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id="toc-Project_Apollo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_space-travel" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_space-travel"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Effects of space-travel </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Effects_of_space-travel-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Effects of space-travel subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_space-travel-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Blood_clots" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Blood_clots"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Blood clots </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Blood_clots-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cardiac_rhythms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cardiac_rhythms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.2 Cardiac rhythms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cardiac_rhythms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decompression_illness_in_spaceflight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression_illness_in_spaceflight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3 Decompression illness in spaceflight </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decompression_illness_in_spaceflight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Decompression_sickness" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decompression_sickness"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.1 Decompression sickness </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decompression_sickness-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Barotrauma" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Barotrauma"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.3.2 Barotrauma </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Barotrauma-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Decreased_immune_system_functioning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Decreased_immune_system_functioning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.4 Decreased immune system functioning </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Decreased_immune_system_functioning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Increased_infection_risk" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Increased_infection_risk"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.5 Increased infection risk </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Increased_infection_risk-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Effects_of_fatigue" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Effects_of_fatigue"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.6 Effects of fatigue </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Effects_of_fatigue-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_balance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_balance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.7 Loss of balance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_balance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_bone_density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_bone_density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.8 Loss of bone density </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_bone_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_muscle_mass" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_muscle_mass"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.9 Loss of muscle mass </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_muscle_mass-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impairment_of_eyesight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impairment_of_eyesight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.10 Impairment of eyesight </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impairment_of_eyesight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_mental_abilities_and_risk_of_Alzheimer's_disease" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_mental_abilities_and_risk_of_Alzheimer's_disease"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.11 Loss of mental abilities and risk of Alzheimer's disease </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_mental_abilities_and_risk_of_Alzheimer's_disease-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Orthostatic_intolerance" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Orthostatic_intolerance"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.12 Orthostatic intolerance </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Orthostatic_intolerance-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radiation_effects" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radiation_effects"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.13 Radiation effects </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radiation_effects-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Loss_of_kidney_function" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Loss_of_kidney_function"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.14 Loss of kidney function </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Loss_of_kidney_function-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sleep_disorders" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sleep_disorders"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.15 Sleep disorders </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sleep_disorders-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Spaceflight_analogues" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Spaceflight_analogues"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Spaceflight analogues </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Spaceflight_analogues-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_medicine_careers" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_medicine_careers"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Space medicine careers </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Space_medicine_careers-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Space medicine careers subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Space_medicine_careers-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Related_degrees,_areas_of_specialization,_and_certifications" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Related_degrees,_areas_of_specialization,_and_certifications"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.1 Related degrees, areas of specialization, and certifications </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Related_degrees,_areas_of_specialization,_and_certifications-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_nursing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_nursing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4.2 Space nursing </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_nursing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Medicine_in_flight" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Medicine_in_flight"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Medicine in flight </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Medicine_in_flight-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Medicine in flight subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Medicine_in_flight-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sleep_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sleep_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Sleep medicine </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sleep_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultrasound_and_space" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultrasound_and_space"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Ultrasound and space </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultrasound_and_space-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Space_Shuttle_era" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Space_Shuttle_era"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Space Shuