" title="Kalam – អាកហ៊ីនឺស" lang="ace" hreflang="ace" data-title="Kalam" data-language-autonym="Acèh" data-language-local-name="អាកហ៊ីនឺស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Acèh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – អាហ្វ្រិកាន" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="អាហ្វ្រិកាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – អាល្លឺម៉ង (ស្វីស)" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="អាល្លឺម៉ង (ស្វីស)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-am mw-list-item"><a href="https://am.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8D%8D%E1%88%8D%E1%88%B5%E1%8D%8D%E1%8A%93" title="ፍልስፍና – អាំហារិក" lang="am" hreflang="am" data-title="ፍልስፍና" data-language-autonym="አማርኛ" data-language-local-name="អាំហារិក" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>አማርኛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – អារ៉ាហ្គោន" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="អារ៉ាហ្គោន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aragonés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ang mw-list-item"><a href="https://ang.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AA%C3%B0witegung" title="Ūðwitegung – Old English" lang="ang" hreflang="ang" data-title="Ūðwitegung" data-language-autonym="Ænglisc" data-language-local-name="Old English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ænglisc</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-anp mw-list-item"><a href="https://anp.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – អាហ្គីកា" lang="anp" hreflang="anp" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="अंगिका" data-language-local-name="អាហ្គីកា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अंगिका</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="فلسفة – អារ៉ាប់" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="فلسفة" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="អារ៉ាប់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ary mw-list-item"><a href="https://ary.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D8%A9" title="لفلسفة – Moroccan Arabic" lang="ary" hreflang="ary" data-title="لفلسفة" data-language-autonym="الدارجة" data-language-local-name="Moroccan Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>الدارجة</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-arz mw-list-item"><a href="https://arz.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – Egyptian Arabic" lang="arz" hreflang="arz" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="مصرى" data-language-local-name="Egyptian Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مصرى</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-as mw-list-item"><a href="https://as.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A7%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দৰ্শন – អាសាមីស" lang="as" hreflang="as" data-title="দৰ্শন" data-language-autonym="অসমীয়া" data-language-local-name="អាសាមីស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>অসমীয়া</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – អាស្ទូរី" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="អាស្ទូរី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-av mw-list-item"><a href="https://av.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – អាវ៉ារីក" lang="av" hreflang="av" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Авар" data-language-local-name="អាវ៉ារីក" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Авар</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-avk mw-list-item"><a href="https://avk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trakopa" title="Trakopa – Kotava" lang="avk" hreflang="avk" data-title="Trakopa" data-language-autonym="Kotava" data-language-local-name="Kotava" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kotava</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-awa mw-list-item"><a href="https://awa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – អាវ៉ាឌី" lang="awa" hreflang="awa" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="अवधी" data-language-local-name="អាវ៉ាឌី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>अवधी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lup%27intawi" title="Lup'intawi – អីម៉ារ៉ា" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Lup'intawi" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="អីម៉ារ៉ា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – អាស៊ែបៃហ្សង់" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="អាស៊ែបៃហ្សង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-azb mw-list-item"><a href="https://azb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – South Azerbaijani" lang="azb" hreflang="azb" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="تۆرکجه" data-language-local-name="South Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>تۆرکجه</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – បាស្គៀ" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="បាស្គៀ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Башҡортса</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ban mw-list-item"><a href="https://ban.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – បាលី" lang="ban" hreflang="ban" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Basa Bali" data-language-local-name="បាលី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Basa Bali</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Boarisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bat-smg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bat-smg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosuop%C4%97j%C4%97" title="Filosuopėjė – Samogitian" lang="sgs" hreflang="sgs" data-title="Filosuopėjė" data-language-autonym="Žemaitėška" data-language-local-name="Samogitian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Žemaitėška</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bcl mw-list-item"><a href="https://bcl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Central Bikol" lang="bcl" hreflang="bcl" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Bikol Central" data-language-local-name="Central Bikol" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bikol Central</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філасофія – បេឡារុស" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Філасофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="បេឡារុស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D1%8F%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філязофія – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Філязофія" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bew mw-list-item"><a href="https://bew.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilsapat" title="Pilsapat – Betawi" lang="bew" hreflang="bew" data-title="Pilsapat" data-language-autonym="Betawi" data-language-local-name="Betawi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Betawi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – ប៊ុលហ្ការី" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="ប៊ុលហ្ការី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bi mw-list-item"><a href="https://bi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – ប៊ីស្លាម៉ា" lang="bi" hreflang="bi" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Bislama" data-language-local-name="ប៊ីស្លាម៉ា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bislama</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-blk mw-list-item"><a href="https://blk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%9E%E1%80%98%E1%80%AC%E1%80%9D%E1%80%90%E1%80%B9%E1%80%91%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ – Pa'O" lang="blk" hreflang="blk" data-title="သဘာဝတ္ထဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ" data-language-local-name="Pa'O" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ပအိုဝ်ႏဘာႏသာႏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%A6%E0%A6%B0%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%B6%E0%A6%A8" title="দর্শন – បង់ក្លាដែស" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="দর্শন" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="បង់ក្លាដែស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bo mw-list-item"><a href="https://bo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BD%98%E0%BD%9A%E0%BD%93%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%89%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%91%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%A2%E0%BD%B2%E0%BD%82%E0%BC%8B%E0%BD%94%E0%BC%8D" title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ། – ទីបេ" lang="bo" hreflang="bo" data-title="མཚན་ཉིད་རིག་པ།" data-language-autonym="བོད་ཡིག" data-language-local-name="ទីបេ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>བོད་ཡིག</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prederouriezh" title="Prederouriezh – ប្រ៊ីស្តុន" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Prederouriezh" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="ប្រ៊ីស្តុន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – បូស្នី" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="បូស្នី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-btm mw-list-item"><a href="https://btm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – Batak Mandailing" lang="btm" hreflang="btm" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Batak Mandailing" data-language-local-name="Batak Mandailing" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Batak Mandailing</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bxr mw-list-item"><a href="https://bxr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – Russia Buriat" lang="bxr" hreflang="bxr" data-title="Гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Буряад" data-language-local-name="Russia Buriat" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Буряад</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – កាតាឡាន" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="កាតាឡាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cdo mw-list-item"><a href="https://cdo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Di%C3%A9k-h%C5%8Fk" title="Diék-hŏk – Mindong" lang="cdo" hreflang="cdo" data-title="Diék-hŏk" data-language-autonym="閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄" data-language-local-name="Mindong" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩東語 / Mìng-dĕ̤ng-ngṳ̄</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ce mw-list-item"><a href="https://ce.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – ឈីឆេន" lang="ce" hreflang="ce" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="Нохчийн" data-language-local-name="ឈីឆេន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Нохчийн</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ceb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ceb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – ស៊ីប៊ូអាណូ" lang="ceb" hreflang="ceb" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Cebuano" data-language-local-name="ស៊ីប៊ូអាណូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cebuano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%AC%E1%8E%B3%E1%8F%A8%E1%8E%AF" title="ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ – ឆេរូគី" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎤᏬᎳᏨᎯ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="ឆេរូគី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%81%DB%95" title="فەلسەفە – ឃើដភាគកណ្តាល" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="فەلسەفە" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="ឃើដភាគកណ្តាល" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-co mw-list-item"><a href="https://co.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – កូស៊ីខាន" lang="co" hreflang="co" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Corsu" data-language-local-name="កូស៊ីខាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Corsu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofie" title="Filozofie – ឆែក" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Filozofie" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="ឆែក" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-csb mw-list-item"><a href="https://csb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofij%C3%B4" title="Filozofijô – Kashubian" lang="csb" hreflang="csb" data-title="Filozofijô" data-language-autonym="Kaszëbsczi" data-language-local-name="Kashubian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kaszëbsczi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – ឈូវ៉ាស" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="ឈូវ៉ាស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Athroniaeth" title="Athroniaeth – វេល" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Athroniaeth" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="វេល" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Cymraeg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – ដាណឺម៉ាក" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="ដាណឺម៉ាក" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – អាល្លឺម៉ង់" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="អាល្លឺម៉ង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-diq mw-list-item"><a href="https://diq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – Zazaki" lang="diq" hreflang="diq" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Zazaki" data-language-local-name="Zazaki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zazaki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dtp mw-list-item"><a href="https://dtp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – Central Dusun" lang="dtp" hreflang="dtp" data-title="Falsafah" data-language-autonym="Kadazandusun" data-language-local-name="Central Dusun" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kadazandusun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-dty mw-list-item"><a href="https://dty.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – Doteli" lang="dty" hreflang="dty" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="डोटेली" data-language-local-name="Doteli" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>डोटेली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – ក្រិក" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="ក្រិក" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eml mw-list-item"><a href="https://eml.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%AE" title="Filosofî – Emiliano-Romagnolo" lang="egl" hreflang="egl" data-title="Filosofî" data-language-autonym="Emiliàn e rumagnòl" data-language-local-name="Emiliano-Romagnolo" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Emiliàn e rumagnòl</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-en badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – អង់គ្លេស" lang="en" hreflang="en" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="English" data-language-local-name="អង់គ្លេស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – អេស្ពេរ៉ាន់តូ" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Filozofio" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="អេស្ពេរ៉ាន់តូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – អេស្ប៉ាញ" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="អេស្ប៉ាញ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – អេស្តូនី" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="អេស្តូនី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – បាសខ៍" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="បាសខ៍" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Estremeñu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – ភឺសៀន" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="ភឺសៀន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – ហ្វាំងឡង់" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="ហ្វាំងឡង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fiu-vro mw-list-item"><a href="https://fiu-vro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoofia" title="Filosoofia – Võro" lang="vro" hreflang="vro" data-title="Filosoofia" data-language-autonym="Võro" data-language-local-name="Võro" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Võro</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fj mw-list-item"><a href="https://fj.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – ហ៊្វីជី" lang="fj" hreflang="fj" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Na Vosa Vakaviti" data-language-local-name="ហ៊្វីជី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Na Vosa Vakaviti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fo mw-list-item"><a href="https://fo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – ហ្វារូស" lang="fo" hreflang="fo" data-title="Heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Føroyskt" data-language-local-name="ហ្វារូស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Føroyskt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – បារាំង" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="បារាំង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frp mw-list-item"><a href="https://frp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Arpitan" lang="frp" hreflang="frp" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Arpetan" data-language-local-name="Arpitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Arpetan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-frr mw-list-item"><a href="https://frr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – ហ្វ្រ៊ីសៀនខាងជើង" lang="frr" hreflang="frr" data-title="Filosofii" data-language-autonym="Nordfriisk" data-language-local-name="ហ្វ្រ៊ីសៀនខាងជើង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nordfriisk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fur mw-list-item"><a href="https://fur.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – ហ៊្វ្រូលាន" lang="fur" hreflang="fur" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Furlan" data-language-local-name="ហ៊្វ្រូលាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Furlan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofy" title="Filosofy – ហ្វ្រីស៊ានខាងលិច" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Filosofy" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="ហ្វ្រីស៊ានខាងលិច" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Frysk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feals%C3%BAnacht" title="Fealsúnacht – អៀរឡង់" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fealsúnacht" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="អៀរឡង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gan mw-list-item"><a href="https://gan.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – Gan" lang="gan" hreflang="gan" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="贛語" data-language-local-name="Gan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>贛語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gcr mw-list-item"><a href="https://gcr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – Guianan Creole" lang="gcr" hreflang="gcr" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Kriyòl gwiyannen" data-language-local-name="Guianan Creole" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kriyòl gwiyannen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gd mw-list-item"><a href="https://gd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feallsanachd" title="Feallsanachd – ស្កុតហ្កែលិគ" lang="gd" hreflang="gd" data-title="Feallsanachd" data-language-autonym="Gàidhlig" data-language-local-name="ស្កុតហ្កែលិគ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gàidhlig</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ADa" title="Filosofía – ហ្កាលីស្យាន" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Filosofía" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="ហ្កាលីស្យាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gn mw-list-item"><a href="https://gn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arandupykuaaty" title="Arandupykuaaty – ហ្គូរ៉ានី" lang="gn" hreflang="gn" data-title="Arandupykuaaty" data-language-autonym="Avañe'ẽ" data-language-local-name="ហ្គូរ៉ានី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Avañe'ẽ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-got mw-list-item"><a href="https://got.wikipedia.org/wiki/%F0%90%8D%86%F0%90%8D%82%F0%90%8D%89%F0%90%8C%B3%F0%90%8C%B0%F0%90%8C%BB%F0%90%8C%BF%F0%90%8C%B1%F0%90%8D%89" title="𐍆𐍂𐍉𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌿𐌱𐍉 – Gothic" lang="got" hreflang="got" data-title="𐍆𐍂𐍉𐌳𐌰𐌻𐌿𐌱𐍉" data-language-autonym="𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺" data-language-local-name="Gothic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>𐌲𐌿𐍄𐌹𐍃𐌺</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-guc mw-list-item"><a href="https://guc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piloosopia" title="Piloosopia – Wayuu" lang="guc" hreflang="guc" data-title="Piloosopia" data-language-autonym="Wayuunaiki" data-language-local-name="Wayuu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wayuunaiki</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gv mw-list-item"><a href="https://gv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fallsoonys" title="Fallsoonys – មេន" lang="gv" hreflang="gv" data-title="Fallsoonys" data-language-autonym="Gaelg" data-language-local-name="មេន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaelg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – ហូសា" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="ហូសា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chet-ho%CC%8Dk" title="Chet-ho̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Chet-ho̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%95%D7%A1%D7%95%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%94" title="פילוסופיה – ហេប្រឺ" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="פילוסופיה" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="ហេប្រឺ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B8%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B0" title="दर्शनशास्त्र – ហិណ្ឌី" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="दर्शनशास्त्र" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="ហិណ្ឌី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hif mw-list-item"><a href="https://hif.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Fiji Hindi" lang="hif" hreflang="hif" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Fiji Hindi" data-language-local-name="Fiji Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Fiji Hindi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – ក្រូអាត" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="ក្រូអាត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ht mw-list-item"><a href="https://ht.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – ហៃទី" lang="ht" hreflang="ht" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Kreyòl ayisyen" data-language-local-name="ហៃទី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kreyòl ayisyen</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filoz%C3%B3fia" title="Filozófia – ហុងគ្រី" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Filozófia" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="ហុងគ្រី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Magyar</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայություն – អាមេនី" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Փիլիսոփայություն" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="អាមេនី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%93%D5%AB%D5%AC%D5%AB%D5%BD%D5%B8%D6%83%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%B8%D6%82%D5%A9%D5%AB%D6%82%D5%B6" title="Փիլիսոփայութիւն – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Փիլիսոփայութիւն" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – អ៊ីនធើលីង" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Philosophia" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="អ៊ីនធើលីង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingua</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – ឥណ្ឌូណេស៊ី" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="ឥណ្ឌូណេស៊ី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ie mw-list-item"><a href="https://ie.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Interlingue" lang="ie" hreflang="ie" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Interlingue" data-language-local-name="Interlingue" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Interlingue</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ig mw-list-item"><a href="https://ig.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%81k%E1%BB%8D_na_Uche" title="Ákọ na Uche – អ៊ីកបូ" lang="ig" hreflang="ig" data-title="Ákọ na Uche" data-language-autonym="Igbo" data-language-local-name="អ៊ីកបូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Igbo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ilo mw-list-item"><a href="https://ilo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopia" title="Pilosopia – អ៊ីឡូកូ" lang="ilo" hreflang="ilo" data-title="Pilosopia" data-language-autonym="Ilokano" data-language-local-name="អ៊ីឡូកូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ilokano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-inh mw-list-item"><a href="https://inh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8" title="Философи – អ៊ិនហ្គូស" lang="inh" hreflang="inh" data-title="Философи" data-language-autonym="ГӀалгӀай" data-language-local-name="អ៊ិនហ្គូស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ГӀалгӀай</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofio" title="Filozofio – អ៊ីដូ" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Filozofio" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="អ៊ីដូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heimspeki" title="Heimspeki – អ៊ីស្លង់" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Heimspeki" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="អ៊ីស្លង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Íslenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – អ៊ីតាលី" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="អ៊ីតាលី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-iu mw-list-item"><a href="https://iu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%90%83%E1%93%B1%E1%92%AA%E1%93%95%E1%90%85%E1%95%90%E1%93%82%E1%96%85" title="ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ – អ៊ីនុកទីទុត" lang="iu" hreflang="iu" data-title="ᐃᓱᒪᓕᐅᕐᓂᖅ" data-language-autonym="ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut" data-language-local-name="អ៊ីនុកទីទុត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᐃᓄᒃᑎᑐᑦ / inuktitut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – ជប៉ុន" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="哲学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="ជប៉ុន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jam mw-list-item"><a href="https://jam.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filasafi" title="Filasafi – Jamaican Creole English" lang="jam" hreflang="jam" data-title="Filasafi" data-language-autonym="Patois" data-language-local-name="Jamaican Creole English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Patois</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jbo mw-list-item"><a href="https://jbo.wikipedia.org/wiki/pijyske" title="pijyske – លុចបាន" lang="jbo" hreflang="jbo" data-title="pijyske" data-language-autonym="La .lojban." data-language-local-name="លុចបាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>La .lojban.</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – ជ្វា" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="ជ្វា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილოსოფია – ហ្សកហ្ស៊ី" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="ហ្សកហ្ស៊ី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ქართული</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kaa mw-list-item"><a href="https://kaa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – Kara-Kalpak" lang="kaa" hreflang="kaa" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Qaraqalpaqsha" data-language-local-name="Kara-Kalpak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Qaraqalpaqsha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kab mw-list-item"><a href="https://kab.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tafelsaft" title="Tafelsaft – កាប៊ីឡេ" lang="kab" hreflang="kab" data-title="Tafelsaft" data-language-autonym="Taqbaylit" data-language-local-name="កាប៊ីឡេ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taqbaylit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofii" title="Filozofii – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Filozofii" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kabɩyɛ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kcg mw-list-item"><a href="https://kcg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lyenfilosofi" title="Lyenfilosofi – យ៉ាប់" lang="kcg" hreflang="kcg" data-title="Lyenfilosofi" data-language-autonym="Tyap" data-language-local-name="យ៉ាប់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tyap</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – កាហ្សាក់" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="កាហ្សាក់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Қазақша</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kl mw-list-item"><a href="https://kl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inuunerup_isumalerineq" title="Inuunerup isumalerineq – កាឡាលលីស៊ុត" lang="kl" hreflang="kl" data-title="Inuunerup isumalerineq" data-language-autonym="Kalaallisut" data-language-local-name="កាឡាលលីស៊ុត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kalaallisut</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kn mw-list-item"><a href="https://kn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B2%A4%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B5%E0%B2%B6%E0%B2%BE%E0%B2%B8%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%A4%E0%B3%8D%E0%B2%B0" title="ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ – ខាណាដា" lang="kn" hreflang="kn" data-title="ತತ್ತ್ವಶಾಸ್ತ್ರ" data-language-autonym="ಕನ್ನಡ" data-language-local-name="ខាណាដា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ಕನ್ನಡ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%B2%A0%ED%95%99" title="철학 – កូរ៉េ" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="철학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="កូរ៉េ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ku mw-list-item"><a href="https://ku.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – ឃឺដ" lang="ku" hreflang="ku" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Kurdî" data-language-local-name="ឃឺដ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kurdî</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofieth" title="Filosofieth – កូនីស" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Filosofieth" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="កូនីស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kernowek</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – កៀហ្ស៊ីស" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="កៀហ្ស៊ីស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Кыргызча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophia" title="Philosophia – ឡាតំាង" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Philosophia" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="ឡាតំាង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lad mw-list-item"><a href="https://lad.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – ឡាឌីណូ" lang="lad" hreflang="lad" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Ladino" data-language-local-name="ឡាឌីណូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladino</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lb mw-list-item"><a href="https://lb.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – លុចសំបួ" lang="lb" hreflang="lb" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Lëtzebuergesch" data-language-local-name="លុចសំបួ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lëtzebuergesch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lez mw-list-item"><a href="https://lez.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – ឡេសហ្គី" lang="lez" hreflang="lez" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Лезги" data-language-local-name="ឡេសហ្គី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Лезги</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lfn mw-list-item"><a href="https://lfn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Lingua Franca Nova" lang="lfn" hreflang="lfn" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Lingua Franca Nova" data-language-local-name="Lingua Franca Nova" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lingua Franca Nova</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – លីមប៊ូស" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="លីមប៊ូស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lij mw-list-item"><a href="https://lij.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozof%C3%AEa" title="Filozofîa – លីគូរី" lang="lij" hreflang="lij" data-title="Filozofîa" data-language-autonym="Ligure" data-language-local-name="លីគូរី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ligure</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lmo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lmo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusufia" title="Filusufia – Lombard" lang="lmo" hreflang="lmo" data-title="Filusufia" data-language-autonym="Lombard" data-language-local-name="Lombard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lombard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lo mw-list-item"><a href="https://lo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%BA%9B%E0%BA%B1%E0%BA%94%E0%BA%8A%E0%BA%B0%E0%BA%8D%E0%BA%B2" title="ປັດຊະຍາ – ឡាវ" lang="lo" hreflang="lo" data-title="ປັດຊະຍາ" data-language-autonym="ລາວ" data-language-local-name="ឡាវ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ລາວ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – លីទុយអានី" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Filosofija" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="លីទុយអានី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – ឡាតវី" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="ឡាតវី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mai mw-list-item"><a href="https://mai.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – ម៉ៃធីលី" lang="mai" hreflang="mai" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="मैथिली" data-language-local-name="ម៉ៃធីលី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मैथिली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fil%C3%B4z%C3%B4fia" title="Filôzôfia – ម៉ាឡាហ្គាស៊ី" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Filôzôfia" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="ម៉ាឡាហ្គាស៊ី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malagasy</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mhr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mhr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D0%B9" title="Философий – Eastern Mari" lang="mhr" hreflang="mhr" data-title="Философий" data-language-autonym="Олык марий" data-language-local-name="Eastern Mari" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Олык марий</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – ម៉ាសេដូនី" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="ម៉ាសេដូនី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B5%E0%B4%B6%E0%B4%BE%E0%B4%B8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B0%E0%B4%82" title="തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം – ម៉ាឡាយ៉ាឡាម" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="തത്ത്വശാസ്ത്രം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="ម៉ាឡាយ៉ាឡាម" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%93%D2%AF%D0%BD_%D1%83%D1%85%D0%B0%D0%B0%D0%BD" title="Гүн ухаан – ម៉ុងហ្គោលី" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Гүн ухаан" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="ម៉ុងហ្គោលី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mni mw-list-item"><a href="https://mni.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EA%AF%8B%EA%AF%A5%EA%AF%A1%EA%AF%8E%EA%AF%82%EA%AF%A3%EA%AF%9F" title="ꯋꯥꯡꯎꯂꯣꯟ – ម៉ានីពូរី" lang="mni" hreflang="mni" data-title="ꯋꯥꯡꯎꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-autonym="ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ" data-language-local-name="ម៉ានីពូរី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ꯃꯤꯇꯩ ꯂꯣꯟ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8" title="तत्त्वज्ञान – ម៉ារ៉ាធី" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="तत्त्वज्ञान" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="ម៉ារ៉ាធី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafah" title="Falsafah – ម៉ាឡេ" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Falsafah" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="ម៉ាឡេ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofija" title="Filosofija – ម៉ាល់តា" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Filosofija" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="ម៉ាល់តា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Malti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mwl mw-list-item"><a href="https://mwl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – មីរ៉ានដេស" lang="mwl" hreflang="mwl" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Mirandés" data-language-local-name="មីរ៉ានដេស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Mirandés</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%92%E1%80%BF%E1%80%94%E1%80%AD%E1%80%80%E1%80%97%E1%80%B1%E1%80%92" title="ဒဿနိကဗေဒ – ភូមា" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ဒဿနိကဗေဒ" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="ភូមា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>မြန်မာဘာသာ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-myv mw-list-item"><a href="https://myv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D1%80%D1%8F%D0%BC%D0%BE_%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%B9%D1%82%D0%BD%D0%B5%D0%BD%D1%8C_%D1%81%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B0%D0%BC%D0%BE" title="Эрямо койтнень содамо – អឺហ្ស៊ីយ៉ា" lang="myv" hreflang="myv" data-title="Эрямо койтнень содамо" data-language-autonym="Эрзянь" data-language-local-name="អឺហ្ស៊ីយ៉ា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Эрзянь</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mzn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mzn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – ម៉ាហ្សានដឺរេនី" lang="mzn" hreflang="mzn" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="مازِرونی" data-language-local-name="ម៉ាហ្សានដឺរេនី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>مازِرونی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – អាល្លឺម៉ង់ក្រោម" lang="nds" hreflang="nds" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Plattdüütsch" data-language-local-name="អាល្លឺម៉ង់ក្រោម" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Plattdüütsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filesefie" title="Filesefie – ហ្សាក់ស្យុងក្រោម" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Filesefie" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="ហ្សាក់ស្យុងក្រោម" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – នេប៉ាល់" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="នេប៉ាល់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाली</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A6%E0%A4%B0%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B6%E0%A4%A8" title="दर्शन – នេវ៉ាវី" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="दर्शन" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="នេវ៉ាវី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>नेपाल भाषा</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nia mw-list-item"><a href="https://nia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – នីអាស" lang="nia" hreflang="nia" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Li Niha" data-language-local-name="នីអាស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Li Niha</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – ហូឡង់" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="ហូឡង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – ន័រវែស នីនូស" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="ន័រវែស នីនូស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – ន័រវែស បុកម៉ាល់" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="ន័រវែស បុកម៉ាល់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nov mw-list-item"><a href="https://nov.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – Novial" lang="nov" hreflang="nov" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Novial" data-language-local-name="Novial" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Novial</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nqo mw-list-item"><a href="https://nqo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DF%A5%DF%98%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%A5%DF%98%DF%8B%DF%AC%DF%9F%DF%8C" title="ߥߘߋ߬ߥߘߋ߬ߟߌ – នគោ" lang="nqo" hreflang="nqo" data-title="ߥߘߋ߬ߥߘߋ߬ߟߌ" data-language-autonym="ߒߞߏ" data-language-local-name="នគោ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ߒߞߏ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nrm mw-list-item"><a href="https://nrm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Norman" lang="nrf" hreflang="nrf" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Nouormand" data-language-local-name="Norman" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nouormand</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – អូសីតាន់" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="អូសីតាន់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-olo mw-list-item"><a href="https://olo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosoufii" title="Filosoufii – Livvi-Karelian" lang="olo" hreflang="olo" data-title="Filosoufii" data-language-autonym="Livvinkarjala" data-language-local-name="Livvi-Karelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Livvinkarjala</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-om mw-list-item"><a href="https://om.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falaasama" title="Falaasama – អូរ៉ូម៉ូ" lang="om" hreflang="om" data-title="Falaasama" data-language-autonym="Oromoo" data-language-local-name="អូរ៉ូម៉ូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oromoo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pa mw-list-item"><a href="https://pa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A8%A6%E0%A8%B0%E0%A8%B8%E0%A8%BC%E0%A8%A8" title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ – បឹនជាពិ" lang="pa" hreflang="pa" data-title="ਦਰਸ਼ਨ" data-language-autonym="ਪੰਜਾਬੀ" data-language-local-name="បឹនជាពិ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ਪੰਜਾਬੀ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pag mw-list-item"><a href="https://pag.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – ភេនហ្គាស៊ីណាន" lang="pag" hreflang="pag" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Pangasinan" data-language-local-name="ភេនហ្គាស៊ីណាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pangasinan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – ប៉ាប៉ៃមេនតូ" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="ប៉ាប៉ៃមេនតូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Papiamentu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pcd mw-list-item"><a href="https://pcd.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Picard" lang="pcd" hreflang="pcd" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Picard" data-language-local-name="Picard" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Picard</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pfl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pfl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Palatine German" lang="pfl" hreflang="pfl" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Pälzisch" data-language-local-name="Palatine German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Pälzisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – ប៉ូឡូញ" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="ប៉ូឡូញ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pms mw-list-item"><a href="https://pms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosof%C3%ACa" title="Filosofìa – Piedmontese" lang="pms" hreflang="pms" data-title="Filosofìa" data-language-autonym="Piemontèis" data-language-local-name="Piedmontese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Piemontèis</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%8C" title="فلاسفی – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="فلاسفی" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پنجابی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A6%CE%B9%CE%BB%CE%BF%CF%83%CE%BF%CF%86%CE%AF%CE%B1" title="Φιλοσοφία – Pontic" lang="pnt" hreflang="pnt" data-title="Φιλοσοφία" data-language-autonym="Ποντιακά" data-language-local-name="Pontic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ποντιακά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%87" title="فلسفه – បាស្តូ" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="فلسفه" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="បាស្តូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – ព័រទុយហ្គាល់" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="ព័រទុយហ្គាល់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yachay_wayllukuy" title="Yachay wayllukuy – ហ្គិកឈួ" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yachay wayllukuy" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="ហ្គិកឈួ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rm mw-list-item"><a href="https://rm.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – រ៉ូម៉ង់" lang="rm" hreflang="rm" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Rumantsch" data-language-local-name="រ៉ូម៉ង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Rumantsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – រូម៉ានី" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="រូម៉ានី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – អារ៉ូម៉ានី" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="អារ៉ូម៉ានី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – រុស្ស៊ី" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="រុស្ស៊ី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філозофія – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Філозофія" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русиньскый</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rw mw-list-item"><a href="https://rw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofi" title="Filozofi – គិនយ៉ាវ៉ាន់ដា" lang="rw" hreflang="rw" data-title="Filozofi" data-language-autonym="Ikinyarwanda" data-language-local-name="គិនយ៉ាវ៉ាន់ដា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ikinyarwanda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sa badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://sa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%A4%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%9C%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%9E%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%AE%E0%A5%8D" title="तत्त्वज्ञानम् – សំស្ក្រឹត" lang="sa" hreflang="sa" data-title="तत्त्वज्ञानम्" data-language-autonym="संस्कृतम्" data-language-local-name="សំស្ក្រឹត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>संस्कृतम्</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sah mw-list-item"><a href="https://sah.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – សាខា" lang="sah" hreflang="sah" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Саха тыла" data-language-local-name="សាខា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Саха тыла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofia" title="Filosofia – សាឌីនា" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Filosofia" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="សាឌីនា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filusuf%C3%ACa" title="Filusufìa – ស៊ីស៊ីលាន" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Filusufìa" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="ស៊ីស៊ីលាន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sco mw-list-item"><a href="https://sco.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – ស្កុត" lang="sco" hreflang="sco" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Scots" data-language-local-name="ស្កុត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Scots</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sd mw-list-item"><a href="https://sd.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%D9%88" title="فلسفو – ស៊ីនឌី" lang="sd" hreflang="sd" data-title="فلسفو" data-language-autonym="سنڌي" data-language-local-name="ស៊ីនឌី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سنڌي</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-se mw-list-item"><a href="https://se.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiija" title="Filosofiija – សាមីខាងជើង" lang="se" hreflang="se" data-title="Filosofiija" data-language-autonym="Davvisámegiella" data-language-local-name="សាមីខាងជើង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Davvisámegiella</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sg mw-list-item"><a href="https://sg.wikipedia.org/wiki/S%C3%AAnd%C3%A2ndar%C3%A4" title="Sêndândarä – សានហ្គោ" lang="sg" hreflang="sg" data-title="Sêndândarä" data-language-autonym="Sängö" data-language-local-name="សានហ្គោ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sängö</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – សឺបូក្រូអាត" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="សឺបូក្រូអាត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-shi mw-list-item"><a href="https://shi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Taflsuft" title="Taflsuft – តាឈីលហ៊ីត" lang="shi" hreflang="shi" data-title="Taflsuft" data-language-autonym="Taclḥit" data-language-local-name="តាឈីលហ៊ីត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Taclḥit</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B6%AF%E0%B6%BB%E0%B7%8A%E0%B7%81%E0%B6%B1%E0%B6%BA" title="දර්ශනය – ស្រីលង្កា" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="දර්ශනය" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="ស្រីលង្កា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>සිංහල</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophy" title="Philosophy – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Philosophy" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – ស្លូវ៉ាគី" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="ស្លូវ៉ាគី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-skr mw-list-item"><a href="https://skr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="فلسفہ – Saraiki" lang="skr" hreflang="skr" data-title="فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="سرائیکی" data-language-local-name="Saraiki" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>سرائیکی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofija" title="Filozofija – ស្លូវ៉ានី" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Filozofija" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="ស្លូវ៉ានី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sn mw-list-item"><a href="https://sn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ugondamano" title="Ugondamano – សូណា" lang="sn" hreflang="sn" data-title="Ugondamano" data-language-autonym="ChiShona" data-language-local-name="សូណា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ChiShona</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Murtimaal" title="Murtimaal – សូម៉ាលី" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Murtimaal" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="សូម៉ាលី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Soomaaliga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sq mw-list-item"><a href="https://sq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofia" title="Filozofia – អាល់បានី" lang="sq" hreflang="sq" data-title="Filozofia" data-language-autonym="Shqip" data-language-local-name="អាល់បានី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Shqip</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D0%B7%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%98%D0%B0" title="Филозофија – ស៊ែប" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Филозофија" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="ស៊ែប" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-srn mw-list-item"><a href="https://srn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sabi_fu_denki" title="Sabi fu denki – ស្រាណានតុងហ្គោ" lang="srn" hreflang="srn" data-title="Sabi fu denki" data-language-autonym="Sranantongo" data-language-local-name="ស្រាណានតុងហ្គោ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sranantongo</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-st mw-list-item"><a href="https://st.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – សូថូខាងត្បូង" lang="st" hreflang="st" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Sesotho" data-language-local-name="សូថូខាងត្បូង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sesotho</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-stq mw-list-item"><a href="https://stq.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philosophie" title="Philosophie – Saterland Frisian" lang="stq" hreflang="stq" data-title="Philosophie" data-language-autonym="Seeltersk" data-language-local-name="Saterland Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Seeltersk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filsafat" title="Filsafat – ស៊ូដង់" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Filsafat" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="ស៊ូដង់" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi" title="Filosofi – ស៊ុយអែត" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Filosofi" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="ស៊ុយអែត" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – ស្វាហ៊ីលី" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="ស្វាហ៊ីលី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Kiswahili</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%AE%E0%AF%86%E0%AE%AF%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%BF%E0%AE%AF%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="மெய்யியல் – តាមីល" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="மெய்யியல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="តាមីល" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>தமிழ்</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-te mw-list-item"><a href="https://te.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B0%A4%E0%B0%A4%E0%B1%8D%E0%B0%B5%E0%B0%82" title="తత్వం – តេលុគុ" lang="te" hreflang="te" data-title="తత్వం" data-language-autonym="తెలుగు" data-language-local-name="តេលុគុ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>తెలుగు</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tet mw-list-item"><a href="https://tet.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filisofia" title="Filisofia – ទីទុំ" lang="tet" hreflang="tet" data-title="Filisofia" data-language-autonym="Tetun" data-language-local-name="ទីទុំ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tetun</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B0%D0%BB%D1%81%D0%B0%D1%84%D0%B0" title="Фалсафа – តាហ្ស៊ីគ" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Фалсафа" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="តាហ្ស៊ីគ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тоҷикӣ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%A3%E0%B8%B1%E0%B8%8A%E0%B8%8D%E0%B8%B2" title="ปรัชญา – ថៃ" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ปรัชญา" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="ថៃ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tk mw-list-item"><a href="https://tk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofi%C3%BDa" title="Filosofiýa – តួកម៉េន" lang="tk" hreflang="tk" data-title="Filosofiýa" data-language-autonym="Türkmençe" data-language-local-name="តួកម៉េន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkmençe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tl mw-list-item"><a href="https://tl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopiya" title="Pilosopiya – Tagalog" lang="tl" hreflang="tl" data-title="Pilosopiya" data-language-autonym="Tagalog" data-language-local-name="Tagalog" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tagalog</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tly mw-list-item"><a href="https://tly.wikipedia.org/wiki/F%C9%99ls%C9%99f%C9%99" title="Fəlsəfə – Talysh" lang="tly" hreflang="tly" data-title="Fəlsəfə" data-language-autonym="Tolışi" data-language-local-name="Talysh" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tolışi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tpi mw-list-item"><a href="https://tpi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pilosopi" title="Pilosopi – ថុកពីស៊ីន" lang="tpi" hreflang="tpi" data-title="Pilosopi" data-language-autonym="Tok Pisin" data-language-local-name="ថុកពីស៊ីន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tok Pisin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Felsefe" title="Felsefe – ទួរគី" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Felsefe" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="ទួរគី" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ts mw-list-item"><a href="https://ts.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ntivo-vuhleketi" title="Ntivo-vuhleketi – សុងហ្គា" lang="ts" hreflang="ts" data-title="Ntivo-vuhleketi" data-language-autonym="Xitsonga" data-language-local-name="សុងហ្គា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Xitsonga</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D3%99%D0%BB%D1%81%D3%99%D1%84%D3%99" title="Фәлсәфә – តាតា" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Фәлсәфә" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="តាតា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Татарча / tatarça</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tyv mw-list-item"><a href="https://tyv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D0%B8%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D0%B8%D1%8F" title="Философия – ទូវីនៀ" lang="tyv" hreflang="tyv" data-title="Философия" data-language-autonym="Тыва дыл" data-language-local-name="ទូវីនៀ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Тыва дыл</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ug mw-list-item"><a href="https://ug.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%BE%DB%95%D9%84%D8%B3%DB%95%D9%BE%DB%95" title="پەلسەپە – អ៊ុយហ្គឺរ" lang="ug" hreflang="ug" data-title="پەلسەپە" data-language-autonym="ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche" data-language-local-name="អ៊ុយហ្គឺរ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ئۇيغۇرچە / Uyghurche</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A4%D1%96%D0%BB%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BE%D1%84%D1%96%D1%8F" title="Філософія – អ៊ុយក្រែន" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Філософія" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="អ៊ុយក្រែន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ur mw-list-item"><a href="https://ur.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D9%84%D8%B3%D9%81%DB%81" title="فلسفہ – អ៊ូរឌូ" lang="ur" hreflang="ur" data-title="فلسفہ" data-language-autonym="اردو" data-language-local-name="អ៊ូរឌូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>اردو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Falsafa" title="Falsafa – អ៊ូសបេគ" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Falsafa" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="អ៊ូសបេគ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vec mw-list-item"><a href="https://vec.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fi%C5%82ozofia" title="Fiłozofia – វេណេតូ" lang="vec" hreflang="vec" data-title="Fiłozofia" data-language-autonym="Vèneto" data-language-local-name="វេណេតូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vèneto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofii" title="Filosofii – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Filosofii" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tri%E1%BA%BFt_h%E1%BB%8Dc" title="Triết học – វៀតណាម" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Triết học" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="វៀតណាម" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vo badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="អត្ថបទពិសេស"><a href="https://vo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosop" title="Filosop – វូឡាពូក" lang="vo" hreflang="vo" data-title="Filosop" data-language-autonym="Volapük" data-language-local-name="វូឡាពូក" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Volapük</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wa mw-list-item"><a href="https://wa.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filozofeye" title="Filozofeye – វ៉ាលូន" lang="wa" hreflang="wa" data-title="Filozofeye" data-language-autonym="Walon" data-language-local-name="វ៉ាលូន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Walon</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-war mw-list-item"><a href="https://war.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofiya" title="Filosofiya – វ៉ារេយ" lang="war" hreflang="war" data-title="Filosofiya" data-language-autonym="Winaray" data-language-local-name="វ៉ារេយ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Winaray</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wo mw-list-item"><a href="https://wo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xeltu" title="Xeltu – វូឡុហ្វ" lang="wo" hreflang="wo" data-title="Xeltu" data-language-autonym="Wolof" data-language-local-name="វូឡុហ្វ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Wolof</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – អ៊ូចិន" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="អ៊ូចិន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xh mw-list-item"><a href="https://xh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ifilosofi" title="Ifilosofi – ឃសា" lang="xh" hreflang="xh" data-title="Ifilosofi" data-language-autonym="IsiXhosa" data-language-local-name="ឃសា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiXhosa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-xmf mw-list-item"><a href="https://xmf.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%9A%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A1%E1%83%9D%E1%83%A4%E1%83%98%E1%83%90" title="ფილოსოფია – Mingrelian" lang="xmf" hreflang="xmf" data-title="ფილოსოფია" data-language-autonym="მარგალური" data-language-local-name="Mingrelian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>მარგალური</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%90%D7%A1%D7%90%D7%A4%D7%99%D7%A2" title="פילאסאפיע – យ៉ីឌីស" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="פילאסאפיע" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="យ៉ីឌីស" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ייִדיש</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yo badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://yo.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C3%8Cm%C3%B2ye" title="Ìmòye – យរូបា" lang="yo" hreflang="yo" data-title="Ìmòye" data-language-autonym="Yorùbá" data-language-local-name="យរូបា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Yorùbá</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-za mw-list-item"><a href="https://za.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cwzyoz" title="Cwzyoz – ហ្សួង" lang="za" hreflang="za" data-title="Cwzyoz" data-language-autonym="Vahcuengh" data-language-local-name="ហ្សួង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vahcuengh</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zea mw-list-item"><a href="https://zea.wikipedia.org/wiki/Filosofie" title="Filosofie – Zeelandic" lang="zea" hreflang="zea" data-title="Filosofie" data-language-autonym="Zeêuws" data-language-local-name="Zeelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Zeêuws</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zgh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zgh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E2%B5%9C%E2%B4%B0%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%8D%E2%B5%99%E2%B5%93%E2%B4%BC%E2%B5%9C" title="ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ – តាម៉ាហ្សៃម៉ារ៉ុកស្តង់ដា" lang="zgh" hreflang="zgh" data-title="ⵜⴰⴼⵍⵙⵓⴼⵜ" data-language-autonym="ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ" data-language-local-name="តាម៉ាហ្សៃម៉ារ៉ុកស្តង់ដា" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ⵜⴰⵎⴰⵣⵉⵖⵜ ⵜⴰⵏⴰⵡⴰⵢⵜ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%A6" title="哲学 – ចិន" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="哲学" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="ចិន" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E9%80%9A%E5%B9%BE" title="通幾 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="通幾" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tiat-ha%CC%8Dk" title="Tiat-ha̍k – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Tiat-ha̍k" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%93%B2%E5%AD%B8" title="哲學 – កន្តាំង" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="哲學" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="កន្តាំង" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Injulalwazi" title="Injulalwazi – ហ្សូលូ" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Injulalwazi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="ហ្សូលូ" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li> </ul> <div class="after-portlet after-portlet-lang"><span class="wb-langlinks-edit wb-langlinks-link"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5891#sitelinks-wikipedia" title="កែប្រែតំណភ្ជាប់អន្តរភាសា" class="wbc-editpage">កែប្រែតំណភ្ជាប់</a></span></div> </div> </div> </div> </header> <div class="vector-page-toolbar"> <div class="vector-page-toolbar-container"> <div id="left-navigation"> <nav aria-label="លំហឈ្មោះ"> <div id="p-associated-pages" class="vector-menu vector-menu-tabs mw-portlet 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class="wb-otherproject-link wb-otherproject-wikibase-dataitem mw-list-item"><a href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Special:EntityPage/Q5891" title="Link to connected data repository item [g]" accesskey="g"><span>Wikidata item</span></a></li> </ul> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> </div> <div class="vector-column-end"> <div class="vector-sticky-pinned-container"> <nav class="vector-page-tools-landmark" aria-label="Page tools"> <div id="vector-page-tools-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> </div> </nav> <nav class="vector-appearance-landmark" aria-label="Appearance"> <div id="vector-appearance-pinned-container" class="vector-pinned-container"> <div id="vector-appearance" class="vector-appearance vector-pinnable-element"> <div class="vector-pinnable-header vector-appearance-pinnable-header vector-pinnable-header-pinned" data-feature-name="appearance-pinned" data-pinnable-element-id="vector-appearance" 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style="background:#FFD699;padding-left:4px;padding-right:4px;"><span typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/66/Philbar.png/169px-Philbar.png" decoding="async" width="169" height="56" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/66/Philbar.png 1.5x" data-file-width="220" data-file-height="73" /></span></span><div class="sidebar-caption">(<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plato (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Plato</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Confucius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Confucius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Confucius</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Avicenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avicenna (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Avicenna</a></i>)</div></td></tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left; background:#FFD699;font-size:105%;padding-top:0.1em;;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%90%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%98:Philosophers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:Philosophers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិទូ</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align: center; font-size:105%;;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_aestheticians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of aestheticians (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Aestheticians</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;">·</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_epistemologists&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of epistemologists (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Epistemologists</a><br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_ethicists&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of ethicists (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ethicists</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;">·</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_logicians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of logicians (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Logicians</a><br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_metaphysicians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of metaphysicians (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Metaphysicians</a><br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_social_and_political_philosophers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of social and political philosophers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Social and political philosophers</a></div> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left; background:#FFD699;font-size:105%;padding-top:0.1em;;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%90%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%98:Philosophical_traditions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:Philosophical traditions (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Traditions</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align: center; font-size:105%;;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Analytic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Analytic</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;">·</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Continental</a><br /> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eastern philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Eastern</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;">·</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Islamic</a><br /> </p> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Platonism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Platonism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Platonic</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;">·</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholasticism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scholasticism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Scholastic</a></div> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" style="border: none; padding: 0;"> <div class="NavHead" style="font-size: 105%; background: transparent; text-align: left; background:#FFD699;font-size:105%;padding-top:0.1em;;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%85%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%90%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%98:Philosophy_by_era&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ចំណាត់ថ្នាក់ក្រុម:Philosophy by era (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">សម័យកាល</a></div> <div class="NavContent" style="font-size: 105%; padding: 0.2em 0 0.4em; text-align: center; font-size:105%;;"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ancient philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ancient</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;">·</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medieval philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Medieval</a><br /> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Modern philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Modern</a> <span style="font-weight:bold;">·</span> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Contemporary_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Contemporary philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Contemporary</a></div> </div></td> </tr><tr><td class="sidebar-content"> <div class="NavFrame collapsed" 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src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/220px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="288" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/330px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/98/Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg/440px-Sanzio_01_Plato_Aristotle.jpg 2x" data-file-width="804" data-file-height="1052" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84" title="ប្លាតុង">ប្លាតុង</a> (<i>ឆ្វេង</i>) និងand <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%8F" class="mw-redirect" title="អារីស្តូត">អារីស្តូត</a> (<i>ស្ដាំ</i>): លំអិតអំពីdetail from <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%83%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="សាលានៃអាតែន (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">សាលានៃអាតែន</a></i> ដោយby លោក<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%95%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%A1%E1%9E%BC_%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%8B%E1%9E%A0%E1%9F%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%BC&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="រ៉ាផ្វេលឡូ សាន់ហ៊្សីអូ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">រ៉ាផ្វេលឡូ សាន់ហ៊្សីអូ</a>, ១៥០៩</figcaption></figure> <p><b>ទស្សនវិជ្ជា</b>ជាកាសិក្សាពីបញ្ហាគ្រឹះទូទៅ ដូចជាបញ្ហាទាំងនោះបានភ្ជាប់ជាមួយនិងជីវភាពរស់នៅ ចំណេះដឹង រង្វាយតម្លៃ ហេតុផល ចិត្ត ហើយនិងភាសា ។ <sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> វាត្រូវបានគេកត់សំគាល់ចាប់ពីមធ្យោបាយផ្សេងៗនៃការថ្លាថ្លែងដូចជាបញ្ហាតាមការចូលទៅដល់ប្រព័ន្ធទូទៅម៉ត់ចត់របស់វា និង ការពឹងផ្អែករបស់វាលើ<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%85%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%89%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="វិចារណញ្ញាណ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទឡ្ហីករណ៍សនិទាន</a>។<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The word "philosophy" comes from the Greek φιλοσοφία (<i>philosophia</i>), which literally means "love of wisdom".<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="សាខានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា"><span id=".E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.81.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.83.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6"></span>សាខានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=1" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ សាខានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following branches are the main areas of study: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%90%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6Metaphysics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="បរមត្ថវិជ្ជាMetaphysics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">បរមត្ថវិជ្ជាMetaphysics</a></b> is the study of the nature of reality, including the relationship between mind and body, substance and accident, events and causation. Traditional branches are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cosmology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cosmology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">cosmology</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ontology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ontology</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epistemology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Epistemology</a></b> is concerned with the nature and scope of knowledge, and whether knowledge is possible. Among its central concerns has been the challenge posed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Skepticism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skepticism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">skepticism</a> and the relationships between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Truth&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Truth (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">truth</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Belief&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Belief (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">belief</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_justification&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of justification (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">justification</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ethics</a></b>, or "moral philosophy", is concerned primarily with the question of the best way to live, and secondarily, concerning the question of whether this question can be answered. The main branches of ethics are <a href="/w/index.php?title=Meta-ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Meta-ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">meta-ethics</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Normative_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Normative ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">normative ethics</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Applied_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Applied ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">applied ethics</a>. Meta-ethics concerns the nature of ethical thought, such as the origins of the words good and bad, and origins of other comparative words of various ethical systems, whether there are absolute ethical truths, and how such truths could be known. Normative ethics are more concerned with the questions of how one ought to act, and what the right course of action is. This is where most ethical theories are generated.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lastly, applied ethics go beyond theory and step into real world ethical practice, such as questions of whether or not abortion is correct.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Ethics is also associated with the idea of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Morality&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Morality (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">morality</a>, and the two are often interchangeable.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%99%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%99Political_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជានយោបាយPolitical philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជានយោបាយPolitical philosophy</a></b> is the study of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Government&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Government (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">government</a> and the relationship of individuals (or families and clans) to communities including the <a href="/w/index.php?title=State_(polity)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="State (polity) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">state</a>. It includes questions about justice, law, property, and the rights and obligations of the citizen. Politics and ethics are traditionally inter-linked subjects, as both discuss the question of what is good and how people should live.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%B6Aesthetics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="សោភណវិទ្យាAesthetics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">សោភណវិទ្យាAesthetics</a></b> deals with beauty, art, enjoyment, sensory-emotional values, perception, and matters of taste and sentiment.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%80%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6Logic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="តក្កវិជ្ជាLogic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">តក្កវិជ្ជាLogic</a></b> is the study of valid argument forms. Beginning in the late 19th century, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematician&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathematician (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">mathematicians</a> such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottlob_Frege&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gottlob Frege (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gottlob Frege</a> focused on a mathematical treatment of logic, and today the subject of logic has two broad divisions: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematical_logic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathematical logic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">mathematical logic</a> (formal symbolic logic) and what is now called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_logic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical logic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophical logic</a>.</li></ul> <p>Philosophy has expanded to include specialized branches of thought: </p> <ul><li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6Philosophy_of_language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាភាសាPhilosophy of language (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាភាសាPhilosophy of language</a></b> explores the nature, the origins, and the use of language.</li> <li><b>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាច្បាប់Philosophy of law</b> (more commonly called <b><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jurisprudence (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jurisprudence</a></b>) explores the varying theories explaining the nature and the interpretations of the law in society.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6Philosophy_of_mind&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាPhilosophy of mind (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាPhilosophy of mind</a></b> explores the nature of the mind, and its relationship to the body, and is typified by disputes between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dualism_(philosophy_of_mind)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dualism (philosophy of mind) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">dualism</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Materialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Materialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">materialism</a>. In recent years there has been increasing similarity between this branch of philosophy and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cognitive_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cognitive science (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">cognitive science</a>.</li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6Philosophy_of_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាPhilosophy of religion (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាPhilosophy of religion</a></b></li> <li><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%B6Philosophy_of_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាPhilosophy of science (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាPhilosophy of science</a></b></li></ul> <p>Many academic disciplines also have philosophical foundations. These include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_History&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of History (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">history</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_logic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of logic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">logic</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jurisprudence&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jurisprudence (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">law</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_mathematics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of mathematics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">mathematics</a>. In addition, a range of disciplines have emerged to address areas that historically were the subjects of philosophy. These include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anthropology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anthropology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">anthropology</a>,<a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psychology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">psychology</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Physics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Physics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">physics</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ប្រវត្តិ"><span id=".E1.9E.94.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.B7"></span>ប្រវត្តិ</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=2" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ប្រវត្តិ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><b><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r295577">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}</style></b></i></p><i><b><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ប្រវត្តិទស្សនវិជ្ជា (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ប្រវត្តិទស្សនវិជ្ជា</a></div></b></i> <div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">សូមមើលផងដែរ: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%85&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងលិច (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងលិច</a>,  <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងកើត (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងកើត</a> និង <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%85&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ប្រវត្តិទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងលិច (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ប្រវត្តិទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងលិច</a></div> <p>សង្គមមួយចំនួន បានចាត់ទុកថាសំនួរតាមបែបទស្សនវិជ្ជា និងប្រពៃណីទំនៀមទម្លាប់ខាងទស្សនវិជ្ជា ដែលបានសាងឡើងបានពឹកផ្អែកលើការងាររបស់គ្នាទៅវិញទៅមក ។ </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%8F&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងកើត (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងកើត</a>ត្រូវបានរៀបចំដោយសម័យកាលវិទ្យានៃតំបន់នីមួយៗ ។ ពួកប្រវត្តិវិទូនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងលិចជាធម្មតាចែកមុខវិជ្ជានេះទៅជាបីសម័យរឺក៏លើសពីនេះ ជាការសំខាន់បំផុតគឺ<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%88%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%99&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាមជ្ឈិមសម័យ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាមជ្ឈិមសម័យ</a> និង<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%BE%E1%9E%94&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទំនើប (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទំនើប</a> ។ <sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ"><span id=".E1.9E.91.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8E"></span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=3" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><i><b><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"></b></i></p><i><b><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8E&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ</a></div></b></i> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="បាប៊ីឡូននៀន"><span id=".E1.9E.94.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.94.E1.9F.8A.E1.9E.B8.E1.9E.A1.E1.9E.BC.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.80.E1.9E.93"></span>បាប៊ីឡូននៀន</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=4" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ បាប៊ីឡូននៀន"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">ព័ត៌មានបន្ថែម: [[:<a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonian_literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Babylonian literature (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Babylonian literature: Philosophy</a>]]</div> <p>The origins of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Babylonia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Babylonia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Babylonian</a> philosophy can be traced back to the wisdom of early <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mesopotamia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mesopotamia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Mesopotamia</a>, which embodied certain philosophies of life, particularly <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ethics</a>, in the forms of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dialectic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">dialectic</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialogue&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dialogue (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">dialogues</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epic_poetry&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epic poetry (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">epic poetry</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Folklore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Folklore (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">folklore</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hymn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hymn (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">hymns</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lyrics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lyrics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">lyrics</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prose&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prose (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">prose</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Proverb&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Proverb (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">proverbs</a>. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reasoning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reasoning (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">reasoning</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationality&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rationality (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">rationality</a> of the Babylonians developed beyond <a href="/w/index.php?title=Empiricism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Empiricism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">empirical</a> observation.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Babylonian text <i>Dialog of Pessimism</i> contains similarities to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Agnostic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Agnostic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">agnostic</a> thought of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sophists&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sophists (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">sophists</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Heraclitus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Heraclitus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Heraclitean</a> doctrine of contrasts, and the dialogues of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plato (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Plato</a>, as well as a precursor to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maieutics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maieutics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">maieutic</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Socratic_method&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Socratic method (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Socratic method</a> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Socrates&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Socrates (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Socrates</a> and Plato.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Milesians_(Greek)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Milesians (Greek) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Milesian</a> philosopher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thales&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thales (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thales</a> is also traditionally said to have studied philosophy in Mesopotamia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ចិនបុរាណ"><span id=".E1.9E.85.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8E"></span>ចិនបុរាណ</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=5" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ចិនបុរាណ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg/100px-Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="170" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg/150px-Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/65/Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg/200px-Confucius_-_Project_Gutenberg_eText_15250.jpg 2x" data-file-width="268" data-file-height="456" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Confucius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Confucius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Confucius</a>, illustrated in <i>Myths & Legends of China</i>, 1922, by E.T.C. Werner.</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chinese philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Chinese philosophy</a></div> <p>Philosophy has had a tremendous effect on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_civilization&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chinese civilization (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Chinese civilization</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=East_Asia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="East Asia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">East Asia</a> as a whole. Many of the great philosophical schools were formulated during the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Spring_and_Autumn_Period&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Spring and Autumn Period (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Spring and Autumn Period</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Warring_States_Period&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Warring States Period (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Warring States Period</a>, and came to be known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hundred_Schools_of_Thought&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hundred Schools of Thought (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hundred Schools of Thought</a>, which consisted of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Confucianism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Confucianism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Confucianism</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Taoism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Taoism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Taoism</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mohism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mohism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Mohism</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Legalism_(Chinese_philosophy)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legalism (Chinese philosophy) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Legalism</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=School_of_Agrarianism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="School of Agrarianism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Agrarianism</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=School_of_Naturalists&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="School of Naturalists (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">School of Naturalists</a>, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=School_of_Names&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="School of Names (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Logicians</a>. Similarly to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Western philosophy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chinese_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chinese philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Chinese philosophy</a> also covers a broad and complex range of thought, possessing a multitude of schools that address every branch and subject area of philosophy. </p> <div class="dablink">See also: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Yin-Yang&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Yin-Yang (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Yin-Yang</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Qi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Qi (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Qi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tao&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tao (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Tao</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Li_(Confucian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Li (Confucian) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Li</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=I_Ching&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="I Ching (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">I Ching</a>.</div> <div class="dablink">Related Topics: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Korean_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Korean philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Korean philosophy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bushido&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bushido (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Bushido</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zen (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Zen</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Art_of_War&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Art of War (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">The Art of War</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Asian_Values&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Asian Values (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Asian Values</a>.</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ"><span id=".E1.9E.9A.E1.9F.89.E1.9E.BC.E1.9E.98-.E1.9E.80.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.80.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8E"></span>រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=6" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hellenistic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hellenistic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hellenistic philosophy</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_Greek_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ancient Greek philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ancient Greek philosophy</a></div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/100px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg" decoding="async" width="100" height="134" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/150px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ae/Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg/200px-Aristotle_Altemps_Inv8575.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1700" data-file-height="2275" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Ancient Graeco-Roman philosophy is a period of Western philosophy, starting in the 6th century [c. 585] BC to the 6th century AD. It is usually divided into three periods: the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pre-Socratic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pre-Socratic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">pre-Socratic period</a>, the period of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plato (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Plato</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, and the post-Aristotelian (or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hellenistic_period&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hellenistic period (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hellenistic</a>) period. A fourth period that is sometimes added includes the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neoplatonic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neoplatonic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Neoplatonic</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christian (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Christian</a> philosophers of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Late_Antiquity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Late Antiquity (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Late Antiquity</a>. The most important of the ancient philosophers (in terms of subsequent influence) are Plato and Aristotle.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main subjects of ancient philosophy are: understanding the fundamental causes and principles of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Universe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Universe (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">universe</a>; explaining it in an economical way; the epistemological problem of reconciling the diversity and change of the natural universe, with the possibility of obtaining fixed and certain knowledge about it; questions about things that cannot be perceived by the senses, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Number&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Number (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">numbers</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_element&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Classical element (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">elements</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Universals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Universals (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">universals</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gods&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gods (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">gods</a>. Socrates is said to have been the initiator of more focused study upon the human things including the analysis of patterns of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reasoning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reasoning (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">reasoning</a> and argument and the nature of <a href="/w/index.php?title=The_good_life&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The good life (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">the good life</a> and the importance of understanding and knowledge in order to pursue it; the explication of the concept of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Justice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Justice (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">justice</a>, and its relation to various <a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_systems&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Political systems (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">political systems</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_12-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In this period the crucial features of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_method&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical method (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophical method</a> were established: a critical approach to received or established views, and the appeal to reason and argumentation. </p> <div style="clear:both;"></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ"><span id=".E1.9E.A5.E1.9E.8E.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.8C.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8E"></span>ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=7" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indian philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Indian philosophy</a></div> <div class="rellink">ព័ត៌មានបន្ថែម៖ <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hindu_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hindu philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hindu philosophy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhist philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Buddhist philosophy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jain philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jain philosophy</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Upanishads&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Upanishads (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Upanishads</a></div> <p>The term <b>Indian philosophy</b> (Sanskrit: <i>Darshanas</i>), may refer to any of several traditions of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Eastern_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Eastern philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophical thought</a> that originated in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_subcontinent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indian subcontinent (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Indian subcontinent</a>, including <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hindu_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hindu philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hindu philosophy</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhist_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhist philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Buddhist philosophy</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jain_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jain philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jain philosophy</a>. Having the same or rather intertwined origins, all of these philosophies have a common underlying theme of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dharma&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dharma (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Dharma</a>, and similarly attempt to explain the attainment of emancipation. They have been formalized and promulgated chiefly between 1000 BC to a few centuries AD, with residual commentaries and reformations continuing up to as late as the 20th century by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aurobindo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aurobindo (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Aurobindo</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=ISKCON&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ISKCON (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ISKCON</a> among others, who provided stylized interpretations. </p><p>In the history of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indian_subcontinent&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indian subcontinent (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Indian subcontinent</a>, following the establishment of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Vedic_period&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Vedic period (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Vedic</a> culture, the development of philosophical and religious thought over a period of two millennia gave rise to what came to be called the six schools of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nastika&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nastika (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">astika</a></i>, or orthodox, Indian or Hindu philosophy. These schools have come to be synonymous with the greater religion of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hinduism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hinduism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hinduism</a>, which was a development of the early <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_Vedic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical Vedic religion (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Vedic religion</a>. </p><p>Hindu philosophy constitutes an integral part of the culture of <a href="/w/index.php?title=South_Asia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="South Asia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">South Asia</a>, and is the first of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dharmic_religions&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dharmic religions (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Dharmic</a> philosophies that were influential throughout the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Far_East&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Far East (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Far East</a>. The great diversity in thought and practice of Hinduism is nurtured by its liberal <a href="/w/index.php?title=Universalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Universalism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">universalism</a> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ពែរ្សបុរាណ_(ផឺសៀរ)"><span id=".E1.9E.96.E1.9F.82.E1.9E.9A.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8E_.28.E1.9E.95.E1.9E.BA.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.80.E1.9E.9A.29"></span>ពែរ្សបុរាណ (ផឺសៀរ)</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=8" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ពែរ្សបុរាណ (ផឺសៀរ)"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Iranian_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Iranian philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Iranian philosophy</a></div> <p>Persian philosophy can be traced back as far as Old Iranian philosophical traditions and thoughts, with their ancient <a href="/w/index.php?title=Indo-Iranians&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Indo-Iranians (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Indo-Iranian</a> roots. These were considerably influenced by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zarathustra&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zarathustra (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Zarathustra</a>'s teachings. Throughout Iranian history and due to remarkable political and social influences such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alexander_the_Great&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alexander the Great (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Macedonian</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_conquest_of_Persia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic conquest of Persia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Arab</a>, and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mongol_invasion_of_Central_Asia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mongol invasion of Central Asia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Mongol invasions</a> of Persia, a wide spectrum of schools of thought arose. These espoused a variety of views on philosophical questions, extending from Old Iranian and mainly <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zoroastrianism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zoroastrianism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Zoroastrianism</a>-influenced traditions to schools appearing in the late pre-Islamic era, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Manicheism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Manicheism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Manicheism</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mazdakism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mazdakism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Mazdakism</a>, as well as various post-Islamic schools. Iranian philosophy after Arab invasion of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Persia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Persia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Persia</a> is characterized by different interactions with the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ancient_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ancient philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Old Iranian philosophy</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Greek philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Greek philosophy</a> and with the development of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Islamic philosophy</a>. The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Illuminationist_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Illuminationist philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Illumination school</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transcendent_theosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transcendent theosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Transcendent theosophy</a> are regarded as two of the main philosophical traditions of that era in Persia. Zoroastrianism has been identified as one of the key early events in the development of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-Blackburn_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Blackburn-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦"><span id=".E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.B8.E1.9F.A5-.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.B8.E1.9F.A1.E1.9F.A6"></span>សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=9" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="អឺរ៉ុប"><span id=".E1.9E.A2.E1.9E.BA.E1.9E.9A.E1.9F.89.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.94"></span>អឺរ៉ុប</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=10" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ អឺរ៉ុប"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="មជ្ឈិម"><span id=".E1.9E.98.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.88.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.98"></span>មជ្ឈិម</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=11" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ មជ្ឈិម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Medieval_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Medieval philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Medieval philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/220px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="330" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/330px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e3/St-thomas-aquinas.jpg/440px-St-thomas-aquinas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4004" data-file-height="6000" /></a><figcaption>St. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Aquinas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Aquinas (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas Aquinas</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Medieval philosophy is the philosophy of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Western_Europe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Western Europe (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Western Europe</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_East&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Middle East (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Middle East</a> during the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Middle_Ages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Middle Ages (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Middle Ages</a>, roughly extending from the Christianization of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roman_Empire&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roman Empire (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Roman Empire</a> until the Renaissance.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Medieval philosophy is defined partly by the rediscovery and further development of classical <a href="/w/index.php?title=Greek_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Greek philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Greek</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hellenistic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hellenistic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hellenistic philosophy</a>, and partly by the need to address theological problems and to integrate the then widespread sacred doctrines of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Abrahamic_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Abrahamic religion (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Abrahamic religion</a> (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Islam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islam (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Islam</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Judaism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Judaism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Judaism</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christianity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christianity (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Christianity</a>) with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Secularism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Secularism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">secular</a> learning. </p><p>The history of western European medieval philosophy is traditionally divided into two main periods: the period in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Latin_West&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Latin West (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Latin West</a> following the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Early_Middle_Ages&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Early Middle Ages (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Early Middle Ages</a> until the 12th century, when the works of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plato (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Plato</a> were preserved and cultivated; and the "golden age"<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%8C%E1%9E%B6:%E1%9E%8F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%8E%E1%9F%87%E1%9E%A2%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%8E%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%84" title="វិគីភីឌា:ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង"><span title="អំណះអំណាងនេះត្រូវការឯកសារយោងដើម្បីជាប្រភពជឿទុកចិត្តបាន (July 2011)">ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង</span></a></i>]</sup> of the 12th, 13th and 14th centuries in the Latin West, which witnessed the culmination of the recovery of ancient philosophy, and significant developments in the field of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_religion&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of religion (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophy of religion</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Logic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Logic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">logic</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metaphysics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">metaphysics</a>. </p><p>The medieval era was disparagingly treated by the Renaissance humanists, who saw it as a barbaric "middle" period between the classical age of Greek and Roman culture, and the "rebirth" or <i>renaissance</i> of classical culture. Yet this period of nearly a thousand years was the longest period of philosophical development in Europe, and possibly the richest. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jorge_Gracia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jorge Gracia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jorge Gracia</a> has argued that "in intensity, sophistication, and achievement, the philosophical flowering in the thirteenth century could be rightly said to rival the golden age of Greek philosophy in the fourth century B.C."<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Some problems discussed throughout this period are the relation of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Faith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Faith (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">faith</a> to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Reason&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Reason (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">reason</a>, the existence and unity of <a href="/w/index.php?title=God&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="God (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">God</a>, the object of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Theology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">theology</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Metaphysics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metaphysics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">metaphysics</a>, the problems of knowledge, of universals, and of individuation. </p><p>Philosophers from the Middle Ages include the Christian philosophers <a href="/w/index.php?title=Augustine_of_Hippo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Augustine of Hippo (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Augustine of Hippo</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Boethius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Boethius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Boethius</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anselm_of_Canterbury&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anselm of Canterbury (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Anselm</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilbert_of_Poitiers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilbert of Poitiers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gilbert of Poitiers</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Abelard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Abelard (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Peter Abelard</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roger_Bacon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roger Bacon (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Roger Bacon</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bonaventure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bonaventure (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Bonaventure</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Aquinas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Aquinas (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas Aquinas</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Duns_Scotus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Duns Scotus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Duns Scotus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_of_Ockham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William of Ockham (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">William of Ockham</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Buridan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Buridan (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jean Buridan</a>; the Jewish philosophers <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maimonides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maimonides (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Maimonides</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gersonides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gersonides (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gersonides</a>; and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Muslim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Muslim (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Muslim</a> philosophers <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Kindi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Kindi (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Alkindus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Farabi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Farabi (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Alfarabi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_al-Haytham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn al-Haytham (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Alhazen</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Avicenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avicenna (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Avicenna</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Al-Ghazali&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Al-Ghazali (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Algazel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Bajjah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Bajjah (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Avempace</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Tufail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Tufail (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Abubacer</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Averroes (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Averroes</a>. The medieval tradition of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scholasticism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scholasticism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Scholasticism</a> continued to flourish as late as the 17th century, in figures such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francisco_Suarez&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francisco Suarez (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Francisco Suarez</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_of_St._Thomas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John of St. Thomas (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John of St. Thomas</a>. </p><p>Aquinas, father of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomism</a>, was immensely influential in Catholic Europe, placed a great emphasis on reason and argumentation, and was one of the first to use the new translation of Aristotle's metaphysical and epistemological writing. His work was a significant departure from the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neoplatonic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neoplatonic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Neoplatonic</a> and Augustinian thinking that had dominated much of early Scholasticism. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="សម័យបុនភព"><span id=".E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.98.E1.9F.90.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.97.E1.9E.96"></span>សម័យបុនភព</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=12" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ សម័យបុនភព"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Renaissance_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Renaissance philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Renaissance philosophy</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/220px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="401" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/330px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/00/Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg/440px-Giordano_Bruno_Campo_dei_Fiori.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1400" data-file-height="2550" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Giordano_Bruno&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giordano Bruno (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Giordano Bruno</a></figcaption></figure> <p>The Renaissance ("rebirth") was a period of transition between the Middle Ages and modern thought,<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in which the recovery of classical texts helped shift philosophical interests away from technical studies in logic, metaphysics, and theology towards eclectic inquiries into morality, philology, and mysticism.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The study of the classics and the humane arts generally, such as history and literature, enjoyed a scholarly interest hitherto unknown in Christendom, a tendency referred to as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Humanism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Humanism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">humanism</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>១៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Displacing the medieval interest in metaphysics and logic, the humanists followed <a href="/w/index.php?title=Petrarch&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Petrarch (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Petrarch</a> in making man and his virtues the focus of philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The study of classical philosophy also developed in two new ways. On the one hand, the study of Aristotle was changed through the influence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Averroism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Averroism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Averroism</a>. The disagreements between these Averroist Aristotelians, and more orthodox catholic Aristotelians such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Albertus_Magnus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Albertus Magnus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Albertus Magnus</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Aquinas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Aquinas (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas Aquinas</a> eventually contributed to the development of a "humanist Aristotelianism" developed in the Renaissance, as exemplified in the thought of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pietro_Pomponazzi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pietro Pomponazzi (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Pietro Pomponazzi</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giacomo_Zabarella&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giacomo Zabarella (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Giacomo Zabarella</a>. Secondly, as an alternative to Aristotle, the study of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plato (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Plato</a> and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neoplatonists&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neoplatonists (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Neoplatonists</a> became common. This was assisted by the rediscovery of works which had not been well known previously in Western Europe. Notable Renaissance Platonists include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_of_Cusa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas of Cusa (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nicholas of Cusa</a>, and later <a href="/w/index.php?title=Marsilio_Ficino&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marsilio Ficino (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Marsilio Ficino</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giovanni_Pico_della_Mirandola&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giovanni Pico della Mirandola (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Giovanni Pico della Mirandola</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The Renaissance also renewed interest in anti-Aristotelian theories of nature considered as an organic, living whole comprehensible independently of theology, as in the work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_of_Cusa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas of Cusa (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nicholas of Cusa</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Copernicus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Copernicus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nicholas Copernicus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Giordano_Bruno&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Giordano Bruno (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Giordano Bruno</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Telesius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Telesius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Telesius</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tommaso_Campanella&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tommaso Campanella (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Tommaso Campanella</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Such movements in natural philosophy dovetailed with a revival of interest in occultism, magic, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeticism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeticism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">hermeticism</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Astrology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Astrology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">astrology</a>, which were thought to yield hidden ways of knowing and mastering nature (e.g., in Marsilio Ficino and Giovanni Pico della Mirandola).<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>These new movements in philosophy developed contemporaneously with larger religious and political transformations in Europe: the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Protestant_Reformation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protestant Reformation (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Reformation</a> and the decline of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Feudalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Feudalism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">feudalism</a>. Though the theologians of the Protestant Reformation showed little direct interest in philosophy, their destruction of the traditional foundations of theological and intellectual authority harmonized with a revival of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fideism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fideism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">fideism</a> and skepticism in thinkers such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erasmus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erasmus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Erasmus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Montaigne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Montaigne (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Montaigne</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francisco_Sanches&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francisco Sanches (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Francisco Sanches</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Meanwhile, the gradual centralization of political power in nation-states was echoed by the emergence of secular political philosophies, as in the works of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Niccolò Machiavelli (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> (often described as the first modern political thinker, or a key turning point towards modern political thinking<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_More&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas More (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas More</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Erasmus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Erasmus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Erasmus</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Justus_Lipsius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Justus Lipsius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Justus Lipsius</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean_Bodin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean Bodin (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jean Bodin</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hugo_Grotius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hugo Grotius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hugo Grotius</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>២៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="អាស៊ីខាងកើត"><span id=".E1.9E.A2.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.8A.E1.9E.B8.E1.9E.81.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.84.E1.9E.80.E1.9E.BE.E1.9E.8F"></span>អាស៊ីខាងកើត</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=13" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ អាស៊ីខាងកើត"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ"><span id=".E1.9E.85.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.88.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.92.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.87"></span>ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=14" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9B%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%92%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%BB%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%BA%E1%9E%90%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B8&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="លទ្ធិខុងជឺថ្មី (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">លទ្ធិខុងជឺថ្មី</a></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Mid-Imperial_China&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mid-Imperial China (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Mid-Imperial Chinese</a> philosophy is primarily defined by the development of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Neo-confucianism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Neo-confucianism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Neo-confucianism</a>. During the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Tang_Dynasty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tang Dynasty (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Tang Dynasty</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Buddhism</a> from <a href="/w/index.php?title=Buddhism_in_Nepal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Buddhism in Nepal (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nepal</a> also became a prominent philosophical and religious discipline. (It should be noted that philosophy and religion were clearly distinguished in the West, whilst these concepts were more continuous in the East due to, for example, the philosophical concepts of Buddhism.) </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="ជប៉ុន"><span id=".E1.9E.87.E1.9E.94.E1.9F.89.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.93"></span>ជប៉ុន</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=15" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ជប៉ុន"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Japanese_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Japanese philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Japanese philosophy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="កូរ៉េ"><span id=".E1.9E.80.E1.9E.BC.E1.9E.9A.E1.9F.89.E1.9F.81"></span>កូរ៉េ</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=16" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ កូរ៉េ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Korean_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Korean philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Korean philosophy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="ដើមបូព៌ា"><span id=".E1.9E.8A.E1.9E.BE.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.BC.E1.9E.96.E1.9F.8C.E1.9E.B6"></span>ដើមបូព៌ា</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=17" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ដើមបូព៌ា"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="ឥស្លាម"><span id=".E1.9E.A5.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9B.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.98"></span>ឥស្លាម</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=18" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ឥស្លាម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Islamic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Islamic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Islamic philosophy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="សតវត្សទី១៧-ទី២១"><span id=".E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.B8.E1.9F.A1.E1.9F.A7-.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.B8.E1.9F.A2.E1.9F.A1"></span>សតវត្សទី១៧-ទី២១</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=19" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ សតវត្សទី១៧-ទី២១"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="អឺរ៉ុប_2"><span id=".E1.9E.A2.E1.9E.BA.E1.9E.9A.E1.9F.89.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.94_2"></span>អឺរ៉ុប</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=20" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ អឺរ៉ុប"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាដើមសម័យទំនើប"><span id=".E1.9E.91.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8A.E1.9E.BE.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.98.E1.9F.90.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.91.E1.9F.86.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.BE.E1.9E.94"></span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាដើមសម័យទំនើប</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=21" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាដើមសម័យទំនើប"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:JohnLocke.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/220px-JohnLocke.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="254" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/330px-JohnLocke.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/JohnLocke.png/440px-JohnLocke.png 2x" data-file-width="984" data-file-height="1138" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Locke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Locke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Locke</a></figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Modern_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Modern philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Modern philosophy</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី១៩"><span id=".E1.9E.91.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.B8.E1.9F.A1.E1.9F.A9"></span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី១៩</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=22" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី១៩"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=19th-century_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="19th-century philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">19th-century philosophy</a></div> <p>Later modern philosophy is usually considered to begin after the philosophy of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immanuel Kant (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Immanuel Kant</a> at the beginning of the 19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-Shand_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Shand-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> German philosophy exercised broad influence in this century, owing in part to the dominance of the German university system.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=German_idealist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="German idealist (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">German idealists</a>, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_Schelling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph Schelling</a>, transformed the work of Kant by maintaining that the world is constituted by a rational or mind-like process, and as such is entirely knowable.<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Schopenhauer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur Schopenhauer (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Arthur Schopenhauer</a>'s identification of this world-constituting process as an irrational <a href="/w/index.php?title=Will_to_live&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Will to live (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">will to live</a> influenced later 19th- and early 20th-century thinking, such as the work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Nietzsche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Nietzsche (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Friedrich Nietzs</a>cipline, as increasing mathematical precision opened entire fields of inference to formalization in the work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Boole&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Boole (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">George Boole</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottlob_Frege&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gottlob Frege (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gottlob Frege</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other philosophers who initiated lines of thought that would continue to shape philosophy into the 20th century include </p> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottlob_Frege&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gottlob Frege (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gottlob Frege</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Henry_Sidgwick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Henry Sidgwick (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Henry Sidgwick</a>, whose work in logic and ethics, respectively, provided the tools for early <a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Analytic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">analytic philosophy</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Sanders_Peirce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Sanders Peirce (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_James&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William James (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">William James</a>, who founded <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pragmatism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">pragmatism</a>.</li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Søren Kierkegaard (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Nietzsche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Nietzsche (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Friedrich Nietzsche</a>, who laid the groundwork for <a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Existentialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">existentialism</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-structuralism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Post-structuralism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">post-structuralism</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Nietzsche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Nietzsche (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">che</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sigmund_Freud&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sigmund Freud (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Sigmund Freud</a>. </p><p>After Hegel's death in 1831, 19th-century philosophy largely turned against idealism in favor of varieties of philosophical <a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalism_(philosophy)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naturalism (philosophy) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">naturalism</a>, such as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Positivism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Positivism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">positivism</a> of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Auguste_Comte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Auguste Comte (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Auguste Comte</a>, the empiricism of <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Stuart_Mill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Stuart Mill (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Stuart Mill</a>, and the materialism of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Marx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Marx (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Karl Marx</a>. Logic began a period of its most significant advances since the inception of the dis </p> <ul><li>.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី២០"><span id=".E1.9E.91.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.B8.E1.9F.A2.E1.9F.A0"></span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី២០</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=23" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី២០"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%A0%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%99&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសហសម័យ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសហសម័យ</a></div> <p>Within the last century, philosophy has increasingly become a professional discipline practiced within universities, like other academic disciplines. Accordingly, it has become less general and more specialized. In the view of one prominent recent historian: "Philosophy has become a highly organized discipline, done by specialists primarily for other specialists. The number of philosophers has exploded, the volume of publication has swelled, and the subfields of serious philosophical investigation have multiplied. Not only is the broad field of philosophy today far too vast to be embraced by one mind, something similar is true even of many highly specialized subfields."<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the English-speaking world, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Analytic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">analytic philosophy</a> became the dominant school for much of the 20th century. In the first half of the century, it was a cohesive school, shaped strongly by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Logical positivism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">logical positivism</a>, united by the notion that philosophical problems could and should be solved by attention to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Logic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Logic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">logic</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Language&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Language (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">language</a>. The pioneering work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bertrand Russell (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Bertrand Russell</a> was a model for the early development of analytic philosophy, moving from a rejection of the idealism dominant in late 19th century British philosophy to an neo-Humean empiricism, strengthened by the conceptual resources of modern mathematical logic.<sup id="cite_ref-stanford_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-stanford-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-37" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the latter half of the 20th century, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Analytic_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Analytic philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">analytic philosophy</a> diffused into a wide variety of disparate philosophical views, only loosely united by historical lines of influence and a self-identified commitment to clarity and rigor. The post-war transformation of the analytic program led in two broad directions: on one hand, an interest in ordinary language as a way of avoiding or redescribing traditional philosophical problems, and on the other, a more thoroughgoing <a href="/w/index.php?title=Naturalized_epistemology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Naturalized epistemology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">naturalism</a> that sought to dissolve the puzzles of modern philosophy via the results of the natural sciences (such as cognitive psychology and evolutionary biology). The shift in the work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Wittgenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, from a view congruent with logical positivism to a therapeutic dissolution of traditional philosophy as a linguistic misunderstanding of normal forms of life, was the most influential version of the first direction in analytic philosophy.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៣៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The later work of Russell and the philosophy of <a href="/w/index.php?title=W.V.O._Quine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W.V.O. Quine (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">W.V.O. Quine</a> are influential exemplars of the naturalist approach dominant in the second half of the 20th century.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> But the diversity of analytic philosophy from the 1970s onward defies easy generalization: the naturalism of Quine and his epigoni was in some precincts superseded by a "new metaphysics" of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Possible_worlds&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Possible worlds (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">possible worlds</a>, as in the influential work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Kellogg_Lewis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Kellogg Lewis (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">David Lewis</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Recently, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Experimental_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Experimental philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">experimental philosophy</a> movement has sought to reappraise philosophical problems through social science research techniques. </p><p>On continental Europe, no single school or temperament enjoyed dominance. The flight of the logical positivists from central Europe during the 1930s and 1940s, however, diminished philosophical interest in natural science, and an emphasis on the humanities, broadly construed, figures prominently in what is usually called "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Continental_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Continental philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">continental philosophy</a>". 20th century movements such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Phenomenology_(philosophy)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phenomenology (philosophy) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">phenomenology</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Existentialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">existentialism</a>, modern <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hermeneutics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hermeneutics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">hermeneutics</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Critical_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Critical theory (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">critical theory</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Structuralism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Structuralism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">structuralism</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Poststructuralism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Poststructuralism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">poststructuralism</a> are included within this loose category. The founder of phenomenology, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edmund_Husserl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edmund Husserl (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Edmund Husserl</a>, sought to study consciousness as experienced from a first-person perspective,<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> while <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Heidegger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Heidegger (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Martin Heidegger</a> drew on the ideas of Kierkegaard, Nietzsche, and Husserl to propose an unconventional <a href="/w/index.php?title=Existential&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Existential (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">existential</a> approach to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ontology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ontology</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៤៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="និរុត្តិវិទ្យា"><span id=".E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.91.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.B6"></span>និរុត្តិវិទ្យា</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=24" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ និរុត្តិវិទ្យា"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The introduction of the terms "philosopher" and "philosophy" has been ascribed to the Greek thinker <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pythagoras&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pythagoras (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Pythagoras</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The ascription is said to be based on a passage in a lost work of Herakleides Pontikos, a disciple of <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>. It is considered to be part of the widespread body of legends of Pythagoras of this time. "Philosopher" was understood as a word which contrasted with "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Sophist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sophist (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">sophist</a>" (from <i>sophoi</i>). Traveling sophists or "wise men" were important in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Classical_Greece&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Classical Greece (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Classical Greece</a>, often earning money as teachers, whereas philosophers are "lovers of wisdom" and not professionals. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ"><span id=".E1.9E.91.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.B9.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.8A.E1.9E.B8.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.86.E1.9E.81.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.8B.E1.9F.97"></span>ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=25" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ទ្រឹស្ដីសំខាន់ៗ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Realism_and_nominalism">Realism and nominalism</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=26" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ Realism and nominalism"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_realism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical realism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Philosophical realism</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nominalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nominalism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nominalism</a></div> <p><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_realism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical realism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Realism</a></i> sometimes means the position opposed to the 18th-century <a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Idealism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">idealism</a>, namely that some things have real existence outside the mind. Its standard meaning is the doctrine that abstract entities corresponding to universal terms like "man" or "table" or "red" actually exist (e.g. for Plato in a separate realm of ideas). It is opposed to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nominalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nominalism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">nominalism</a>, the view that abstract or universal terms are words only, or denote mental states such as ideas, beliefs, or intentions. The latter position, developed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_Abelard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter Abelard (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Peter Abelard</a> and famously held by <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_of_Ockham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William of Ockham (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">William of Ockham</a>, is called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conceptualism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conceptualism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">conceptualism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="សនិទាននិយម_និង_ពិសោធន៍និយម"><span id=".E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.91.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98_.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.84_.E1.9E.96.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.84.E1.9E.92.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.8D.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98"></span>សនិទាននិយម និង ពិសោធន៍និយ<a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%98&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ម (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ម</a></h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=27" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ សនិទាននិយម និង ពិសោធន៍និយម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rationalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rationalism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Rationalism</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Empiricism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Empiricism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Empiricism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/220px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="269" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/330px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg/440px-Frans_Hals_-_Portret_van_Ren%C3%A9_Descartes.jpg 2x" data-file-width="817" data-file-height="1000" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ren%C3%A9_Descartes" class="mw-redirect" title="René Descartes">René Descartes</a></figcaption></figure> <p><i>Rationalism</i> is any view emphasizing the role or importance of human reason. Extreme rationalism tries to base all knowledge on reason alone. Rationalism typically starts from premises that cannot coherently be denied, then attempts by logical steps to deduce every possible object of knowledge. </p><p>The first rationalist, in this broad sense, is often held to be <a href="/w/index.php?title=Parmenides&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Parmenides (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Parmenides</a> (fl. 500 BC), who argued that it is impossible to doubt that thinking actually occurs. But thinking must have an object, therefore something <i>beyond</i> thinking really exists. Parmenides deduced that what really exists must have certain properties—for example, that it cannot come into existence or cease to exist, that it is a coherent whole, that it remains the same eternally (in fact, exists altogether outside time). This is known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Third_man_argument&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Third man argument (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">third man argument</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zeno_of_Elea&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zeno of Elea (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Zeno of Elea</a> (born c. 495 BC) was a disciple of Parmenides, and argued that motion is impossible, since the assertion that it exists implies a contradiction (see <a href="/w/index.php?title=Zeno%27s_arrow&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Zeno's arrow (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Zeno's arrow</a>). </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Plato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plato (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Plato</a> (427–347 BC) was also influenced by Parmenides, but combined rationalism with a form of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_realism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical realism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">realism</a>. The philosopher's work is to consider being, and the essence (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Ousia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ousia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ousia</a>) of things. But the characteristic of essences is that they are universal. The nature of a man, a triangle, a tree, applies to all men, all triangles, all trees. Plato argued that these essences are mind-independent "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Theory_of_forms&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Theory of forms (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">forms</a>", that humans (but particularly philosophers) can come to know by reason, and by ignoring the distractions of sense-perception. </p><p>Modern rationalism begins with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Descartes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Descartes (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Descartes</a>. Reflection on the nature of perceptual experience, as well as scientific discoveries in physiology and optics, led Descartes (and also <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Locke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Locke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Locke</a>) to the view that we are directly aware of ideas, rather than objects. This view gave rise to three questions: </p> <ol><li>Is an idea a true copy of the real thing that it represents? Sensation is not a direct interaction between bodily objects and our sense, but is a physiological process involving representation (for example, an image on the retina). Locke thought that a "secondary quality" such as a sensation of green could in no way resemble the arrangement of particles in matter that go to produce this sensation, although he thought that "primary qualities" such as shape, size, number, were really in objects.</li> <li>How can physical objects such as chairs and tables, or even physiological processes in the brain, give rise to mental items such as ideas? This is part of what became known as the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mind-body_problem&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mind-body problem (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">mind-body problem</a>.</li> <li>If all the contents of awareness are ideas, how can we know that anything exists apart from ideas?</li></ol> <p>Descartes tried to address the last problem by reason. He began, echoing Parmenides, with a principle that he thought could not coherently be denied: I <i>think</i>, therefore I <i>am</i> (often given in his original Latin: <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Cogito_ergo_sum&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cogito ergo sum (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Cogito ergo sum</a></i>). From this principle, Descartes went on to construct a complete system of knowledge (which involves proving the existence of God, using, among other means, a version of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ontological_argument&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ontological argument (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ontological argument</a>). His view that reason alone could yield substantial truths about reality strongly influenced those philosophers usually considered modern rationalists (such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Baruch_Spinoza&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Baruch Spinoza (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Baruch Spinoza</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gottfried Leibniz (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Christian_Wolff_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Christian Wolff (philosopher) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Christian Wolff</a>), while provoking criticism from other philosophers who have retrospectively come to be grouped together as empiricists. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Empiricism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Empiricism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Empiricism</a>, in contrast to rationalism, downplays or dismisses the ability of reason alone to yield knowledge of the world, preferring to base any knowledge we have on our senses. This dates back to the concept of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tabula_rasa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tabula rasa (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">tabula rasa</a></i> (unscribed tablet) implicit in <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>'s <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=On_the_Soul&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="On the Soul (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">On the Soul</a></i>, described more explicitly in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Avicenna&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Avicenna (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Avicenna</a>'s <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_Book_of_Healing&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The Book of Healing (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">The Book of Healing</a></i>,<sup id="cite_ref-Rizvi_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rizvi-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and demonstrated in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Tufail&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Tufail (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ibn Tufail</a>'s <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Hayy_ibn_Yaqdhan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hayy ibn Yaqdhan</a></i> as a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thought_experiment&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thought experiment (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">thought experiment</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Russell_53-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Russell-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Modern empiricism was notably expounded by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Francis_Bacon&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Francis Bacon (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Francis Bacon</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Locke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Locke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Locke</a> in <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=An_Essay_Concerning_Human_Understanding&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="An Essay Concerning Human Understanding (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">An Essay Concerning Human Understanding</a></i> in 1689, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Hume&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Hume (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">David Hume</a>. </p><p>During this era, religious ideas played a mixed role in the struggles that preoccupied secular philosophy. <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Berkeley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Berkeley (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Bishop Berkeley</a>'s famous <a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealist&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Idealist (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">idealist</a> refutation of key tenets of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Isaac_Newton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Isaac Newton (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Isaac Newton</a> is a case of an Enlightenment philosopher who drew substantially from religious ideas. Other influential religious thinkers of the time include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Blaise_Pascal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blaise Pascal (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Blaise Pascal</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Joseph_Butler&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Joseph Butler (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Joseph Butler</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Reid&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Reid (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas Reid</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jonathan_Edwards_(theologian)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jonathan Edwards (theologian) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jonathan Edwards</a>. Other major writers, such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Edmund_Burke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edmund Burke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Edmund Burke</a>, took a rather different path.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%8C%E1%9E%B6:Please_clarify&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="វិគីភីឌា:Please clarify (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)"><span title="អត្ថាក្សរក្នុងបរិវេណនៃស្លាកនេះត្រូវការបញ្ជាក់ រឺ ដកចេញសំដីមិនច្បាស់ការណ៍ (January 2011)">ត្រូវការបញ្ជាក់</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="សង្ស័យនិយម"><span id=".E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.84.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.90.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98"></span>សង្ស័យនិយម</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=28" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ សង្ស័យនិយម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Skepticism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Skepticism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Skepticism</a></div> <p><i>Skepticism</i> is a philosophical attitude that, in its most extreme form, questions the possibility of obtaining <i>any</i> sort of knowledge. It was first articulated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pyrrho&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pyrrho (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Pyrrho</a>, who believed that everything could be doubted except <i>appearances</i>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sextus_Empiricus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sextus Empiricus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Sextus Empiricus</a> (2nd century AD), skepticism's most prominent advocate, describes it as an </p> <blockquote><p>"ability to place in antithesis, in any manner whatever, appearances and judgments, and thus ... to come first of all to a suspension of judgment and then to mental tranquility."<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>Skepticism so conceived is not merely the use of doubt, but is the use of doubt for a particular end: a calmness of the soul, or <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ataraxia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ataraxia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ataraxia</a></i>. Skepticism poses itself as a challenge to <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dogmatism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dogmatism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">dogmatism</a>, whose adherents think they have found the truth.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Sextus noted that the reliability of perception may always be questioned, because it is idiosyncratic to the perceiver. The appearance of individual things changes depending on whether they are in a group: for example, the shavings of a goat's horn are white when taken alone, yet the intact horn is black. A pencil, when viewed lengthwise, looks like a stick; but when examined at the tip, it looks merely like a circle. </p><p>Skepticism was revived in the early modern period by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_de_Montaigne&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel de Montaigne (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Michel de Montaigne</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Blaise_Pascal&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Blaise Pascal (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Blaise Pascal</a>. Its most extreme exponent, however, was <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Hume&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Hume (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">David Hume</a>. Hume argued that there are only two kinds of reasoning: what he called <i>probable</i> and <i>demonstrative</i> (cf. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hume%27s_fork&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hume's fork (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hume's fork</a>). Neither of these two forms of reasoning can lead us to a reasonable belief in the continued existence of an external world. Demonstrative reasoning cannot do this, because demonstration (that is, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deductive_reasoning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deductive reasoning (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">deductive reasoning</a> from well-founded premises) alone cannot establish the uniformity of nature (as captured by scientific laws and principles, for example). Such reason alone cannot establish that the future will resemble the past. We have certain beliefs about the world (that the sun will rise tomorrow, for example), but these beliefs are the product of habit and custom, and do not depend on any sort of logical inferences from what is already given <i>certain</i>. But <i>probable</i> reasoning (<a href="/w/index.php?title=Inductive_reasoning&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Inductive reasoning (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">inductive reasoning</a>), which aims to take us from the observed to the unobserved, cannot do this either: it <i>also</i> depends on the uniformity of nature, and this supposed uniformity cannot be proved, without circularity, by any appeal to uniformity. The best that either sort of reasoning can accomplish is conditional truth: <i>if</i> certain assumptions are true, <i>then</i> certain conclusions follow. So nothing about the world can be established with certainty. Hume concludes that there is no solution to the skeptical argument—except, in effect, to ignore it.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Even if these matters were resolved in every case, we would have in turn to justify our standard of justification, leading to an <a href="/w/index.php?title=Infinite_regress&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Infinite regress (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">infinite regress</a> (hence the term <i>regress skepticism</i>).<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Many philosophers have questioned the value of such skeptical arguments. The question of whether we can achieve knowledge of the external world is based on how high a standard we set for the justification of such knowledge. If our standard is absolute certainty, then we cannot progress beyond the existence of mental sensations. We cannot even deduce the existence of a coherent or continuing "I" that experiences these sensations, much less the existence of an external world. On the other hand, if our standard is too low, then we admit follies and illusions into our body of knowledge. This argument against absolute skepticism asserts that the practical philosopher must move beyond <a href="/w/index.php?title=Solipsism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Solipsism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">solipsism</a>, and accept a standard for knowledge that is high but not absolute. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ឩត្តមគតិនិយម"><span id=".E1.9E.A9.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.82.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98"></span>ឩត្តមគតិនិយម</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=29" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ឩត្តមគតិនិយម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Idealism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Idealism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Idealism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/220px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="245" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/330px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a2/Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg/440px-Immanuel_Kant_portrait_c1790.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1617" data-file-height="1802" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immanuel Kant (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Immanuel Kant</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Idealism is the epistemological doctrine that nothing can be directly known outside of the minds of thinking beings. Or in an alternative stronger form, it is the metaphysical doctrine that nothing exists apart from minds and the "contents" of minds. In modern Western philosophy, the epistemological doctrine begins as a core tenet of Descartes—that what is in the mind is known more reliably than what is known through the senses. The first prominent modern Western idealist in the metaphysical sense was <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Berkeley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Berkeley (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">George Berkeley</a>. Berkeley argued<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៥៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> that there is no deep distinction between mental states, such as feeling pain, and the ideas about so-called "external" things, that appear to us through the senses. There is no real distinction, in this view, between certain sensations of heat and light that we experience, which lead us to believe in the external existence of a fire, and the fire itself. Those sensations are all there is to fire. Berkeley expressed this with the Latin formula <i>esse est percipi</i>: "to be is to be perceived". In this view the opinion, "strangely prevailing upon men", that houses, mountains, and rivers have an existence independent of their perception by a thinking being is false. </p><p>Forms of idealism were prevalent in philosophy from the 18th century to the early 20th century. Transcendental idealism, advocated by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immanuel Kant (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Immanuel Kant</a>, is the view that there are limits on what can be understood, since there is much that cannot be brought under the conditions of objective judgment. Kant wrote his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Critique_of_Pure_Reason&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Critique of Pure Reason (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Critique of Pure Reason</a></i> (1781–1787) in an attempt to reconcile the conflicting approaches of rationalism and empiricism, and to establish a new groundwork for studying metaphysics. Kant's intention with this work was to look at what we know and then consider what must be true about it, as a logical consequence of the <i>way</i> we know it. One major theme was that there are fundamental features of reality that escape our direct knowledge because of the natural limits of the human faculties.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although Kant held that objective knowledge of the world required the mind to impose a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Conceptual_framework&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Conceptual framework (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">conceptual</a> or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Categorical_framework&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Categorical framework (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">categorical framework</a> on the stream of pure sensory data—a framework including space and time themselves—he maintained that <i>things-in-themselves</i> existed independently of our perceptions and judgments; he was therefore not an idealist in any simple sense. Indeed, Kant's account of <i>things-in-themselves</i> is both controversial and highly complex. Continuing his work, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Johann_Gottlieb_Fichte&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Johann Gottlieb Fichte (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Johann Gottlieb Fichte</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Wilhelm_Joseph_von_Schelling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph von Schelling (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Friedrich Schelling</a> dispensed with belief in the independent existence of the world, and created a thoroughgoing idealist philosophy. </p><p>The most notable work of this <a href="/w/index.php?title=German_idealism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="German idealism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">German idealism</a> was <a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">G. W. F. Hegel</a>'s <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Phenomenology_of_Spirit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phenomenology of Spirit (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Phenomenology of Spirit</a></i>, of 1807. Hegel admitted his ideas were not new, but that all the previous philosophies had been incomplete. His goal was to correctly finish their job. Hegel asserts that the twin aims of philosophy are to account for the contradictions apparent in human experience (which arise, for instance, out of the supposed contradictions between "being" and "not being"), and also simultaneously to resolve and preserve these contradictions by showing their compatibility at a higher level of examination ("being" and "not being" are resolved with "becoming"). This program of acceptance and reconciliation of contradictions is known as the "Hegelian <a href="/w/index.php?title=Dialectic&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Dialectic (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">dialectic</a>". Philosophers in the Hegelian tradition include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Andreas_Feuerbach&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ludwig Andreas Feuerbach</a>, who coined the term projection as pertaining to our inability to recognize anything in the external world without projecting qualities of ourselves upon those things; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Marx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Marx (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Karl Marx</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Engels&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Engels (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Friedrich Engels</a>; and the <a href="/w/index.php?title=British_idealism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="British idealism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">British idealists</a>, notably <a href="/w/index.php?title=T._H._Green&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="T. H. Green (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">T. H. Green</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=J._M._E._McTaggart&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J. M. E. McTaggart (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">J. M. E. McTaggart</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=F._H._Bradley&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="F. H. Bradley (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">F. H. Bradley</a>. </p><p>Few 20th century philosophers have embraced idealism. However, quite a few have embraced Hegelian dialectic. Immanuel Kant's "Copernican Turn" also remains an important philosophical concept today. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="មនោនិយមនិងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម"><span id=".E1.9E.98.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.84.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98.E2.80.8B.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.84.E1.9E.94.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98"></span>មនោនិយមនិងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=30" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ មនោនិយមនិងប្រតិបត្តិនិយម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pragmatism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Pragmatism</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Instrumentalism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Instrumentalism</a></div><p>ប្រតិបត្តិនិយម និង ឧករណ៍និយម Pragmatism and Instrumentalism</p><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Wm_james.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/220px-Wm_james.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="298" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/330px-Wm_james.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/22/Wm_james.jpg/440px-Wm_james.jpg 2x" data-file-width="549" data-file-height="744" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=William_James&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William James (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">William James</a></figcaption></figure> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pragmatism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Pragmatism</a> was founded in the spirit of finding a scientific concept of truth that does not depend on personal insight (revelation) or reference to some metaphysical realm. The truth of a statement should be judged by the effect it has on our actions, and truth should be seen as what the whole of scientific enquiry ultimately agrees on.<sup id="cite_ref-Murphy_61-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Murphy-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This should probably be seen as a guiding principle more than a definition of what it means for something to be true, though the details of how this principle should be interpreted have been subject to discussion since Charles S. Peirce first conceived it. Peirce's <a href="/w/index.php?title=Pragmatic_maxim&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Pragmatic maxim (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">maxim of pragmatism</a> is as follows: "Consider what effects, which might conceivably have practical bearings, we conceive the object of our conception to have. Then, our conception of these effects is the whole of our conceptions of the object."<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like <a href="/w/index.php?title=Postmodern&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Postmodern (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">postmodern</a> neo-pragmatist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Rorty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Rorty (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Richard Rorty</a>, many are convinced that pragmatism asserts that the truth of beliefs does not consist in their correspondence with reality, but in their usefulness and efficacy.<sup id="cite_ref-Rorty_63-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Rorty-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The late 19th-century <a href="/w/index.php?title=American_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="American philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">American philosophers</a> <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Sanders_Peirce&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Sanders Peirce (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Charles Sanders Peirce</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=William_James&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="William James (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">William James</a> were its co-founders, and it was later developed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Dewey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Dewey (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Dewey</a> as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Instrumentalism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Instrumentalism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">instrumentalism</a>. Since the usefulness of any belief at any time might be contingent on circumstance, Peirce and James conceptualised final truth as something only established by the future, final settlement of all opinion.<sup id="cite_ref-Putnam_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Putnam-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Critics have accused pragmatism of falling victim to a simple fallacy: because something that is true proves useful, that usefulness is the basis for its truth.<sup id="cite_ref-Pratt_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Pratt-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Thinkers in the pragmatist tradition have included John Dewey, <a href="/w/index.php?title=George_Santayana&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="George Santayana (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">George Santayana</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=W._V._O._Quine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W. V. O. Quine (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">W. V. O. Quine</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=C._I._Lewis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="C. I. Lewis (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">C. I. Lewis</a>. Pragmatism has more recently been taken in new directions by Richard Rorty, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Lachs&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Lachs (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Lachs</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Donald Davidson</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Susan_Haack&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Susan Haack (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Susan Haack</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hilary_Putnam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hilary Putnam (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hilary Putnam</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="បាតុភូតវិទ្យា"><span id=".E1.9E.94.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.97.E1.9E.BC.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.91.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.B6"></span>បាតុភូតវិទ្យា</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=31" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ បាតុភូតវិទ្យា"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Phenomenology_(philosophy)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phenomenology (philosophy) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Phenomenology (philosophy)</a></div> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Edmund_Husserl&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Edmund Husserl (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Edmund Husserl</a>'s <a href="/w/index.php?title=Phenomenology_(philosophy)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Phenomenology (philosophy) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">phenomenology</a> was an ambitious attempt to lay the foundations for an account of the structure of conscious experience in general.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref-1_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An important part of Husserl's phenomenological project was to show that all conscious acts are directed at or about objective content, a feature that Husserl called <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Intentionality&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Intentionality (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">intentionality</a></i>.<sup id="cite_ref-Dreyfus_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Dreyfus-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the first part of his two-volume work, the <i>Logical Investigations</i> (1901), he launched an extended attack on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychologism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psychologism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">psychologism</a>. In the second part, he began to develop the technique of <i>descriptive phenomenology</i>, with the aim of showing how objective judgments are indeed grounded in conscious experience—not, however, in the first-person experience of particular individuals, but in the properties essential to any experiences of the kind in question.<sup id="cite_ref-Ref-1_66-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Ref-1-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>He also attempted to identify the essential properties of any act of meaning. He developed the method further in <i>Ideas</i> (1913) as <i>transcendental phenomenology</i>, proposing to ground actual experience, and thus all fields of human knowledge, in the structure of consciousness of an ideal, or <a href="/w/index.php?title=Transcendence_(philosophy)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Transcendence (philosophy) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">transcendental</a>, ego. Later, he attempted to reconcile his transcendental standpoint with an acknowledgement of the intersubjective <a href="/w/index.php?title=Life-world&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Life-world (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">life-world</a> in which real individual subjects interact. Husserl published only a few works in his lifetime, which treat phenomenology mainly in abstract methodological terms; but he left an enormous quantity of unpublished concrete analyses. </p><p>Husserl's work was immediately influential in Germany, with the foundation of phenomenological schools in Munich and Göttingen. Phenomenology later achieved international fame through the work of such philosophers as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Heidegger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Heidegger (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Martin Heidegger</a> (formerly Husserl's research assistant), <a href="/w/index.php?title=Maurice_Merleau-Ponty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Maurice Merleau-Ponty (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Maurice Merleau-Ponty</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Paul_Sartre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Paul Sartre (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>. Indeed, through the work of Heidegger and Sartre, Husserl's focus on subjective experience influenced aspects of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Existentialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">existentialism</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="អត្ថិភាពនិយម"><span id=".E1.9E.A2.E1.9E.8F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.90.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.97.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.96.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98"></span>អត្ថិភាពនិយម</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=32" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ អត្ថិភាពនិយម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Existentialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Existentialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Existentialism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Kierkegaard.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg/220px-Kierkegaard.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="326" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/89/Kierkegaard.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="310" data-file-height="459" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Søren Kierkegaard (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Søren Kierkegaard</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Existentialism is a term applied to the work of a number of late 19th- and 20th-century philosophers who, despite profound doctrinal differences,<sup id="cite_ref-68" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-69" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៦៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> shared the belief that philosophical thinking begins with the human subject—not merely the thinking subject, but the acting, feeling, living human individual.<sup id="cite_ref-70" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In existentialism, the individual's starting point is characterized by what has been called "the existential attitude", or a sense of disorientation and confusion in the face of an apparently meaningless or absurd world.<sup id="cite_ref-71" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many existentialists have also regarded traditional systematic or academic philosophy, in both style and content, as too abstract and remote from concrete human experience.<sup id="cite_ref-72" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-73" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧៣<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although they did not use the term, the 19th-century philosophers <a href="/w/index.php?title=S%C3%B8ren_Kierkegaard&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Søren Kierkegaard (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Søren Kierkegaard</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Nietzsche&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Nietzsche (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Friedrich Nietzsche</a> are widely regarded as the fathers of existentialism. Their influence, however, has extended beyond existentialist thought.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧៤<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Bob_75-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Bob-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧៥<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧៦<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main target of Kierkegaard's writings was the idealist philosophical system of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hegel (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hegel</a> which, he thought, ignored or excluded the inner subjective life of living human beings. Kierkegaard, conversely, held that "truth is subjectivity", arguing that what is most important to an actual human being are questions dealing with an individual's inner relationship to existence. In particular, Kierkegaard, a Christian, believed that the truth of religious faith was a subjective question, and one to be wrestled with passionately.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧៧<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-78" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧៨<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Although Kierkegaard and Nietzsche were among his influences, the extent to which the German philosopher <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Heidegger&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Heidegger (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Martin Heidegger</a> should be considered an existentialist is debatable. In <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Being_and_Time&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Being and Time (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Being and Time</a></i> he presented a method of rooting philosophical explanations in human existence (<i>Dasein</i>) to be analysed in terms of existential categories (<i>existentiale</i>); and this has led many commentators to treat him as an important figure in the existentialist movement. However, in <i>The Letter on Humanism</i>, Heidegger explicitly rejected the existentialism of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Paul_Sartre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Paul Sartre (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jean-Paul Sartre</a>. </p><p>Sartre became the best-known proponent of existentialism, exploring it not only in theoretical works such as <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Being_and_Nothingness&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Being and Nothingness (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Being and Nothingness</a></i>, but also in plays and novels. Sartre, along with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Simone_de_Beauvoir&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Simone de Beauvoir (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Simone de Beauvoir</a>, represented an avowedly atheistic branch of existentialism, which is now more closely associated with their ideas of nausea, contingency, bad faith, and the absurd than with Kierkegaard's spiritual angst. Nevertheless, the focus on the individual human being, responsible before the universe for the authenticity of his or her existence, is common to all these thinkers. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម_និង_ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម"><span id=".E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.85.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.98.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.96.E1.9F.90.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.92.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98_.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.84_.E1.9E.80.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9A.E1.9F.84.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.85.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.98.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.96.E1.9F.90.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.92.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.99.E1.9E.98"></span>រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម និង ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=33" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ រចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម និង ក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធនិយម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Structuralism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Structuralism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Structuralism</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Post-structuralism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Post-structuralism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Post-structuralism</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/220px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="266" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg/330px-Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/8/8f/Ferdinand_de_Saussure.jpg 2x" data-file-width="366" data-file-height="443" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferdinand_de_Saussure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ferdinand de Saussure (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ferdinand de Saussure</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Inaugurated by the linguist <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ferdinand_de_Saussure&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ferdinand de Saussure (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ferdinand de Saussure</a>, structuralism sought to clarify systems of signs through analyzing the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Discourse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Discourse (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">discourses</a> they both limit and make possible. Saussure conceived of the sign as being delimited by all the other signs in the system, and ideas as being incapable of existence prior to linguistic structure, which articulates thought. This led continental thought away from humanism, and toward what was termed the decentering of man: language is no longer spoken by man to express a true inner self, but language speaks man. </p><p>Structuralism sought the province of a hard science, but its positivism soon came under fire by poststructuralism, a wide field of thinkers, some of whom were once themselves structuralists, but later came to criticize it. Structuralists believed they could analyze systems from an external, objective standing, for example, but the poststructuralists argued that this is incorrect, that one cannot transcend structures and thus analysis is itself determined by what it examines, while the distinction between the signifier and signified was treated as crystalline by structuralists, poststructuralists asserted that every attempt to grasp the signified results in more signifiers, so meaning is always in a state of being deferred, making an ultimate interpretation impossible. </p><p>Structuralism came to dominate continental philosophy throughout the 1960s and early '70s, encompassing thinkers as diverse as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Claude_L%C3%A9vi-Strauss&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Claude Lévi-Strauss (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Claude Lévi-Strauss</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roland_Barthes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roland Barthes (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Roland Barthes</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Lacan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacques Lacan (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jacques Lacan</a>. Post-structuralism came to predominate over the 1970s onwards, including thinkers such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michel_Foucault&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michel Foucault (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Michel Foucault</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jacques_Derrida&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jacques Derrida (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jacques Derrida</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilles_Deleuze&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilles Deleuze (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gilles Deleuze</a> and even <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roland_Barthes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roland Barthes (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Roland Barthes</a>; it incorporated a critique of structuralism's limitations. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ"><span id=".E1.9E.94.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.96.E1.9F.83.E1.9E.8E.E1.9E.B8.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.97.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.82"></span>ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=34" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ប្រពៃណីវិភាគ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%82&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគ</a></div> <p>The term <i>analytic philosophy</i> roughly designates a group of philosophical methods that stress detailed argumentation, attention to semantics, use of classical logic and non-classical logics and clarity of meaning above all other criteria. Some have held that philosophical problems arise through misuse of language or because of misunderstandings of the logic of our language, while some maintain that there are genuine philosophical problems and that philosophy is continuous with science. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Dummett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Dummett (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Michael Dummett</a> in his <i>Origins of Analytical Philosophy</i> makes the case for counting <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottlob_Frege&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gottlob Frege (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gottlob Frege</a>'s <i>The Foundations of Arithmetic</i> as the first analytic work, on the grounds that in that book Frege took the linguistic turn, analyzing philosophical problems through language. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bertrand_Russell&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bertrand Russell (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Bertrand Russell</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=G.E._Moore&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="G.E. Moore (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">G.E. Moore</a> are also often counted as founders of analytic philosophy, beginning with their rejection of British idealism, their defense of realism and the emphasis they laid on the legitimacy of analysis. Russell's classic works <i>The Principles of Mathematics</i>,<sup id="cite_ref-79" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៧៩<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=On_Denoting&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="On Denoting (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">On Denoting</a></i> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Principia_Mathematica&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Principia Mathematica (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Principia Mathematica</a></i> with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfred_North_Whitehead&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred North Whitehead (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Alfred North Whitehead</a>, aside from greatly promoting the use of mathematical logic in philosophy, set the ground for much of the research program in the early stages of the analytic tradition, emphasizing such problems as: the reference of proper names, whether 'existence' is a property, the nature of propositions, the analysis of definite descriptions, the discussions on the foundations of mathematics; as well as exploring issues of ontological commitment and even metaphysical problems regarding time, the nature of matter, mind, persistence and change, which Russell tackled often with the aid of mathematical logic. Russell and Moore's philosophy, in the beginning of the 20th century, developed as a critique of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hegel (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hegel</a> and his British followers in particular, and of grand systems of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Speculative_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Speculative philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">speculative philosophy</a> in general, though by no means all analytic philosophers reject the philosophy of Hegel (see <a href="/w/index.php?title=Charles_Taylor_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Charles Taylor (philosopher) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Charles Taylor</a>) nor speculative philosophy. Some schools in the group include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_positivism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Logical positivism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">logical positivism</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ordinary_language_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ordinary language philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ordinary language</a> both markedly influenced by Russell and Wittgenstein's development of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Logical_Atomism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Logical Atomism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Logical Atomism</a> the former positively and the latter negatively. </p><p>In 1921, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ludwig_Wittgenstein&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ludwig Wittgenstein (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ludwig Wittgenstein</a>, who studied under Russell at Cambridge, published his <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Tractatus_Logico-Philosophicus&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Tractatus Logico-Philosophicus</a></i>, which gave a rigidly "logical" account of linguistic and philosophical issues. At the time, he understood most of the problems of philosophy as mere puzzles of language, which could be solved by investigating and then minding the logical structure of language. Years later, he reversed a number of the positions he set out in the <i>Tractatus</i>, in for example his second major work, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophical_Investigations&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophical Investigations (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Philosophical Investigations</a></i> (1953). <i>Investigations</i> was influential in the development of "ordinary language philosophy," which was promoted by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gilbert_Ryle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gilbert Ryle (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gilbert Ryle</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=J.L._Austin&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="J.L. Austin (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">J.L. Austin</a>, and a few others. In the United States, meanwhile, the philosophy of <a href="/w/index.php?title=W.V.O._Quine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W.V.O. Quine (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">W.V.O. Quine</a> was having a major influence, with such classics as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Dogmas_of_Empiricism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Two Dogmas of Empiricism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Two Dogmas of Empiricism</a>. In that paper Quine criticizes the distinction between analytic and synthetic statements, arguing that a clear conception of analyticity is unattainable. He argued for holism, the thesis that language, including scientific language, is a set of interconnected sentences, none of which can be verified on its own, rather, the sentences in the language depend on each other for their meaning and truth conditions. A consequence of Quine's approach is that language as a whole has only a thin relation to experience. Some sentences that refer directly to experience might be modified by sense impressions, but as the whole of language is theory-laden, for the whole language to be modified, more than this is required. However, most of the linguistic structure can in principle be revised, even logic, in order to better model the world. Notable students of Quine include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Donald_Davidson_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Donald Davidson (philosopher) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Donald Davidson</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Daniel_Dennett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Daniel Dennett (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Daniel Dennett</a>. The former devised a program for giving a semantics to natural language and thereby answer the philosophical conundrum "what is meaning?". A crucial part of the program was the use of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alfred_Tarski&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alfred Tarski (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Alfred Tarski</a>'s semantic theory of truth. Dummett, among others, argued that truth conditions should be dispensed within the theory of meaning, and replaced by assertibility conditions. Some propositions, on this view, are neither true nor false, and thus such a theory of meaning entails a rejection of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law_of_the_excluded_middle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law of the excluded middle (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">law of the excluded middle</a>. This, for Dummett, entails antirealism, as Russell himself pointed out in his <i>An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth</i>. </p><p>By the 1970s there was a renewed interest in many traditional philosophical problems by the younger generations of analytic philosophers. <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Kellogg_Lewis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Kellogg Lewis (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">David Lewis</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Saul_Kripke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saul Kripke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Saul Kripke</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Derek_Parfit&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Derek Parfit (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Derek Parfit</a> and others took an interest in traditional metaphysical problems, which they began exploring by the use of logic and philosophy of language. Among those problems some distinguished ones were: free will, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Essentialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Essentialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">essentialism</a>, the nature of personal identity, identity over time, the nature of the mind, the nature of causal laws, space-time, the properties of material beings, modality, etc. In those universities where analytic philosophy has spread, these problems are still being discussed passionately. Analytic philosophers are also interested in the methodology of analytic philosophy itself, with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Timothy_Williamson&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Timothy Williamson (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Timothy Williamson</a>, Wykeham Professor of Logic at Oxford, publishing recently a book entitled <i>The Philosophy of Philosophy</i>. Some influential figures in contemporary analytic philosophy are: Timothy Williamson, <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Kellogg_Lewis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Kellogg Lewis (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">David Lewis</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Searle&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Searle (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Searle</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Nagel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Nagel (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas Nagel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Hilary_Putnam&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Hilary Putnam (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Hilary Putnam</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Dummett&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Dummett (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Michael Dummett</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Peter_van_Inwagen&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Peter van Inwagen (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Peter van Inwagen</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Saul_Kripke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Saul Kripke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Saul Kripke</a>. Analytic philosophy has sometimes been accused of not contributing to the political debate or to traditional questions in aesthetics. However, with the appearance of <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=A_Theory_of_Justice&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A Theory of Justice (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">A Theory of Justice</a></i> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Rawls&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Rawls (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Rawls</a> and <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Anarchy,_State_and_Utopia&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anarchy, State and Utopia (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Anarchy, State and Utopia</a></i> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Robert_Nozick&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Robert Nozick (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Robert Nozick</a>, analytic political philosophy acquired respectability. Analytic philosophers have also shown depth in their investigations of aesthetics, with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Roger_Scruton&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Roger Scruton (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Roger Scruton</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nelson_Goodman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nelson Goodman (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nelson Goodman</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Arthur_Danto&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Arthur Danto (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Arthur Danto</a> and others developing the subject to its current shape. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ"><span id=".E1.9E.91.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.B8.E1.9E.9B.E1.9E.92.E1.9E.98.E1.9F.8C.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.84.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.99.E1.9F.84.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.99"></span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=35" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសីលធម៌និងនយោបាយ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស_និង_ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ"><span id=".E1.9E.92.E1.9E.98.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.8F.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F_.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.84_.E1.9E.92.E1.9E.98.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.98.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.BB.E1.9E.9A.E1.9E.BC.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.97.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.96.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.99.E1.9F.84.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.99"></span>ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស និង ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=36" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ធម្មជាតិមនុស្ស និង ធម្មានុរូបភាពនយោបាយ"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Thomas_Hobbes_(portrait).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/220px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="232" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/330px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d8/Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg/440px-Thomas_Hobbes_%28portrait%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1109" data-file-height="1169" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Hobbes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Hobbes (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas Hobbes</a></figcaption></figure> <div class="rellink boilerplate seealso">សូមមើលផងដែរ: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Legitimacy_(political)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Legitimacy (political) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Legitimacy (political)</a> និង <a href="/w/index.php?title=Human_nature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Human nature (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Human nature</a></div> <p>From ancient times, and well beyond them, the roots of justification for political authority were inescapably tied to outlooks on human nature. In <i>The Republic</i>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plato&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plato (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Plato</a> presented the argument that the ideal society would be run by a council of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosopher-king&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosopher-king (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosopher-kings</a>, since those best at philosophy are best able to realize the good. Even Plato, however, required philosophers to make their way in the world for many years before beginning their rule at the age of fifty. For <a href="/wiki/Aristotle" class="mw-redirect" title="Aristotle">Aristotle</a>, humans are political animals (i.e. social animals), and governments are set up to pursue good for the community. Aristotle reasoned that, since the state (<i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Polis&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Polis (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">polis</a></i>) was the highest form of community, it has the purpose of pursuing the highest good. Aristotle viewed political power as the result of natural inequalities in skill and virtue. Because of these differences, he favored an aristocracy of the able and virtuous. For Aristotle, the person cannot be complete unless he or she lives in a community. His <i>The Nicomachean Ethics</i> and <i>The Politics</i> are meant to be read in that order. The first book addresses virtues (or "excellences") in the person as a citizen; the second addresses the proper form of government to ensure that citizens will be virtuous, and therefore complete. Both books deal with the essential role of justice in civic life. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicolas_of_Cusa&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicolas of Cusa (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nicolas of Cusa</a> rekindled Platonic thought in the early 15th century. He promoted democracy in Medieval Europe, both in his writings and in his organization of the Council of Florence. Unlike Aristotle and the Hobbesian tradition to follow, Cusa saw human beings as equal and divine (that is, made in God's image), so democracy would be the only just form of government. Cusa's views are credited by some as sparking the Italian Renaissance, which gave rise to the notion of "Nation-States". </p><p>Later, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Niccolò Machiavelli (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Niccolò Machiavelli</a> rejected the views of Aristotle and Thomas Aquinas as unrealistic. The ideal sovereign is not the embodiment of the moral virtues; rather the sovereign does whatever is successful and necessary, rather than what is morally praiseworthy. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Thomas_Hobbes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Thomas Hobbes (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Thomas Hobbes</a> also contested many elements of Aristotle's views. For Hobbes, human nature is essentially anti-social: people are essentially egoistic, and this egoism makes life difficult in the natural state of things. Moreover, Hobbes argued, though people may have natural inequalities, these are trivial, since no particular talents or virtues that people may have will make them safe from harm inflicted by others. For these reasons, Hobbes concluded that the state arises from a common agreement to raise the community out of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=State_of_nature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="State of nature (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">state of nature</a>. This can only be done by the establishment of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sovereignty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sovereignty (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">sovereign</a>, in which (or whom) is vested complete control over the community, and is able to inspire awe and terror in its subjects.<sup id="cite_ref-80" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៨០<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:G.W.F._Hegel_(by_Sichling,_after_Sebbers).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/220px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="252" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/330px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b6/G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg/440px-G.W.F._Hegel_%28by_Sichling%2C_after_Sebbers%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="573" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Georg_Wilhelm_Friedrich_Hegel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel</a></figcaption></figure> <p>Many in the Enlightenment were unsatisfied with existing doctrines in political philosophy, which seemed to marginalize or neglect the possibility of a <a href="/w/index.php?title=Democracy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Democracy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">democratic state</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a> was among those who attempted to overturn these doctrines: he responded to Hobbes by claiming that a human is by nature a kind of "<a href="/w/index.php?title=Noble_savage&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Noble savage (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">noble savage</a>", and that society and social contracts corrupt this nature. Another critic was <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Locke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Locke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Locke</a>. In <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Two_Treatises_of_Government&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Two Treatises of Government (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Second Treatise on Government</a></i> he agreed with Hobbes that the nation-state was an efficient tool for raising humanity out of a deplorable state, but he argued that the sovereign might become an abominable institution compared to the relatively benign unmodulated state of nature.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៨១<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Following the doctrine of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Fact-value_distinction&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Fact-value distinction (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">fact-value distinction</a>, due in part to the influence of <a href="/w/index.php?title=David_Hume&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="David Hume (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">David Hume</a> and his student <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adam Smith (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Adam Smith</a>, appeals to human nature for political justification were weakened. Nevertheless, many political philosophers, especially <a href="/w/index.php?title=Moral_realism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Moral realism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">moral realists</a>, still make use of some essential human nature as a basis for their arguments. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Marxism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Marxism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Marxism</a> is derived from the work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Marx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Marx (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Karl Marx</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Friedrich_Engels&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Friedrich Engels (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Friedrich Engels</a>. Their idea that capitalism is based on exploitation of workers and causes alienation of people from their human nature, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Historical_materialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Historical materialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">historical materialism</a>, their view of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_classes&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social classes (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">social classes</a>, etc., have influenced many fields of study, such as sociology, economics, and politics. Marxism inspired the Marxist school of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Communism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Communism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">communism</a>, which brought a huge impact on the history of the 20th century. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Consequentialism,_deontology,_and_the_aretaic_turn"><span id="Consequentialism.2C_deontology.2C_and_the_aretaic_turn"></span>Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=37" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ Consequentialism, deontology, and the aretaic turn"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Consequentialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Consequentialism</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deontological_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deontological ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Deontological ethics</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virtue ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Virtue ethics</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%AF%E1%9E%80%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9A:Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/220px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="299" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/330px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c8/Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg/440px-Jeremy_Bentham_by_Henry_William_Pickersgill_detail.jpg 2x" data-file-width="536" data-file-height="728" /></a><figcaption><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeremy_Bentham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jeremy Bentham (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jeremy Bentham</a></figcaption></figure> <p>One debate that has commanded the attention of ethicists in the modern era has been between <a href="/w/index.php?title=Consequentialism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Consequentialism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">consequentialism</a> (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by their <i>consequences</i>) and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deontology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deontology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">deontology</a> (actions are to be morally evaluated solely by consideration of agents' <i>duties</i>, the <i>rights</i> of those whom the action concerns, or both). </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=Jeremy_Bentham&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jeremy Bentham (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jeremy Bentham</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Stuart_Mill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Stuart Mill (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Stuart Mill</a> are famous for propagating <a href="/w/index.php?title=Utilitarianism&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Utilitarianism (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">utilitarianism</a>, which is the idea that the fundamental moral rule is to strive toward the "greatest happiness for the greatest number". However, in promoting this idea they also necessarily promoted the broader doctrine of consequentialism. </p><p>Adopting a position opposed to consequentialism, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Immanuel_Kant&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Immanuel Kant (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Immanuel Kant</a> argued that moral principles were simply products of reason. Kant believed that the incorporation of consequences into moral deliberation was a deep mistake, since it denies the necessity of practical maxims in governing the working of the will. According to Kant, reason requires that we conform our actions to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Categorical_imperative&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Categorical imperative (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">categorical imperative</a>, which is an absolute duty. An important 20th-century deontologist, <a href="/w/index.php?title=W.D._Ross&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="W.D. Ross (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">W.D. Ross</a>, argued for weaker forms of duties called <a href="/w/index.php?title=Prima_facie_duty&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Prima facie duty (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)"><i>prima facie</i> duties</a>. </p><p>More recent works have emphasized the role of character in ethics, a movement known as the <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Aretaic_turn&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aretaic turn (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">aretaic turn</a></i> (that is, the <i>turn towards virtues</i>). One strain of this movement followed the work of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Bernard_Williams&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Bernard Williams (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Bernard Williams</a>. Williams noted that rigid forms of consequentialism and deontology demanded that people behave impartially. This, Williams argued, requires that people abandon their personal projects, and hence their personal <a href="/w/index.php?title=Integrity&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Integrity (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">integrity</a>, in order to be considered moral. </p><p><a href="/w/index.php?title=G.E.M._Anscombe&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="G.E.M. Anscombe (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">G.E.M. Anscombe</a>, in an influential paper, "Modern Moral Philosophy" (1958), revived <a href="/w/index.php?title=Virtue_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Virtue ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">virtue ethics</a> as an alternative to what was seen as the entrenched positions of Kantianism and consequentialism. Aretaic perspectives have been inspired in part by research of ancient conceptions of virtue. For example, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aristotle%27s_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aristotle's ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Aristotle's ethics</a> demands that people follow the <i>Aristotelian mean</i>, or balance between two vices; and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Confucius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Confucius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Confucian</a> ethics argues that virtue consists largely in striving for harmony with other people. Virtue ethics in general has since gained many adherents, and has been defended by such philosophers as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philippa_Foot&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philippa Foot (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Philippa Foot</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Alasdair_MacIntyre&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Alasdair MacIntyre (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Alasdair MacIntyre</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Rosalind_Hursthouse&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Rosalind Hursthouse (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Rosalind Hursthouse</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Applied_philosophy">Applied philosophy</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=38" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ Applied philosophy"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The ideas conceived by a society have profound repercussions on what actions the society performs. The applied study of philosophy yields applications such as those in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ethics</a>—<a href="/w/index.php?title=Applied_ethics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Applied ethics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">applied ethics</a> in particular—and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Political_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Political philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">political philosophy</a>. The political and economic philosophies of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Confucius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Confucius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Confucius</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sun_Tzu&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sun Tzu (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Sun Zi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Chanakya&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Chanakya (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Chanakya</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Khaldun&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Khaldun (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ibn Khaldun</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Rushd&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Rushd (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ibn Rushd</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Ibn_Taimiyyah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Ibn Taimiyyah (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Ibn Taimiyyah</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Niccol%C3%B2_Machiavelli&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Niccolò Machiavelli (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Niccolò Machiavelli</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gottfried_Leibniz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gottfried Leibniz (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gottfried Leibniz</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Locke&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Locke (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Locke</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Jean-Jacques_Rousseau&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Jean-Jacques Rousseau (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Jean-Jacques Rousseau</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Adam_Smith&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Adam Smith (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Adam Smith</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Marx&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Marx (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Karl Marx</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Stuart_Mill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Stuart Mill (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Stuart Mill</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mahatma_Gandhi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mahatma Gandhi (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Mahatma Gandhi</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Luther_King_Jr.&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Luther King Jr. (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Martin Luther King Jr.</a> and others—all of these have been used to shape and justify governments and their actions. </p><p>In the field of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of education (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophy of education</a>, progressive education as championed by <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Dewey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Dewey (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Dewey</a> has had a profound impact on educational practices in the <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">United States</a> in the 20th century. Descendants of this movement include the current efforts in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_for_children&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy for children (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophy for children</a>, which are part of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_education&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy education (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophy education</a>. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Carl_von_Clausewitz&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Carl von Clausewitz (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Carl von Clausewitz</a>'s political <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_war&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of war (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophy of war</a> has had a profound effect on <a href="/w/index.php?title=Public_administration&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Public administration (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">statecraft</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=International_politics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International politics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">international politics</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Military_strategy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Military strategy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">military strategy</a> in the 20th century, especially in the years around <a href="/w/index.php?title=World_War_II&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="World War II (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">World War II</a>. Logic has become crucially important in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Mathematics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Mathematics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">mathematics</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Linguistics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">linguistics</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psychology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">psychology</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Computer science (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">computer science</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Computer_engineering&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Computer engineering (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">computer engineering</a>. </p><p>Other important applications can be found in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Epistemology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Epistemology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">epistemology</a>, which aid in understanding the requisites for knowledge, sound evidence, and justified belief (important in <a href="/w/index.php?title=Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Law (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">law</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Economics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Economics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">economics</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Decision_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Decision theory (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">decision theory</a>, and a number of other disciplines). The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_of_science&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy of science (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">philosophy of science</a> discusses the underpinnings of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Scientific_method&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scientific method (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">scientific method</a> and has affected the nature of scientific investigation and argumentation. As such, philosophy has fundamental implications for science as a whole. For example, the strictly empirical approach of Skinner's behaviorism affected for decades the approach of the American psychological establishment. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Deep_ecology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Deep ecology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Deep ecology</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Animal_rights&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Animal rights (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">animal rights</a> examine the moral situation of humans as occupants of a world that has non-human occupants to consider also. <a href="/w/index.php?title=Aesthetics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Aesthetics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Aesthetics</a> can help to interpret discussions of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Music&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Music (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">music</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Literature&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Literature (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">literature</a>, the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Plastic_arts&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Plastic arts (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">plastic arts</a>, and the whole artistic dimension of life. In general, the various philosophies strive to provide practical activities with a deeper understanding of the theoretical or conceptual underpinnings of their fields. </p><p>Often philosophy is seen as an investigation into an area not sufficiently well understood to be its own branch of knowledge. What were once philosophical pursuits have evolved into the modern day fields such as <a href="/w/index.php?title=Psychology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Psychology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">psychology</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sociology&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sociology (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">sociology</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Linguistics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Linguistics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">linguistics</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Economics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Economics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">economics</a>, for example. </p><p><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_New_York_Times&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The New York Times (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">The New York Times</a></i> reported an increase in philosophy majors at <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">United States</a> universities in 2008.<sup id="cite_ref-82" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>៨២<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=39" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ See also"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r295577"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">អត្ថបទដើម: <a href="/w/index.php?title=Outline_of_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Outline of philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Outline of philosophy</a></div> <table class="metadata mbox-small" style="border:1px solid #aaa; background-color:#f9f9f9;"> <tbody><tr> <td class="mbox-image"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%8C%E1%9E%B6:%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85" title="វីគីភីឌា:សៀវភៅ"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/30px-Office-book.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="30" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/45px-Office-book.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a8/Office-book.svg/60px-Office-book.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="48" data-file-height="48" /></a></span></td> <td class="mbox-text" style=""> <i><b><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="សៀវភៅ:ទស្សនវិជ្ជា (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">សៀវភៅ: ទស្សនវិជ្ជា</a></b></i> </td> </tr> <tr><td colspan="2" class="mbox-text" style=""> <small><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%8C%E1%9E%B6:Books&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="វិគីភីឌា:Books (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">សៀវភៅវីគីភីឌា</a> គឺជាសមូហកម្មអត្ថបទ ដែលអាចទាញយកឯកសារបាន រឺ ក៏អាចបញ្ជាឲ្យបោះពុម្ពបាន។</small> </td></tr> </tbody></table> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Lists_of_philosophers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lists of philosophers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Lists of philosophers</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=List_of_philosophy_journals&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="List of philosophy journals (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">List of philosophy journals</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_and_economics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy and economics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Philosophy and economics</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Social_theory&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Social theory (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Social theory</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Unsolved_problems_in_philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Unsolved problems in philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Unsolved problems in philosophy</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=40" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ References"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r295543">.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%;margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width reflist-columns-2"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-1">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jenny Teichmann and Katherine C. Evans, <i>Philosophy: A Beginner's Guide</i> (Blackwell Publishing, 1999), p. 1:ទស្សនវិជ្ជាជាកាសិក្សាពីបញ្ហាទីបំផុតណាមួយ "Philosophy is a study of problems which are ultimate, អរូបីនិងបញ្ហាដ៏សាមញ្ញទាំងនេះដែលជាប់ទាក់ទងជាមួយកាបង្កឡើងនៃធម្មជាតិ ចំនេះដឹង សីលធម៌ និងគោលបំណងមនុស្ស ។abstract and very general. These problems are concerned with the nature of existence, knowledge, morality, reason and human purpose."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-2">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=A.C._Grayling&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="A.C. Grayling (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">A.C. Grayling</a>, <i>Philosophy 1: A Guide through the Subject</i> (Oxford University Press, 1998), p. 1: "The aim of philosophical inquiry is to gain insight into questions about knowledge, truth, reason, reality, meaning, mind, and value."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-3">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Quinton, in T. Honderich (ed.), <i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 1995), p. 666: "Philosophy is rationally critical thinking, of a more or less systematic kind about the general nature of the world (metaphysics or theory of existence), the justification of belief (epistemology or theory of knowledge), and the conduct of life (ethics or theory of value). Each of the three elements in this list has a non-philosophical counterpart, from which it is distinguished by its explicitly rational and critical way of proceeding and by its systematic nature. Everyone has some general conception of the nature of the world in which they live and of their place in it. Metaphysics replaces the unargued assumptions embodied in such a conception with a rational and organized body of beliefs about the world as a whole. Everyone has occasion to doubt and question beliefs, their own or those of others, with more or less success and without any theory of what they are doing. Epistemology seeks by argument to make explicit the rules of correct belief formation. Everyone governs their conduct by directing it to desired or valued ends. Ethics, or moral philosophy, in its most inclusive sense, seeks to articulate, in rationally systematic form, the rules or principles involved."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-4">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r312616">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,.mw-parser-output .citation .cs1-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#3a3;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%23111487">"Philosophia, Henry George Liddell, Robert Scott, ''A Greek-English Lexicon'', at Perseus"</a>. Perseus.tufts.edu<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 22 ខែសីហា 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Philosophia%2C+Henry+George+Liddell%2C+Robert+Scott%2C+%27%26%2339%3BA+Greek-English+Lexicon%27%26%2339%3B%2C+at+Perseus&rft.pub=Perseus.tufts.edu&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.perseus.tufts.edu%2Fcgi-bin%2Fptext%3Fdoc%3DPerseus%253Atext%253A1999.04.0057%253Aentry%253D%2523111487&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fkm.wikipedia.org%3A%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-5">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r312616"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?search=philosophy&searchmode=none">"Online Etymology Dictionary"</a>. Etymonline.com<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 22 ខែសីហា 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Online+Etymology+Dictionary&rft.pub=Etymonline.com&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.etymonline.com%2Findex.php%3Fsearch%3Dphilosophy%26searchmode%3Dnone&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fkm.wikipedia.org%3A%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-6">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">The definition of philosophy is: "1.orig., love of, or the search for, wisdom or knowledge 2.theory or logical analysis of the principles underlying conduct, thought, knowledge, and the nature of the universe".<span class="citation book"> <i>Webster's New World Dictionary</i> (Second College រ.រ.).</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Webster%27s+New+World+Dictionary&rft.edition=Second+College&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-7">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external free" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Normative_ethics</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-8">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a class="external free" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ethics">http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Applied_ethics</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-9">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">For example, the multi-author Oxford History of Western Philosophy breaks the subject into eight volumes: ancient, medieval, Renaissance, two volumes covering the period 1600–1750, two volumes covering 1750–1945, and one volume on analytic philosophy since 1945. Anthony Kenny's <i>New History of Western Philosophy</i> is divided in four volumes: ancient, medieval, early modern (1500–1830), and later modern (1830 to the present). The more technical Cambridge History of Philosophy divides the topic into nine periods: Greek philosophy to Aristotle, Hellenistic philosophy, later Greek and early medieval, later medieval, Renaissance, three volumes for the 17th–19th centuries, and a final volume on 1870–1945.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-10">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>101</b> (1), p. 35-47.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-11">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Giorgio Buccellati (1981), "Wisdom and Not: The Case of Mesopotamia", <i>Journal of the American Oriental Society</i> <b>101</b> (1), p. 35-47 [43].</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_12-0">១២,០</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Oxford_Companion_to_Philosophy_12-1">១២,១</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Blackburn-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Blackburn_13-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Blackburn, Simon (1994). <i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford: Oxford University Press.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Oxford+Dictionary+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Blackburn%2C+Simon&rft.au=Blackburn%2C+Simon&rft.date=1994&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-14">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick Copleston, <i>A History of Philosophy, Volume II: From Augustine to Scotus</i> (Burns & Oates, 1950), p. 1, dates medieval philosophy proper from the Carolingian Renaissance in the eighth century to the end of the fourteenth century, though he includes <a href="/w/index.php?title=Augustine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Augustine (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Augustine</a> and the Patristic fathers as precursors. Desmond Henry, in Paul Edwards (ed.), <i>The Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (Macmillan, 1967), vol. 5, pp. 252–257, starts with Augustine and ends with <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicole_Oresme&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicole Oresme (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nicholas of Oresme</a> in the late fourteenth century. David Luscombe, <i>Medieval Thought</i> (Oxford University Press, 1997), dates medieval philosophy from the conversion of <a href="/w/index.php?title=Constantine_I&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Constantine I (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Constantine</a> in 312 to the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Protestant_Reformation&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Protestant Reformation (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Protestant Reformation</a> in the 1520s. Christopher Hughes, in A.C. Grayling (ed.), <i>Philosophy 2: Further through the Subject</i> (Oxford University Press, 1998), covers philosophers from Augustine to Ockham. Jorge J.E. Gracia, in Nicholas Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed. (Blackwell, 2003), p. 620, identifies medieval philosophy as running from Augustine to <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_of_St._Thomas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John of St. Thomas (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John of St. Thomas</a> in the seventeenth century. Anthony Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy, Volume II: Medieval Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 2005), begins with Augustine and ends with the Lateran Council of 1512.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-15">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Gracia, p. 1</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-16">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles Schmitt and Quentin Skinner (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i> (Cambridge University Press, 1988), p. 5, loosely define the period as extending "from the age of Ockham to the revisionary work of Bacon, Descartes and their contemporaries."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-17">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Frederick Copleston, <i>A History of Philosophy, Volume III: From Ockham to Suarez</i> (The Newman Press, 1953) p. 18: "When one looks at Renaissance philosophy ... one is faced at first sight with a rather bewildering assortment of philosophies."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-18">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Brian Copenhaver and Charles Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 1992), p. 4: "one may identify the hallmark of Renaissance philosophy as an accelerated and enlarged interest, stimulated by newly available texts, in primary sources of Greek and Roman thought that were previously unknown or partially known or little read."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-19">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Jorge J.E. Gracia in Nicholas Bunnin and E.P. Tsui-James (eds.), <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>, 2nd ed. (Blackwell, 2002), p. 621: "the humanists ... restored man to the centre of attention and channeled their efforts to the recovery and transmission of classical learning, particularly in the philosophy of Plato."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-20">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Copleston, <i>ibid.</i>: "The bulk of Renaissance thinkers, scholars and scientists were, of course, Christians ... but none the less the classical revival ... helped to bring to the fore a conception of autonomous man or an idea of the development of the human personality, which, though generally Christian, was more 'naturalistic' and less ascetic than the mediaeval conception."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-21">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Charles B. Schmitt and Quentin Skinner (eds.), <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 61 and 63: "From Petrarch the early humanists learnt their conviction that the revival of <i>humanae literae</i> was only the first step in a greater intellectual renewal" [...] "the very conception of philosophy was changing because its chief object was now man—man was at centre of every inquiry".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_22-0">២២,០</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-The_Renaissance_Philosophy_of_Man_22-1">២២,១</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Cassirer; Kristeller; Randall, រៀs. (1948). "Introduction". <i>The Renaissance Philosophy of Man</i>. University of Chicago Press</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Introduction&rft.atitle=The+Renaissance+Philosophy+of+Man&rft.date=1948&rft.pub=University+of+Chicago+Press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-23">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Copenhaver and Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 285–328.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-24">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Pico Della Mirandola, Conclusiones philosophicae, cabalisticae et theologicae; Giordano Bruno, De Magia</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-25">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Richard Popkin, <i>The History of Scepticism from Savonarola to Bayle</i> (Oxford University Press, 2003).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-26">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Copleston, pp. 228–229.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-27">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Kenny, <i>A New History of Western Philosophy</i>, vol. 3 (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 8: "The Lutheran Reformation [...] gave new impetus to the sceptical trend."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-28">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"Machiavelli appears as the first modern political thinker" <span class="citation book">Williams, Garrath. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">"Hobbes: Moral and Political Philosophy"</a>. <i>Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/">http://www.iep.utm.edu/hobmoral/</a></span></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Hobbes%3A+Moral+and+Political+Philosophy&rft.atitle=Internet+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Williams&rft.aufirst=Garrath&rft.au=Williams%2C%26%2332%3BGarrath&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.iep.utm.edu%2Fhobmoral%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span>. "Machiavelli ought not really to be classified as either purely an "ancient" or a "modern," but instead deserves to be located in the interstices between the two." <span class="citation book">Nederman, Cary. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/">"Niccolò Machiavelli"</a>. <i>Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i><span class="printonly">. <a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/">http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/machiavelli/</a></span></span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.btitle=Niccol%C3%B2+Machiavelli&rft.atitle=Stanford+Encyclopedia+of+Philosophy&rft.aulast=Nederman&rft.aufirst=Cary&rft.au=Nederman%2C%26%2332%3BCary&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fplato.stanford.edu%2Fentries%2Fmachiavelli%2F&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-29">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Copenhaver and Schmitt, <i>Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 274–284.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-30">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Schmitt and Skinner, <i>The Cambridge History of Renaissance Philosophy</i>, pp. 430–452.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Shand-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Shand_31-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Shand, John (ed.) <i>Central Works of Philosophy, Vol.3 The Nineteenth Century</i> (McGill-Queens, 2005)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-32">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 4: "by the 1870s Germany contained much of the best universities in the world. [...] There were certainly more professors of philosophy in Germany in 1870 than anywhere else in the world, and perhaps more even than everywhere else put together."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-33"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-33">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Beiser, Frederick C. <i>The Cambridge Companion to Hegel</i>, (Cambridge, 1993).</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-34"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-34">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i>, p. 119: "within a hundred years of the first stirrings in the early nineteenth century [logic] had undergone the most fundamental transformation and substantial advance in its history."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-35"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-35">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=Scott_Soames&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Scott Soames (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Scott Soames</a>, <i>Philosophical Analysis in the Twentieth Century</i>, vol. 2, p. 463.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-stanford-36"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-stanford_36-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy, <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/russell/">"Bertrand Russell"</a>, 1 May 2003: "Russell is generally recognized as one of the founders of modern analytic philosophy. [...] he is regularly credited with being one of the most important logicians of the twentieth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-37"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-37">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Paul Edwards (ed.), <i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>, vol. 7 (Macmillan, 1967), p. 239: "Russell has exercised an influence on the course of Anglo-American philosophy in the twentieth century second to that of no other individual."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-38"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-38">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 376: "[...] the three greatest European philosophers of the twentieth century—Heidegger, Russell, and Wittgenstein."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-39"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-39">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Avrum Stroll, <i>Twentieth-Century Analytic Philosophy</i> (Columbia University Press, 2000), p. 252: "More than any other analytic philosopher, [Wittgenstein] has changed the thinking of a whole generation."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-40"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-40">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/wittgens/">"Wittgenstein, Ludwig"</a> in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Ludwig Wittgenstein is one of the most influential philosophers of the twentieth century, and regarded by some as the most important since Immanuel Kant."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-41"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-41">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Thomas Baldwin, <i>Contemporary Philosophy</i> (Oxford University Press, 2001), p. 90: "[Quine] has been, without question, the most influential American philosopher of the second half of the twentieth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-42"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-42">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peter Hylton, "Quine", in the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Quine's work has been extremely influential and has done much to shape the course of philosophy in the second-half of the twentieth century and into the twenty-first."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-43"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-43">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Andrew Bailey, <i>First Philosophy: Knowledge and Reality</i> (Broadview Press, 2004), p. 274: "Willard Van Orman Quine (1908–2000) was uncontroversially one of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-44"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-44">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Anthony Kenny, <i>Philosophy in the Modern World</i> (Oxford University Press, 2007), p. 64: "After Wittgenstein's death many people regarded W.V.O. Quine (1908–2000) as the doyen of Anglophone philosophy."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-45"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-45">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/david-lewis/">[១]</a>: "David Lewis (1941–2001) was one of the most important philosophers of the 20th Century. He made significant contributions to philosophy of language, philosophy of mathematics, philosophy of science, decision theory, epistemology, meta-ethics and aesthetics. In most of these fields he is essential reading; in many of them he is among the most important figures of recent decades. And this list leaves out his two most significant contributions."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-46"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-46">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Perry_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Perry (philosopher) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Perry</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Michael_Bratman&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Michael Bratman (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Michael Bratman</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=John_Martin_Fischer&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="John Martin Fischer (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">John Martin Fischer</a> (eds.), <i>Introduction to Philosophy: Classical and Contemporary Readings</i>, 4th ed. (Oxford University Press, 2006), p. 302: "David Lewis (1941–2001) was one of the most important philosophers of the twentieth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-47"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-47">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/husserl/">"Edmund Husserl"</a>, in <i>The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i>: "Edmund Husserl was the principal founder of phenomenology—and thus one of the most influential philosophers of the 20th century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-48"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-48">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/husserl/">"Husserl, Edmund"</a>, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "he is arguably one of the most important and influential philosophers of the twentieth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-49"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-49">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Raymond Geuss, in Thomas Baldwin (ed.), <i>The Cambridge History of Philosophy 1870–1945</i> (Cambridge University Press, 2003), p. 497: "Heidegger is by a wide margin the single most influential philosopher of the twentieth century."</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-50"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-50">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/heidegge/">"Heidegger, Martin"</a>, in the Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy: "Martin Heidegger is widely acknowledged to be one of the most original and important philosophers of the 20th century".</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-51"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-51">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">See <a href="/w/index.php?title=Diogenes_Laertius&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Diogenes Laertius (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Diogenes Laertius</a>: "Lives of Eminent Philosophers", <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0258%3Abook%3D8%3Achapter%3D1">I, 12</a>; <a href="/w/index.php?title=Cicero&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Cicero (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Cicero</a>: "Tusculanae disputationes", V, 8–9</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rizvi-52"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Rizvi_52-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sajjad H. Rizvi (2006), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.iep.utm.edu/a/avicenna.htm">Avicenna/Ibn Sina (CA. 980–1037)</a>, <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Internet_Encyclopedia_of_Philosophy&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy</a></i></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Russell-53"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Russell_53-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">G. A. Russell (1994), <i>The 'Arabick' Interest of the Natural Philosophers in Seventeenth-Century England</i>, pp. 224–62, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Brill_Publishers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Brill Publishers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Brill Publishers</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/9004094598" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 90-04-09459-8</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-54"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-54">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sextus Empiricus, <i>PH</i> (= <i>Outlines of Pyrrhonism</i>) I.8</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-55"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-55">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Sextus Empiricus, <i>PH</i> (= <i>Outlines of Pyrrhonism</i>) I.19–20</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-56"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-56">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"And though a Pyrrhonian [i.e. a skeptic] may throw himself or others into a momentary amazement and confusion by his profound reasonings; the first and most trivial event in life will put to flight all his doubts and scruples, and leave him the same, in every point of action and speculation, with the philosophers of every other sect, or with those who never concerned themselves in any philosophical researches. When he awakes from his dream, he will be the first to join in the laugh against himself, and to confess, that all his objections are mere amusement." (<i>An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding</i>, 1777, XII, Part 2, p. 128)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-57"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-57">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Lewis Carroll (1895). <i>What the Tortoise Said to Achilles</i>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+the+Tortoise+Said+to+Achilles&rft.aulast=Lewis+Carroll&rft.au=Lewis+Carroll&rft.date=1895&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-58"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-58">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Stephen Cade Hetherington (1996). <i>Knowledge Puzzles</i>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Knowledge+Puzzles&rft.aulast=Stephen+Cade+Hetherington&rft.au=Stephen+Cade+Hetherington&rft.date=1996&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-59"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-59">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">First Dialogue</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-60"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-60">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Kant, Immanuel (1990). <i>Critique of Pure Reason</i>. Prometheus Books. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="លេខសៀវភៅបទដ្ឋានអន្តរជាតិ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ល.ស.ប.អ.</a> <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0-87975-596-2" title="ពិសេស:ប្រភពសៀវភៅ/0-87975-596-2">0-87975-596-2</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Critique+of+Pure+Reason&rft.aulast=Kant%2C+Immanuel&rft.au=Kant%2C+Immanuel&rft.date=1990&rft.pub=Prometheus+Books&rft.isbn=0-87975-596-2&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Murphy-61"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Murphy_61-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Murphy, John P. (1990). <i>Pragmatism – from Peirce to Davidson</i>. Boulder: Westview Press.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pragmatism+%E2%80%93+from+Peirce+to+Davidson&rft.aulast=Murphy%2C+John+P.&rft.au=Murphy%2C+John+P.&rft.date=1990&rft.place=Boulder&rft.pub=Westview+Press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-62"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-62">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Peirce on p. 293 of "How to Make Our Ideas Clear", Popular Science Monthly, v. 12, pp. 286–302. Reprinted widely, including Collected Papers of Charles Sanders Peirce (CP) v. 5, paragraphs 388–410.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Rorty-63"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Rorty_63-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Rorty, Richard (1982). <i>The Consequences of Pragmatism</i>. Minnesota: Minnesota University Press. p. xvi.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Consequences+of+Pragmatism&rft.aulast=Rorty%2C+Richard&rft.au=Rorty%2C+Richard&rft.date=1982&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3Bxvi&rft.place=Minnesota&rft.pub=Minnesota+University+Press&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Putnam-64"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Putnam_64-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Putnam, Hilary (1995). <i>Pragmatism: An Open Question</i>. Oxford: Blackwell. pp. 8–12.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Pragmatism%3A+An+Open+Question&rft.aulast=Putnam%2C+Hilary&rft.au=Putnam%2C+Hilary&rft.date=1995&rft.pages=pp.%26nbsp%3B8%E2%80%9312&rft.place=Oxford&rft.pub=Blackwell&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Pratt-65"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Pratt_65-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Pratt, J. B. (1909). <i>What is Pragmatism?</i>. New York: Macmillan. p. 89.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+is+Pragmatism%3F&rft.aulast=Pratt%2C+J.+B.&rft.au=Pratt%2C+J.+B.&rft.date=1909&rft.pages=p.%26nbsp%3B89&rft.place=New+York&rft.pub=Macmillan&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Ref-1-66"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">↑ <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_66-0">៦៦,០</a></sup> <sup><a href="#cite_ref-Ref-1_66-1">៦៦,១</a></sup></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Woodruff Smith, David (2007). <i>Husserl</i>. Routledge.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Husserl&rft.aulast=Woodruff+Smith%2C+David&rft.au=Woodruff+Smith%2C+David&rft.date=2007&rft.pub=Routledge&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Dreyfus-67"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Dreyfus_67-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Dreyfus, Hubert (2006). <i>A Companion to Phenomenology and Existentialism</i>. Blackwell.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Companion+to+Phenomenology+and+Existentialism&rft.aulast=Dreyfus%2C+Hubert&rft.au=Dreyfus%2C+Hubert&rft.date=2006&rft.pub=Blackwell&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-68"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-68">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pages 18–21.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-69"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-69">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><i>Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i>, ed. Ted Honderich, New York (1995), page 259.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-70"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-70">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Macquarrie, <i>Existentialism</i>, New York (1972), pages 14–15.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-71"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-71">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Robert C. Solomon, <i>Existentialism</i> (McGraw-Hill, 1974, pages 1–2)</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-72"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-72">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Ernst Breisach, <i>Introduction to Modern Existentialism</i>, New York (1962), page 5</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-73"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-73">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Walter Kaufmann, <i>Existentialism: From Dostoevesky to Sartre</i>, New York (1956) page 12</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-74"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-74">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Matustik, Martin J. (1995). <i>Kierkegaard in Post/Modernity</i>. Indiana University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="លេខសៀវភៅបទដ្ឋានអន្តរជាតិ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ល.ស.ប.អ.</a> <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0-253-20967-6" title="ពិសេស:ប្រភពសៀវភៅ/0-253-20967-6">0-253-20967-6</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Kierkegaard+in+Post%2FModernity&rft.aulast=Matustik%2C+Martin+J.&rft.au=Matustik%2C+Martin+J.&rft.date=1995&rft.pub=Indiana+University+Press&rft.isbn=0-253-20967-6&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-Bob-75"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-Bob_75-0">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Solomon, Robert (2001). <i>What Nietzsche Really Said</i>. Schocken. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="លេខសៀវភៅបទដ្ឋានអន្តរជាតិ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ល.ស.ប.អ.</a> <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0-8052-1094-6" title="ពិសេស:ប្រភពសៀវភៅ/0-8052-1094-6">0-8052-1094-6</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=What+Nietzsche+Really+Said&rft.aulast=Solomon%2C+Robert&rft.au=Solomon%2C+Robert&rft.date=2001&rft.pub=Schocken&rft.isbn=0-8052-1094-6&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-76"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-76">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">Religious thinkers were among those influenced by Kierkegaard. Christian existentialists include <a href="/w/index.php?title=Gabriel_Marcel&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Gabriel Marcel (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Gabriel Marcel</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Nicholas_Berdyaev&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Nicholas Berdyaev (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Nicholas Berdyaev</a>, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Miguel_de_Unamuno&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Miguel de Unamuno (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Miguel de Unamuno</a>, and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Karl_Jaspers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Karl Jaspers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Karl Jaspers</a> (although he preferred to speak of his "philosophical faith"). The Jewish philosophers <a href="/w/index.php?title=Martin_Buber&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Martin Buber (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Martin Buber</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Lev_Shestov&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Lev Shestov (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Lev Shestov</a> have also been associated with existentialism.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-77"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-77">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1986). <i>Fear and Trembling</i>. Penguin Classics. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="លេខសៀវភៅបទដ្ឋានអន្តរជាតិ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ល.ស.ប.អ.</a> <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0-14-044449-1" title="ពិសេស:ប្រភពសៀវភៅ/0-14-044449-1">0-14-044449-1</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Fear+and+Trembling&rft.aulast=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&rft.au=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&rft.date=1986&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rft.isbn=0-14-044449-1&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-78"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-78">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Kierkegaard, Søren (1992). <i>Concluding Unscientific Postscript</i>. Princeton University Press. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="លេខសៀវភៅបទដ្ឋានអន្តរជាតិ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ល.ស.ប.អ.</a> <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0-691-02081-7" title="ពិសេស:ប្រភពសៀវភៅ/0-691-02081-7">0-691-02081-7</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Concluding+Unscientific+Postscript&rft.aulast=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&rft.au=Kierkegaard%2C+S%C3%B8ren&rft.date=1992&rft.pub=Princeton+University+Press&rft.isbn=0-691-02081-7&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-79"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-79">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r312616"><cite id="CITEREFRussell1999" class="citation web cs1">Russell, Bertrand (22 ខែកុម្ភៈ 1999). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://fair-use.org/bertrand-russell/the-principles-of-mathematics">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>''The Principles of Mathematics'' (1903)"</a>. Fair-use.org<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved 22 ខែសីហា 2010</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=%27%26%2339%3BThe+Principles+of+Mathematics%27%26%2339%3B+%281903%29&rft.pub=Fair-use.org&rft.date=1999-02-22&rft.aulast=Russell&rft.aufirst=Bertrand&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Ffair-use.org%2Fbertrand-russell%2Fthe-principles-of-mathematics&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fkm.wikipedia.org%3A%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-80"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-80">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Hobbes, Thomas (1985). <i>Leviathan</i>. Penguin Classics.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Leviathan&rft.aulast=Hobbes%2C+Thomas&rft.au=Hobbes%2C+Thomas&rft.date=1985&rft.pub=Penguin+Classics&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-81"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-81">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text"><span class="citation book">Sigmund, Paul E. (2005). <i>The Selected Political Writings of John Locke</i>. Norton. <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9B%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%81%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%8A%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8B%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%93%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%8F%E1%9E%B7&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="លេខសៀវភៅបទដ្ឋានអន្តរជាតិ (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ល.ស.ប.អ.</a> <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0-393-96451-5" title="ពិសេស:ប្រភពសៀវភៅ/0-393-96451-5">0-393-96451-5</a>.</span><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Selected+Political+Writings+of+John+Locke&rft.aulast=Sigmund%2C+Paul+E.&rft.au=Sigmund%2C+Paul+E.&rft.date=2005&rft.pub=Norton&rft.isbn=0-393-96451-5&rfr_id=info:sid/en.wikipedia.org:%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-82"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><a href="#cite_ref-82">↑</a></span> <span class="reference-text">"<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.nytimes.com/2008/04/06/education/06philosophy.html?em&ex=1207713600&en=6690d92b7d7470f8&ei=5087%0A">In a New Generation of College Students, Many Opt for the Life Examined</a>." <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=The_New_York_Times&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="The New York Times (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">The New York Times</a></i>.</span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="អំណានបន្ថែម"><span id=".E1.9E.A2.E1.9F.86.E1.9E.8E.E1.9E.B6.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.94.E1.9E.93.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.90.E1.9F.82.E1.9E.98"></span>អំណានបន្ថែម</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=41" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ អំណានបន្ថែម"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Introductions">Introductions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=42" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ Introductions"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="refbegin references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul><li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Kwame_Anthony_Appiah&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Kwame Anthony Appiah (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Appiah, Kwame Anthony</a>. <i>Thinking it Through  – An Introduction to Contemporary Philosophy</i>, 2003, <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0195134583" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-513458-3</a></li> <li>Blumenau, Ralph. <i>Philosophy and Living</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0907845339" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-907845-33-9</a></li> <li>Craig, Edward. <i>Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0192854216" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-285421-6</a></li> <li>Curley, Edwin, <i>A Spinoza Reader</i>, Princeton, 1994, <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0691000670" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-691-00067-0</a></li> <li>Durant, Will, <i>Story of Philosophy: The Lives and Opinions of the World's Greatest Philosophers</i>, Pocket, 1991, <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0671739166" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-671-73916-6</a>, <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/9780671739164" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-0-671-73916-4</a></li> <li>Harrison-Barbet, Anthony, <i>Mastering Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0333693434" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-333-69343-4</a></li> <li>Higgins, Kathleen M. and Solomon, Robert C. <i>A Short History of Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0195101960" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-510196-0</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Philosophy_Now&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Philosophy Now (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Philosophy Now</a> magazine</li> <li>Russell, Bertrand. <i><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/phil/russell/">The Problems of Philosophy</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20040807090338/http://philosophy.hku.hk/think/phil/russell/">Archived</a> 7 August 2004<span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment"><sup>[Date mismatch]</sup></span> at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%8A%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%81_%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="វេយប៊ែខ ម៉ាស៊ីន (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">វេយប៊ែខ ម៉ាស៊ីន</a>.</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/019511552X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-511552-X</a></li> <li>Sinclair, Alistair J. <i>What is Philosophy? An Introduction</i>, 2008, <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/9781903765944" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 978-1-903765-94-4</a></li> <li>Sober, E. (2001). <i>Core Questions in Philosophy: A Text with Readings</i>. Upper Saddle River, Prentice Hall. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0131898698" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-13-189869-8</a></li> <li>Solomon, Robert C. <i>Big Questions: A Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/053416708X" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-534-16708-X</a></li> <li>Warburton, Nigel. <i>Philosophy: The Basics</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0415146941" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-14694-1</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journals.cambridge.org/thi">Think: philosophy for everyone</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20081010121909/http://www.journals.cambridge.org/thi">Archived</a> 10 October 2008<span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment"><sup>[Date mismatch]</sup></span> at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%8A%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%81_%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="វេយប៊ែខ ម៉ាស៊ីន (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">វេយប៊ែខ ម៉ាស៊ីន</a>. Lively and accessible articles written by philosophers pre-eminent in their fields, for a broad audience. Free articles are available online.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Topical_introductions">Topical introductions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=43" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ Topical introductions"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="refbegin references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul><li>Copleston, Frederick. <i>Philosophy in Russia: From Herzen to Lenin and Berdyaev</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0268015694" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-268-01569-4</a></li> <li>Critchley, Simon. <i>Continental Philosophy: A Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0192853597" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-285359-7</a></li> <li>Hamilton, Sue. <i>Indian Philosophy: a Very Short Introduction</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0192853740" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-285374-0</a></li> <li>Harwood, Sterling, ed., Business as Ethical and Business as Usual (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing Co., 2000); www.sterlingharwood.com</li> <li>Imbo, Samuel Oluoch. '3'An Introduction to African Philosophy<i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0847688410" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-8476-8841-0</a></i></li> <li>Knight, Kelvin. <i>Aristotelian Philosophy: Ethics and Politics from Aristotle to MacIntyre</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0745619770" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-7456-1977-0</a></li> <li>Kupperman, Joel J. <i>Classic Asian Philosophy: A Guide to the Essential Texts</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0195133358" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-513335-8</a></li> <li>Leaman, Oliver. <i>A Brief Introduction to Islamic Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0745619606" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-7456-1960-6</a></li> <li>Lee, Joe and Powell, Jim. <i>Eastern Philosophy For Beginners</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0863162827" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-86316-282-7</a></li> <li>Nagel, Thomas. <i>What Does It All Mean? A Very Short Introduction to Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0195052927" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-19-505292-7</a></li> <li>Scruton, Roger. <i>A Short History of Modern Philosophy</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0415267633" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-26763-3</a></li> <li>Smart, Ninian. <i>World Philosophies</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0415228522" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-415-22852-2</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Richard_Tarnas&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Richard Tarnas (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Tarnas, Richard</a>. <i>The Passion of the Western Mind: Understanding the Ideas That Have Shaped Our World View</i>. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0345368096" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-345-36809-6</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Anthologies">Anthologies</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=44" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ Anthologies"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="refbegin references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul><li><i>Classics of Philosophy (Vols. 1 & 2, 2nd edition)</i> by Louis P. Pojman</li> <li><i>Classics of Philosophy: The 20th Century (Vol. 3)</i> by Louis P. Pojman</li> <li><i>The English Philosophers from Bacon to Mill</i> by Edwin Arthur</li> <li><i>European Philosophers from Descartes to Nietzsche</i> by Monroe Beardsley</li> <li><i>Contemporary Analytic Philosophy: Core Readings</i> by James Baillie</li> <li><i>Existentialism: Basic Writings (Second Edition)</i> by Charles Guignon, Derk Pereboom</li> <li><i>The Phenomenology Reader</i> by Dermot Moran, Timothy Mooney</li> <li><i>Medieval Islamic Philosophical Writings</i> edited by Muhammad Ali Khalidi</li> <li><i>A Source Book in Indian Philosophy</i> by Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan, Charles A. Moore</li> <li><i>A Source Book in Chinese Philosophy</i> by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Wing-tsit_Chan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Wing-tsit Chan (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Wing-tsit Chan</a></li> <li>Kim, J. and Ernest Sosa, Ed. (1999). <i>Metaphysics: An Anthology</i>. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</li> <li><i>The Oxford Handbook of Free Will</i> (2004) edited by Robert Kane</li> <li>Husserl, Edmund and Donn Welton (1999). <i>The Essential Husserl: Basic Writings in Transcendental Phenomenology</i>, Indiana University Press. <a href="/wiki/%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%9F:%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%96%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%80%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%97%E1%9F%85/0253212731" class="internal mw-magiclink-isbn">ISBN 0-253-21273-1</a></li> <li>Cottingham, John. Western Philosophy: An Anthology. 2nd ed. Malden, MA: Blackwell Pub., 2008. Print. Blackwell Philosophy Anthologies.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reference_works">Reference works</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=45" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ Reference works"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="refbegin references-column-count references-column-count-2" style="-moz-column-count: 2; -webkit-column-count: 2; column-count: 2;"> <ul><li><i>The Oxford Companion to Philosophy</i> edited by Ted Honderich</li> <li><i>The Cambridge Dictionary of Philosophy</i> by Robert Audi</li> <li><i>The Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (10 vols.) edited by Edward Craig, <a href="/w/index.php?title=Luciano_Floridi&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Luciano Floridi (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Luciano Floridi</a> (available online by subscription); or</li> <li><i>The Concise Routledge Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> edited by Edward Craig (an abridgement)</li> <li><i>Encyclopedia of Philosophy</i> (8 vols.) edited by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Paul_Edwards_(philosopher)&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Paul Edwards (philosopher) (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Paul Edwards</a>; in 1996, a ninth supplemental volume appeared that updated the classic 1967 encyclopedia.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=International_Directory_of_Philosophy_and_Philosophers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">International Directory of Philosophy and Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li> <li><i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Directory_of_American_Philosophers&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Directory of American Philosophers (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Directory of American Philosophers</a></i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li> <li><i>Routledge History of Philosophy</i> (10 vols.) edited by John Marenbon</li> <li><i>History of Philosophy</i> (9 vols.) by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Frederick_Copleston&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Frederick Copleston (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Frederick Copleston</a></li> <li><i>A History of Western Philosophy</i> (5 vols.) by W. T. Jones</li> <li><i>History of Italian Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by Eugenio Garin. Translated from Italian and Edited by Giorgio Pinton. Introduction by Leon Pompa.</li> <li><i>Encyclopaedia of Indian Philosophies</i> (8 vols.), edited by Karl H. Potter et al. (first 6 volumes out of print)</li> <li><i>Indian Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by <a href="/w/index.php?title=Sarvepalli_Radhakrishnan&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">Sarvepalli Radhakrishnan</a></li> <li><i>A History of Indian Philosophy</i> (5 vols.) by Surendranath Dasgupta</li> <li><i>History of Chinese Philosophy</i> (2 vols.) by Fung Yu-lan, Derk Bodde</li> <li><i>Encyclopedia of Chinese Philosophy</i> edited by Antonio S. Cua</li> <li><i>Encyclopedia of Eastern Philosophy and Religion</i> by Ingrid Fischer-Schreiber, Franz-Karl Ehrhard, Kurt Friedrichs</li> <li><i>Companion Encyclopedia of Asian Philosophy</i> by Brian Carr, Indira Mahalingam</li> <li><i>A Concise Dictionary of Indian Philosophy: Sanskrit Terms Defined in English</i> by John A. Grimes</li> <li><i>History of Islamic Philosophy</i> edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr, Oliver Leaman</li> <li><i>History of Jewish Philosophy</i> edited by Daniel H. Frank, Oliver Leaman</li> <li><i>A History of Russian Philosophy: From the Tenth to the Twentieth Centuries</i> by Valerii Aleksandrovich Kuvakin</li> <li>Ayer, A.J. et al., Ed. (1994) <i>A Dictionary of Philosophical Quotations</i>. Blackwell Reference Oxford. Oxford, Basil Blackwell Ltd.</li> <li>Blackburn, S., Ed. (1996)<i>The Oxford Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. Oxford, Oxford University Press.</li> <li>Mauter, T., Ed. <i>The Penguin Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. London, Penguin Books.</li> <li>Runes, D., Ed. (1942). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ditext.com/runes/"><i>The Dictionary of Philosophy</i></a>. New York, The Philosophical Library, Inc.</li> <li>Angeles, P.A., Ed. (1992). <i>The Harper Collins Dictionary of Philosophy</i>. New York, Harper Perennial.</li> <li>Bunnin, N. et al., Ed. (1996) <i>The Blackwell Companion to Philosophy</i>. Blackwell Companions to Philosophy. Oxford, Blackwell Publishers Ltd.</li> <li>Hoffman, Eric, Ed. (1997) <i>Guidebook for Publishing Philosophy</i>. Charlottesville, Philosophy Documentation Center.</li> <li>Popkin, R.H. (1999). <i>The Columbia History of Western Philosophy</i>. New York, Columbia University Press.</li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=46" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ External links"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <table class="metadata plainlinks mbox-small" style="border:1px solid var(--border-color-base, #a2a9b1); background-color:var(--background-color-neutral-subtle, #f8f9fa); color:inherit;"> <tbody><tr> <td colspan="2" style="margin: auto; text-align: center">ស្វែងយល់បន្ថែមអំពី<b>ទស្សនវិជ្ជា</b>លើ <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%97%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%8C%E1%9E%B6:%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9A%E1%9F%84%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%94%E1%9E%84%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%A2%E1%9E%BC%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%82%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%98%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%8C%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="វិគីភីឌា:គម្រោងបងប្អូនវិគីមីឌា (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">គម្រោងបងប្អូន</a>របស់វិគីភីឌា: </td></tr> <tr> <td><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="//km.wiktionary.org/wiki/Special:Search/philosophy" title="Search Wiktionary"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/25px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="25" height="24" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/38px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/50px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" 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mismatch]</sup></span> at the <a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%9C%E1%9F%81%E1%9E%99%E1%9E%94%E1%9F%8A%E1%9F%82%E1%9E%81_%E1%9E%98%E1%9F%89%E1%9E%B6%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%8A%E1%9E%B8%E1%9E%93&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="វេយប៊ែខ ម៉ាស៊ីន (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">វេយប៊ែខ ម៉ាស៊ីន</a>.</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?ie=UTF8&hl=en&msa=0&msid=107892646478667659520.0004445545f2b2cffb9ed&ll=47.398349,14.326172&spn=28.597229,79.013672&z=4">Map of Western Philosophers</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://philosophyforums.com">Philosophy Forums</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160922061702/http://www.philosophyforums.com/">Archived</a> 22 September 2016<span style="font-size:100%" class="error citation-comment"><sup>[Date mismatch]</sup></span> at the <a 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Philosophy Library</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/group/Philosophy">Philosophy Discussion Group</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.pdcnet.org/">Philosophy Documentation Center</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/643889/The-Will-to-Believe-and-Other-Essays-in-Popular-Philosophy">Popular Philosophy</a></li></ul> <p><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC:Philosophy_topics&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទំព័រគំរូ:Philosophy topics (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទំព័រគំរូ:Philosophy topics</a> </p> <table class="messagebox standard-talk" style="text-align:center;"> <tbody><tr> <td style="width:48px;"> </td> <td><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%96%E1%9F%90%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%82%E1%9F%86%E1%9E%9A%E1%9E%BC:Wikibarphilo&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="ទំព័រគំរូ:Wikibarphilo (ទំព័រនេះមិនទាន់មាននៅឡើយទេ)">ទំព័រគំរូ:Wikibarphilo</a> </td></tr></tbody></table> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="ទស្សនវិជ្ជា"><span id=".E1.9E.91.E1.9E.9F.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.9F.E1.9E.93.E1.9E.9C.E1.9E.B7.E1.9E.87.E1.9F.92.E1.9E.87.E1.9E.B6"></span>ទស្សនវិជ្ជា</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=%E1%9E%91%E1%9E%9F%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%9F%E1%9E%93%E1%9E%9C%E1%9E%B7%E1%9E%87%E1%9F%92%E1%9E%87%E1%9E%B6&action=edit&section=47" title="កែប្រែផ្នែក៖ ទស្សនវិជ្ជា"><span>កែប្រែ</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>បាប៊ីឡូននៀន ដើមកំណើតនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបាប៊ីឡូននេះអាចត្រូវបានឆ្លុះបញ្ចាំងត្រឡប់ទៅប្រាជ្ញារបស់ដើមនាយទន្លេអឺប្រាដែលបានបញ្ចូលទស្សនវិជ្ជាជាក់លាក់នៃជីវិតជាពិសេសសីលធម៍, នៅក្នុងសំណុំបែបបទនៃភាសា, ការសន្ទនា, កំណាព្យវីរភាព, រឿងព្រេង, ចំរៀង, អត្ថបទចម្រៀង, ពាក្យរាយនិងសុភាសិតនេះ។ ហេតុផលនិងរបបនៃបាប៊ីឡូនបានបង្កើតហួសពីការសង្កេតជាក់ស្ដែង។ [10] អត្ថបទបាប៊ីឡូនប្រអប់នៃទុទិដ្ឋិនិយមមានភាពស្រដៀងគ្នាទៅនឹងការគិតមិនជឿលើព្រះនៃការស្មុគ្រស្មាញដែលជាគោលលទ្ធិ Heraclitean នៃការផ្ទុយនិងការសន្ទនារបស់លោកផ្លាតូបានព្រមទាំងមុនគេទៅ វិធីសាស្រ្តនៃការសូក្រាត maieutic Socratic ប្លាតុងនិង។ [11] នេះបានទស្សនវិទូ Milesian តាលែសបាននិយាយថាជាប្រពៃណីផងដែរបានសិក្សាទស្សនវិទ្យានៅនាយទន្លេអឺប្រា។ ចិនបុរាណ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបានជះឥទ្ធិពលយ៉ាងខ្លាំងទៅលើជនជាតិចិននិងអាស៊ីខាងកើតទាំងមូល។ មនុស្សជាច្រើននៃសាលារៀនទស្សនវិជ្ជាធំត្រូវបានបង្កើតកំឡុងសម័យនិទាឃរដូវនិងសរទរដូវនិងសម័យកាលរដ្ឋចម្បាំង, និងការចូលមកត្រូវបានគេស្គាល់ថាជារយសាលានៃគំនិតដែលមានលទ្ធិខុងជឺសាសនាតាវ, Mohism, ច្បាប់, កសិកម្ម, សាលាធម្មជាតិវិទូនិង អ្នកតក្កវិទ្យា។ ស្រដៀងទៅនឹងទស្សនលោកខាងលិចជាទស្សនវិជ្ជាចិនគ្របដណ្តប់ជួរធំនិងស្មុគ្រស្មាញនៃការគិត, មានសាលារៀនដែលមហាជនសាខារៀងរាល់និងដោះស្រាយតំបន់ប្រធានបទនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាមួយ។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាអ្នកជំនួញ Graeco-រ៉ូម៉ាំងបុរាណគឺជារយៈពេលនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាលោកខាងលិចមួយចាប់ផ្តើមនៅសតវត្សទី 6 [គ។ 585] មុនគ្រិស្តសករាជនៅសតវត្សទី 6 ។ ជាធម្មតាវាត្រូវបានបែងចែកជាបីរយៈពេល: រយៈពេលមុនសូក្រាត, ប្លាតុងនិងរយៈពេលនៃការអារីស្តូត, និងរយៈពេលក្រោយរបស់អារីស្តូត (ឬដែលនិយាយភាសាក្រិក) នេះ។ មួយរយៈពេលបួនដែលត្រូវបានបន្ថែមពេលខ្លះមានរួមបញ្ចូលទាំង Neoplatonic និងទស្សនវិទូគ្រីស្ទានចុងចាស់មួយ។ សំខាន់បំផុតនៃទស្សនវិទូបុរាណនេះ (នៅក្នុងលក្ខខណ្ឌនៃឥទ្ធិពលជាបន្តបន្ទាប់) គឺលោកផ្លាតូនិងអារីស្តូត។ [12] រ៉ូម-ក្រិកបុរាណ នេះជាប្រធានបទសំខាន់នៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណគឺ: ការយល់ដឹងអំពីមូលហេតុនិងគោលការណ៍នៃចក្រវាលមូលដ្ឋាន; ពន្យល់វានៅក្នុងវិធីសន្សំសំចៃមួយ; បញ្ហា epistemological ផ្សះផ្សាភាពចម្រុះនិងការផ្លាស់ប្តូរនៃសកលលោកធម្មជាតិ, ជាមួយនឹងលទ្ធភាពនៃការទទួលបានចំណេះដឹងថេរនិងប្រាកដប្រជាអំពីវា! សំណួរអំពីអ្វីដែលមិនអាចត្រូវបានដឹងដោយវិញ្ញាណដូចជាលេខ, ធាតុ, សាកលវិទ្យាល័យនិងព្រះ។ សូក្រាតត្រូវបាននិយាយថាបានផ្តួចផ្តើមនៃការសិក្សាផ្តោតកាន់តែច្រើនលើរឿងរបស់មនុស្សរួមទាំងការវិភាគពីលំនាំនៃហេតុផលនិងអាគុយម៉ង់និងធម្មជាតិនៃជីវិតដែលល្អនិងសារៈសំខាន់នៃការយល់ដឹងនិងចំណេះដឹងនៅក្នុងគោលបំណងដើម្បីបន្តវា! ការបំភ្លឺរបស់គំនិតនៃតុលាការនិងទំនាក់ទំនងរបស់ខ្លួនដើម្បីប្រព័ន្ធនយោបាយជាច្រើន។ [12] នៅក្នុងអំឡុងពេលនេះមានលក្ខណៈពិសេសសំខាន់នៃវិធីសាស្រ្តទស្សនវិជ្ជាដែលត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើង: វិធីសាស្រ្តសំខាន់ក្នុងការទទួលបានឬបង្កើតឡើងពីទស្សនៈនិងបណ្តឹងឧទ្ធរណ៍ទៅហេតុផលនិងអាគុយម៉ង់។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាឥណ្ឌារយៈពេល (សំស្ក្រឹត: Darshanas) អាចសំដៅទៅលើការណាមួយនៃប្រពៃណីនៃគំនិតទស្សនវិជ្ជាជាច្រើនមានប្រភពដើមក្នុងឧបទ្វីបដែលឥណ្ឌាដែលក្នុងនោះរួមមានទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាហិណ្ឌូ, ទស្សនវិជ្ជាព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនានិងទស្សនវិជ្ជារបស់លោក Jain ។ មានដើមកំណើតដូចគ្នាឬវិស័យជាទាំងអស់នៃទស្សនវិជ្ជានេះមានសាច់រឿងដែលមានមូលដ្ឋានទូទៅនៃ Dharma និងស្រដៀងព្យាយាមពន្យល់អំពីការសំរេចនៃការរំដោះសត្វ។ ពួកគេត្រូវបានជាផ្លូវការនិងប្រកាសឱ្យប្រើជាពិសេសរវាង 1000 ឆ្នាំមុនគទៅជាពីរបីសតវត្សគជាមួយនឹងការអត្ថាធិប្បាយសំណល់និងកំណែទម្រង់បន្តឡើងទៅនៅចុងសតវត្សទី 20 ដោយ Aurobindo និង ISKCON ក្នុងចំណោមអ្នកដទៃទៀត, ដែលបានផ្តល់ការបកស្រាយរៀបចំរចនាប័ទ្ម។ ឥណ្ឌាបុរាណ ក្នុងប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តនៃឧបទ្វីបឥណ្ឌាបន្ទាប់ពីការបង្កើតឡើងនៃវប្បធម៍វេទ, ការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃគំនិតទស្សនវិជ្ជានិងសាសនារយៈពេលនៃការពីរពាន់មួយដែលបានបណ្ដាលឱ្យមានអ្វីដែលត្រូវបានគេហៅថាសាលាប្រាំមួយនៃ astika ឬគ្រិស្តអូស្សូដក់, ឥណ្ឌាឬទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាហិណ្ឌូ ។ សាលារៀនទាំងនេះបានមកដល់មានន័យស្រដៀងនឹងសាសនាកាន់តែច្រើននៃសាសនាហិណ្ឌូដែលជាការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃសាសនាវេទដើមមួយ។ </p><p>ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសាសនាហិណ្ឌូបង្កើតបានជាផ្នែកសំខាន់មួយនៃវប្បធម៍នៃតំបន់អាស៊ីខាងត្បូងនិងជាលើកដំបូងនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា Dharmic ដែលមានឥទ្ធិពលពាសពេញទ្វីបអាស៊ី។ ភាពចម្រុះយ៉ាងខ្លាំងក្នុងការគិតនិងការអនុវត្តន៍នៃសាសនាហិណ្ឌូត្រូវបីបាច់ដោយសាកលវិទ្យាល័យសេរីរបស់ខ្លួន ពែរ្សបុរាណ (ផឺសៀរ) ទស្សនវិជ្ជាពែអាចឆ្លុះបញ្ចាំងត្រឡប់មកវិញដូចជានៅឆ្ងាយដូចប្រពៃណីទស្សនវិទូអ៊ីរ៉ង់និងគំនិតចាស់ដោយមានឫសឥណ្ឌូអ៊ីរ៉ង់បុរាណរបស់ពួកគេ។ ទាំងនេះត្រូវបានរងឥទ្ធិពលគួរឱ្យកត់សម្គាល់ដោយការបង្រៀន Zarathustra នេះ។ ទូទាំងប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តអ៊ីរ៉ង់ហើយដោយសារតែឥទ្ធិពលនយោបាយនិងសង្គមគួរឱ្យកត់សម្គាល់ដូចជាម៉ាសេដូនីអារ៉ាប់និងឈ្លានពានរបស់ម៉ុងហ្គោលនៃ Persia, វិសាលគមធំទូលាយមួយនៃការគិតរបស់សាលារៀនក្រោកឡើង។ ទាំងនេះបានប្រកាន់ភាពខុសគ្នានៃទស្សនៈលើសំណួរទស្សនវិជ្ជាមួយដែលលាតសន្ធឹងពីអ៊ីរ៉ង់និងភាគច្រើនជាប្រពៃណីដែលមានឥទ្ធិពលចាស់ Zoroastrianism ដល់សាលារៀនលេចឡើងនៅក្នុងសម័យមុនអ៊ីស្លាមចុង, ដូចជាម៉ានិចនិង Mazdakism ព្រមទាំងសាលារៀនអ៊ីស្លាមនានាក្រោយ។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាអ៊ីរ៉ង់បន្ទាប់ពីការលុកលុយអារ៉ាប់ពែរ្សត្រូវបានកំណត់ដោយអន្តរកម្មផ្សេងគ្នាជាមួយទស្សនវិជ្ជាអ៊ីរ៉ង់ចាស់, ទស្សនវិជ្ជាក្រិចនិងជាមួយការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃទស្សនៈអ៊ីស្លាម។ សាលាបំភ្លឺនិង theosophy ហួសពីត្រូវបានចាត់ទុកថាជាប្រពៃណីពីរនាក់នៃសម័យចម្បងរបស់ទស្សនវិជ្ជានៅពែរ្សនោះ។ Zoroastrianism ត្រូវបានគេកំណត់ថាជាផ្នែកមួយនៃព្រឹត្តិការណ៍ដើមសំខាន់នៅក្នុងការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃទស្សនៈនេះ។ [13] សតវត្សទី៥-ទី១៦[កែប្រែកូដ] អឺរ៉ុប[កែប្រែកូដ] មជ្ឈិម </p><p>ទស្សនគឺទស្សនវិជ្ជានៃអឺរ៉ុបខាងលិចនិងមជ្ឈឹមភាគខាងកើតក្នុងអំឡុងពេលមជ្ឈឹមវ័យប្រហែលលាតសន្ធឹងពីនោះគ្រីស្ទសាសនានៃចក្រភពរ៉ូមរហូតដល់ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance នេះ។ [14] ទស្សនត្រូវបានកំណត់ដោយ rediscovery និងការអភិវឌ្ឍបន្ថែមទៀតនៃបុរាណក្រិចនិងទស្សនវិជ្ជាដែលនិយាយភាសាក្រិក និងមួយផ្នែកដោយតម្រូវការក្នុងការដោះស្រាយបញ្ហាខាងសាសនាទេហើយដើម្បីរួមបញ្ចូលគោលលទ្ធិពិសិដ្ឋបន្ទាប់មករីករាលដាលនៃសាសនាអ័ប្រាហាំ (សាសនាអ៊ីស្លាមសាសនានិងគ្រិស្តសាសនា) ជាមួយនឹងការរៀនសូត្រខាងលោកិយវិញ។ </p><p>ប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាមជ្ឈិមសម័យនៅអឺរ៉ុបភាគខាងលិចត្រូវបានបែងចែកជាប្រពៃណីនេះទៅជារយៈពេលសំខាន់ពីរនៅក្នុងរយៈពេលខាងលិចបន្ទាប់ពីការកឡាទីនដើមជ្ឈឹមវ័យរហូតដល់សតវត្សទី 12 នៅពេលដែលការប្រព្រឹត្ដរបស់អារីស្តូតនិងផ្លាតូត្រូវបានអភិរក្សនិងការដាំដុះ; និង "យុគសម័យមាស" [ត្រូវការអំណះអំណាង] នៃទី 12, ទី 13 និងសតវត្សទី 14 នៅឡាទីនភាគខាងលិចដែលបានធ្វើជាសាក្សីចំណុចខ្ពស់បំផុតនៃការងើបឡើងវិញនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណ, និងការអភិវឌ្ឍយ៉ាងសំខាន់នៅក្នុងវាលនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជានៃសាសនាតក្កនិងបរមត្ថនេះ។ </p><p>សម័យមជ្ឈិមសម័យត្រូវបានព្យាបាលដោយ humanistic ន្ដុះបង្អាប់ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance ដែលបានមើលឃើញថាវាជា "កណ្តាល" រយៈពេលមួយព្រៃផ្សៃរវាងគ្រាបុរាណនៃវប្បធម៍ក្រិកនិងរ៉ូម៉ាំង, និង "កើត" ឬរស់ឡើងវិញនៃវប្បធម៍បុរាណ។ រយៈពេលជិតនៅឡើយទេមួយពាន់ឆ្នាំនេះជារយៈពេលវែងបំផុតនៃការអភិវឌ្ឍទស្សនវិជ្ជានៅអឺរ៉ុបនិងអាចមានបំផុត។ លោក Jorge Gracias បានអះអាងថា "នៅក្នុងអាំងតង់ស៊ីតេ, ស្មុគ្រស្មាញនិងសមិទ្ធិផលជាផ្កាទស្សនវិជ្ជាក្នុងសតវត្សរ៍ទីដប់បីនេះអាចនឹងត្រូវបាននិយាយយ៉ាងត្រឹមត្រូវដើម្បីប្រជែងជាមួយយុគមាសនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាក្រិចនៅសតវត្សទីបួន B.C ។ " [15] </p><p>បញ្ហាមួយចំនួនដែលបានពិភាក្សានៅទូទាំងរយៈពេលនេះគឺជាទំនាក់ទំនងនៃសេចក្ដីជំនឿវែកញែកអត្ថិភាពនិងសាមគ្គីភាពរបស់ព្រះជាម្ចាស់វត្ថុនៃទេវវិទ្យានិងបរមត្ថ, បញ្ហានៃចំណេះដឹងនៃសាកលវិទ្យាល័យនិងរបស់បុគ្គល។ </p><p>ទស្សនវិទូពីមជ្ឈឹមវ័យរួមមានទស្សនវិទូពួកគ្រីស្ទាន Augustine នៃហីពប៉ូ, Boethius, Anselm, លោក Gilbert នៃ Poitiers, លោក Peter Abelard, លោក Roger Bacon, Bonaventure, លោក Thomas Aquinas, Duns Scotus, លោក William នៃ Ockham និងលោក Jean Buridan; ទស្សនវិទូសាសន៍យូដា Maimonides និង Gersonides; និងទស្សនវិទូម៉ូស្លីម Alkindus, Alfarabi, Alhazen, អាវីសេនណា, Algazel, Avempace, Abubacer និង Averroes ។ ប្រពៃណីយុគកណ្ដាលនៃ Scholasticism បន្តមានការរីកចំរើននៅចុងសតវត្សទី 17 ក្នុងតួលេខដូចជាហ្វ្រាន់ស៊ីស្កូនិងលោកយ៉ូហានជារបស់កីឡាករ Suarez ផ្លូវថូម៉ាស។ </p><p>Aquinas ជាឪពុករបស់ Thomism គឺមានឥទ្ធិពលយ៉ាងខ្លាំងនៅក្នុងកាតូលិកអឺរ៉ុបបានដាក់ការគូសបញ្ជាក់យ៉ាងខ្លាំងទៅលើអំណះអំណាងហេតុផលនិងជាផ្នែកមួយនៃការលើកដំបូងដើម្បីប្រើការបកប្រែថ្មីនៃការសរសេរជំនឿនិង epistemological របស់អារីស្តូត។ ការងាររបស់គាត់គឺជាការចាកចេញពីការគិត Neoplatonic សំខាន់និង Augustinian ដែលបានគ្របដណ្តប់ច្រើននៃដើម Scholasticism ។ </p><p>សម័យបុនភព ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance ( "កើត") គឺជាសម័យកាលមួយនៃការផ្លាស់ប្តូររវាងមជ្ឈឹមវ័យនិងគំនិតសម័យទំនើប, [16] ដែលនៅក្នុងការងើបឡើងវិញនៃអត្ថបទបុរាណដែលបានជួយផ្លាស់ប្តូរផលប្រយោជន៍ទស្សនវិជ្ជាឆ្ងាយពីការសិក្សាបច្ចេកទេសក្នុងការតក្ក metaphysics និងទ្រឹស្ដីឆ្ពោះទៅរកការសាកសួរសម្រាំងចូលទៅក្នុងសីលធម៍ , philology និងរៀបចំធ្វើកិច្ចការជំនួញ។ [17] [18] ការសិក្សាពីបុរាណនិងសិល្បៈមនុស្សទូទៅដូចជាប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តនិងអក្សរសាស្រ្ត, ការរីករាយការចាប់អារម្មណ៍សិក្សាមួយដែលរហូតមកដែលមិនស្គាល់ក្នុងពិភពគ្រីស្ទ, ទំនោរសំដៅដល់ថាជាមនុស្សម្នាក់។ [19] [20 ] កម្មការិនីចាប់អារម្មណ៍ medieval នៅក្នុង metaphysics និងតក្ក humanistic តាមពីក្រោយក្នុងការធ្វើបុរសម្នាក់ Petrarch និងគុណសម្បត្តិរបស់គាត់ផ្តោតអារម្មណ៍នៃទស្សនវិជ្ជា។ [21] [22] ការសិក្សានៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបុរាណផងដែរការអភិវឌ្ឍនៅក្នុងវិធីថ្មីពីរ។ នៅលើដៃមួយ, ការសិក្សារបស់អារីស្តូតនេះត្រូវបានផ្លាស់ប្តូរតាមរយៈឥទ្ធិពលនៃ Averroism នេះ។ ការខ្វែងគំនិតគ្នារវាង Averroist របស់អារីស្តូតនេះ, និងអារីស្តូតកាតូលិកគ្រិស្តអូស្សូដក់ជាច្រើនទៀតដូចជាការ Albertus Magnus និងលោក Thomas Aquinas នេះនៅទីបំផុតបានរួមចំណែកដល់ការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃ "របស់អារីស្តូត humanistic" បានបង្កើតនៅក្នុងក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance ដូចឧទាហរណ៍បញ្ជាក់នៅក្នុងការគិតរបស់លោក Pietro Pomponazzi និង Giacomo Zabarella នេះ។ ទីពីរ, ជាការជំនួសទៅអារីស្តូតបានសិក្សារបស់លោកផ្លាតូនិង Neoplatonists បានក្លាយជារឿងធម្មតា។ នេះត្រូវបានជួយដោយការប្រព្រឹត្ដដែលសង្កេតឃើញនៃការមិនត្រូវបានគេកាលពីមុនគេស្គាល់ផងដែរនោះនៅអឺរ៉ុបខាងលិច។ Platonists ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance គួរឱ្យកត់សម្គាល់រួមមានលោក Nicholas នៃ Cusa ហើយក្រោយមក Marsilio Ficino និងលោក Giovanni Pico ល្លា Mirandola ។ [22] </p><p>ក្រុមហ៊ុន Renaissance ចាប់អារម្មណ៍ជាថ្មីផងដែរនៅក្នុងទ្រឹស្តីប្រឆាំងរបស់អារីស្តូតនៃធម្មជាតិចាត់ទុកថាជាសរីរាង្គមួយដែលរស់នៅទាំងមូលទូលំទូលាយដោយឯករាជ្យនៃទ្រឹស្ដីដូចនៅក្នុងការងាររបស់នីកូឡានៃ Cusa, លោក Nicholas លោក Copernicus, ការងារលោក Bruno, Telesius និង Tommaso Campanella នេះ [23] ចលនាបែបនេះ។ ក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជាធម្មជាតិ dovetailed ជាមួយនឹងការរស់ឡើងវិញនៃការចាប់អារម្មណ៍ក្នុងការ occult, វេទមន្ត, hermeticism និងហោរាសាស្ដ្រដែលត្រូវបានគេគិតថាដើម្បីទទួលបានវិធីដែលបានលាក់នៃការដឹងនិងគ្រូធម្មជាតិ (ឧទា, ក្នុង Marsilio Ficino និងលោក Giovanni Pico ល្លា Mirandola នេះ) ។ [24] </p><p>ចលនាថ្មីទាំងនេះនៅក្នុងការអភិវឌ្ឍដែលមានស្រាប់ជាមួយនឹងទស្សនវិជ្ជាការបម្លែងខាងសាសនានិងនយោបាយដែលមានទំហំធំនៅអឺរ៉ុប: ការធ្វើកំណែទម្រង់និងការធ្លាក់ចុះនៃសក្ដិភូមិនេះ។ បើទោះបីជាទ្រឹស្ដីរបស់ពួកប្រូតេស្ដង់កំណែទម្រង់នេះបានបង្ហាញការចាប់អារម្មណ៍ដោយផ្ទាល់តិចតួចនៅក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជា, ការបំផ្លិចបំផ្លាញរបស់ពួកគេនៃគ្រឹះប្រពៃណីនៃសិទ្ធិអំណាចខាងសាសនានិងបញ្ញាចុះសំរុងគ្នាជាមួយនឹងការរស់ឡើងវិញនៃ fideism និងសង្ស័យអ្នកគិតដូចជាកម្មវិធីអាហារូបករណ៍ Erasmus, Montaigne, និងហ្វ្រាន់ស៊ីស្កូ Sanches បានទេ។ [25] [26 ] [27] ទន្ទឹមនឹងនេះដែរ, កណ្តាលបន្តិចម្តងនៃអំណាចនយោបាយនៅក្នុងប្រទេសរដ្ឋត្រូវបានបន្ទរដោយការកើតនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជានយោបាយមិនទាក់ទងនឹងសាសនាដែលនៅក្នុងការប្រព្រឹត្ដរបស់ Niccolo Machiavelli (ជាញឹកញាប់បានរៀបរាប់ថាជាអ្នកគិតនយោបាយដំបូងទំនើបឬចំណុចរបត់សំខាន់មួយឆ្ពោះទៅរកសម័យទំនើប គិតនយោបាយ [28]), លោក Thomas បន្ថែម, កម្មវិធីអាហារូបករណ៍ Erasmus, យូស្ទូស Lipsius, លោក Jean Bodin, និង Hugo Grotius ។ [29] [30 អាស៊ីខាងកើត [កែប្រែកូដ] ចិនមជ្ឈិមាធិរាជ [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: លទ្ធិខុងជឺថ្មី ទស្សនវិជ្ជាចិនពាក់កណ្តាលត្រូវបានកំណត់ជាចម្បងអធិរាជការអភិវឌ្ឍនៃដោយលទ្ធិខុងជឺបាន។ ក្នុងអំឡុងពេលរាជវង្សថាំងព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនាមកពីប្រទេសនេប៉ាល់ផងដែរបានក្លាយជាវិន័យទស្សនវិជ្ជានិងសាសនាលេចធ្លោ។ (វាគួរតែត្រូវបានកត់សម្គាល់ថាទស្សនវិជ្ជានិងសាសនាត្រូវបានគេបានសម្គាល់យ៉ាងច្បាស់នៅភាគខាងលិចខណៈពេលដែលគំនិតទាំងនេះត្រូវបានបន្តជាច្រើនទៀតនៅភាគខាងកើតដោយសារតែការ, ឧទាហរណ៍, គំនិតទស្សនវិជ្ជានៃព្រះពុទ្ធសាសនា) ។ ស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី 19 [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: នៅសតវត្សរ៍ទី 19 ទស្សនវិជ្ជា ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទំនើបក្រោយមកជាធម្មតាត្រូវបានចាត់ទុកថាជាការចាប់ផ្តើមបន្ទាប់ពីទស្សនវិជ្ជារបស់អេម៉ាញូអែ Kant នៅដើមនៃសតវត្សទី 19 ។ [31] ទស្សនៈវិជ្ជាអាឡឺម៉ង់បានធ្វើលំហាត់ប្រាណមានឥទ្ធិពលយ៉ាងទូលំទូលាយនៅក្នុងសតវត្សនេះដោយសារមួយផ្នែកទៅនឹងឥទ្ធិពលនៃប្រព័ន្ធសាកលវិទ្យាល័យអាឡឺម៉ង់។ [32] អាឡឺម៉ង់ គំនិតនិយមដូចជាយ៉ូហាន Gottlieb Fichte, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel និងលោក Friedrich Wilhelm លោកយ៉ូសែប Schelling, ផ្លាស់ប្តូរការងាររបស់ Kant ដោយរក្សាបាននូវថាពិភពលោកត្រូវបានបង្កើតឡើងដោយមានដំណើរការសមហេតុផលឬចិត្តដូចនិងជាបែបនេះគឺ knowable ទាំងស្រុង។ [33] លោក Arthur Schopenhauer បានកំណត់អត្តសញ្ញាណនៃដំណើរការពិភពលោក constituting នេះជាឆន្ទៈមិនសមហេតុផលដើម្បីរស់នៅបានមានឥទ្ធិពលនៅពេលក្រោយ 19th- និងគំនិតដើមសតវត្សទី 20 ដូចជាមូលនិធិ Friedrich Nietzsche ការងាររបស់ Freud បាននិងតែ Sigmund ។ </p><p>បន្ទាប់ពីការស្លាប់របស់លោកនៅក្នុងឆ្នាំ 1831 Hegel, ទស្សនវិជ្ជាភាគច្រើននៅសតវត្សរ៍ទី 19 បានប្រឆាំងមនោគមនិយមក្នុងការពេញចិត្តនៃពូជនៃធម្មជាតិទស្សនវិជ្ជាដូចជា positivism Auguste Comte របស់, empiricism រោងម៉ាស៊ីនកិនរបស់លោកយ៉ូហានលោក Stuart នេះហើយទ្រព្យសម្បត្ដិរបស់លោក Karl ម៉ាក្សនេះ។ តក្កចាប់ផ្តើមពីរយៈពេលនៃបុសំខាន់បំផុតរបស់ខ្លួនចាប់តាំងពីការចាប់ផ្តើមនៃវិន័យនេះជាការបង្កើនភាពជាក់លាក់គណិតវិទ្យាបានបើកវាលទាំងមូលនៃការ inference ដើម្បី formalization នៅក្នុងការងាររបស់លោក George Boole និង Gottlob Frege នេះ។ [34] ទស្សនវិទូផ្សេងទៀតដែលជាអ្នកផ្តួចផ្តើមបន្ទាត់នៃការគិតថានឹងនៅតែបន្ត ដើម្បីបង្កើតទស្សនវិជ្ជាចូលទៅក្នុងសតវត្សទី 20 នេះរួមមាន </p><p>Gottlob Frege និង Henry Sidgwick ការងារដែលនៅតក្កនិងសីលធម៍, រៀងគ្នាបានផ្តល់ឧបករណ៍សម្រាប់ទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគដំបូង។ លោក Charles Sanders Peirce និងលោក William លោក James ដែលបានបង្កើតអនុវត្តជាក់ស្តែង។ Soren Kierkegaard និងមូលនិធិ Friedrich Nietzsche ដែលបានដាក់មូលដ្ឋានសម្រាប់ទ្រឹស្តីទស្សននិងក្រោយរចនាសម្ព័ន្ធ។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសតវត្សទី 20 [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: ទស្សនវិជ្ជាសហសម័យ នៅក្នុងសតវត្សទីចុងក្រោយដែលជាទស្សនវិជ្ជាមួយដែលបានក្លាយទៅជាកាន់តែខ្លាំងឡើងនៅក្នុងការអនុវត្តវិន័យដែលមានជំនាញវិជ្ជាជីវៈសាកលវិទ្យាល័យ, ដូចជាវិញ្ញាសាសិក្សាផ្សេងទៀត។ ដូច្នោះហើយវាបានក្លាយទៅជាតិចទូទៅនិងជាពិសេសជាច្រើនទៀត។ នៅក្នុងទិដ្ឋភាពនៃប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តថ្មីដែលលេចធ្លោមួយ: "។ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាបានក្លាយជាវិន័យរៀបចំខ្ពស់, បានធ្វើឡើងដោយអ្នកជំនាញជាចម្បងសម្រាប់អ្នកជំនាញផ្សេងទៀតចំនួននៃទស្សនវិទូបានផ្ទុះទំហំនៃការបោះពុម្ពផ្សាយនេះបានកើនឡើងនិងការ subfields នៃការស៊ើបអង្កេតទស្សនវិជ្ជាធ្ងន់ធ្ងរបានគុណ។ មិនតែប៉ុណ្ណោះគឺជាវាលធំទូលាយនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជានាពេលបច្ចុប្បន្ននេះនៅឆ្ងាយពេកទៅនឹងត្រូវបានធំទូលាយដោយមានចិត្ដគំនិតតែមួយឱប, អ្វីមួយដែលស្រដៀងគ្នានេះដែរគឺជាការពិតសូម្បីតែការ subfields ឯកទេសខ្ពស់ជាច្រើន "។ [35] </p><p>នៅក្នុងពិភពលោកនិយាយភាសាអង់គ្លេស, ទស្សនវិជ្ជានៅសាលាវិភាគបានក្លាយជាច្រើននៃការលេចធ្លោសតវត្សរ៍ទី 20 ។ នៅក្នុងពាក់កណ្តាលទីមួយនៃសតវត្សរ៍នេះវាជាសាលារៀនស្អិតរមួត, រាងយ៉ាងខ្លាំងដោយ positivism ឡូជីខល, រួបរួមដោយសញ្ញាណថាបញ្ហាទស្សនវិជ្ជាអាចនិងគួរត្រូវបានដោះស្រាយដោយយកចិត្តទុកដាក់ក្នុងការតក្កនិងភាសា។ ការងារត្រួសត្រាយផ្លូវរបស់លោក Bertrand រ័សុលគឺជាគំរូសម្រាប់ការអភិវឌ្ឍដំបូងនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគមួយផ្លាស់ប្តូរពីការបដិសេធនៃមនោគមនិយមលេចធ្លោនៅចុងទស្សនវិជ្ជារបស់អង់គ្លេសសតវត្សទី 19 ដើម្បី empiricism neo-Humean បានពង្រឹងដោយធនធានស្មារតីនៃតក្កគណិតវិទ្យាទំនើបនេះ។ [36 ] [37] [38] នៅក្នុងពាក់កណ្តាលសតវត្សរ៍ទី 20 ចូលទៅក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគបាំងគ្នាធំមួយនៃទស្សនៈទស្សនវិជ្ជារប៉ាត់រប៉ាយ, រួបរួមតែរលុងដោយបន្ទាត់ប្រវត្តិសាស្រ្តនៃការប្តេជ្ញាចិត្តនិងមានឥទ្ធិពលលើខ្លួនឯងបានកំណត់ភាពច្បាស់លាស់និងមានការយកចិត្តទុកដាក់ខ្ពស់។ នេះជាការផ្លាស់ប្តូរក្រោយសង្គ្រាមនៃកម្មវិធីវិភាគបានដឹកនាំក្នុងទិសដៅធំទូលាយចំនួនពីរ: នៅលើដៃមួយ, ការចាប់អារម្មណ៍នៅក្នុងភាសាសាមញ្ញដូចជាវិធីនៃការជៀសវាងឬ redescribing បញ្ហាបែបប្រពៃណីទស្សនវិទូនិងនៅលើផ្សេងទៀតដែលជាធម្មជាតិ thoroughgoing ទៀតដែលបានស្វែងរកដើម្បីរំលាយល្បែងផ្គុំរូបនេះ ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទំនើបតាមរយៈលទ្ធផលនៃវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តធម្មជាតិ (ដូចជាចិត្តវិទ្យាយល់ដឹងនិងការវិវត្តនជីវវិទ្យា) ។ ការផ្លាស់ប្តូរនៅក្នុងការងាររបស់ Ludwig Wittgenstein, ពីល្អៀងទិដ្ឋភាពមួយជាមួយនឹង positivism ឡូជីខលទៅជាការរំលាយព្យាបាលនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាបែបប្រពៃណីដូចជាការយល់ច្រឡំភាសានៃទម្រង់ធម្មតានៃជីវិតគឺជាកំណែមានឥទ្ធិពលបំផុតនៃទិសដៅដំបូងក្នុងទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគ។ [39] [ 40] ការងារក្រោយរ័សុលនិងទស្សនវិជ្ជានៃ WVO នេះ លោកក្វីនបានមានតាំងគំរូឥទ្ធិពលនៃវិធីសាស្រ្តធម្មជាតិដែលបានលេចធ្លោនៅក្នុងឆមាសទីពីរនៃសតវត្សរ៍ទី 20 [41] [42] [43] [44] ប៉ុន្តែភាពចម្រុះនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាវិភាគពីទសវត្សរ៍ឆ្នាំ 1970 មកម៉្លេះ defies ការបង្កើតភាពងាយស្រួល: ។ ធម្មជាតិនៃលោកក្វីនបាននិងរបស់គាត់ epigoni គឺនៅឯបរិវេណមួយចំនួនជំនួសដោយ "បរមត្ថថ្មី" របស់ពិភពលោកអាចធ្វើបានដូចនៅក្នុងការងារមានឥទ្ធិពលរបស់ព្រះបាទដាវីឌ Lewis បាន។ [45] [46] នេះ, ចលនាទស្សនវិជ្ជាពិសោធន៍បានព្យាយាមពិចារណាហើយកែប្រែតាមរយៈការបច្ចេកទេសមានបញ្ហាទស្សនវិជ្ជាការស្រាវជ្រាវវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តសង្គម។ </p><p>នៅលើទ្វីបអឺរ៉ុប, គ្មានសាលាតែមួយឬអារម្មណ៍រីករាយឥទ្ធិពល។ ការហោះហើររបស់ positivists ឡូជីខលមកពីអឺរ៉ុបភាគកណ្តាលក្នុងអំឡុងឆ្នាំ 1930 និងឆ្នាំ 1940 ទោះជាយ៉ាងណា, ថយចុះការចាប់អារម្មណ៍ក្នុងវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តទស្សនវិជ្ជាធម្មជាតិហើយនិងការសង្កត់ធ្ងន់លើមនុស្សសាស្ត្រមួយបានបកស្រាយថាយ៉ាងទូលាយ, តួលេខលេចធ្លោនៅក្នុងអ្វីដែលត្រូវបានគេហៅថាជាធម្មតា«ទស្សនវិជ្ជាទ្វីប»។ ចលនាសតវត្សទី 20 ដូចជាអភូតហេតុ និរុត្តិវិទ្យា [កែប្រែកូដ] សេចក្តីណែនាំនៃពាក្យ "ទស្សនវិទូ" និង "ទស្សនវិជ្ជា" ត្រូវបានអះអាងលើហេតុផលក្នុងការគិតក្រិច Pythagoras ។ [51] ascription នេះត្រូវបានគេនិយាយថាត្រូវបានផ្អែកលើការអនុម័តនៅក្នុងការងារដែលបានបាត់ពី Herakleides Pontikos, សិស្សរបស់អារីស្តូតមួយ។ វាត្រូវបានគេចាត់ទុកថាជាផ្នែកមួយនៃរាងកាយរីករាលដាលនៃរឿងព្រេងរបស់ Pythagoras នៃពេលវេលានេះ។ "ទស្សនវិទូ" ត្រូវបានយល់ថាជាពាក្យដែលផ្ទុយស្រឡះជាមួយ "ទំនើប" (ពី sophoi) មួយ។ ការធ្វើដំណើរទំនើបឬ«អ្នកប្រាជ្ញ»ត្រូវបានគេសំខាន់ក្នុងបុរាណក្រិចជាញឹកញាប់ប្រាក់ជាគ្រូបង្រៀនរកប្រាក់ចំណូលបានចំណែកទស្សនវិទូ«ស្រឡាញ់ប្រាជ្ញា»និងមិនជំនាញ។ </p><p>សនិទាននិយម និង ពិសោធន៍និយម សមហេតុផលណាមួយដែលសង្កត់ធ្ងន់ទៅលើទស្សនៈនេះគឺជាតួនាទីឬសារៈសំខាន់នៃហេតុផលរបស់មនុស្ស។ សនិទាននិយមខ្លាំងព្យាយាមមូលដ្ឋានចំណេះដឹងទាំងអស់នៅលើហេតុផលតែម្នាក់ឯង។ សនិទាននិយមជាធម្មតាចាប់ផ្តើមពីបរិវេណដែលអាចត្រូវបានបដិសេធមិន coherently បន្ទាប់មកព្យាយាមដោយជំហានឡូជីខលដើម្បីឈានទៅដល់គ្រប់វត្ថុដែលអាចធ្វើបាននៃចំណេះដឹង។ </p><p>នេះសនិទាននិយមដំបូងនៅក្នុងន័យធំទូលាយនេះត្រូវបានប្រារព្ធឡើងជាញឹកញាប់ដើម្បីឱ្យមានផាមីនិ (FL ។ 500 មុនគ) ដែលបានអះអាងថាវាមិនអាចទៅរួចទេសង្ស័យថាគិតកើតឡើងជាក់ស្តែង។ ប៉ុន្តែការគិតត្រូវមានវត្ថុមួយ, ដូច្នេះអ្វីមួយដែលហួសពីការគិតពិតជាមាន។ ផាមីនិ deduced ថាអ្វីដែលពិតជាមានត្រូវតែមានលក្ខណៈសម្បត្តិសម្រាប់ការមួយចំនួនឧទាហរណ៍ថាវាមិនអាចចូលមកក្នុងអត្ថិភាពឬដើម្បីបញ្ឈប់ការមាន, ថាវាគឺជាការទាំងមូល coherent, ថាវានៅតែមានដូចគ្នានៅអស់កល្បជានិច្ច (ជាការពិតនៅខាងក្រៅទាំងអស់គ្នាមានពេល) ។ នេះត្រូវបានគេស្គាល់ថាជាអាគុយម៉ង់បុរសទីបី។ ការ Zeno នៃ Elea (កើតនៅគ។ 495 មុនគ) ជាសិស្សរបស់ផាមីនិមួយហើយបានអះអាងថាចលនានេះគឺមិនអាចទៅរួចនោះទេចាប់តាំងពីមានការអះអាងថាវាមានបង្កប់ន័យផ្ទុយមួយ (សូមមើលសញ្ញាព្រួញរបស់ Zeno) ។ </p><p>លោកផ្លាតូ (427-347 មុនគ) ត្រូវបានរងឥទ្ធិពលផងដែរដោយផាមីនិចទេប៉ុន្តែរួមបញ្ចូលគ្នាសនិទាននិយមជាមួយនឹងការរបាកដនិយមមួយ។ ការងារទស្សនវិទូនេះគឺដើម្បីពិចារណាសុខុមាលភាពនិងខ្លឹមសារ (ousia) នៃរឿង។ ប៉ុន្តែលក្ខណៈនៃសារៈសំខាន់នោះគឺថាពួកគេគឺជាសកល។ ធម្មជាតិនៃបុរសម្នាក់, ត្រីកោណ, ដើមឈើមួយនេះបានអនុវត្តទៅមនុស្សទាំងអស់, ត្រីកោណទាំងអស់ដើមឈើទាំងអស់។ លោកផ្លាតូបានអះអាងថាទាំងនេះគឺមានសារៈសំខាន់ "ទម្រង់" គំនិតឯករាជ្យដែលមនុស្ស (ប៉ុន្តែជាពិសេសទស្សនវិទូ) អាចចូលមកស្គាល់ដោយមូលហេតុនិងដោយមិនអើពើនឹងការរំខាននៃការយល់-ការយល់ឃើញនេះ។ </p><p>សនិទាននិយមសម័យទំនើបបានចាប់ផ្តើមជាមួយនឹងការដេកា។ ការឆ្លុះបញ្ចាំងលើធម្មជាតិនៃបទពិសោធដែលអាចស្គាល់ការរកឃើញផងដែរនៅសរីរវិទ្យានិងវិទ្យាសាស្រ្តអុបទិចដែលដឹកនាំដេកាត (ហើយចាក់សោ) ដើម្បីទិដ្ឋភាពដែលយើងមានដោយផ្ទាល់ដឹងអំពីការគំនិតជាជាងវត្ថុ។ ទិដ្ឋភាពនេះបានបណ្ដាលឱ្យមានសំណួរចំនួនបី: </p><p>នេះគឺជាគំនិតមួយច្បាប់ចម្លងពិតនៃរឿងពិតប្រាកដថាវាតំណាងឱ្យ? អារម្មណ៍គឺមិនមែនជាការទំនាក់ទំនងដោយផ្ទាល់រវាងវត្ថុរាងកាយនិងអារម្មណ៍របស់យើងនោះទេប៉ុន្តែគឺជាដំណើរការ physiological ពាក់ព័ន្ធនឹងការតំណាង (ឧទាហរណ៍រូបភាពនៅលើរីទីណា) ។ លោក Locke បានគិតថាជា "គុណភាពអនុវិទ្យាល័យ" ដូចជាអារម្មណ៍នៃការបៃតងអាចមិនស្រដៀងទៅនឹងការរៀបចំនៃភាគល្អិតនៅក្នុងបញ្ហាដែលបានចូលទៅក្នុងការផលិតអារម្មណ៍នេះទោះបីជាគាត់បានគិតថា«លក្ខណៈសម្បត្ដិចម្បងដែល "ដូចជារូបរាង, ទំហំ, ចំនួន, ពិតជា នៅក្នុងវត្ថុ។ អាចដូចជាវត្ថុរាងកាយនិងតារាងកៅអី, ឬសូម្បីតែនៅក្នុងដំណើរការសរីរវិទ្យាពីរបៀបដែលខួរក្បាល, ផ្តល់នូវការកើនឡើងទៅធាតុផ្លូវចិត្តដូចជាគំនិត? នេះគឺជាផ្នែកមួយនៃអ្វីដែលបានក្លាយជាគេស្គាល់ថាជាបញ្ហាគំនិតរាងកាយ។ ប្រសិនបើមាតិកាទាំងអស់នៃការយល់ដឹងគឺជាគំនិត, របៀបដែលយើងអាចដឹងថាអ្វីនោះទេក្រៅពីគំនិតមាន? ដេកាតបានព្យាយាមដើម្បីដោះស្រាយបញ្ហាចុងក្រោយនេះដោយហេតុផល។ លោកបានចាប់ផ្តើមផងដែរផាមីនិចជាមួយគោលការណ៍ដែលគាត់គិតថាអាចនឹងត្រូវបានបដិសេធមិន coherently មួយ: ខ្ញុំគិតថាដូច្នេះខ្ញុំត្រូវបាន (ជាញឹកញាប់បានផ្ដល់ឱ្យក្នុងលោកដើមឡាទីន: ផលបូក ergo Cogito) ។ ពីគោលការណ៍នេះដេកាតទៅលើការសាងសង់ប្រព័ន្ធពេញលេញនៃចំនេះដឹង (ដែលពាក់ព័ន្ធនឹងការបញ្ជាក់ពីអត្ថិភាពរបស់ព្រះជាម្ចាស់ដោយប្រើ, ក្នុងចំណោមមធ្យោបាយផ្សេងទៀត, កំណែនៃអាគុយម៉ង់ ontological នេះ) ។ ទស្សនៈរបស់លោកមូលហេតុដែលតែម្នាក់ឯងអាចផ្តល់នូវសេចក្ដីពិតច្រើនអំពីការពិតបានមានឥទ្ធិពលយ៉ាងខ្លាំងទស្សនវិទូទាំងនោះជាធម្មតាបានចាត់ទុកជាសនិទាននិយមទំនើប (ដូចជាបារូ Spinoza, លោក Gottfried ឡែបនីសនិងលោក Christian Wolff) ខណៈពេលដែលជំរុញឱ្យមានការរិះគន់ពីអ្នកទស្សនវិទូផ្សេងទៀតដែលបានមកឥលូវនិងពីមុនមកនឹងត្រូវបានដាក់ជាក្រុមរួមគ្នាជា empiricists ។ </p><p>Empiricism ផ្ទុយទៅសនិទាននិយម, មិនដែលឬបដិសេធចោលសមត្ថភាពនៃហេតុផលតែម្នាក់ឯងដើម្បីទទួលបានចំនេះដឹងនៃពិភពលោក, preferring ទៅមូលដ្ឋានចំណេះដឹងណាមួយដែលយើងមាននៅលើអារម្មណ៍របស់យើង។ នេះបានចុះកាលបរិច្ឆេទត្រលប់ទៅគំនិតនៃ rasa គ្រាប់ (កុំព្យូទ័របន្ទះ unscribed) ទាំងស្រុងរបស់អារីស្តូតនៅលើព្រលឹងដែលបានរៀបរាប់ជាច្រើនទៀតជាក់លាក់នៅក្នុងរបស់អាវីសេនណាសៀវភៅនៃការព្យាបាល, [52] និងបានបង្ហាញនៅក្នុង Ibn Tufail របស់ Hayy Ibn Yaqdhan ជាការពិសោធន៍គំនិតមួយ។ [53] សម័យទំនើប empiricism ត្រូវបានពន្យល់ដោយ Francis Bacon ដែលគួរឱ្យកត់សំគាល់ជាលោកយ៉ូហាន Lock នៅក្នុងអត្ថបទមួយស្ដីអំពីការយល់ដឹងមនុស្សនៅឆ្នាំ 1689 និង David Hume ។ </p><p>ក្នុងអំឡុងពេលសម័យនេះគំនិតសាសនាបានដើរតួនាទីយ៉ាងលាយបញ្ចូលគ្នាក្នុងការតស៊ូដែលជាប់រវល់ទស្សនៈវិជ្ជាខាងលោកិយឡើយ។ refutation ឧត្តមគតិនៃគោលការណ៍សំខាន់ល្បីរបស់អ៊ីសាកញូតុនប៊ីស្សព Berkeley គឺករណីនៃការទស្សនវិទូត្រាស់ដឹងដែលបានទាក់ទាញខ្លាំងពីគំនិតសាសនា។ អ្នកគិតសាសនាមានឥទ្ធិពលផ្សេងទៀតនៃពេលវេលាដែលរួមមានលោក Blaise Pascal, លោកយ៉ូសែបលោក Butler, លោក Thomas Reid និងយ៉ូណាថាន Edwards បាន។ អ្នកនិពន្ធសំខាន់ផ្សេងទៀតដូចជាលោក Jean-Jacques Rousseau និង Edmund Burke បានយកផ្លូវផ្សេងគ្នាជា។ [ត្រូវការបញ្ជាក់] </p><p>សង្ស័យនិយម [កែប្រែកូដ] អត្ថបទដើមចំបង: ប៉ះពាល់សេដ្ឋកិច្ច សង្ស័យជាអាកប្បកិរិយាទស្សនវិទូថានៅក្នុងសំណុំបែបបទខ្លាំងបំផុតរបស់ខ្លួន, សួរលទ្ធភាពនៃការទទួលបានការតម្រៀបនៃចំណេះដឹងណាមួយ។ វាត្រូវបានបញ្ជាក់យ៉ាងច្បាស់ជាលើកដំបូងដោយ Pyrrho ដែលជឿថាអ្វីគ្រប់យ៉ាងអាចនឹងត្រូវបានលើកលែងតែការបង្ហាញខ្លួននៅសង្ស័យ។ Sextus Empiricus (សតវត្សទី 2 នៃគ), ការតស៊ូមតិលេចធ្លោបំផុតសង្ស័យរបស់រៀបរាប់អំពីវាជា </p><p>«សមត្ថភាពដើម្បីដាក់នៅក្នុង antithesis, ក្នុងលក្ខណៈណាមួយអ្វីដែល, ការបង្ហាញខ្លួននិងវិន័យហើយដូច្នេះ ... អញ្ជើញមកមុននៃការទាំងអស់ឱ្យមានការព្យួរការវិនិច្ឆ័យមួយហើយបន្ទាប់មកទៅកាន់ Tran ផ្លូវចិត្ត </p><p>អត្ថិភាពនិយម </p><p>សព្វគឺជាពាក្យដែលបានអនុវត្តការងារនៃចំនួន 19th- ចុងសតវត្សទី 20 និងទស្សនវិទូម្នាក់ដែលបាន, បើទោះបីជាភាពខុសគ្នាខាងគោលលទ្ធិយ៉ាងជ្រាលជ្រៅ, [68] [69] បានចែករំលែកជំនឿដែលថាការគិតចាប់ផ្តើមជាមួយនឹងប្រធានបទទស្សនវិទូមិនមែនមនុស្សគ្រាន់តែជាប្រធានបទការគិតមួយ ប៉ុន្តែការសម្ដែង, អារម្មណ៍, ការរស់នៅរបស់បុគ្គលរបស់មនុស្ស។ [70] នៅក្នុងទ្រឹស្តីទស្សនចំណុចចាប់ផ្តើមរបស់បុគ្គលដែលត្រូវបានកំណត់ដោយអ្វីដែលត្រូវបានគេហៅថា«អាកប្បកិរិយាសព្វ ", ឬអារម្មណ៍នៃអារម្មណ៍ភាន់ភាំងនិងការភាន់ច្រឡំនៅក្នុងការប្រឈមមុខនឹងមួយជាក់ស្តែងឥតបានការឬមិនទំនងនេះ នៅលើពិភពលោក។ [71] ទ្រឹជាច្រើនចាត់ទុកថាផងដែរទស្សនវិជ្ជាមានលក្ខណៈជាប្រព័ន្ធឬសិក្សាតាមបែបប្រពៃណី, ទាំងនៅក្នុងរចនាប័ទ្មនិងមាតិកា, ជាអរូបីផងដែរនិងពីចម្ងាយពីបទពិសោធបេតុងមនុស្ស។ [72] [73] </p><p>ទោះបីជាពួកគេមិនបានប្រើពាក្យនេះជាទស្សនវិទូសតវត្សទី 19 Soren Kierkegaard និងមូលនិធិ Friedrich Nietzsche ត្រូវបានគេចាត់ទុកជាទូទៅថាជាឪពុកនៃទ្រឹស្តីទស្សននេះ។ ឥទ្ធិពលរបស់ខ្លួន, ទោះជាយ៉ាងណា, បានពង្រីកហួសពីការគិតទ្រឹ។ [74] [75] [76] </p><p>នេះជាគោលដៅសំខាន់នៃការសរសេរ Kierkegaard គឺប្រព័ន្ធទស្សនវិជ្ជាឧត្តមគតិរបស់ Hegel ដែលលោកបានគិតថាមិនអើពើឬដកចេញជីវិតប្រធានបទនៃការរស់នៅខាងក្នុងមនុស្ស។ Kierkegaard, ផ្ទុយទៅវិញ, បានប្រារព្ធឡើងថា: «ការពិតគឺជាប្រធានបទ "អះអាងថាអ្វីដែលសំខាន់បំផុតដើម្បីជាការពិតប្រាកដមានមនុស្សសំណួរការដោះស្រាយជាមួយនឹងការទំនាក់ទំនងខាងក្នុងរបស់បុគ្គលម្នាក់ដើម្បីជីវិត។ ជាពិសេស Kierkegaard, គ្រីស្ទានមួយបានជឿថាសេចក្តីពិតនៃជំនឿសាសនានេះគឺជាសំណួរប្រធានបទនិងមួយដែលនឹងត្រូវបានបោកចំបាប់ជាមួយខ្លាំង។ [77] [78] </p><p>ទោះបីជា Kierkegaard និង Nietzsche នាក់ក្នុងចំណោមឥទ្ធិពលរបស់គាត់ទំហំដែលអ្នកទស្សនវិទូលោកម៉ាទីនអាល្លឺម៉ង់លោកហាយដឺជឺត្រូវបានពិចារណាថាទ្រឹជាការជជែកដេញដោល។ ក្នុង Being and Time ដែលលោកបានធ្វើបទបង្ហាញវិធីសាស្រ្តនៃទស្សនវិជ្ជាក្នុងការពន្យល់ rooting ជីវិតរបស់មនុស្ស (ពាក្យ Dasein) នឹងត្រូវបានវិភាគនៅក្នុងលក្ខខណ្ឌនៃប្រភេទសព្វ (existentiale) មួយ; ហើយនេះបាននាំឱ្យមានការអត្ថាធិប្បាយជាច្រើនដើម្បីព្យាបាលគាត់ជាឥស្សរជនសំខាន់នៅក្នុងចលនាទ្រឹនេះ។ ទោះជាយ៉ាងណា, នៅក្នុងលិខិតនៅលើមនុស្សរបស់លោកហាយដឺជឺបានច្រានចោលទ្រឹស្តីទស្សនរបស់លោក Jean-Paul Sartre យ៉ាងជាក់លាក់។ </p><p>លោកសាត្រឺបានក្លាយជាអ្នកគាំទ្រល្អបំផុតដែលបានស្គាល់ពីទ្រឹស្តីទស្សន, ស្វែងយល់ពីវាមិនត្រឹមតែនៅក្នុងស្នាដៃទ្រឹស្តីដូចជា Being and Nothingness ទេតែថែមទាំងនៅក្នុងការប្រកួតនិងរឿងប្រលោមលោក។ លោកសាត្រឺរួមជាមួយកីឡាករ Simone de Beauvoir តំណាងឱ្យសាខាបដិសេធនឹងព្រះ avowedly ជីវិតរបស់មនុស្សដែលបច្ចុប្បន្ននេះត្រូវបានផ្សារភ្ជាប់យ៉ាងជិតស្និទ្ធជាមួយគំនិតកាន់តែច្រើនរបស់ខ្លួននៃការចង្អោរ, យថាភាព, ជំនឿមិនល្អនិងមិនទំនងជាងជាមួយ angst ខាងវិញ្ញាណ Kierkegaard នេះ។ ទោះជាយ៉ាងណាការផ្តោតអារម្មណ៍នៅលើមនុស្សបុគ្គលដែលទទួលខុសត្រូវសម្រាប់ការផ្ទៀងផ្ទាត់ភាពត្រឹមត្រូវមុនពេលសកលលោកនៃអត្ថិភាពរបស់ខ្លួននោះគឺជារឿងធម្មតាគំនិតទាំងអស់នេះ។ </p>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div 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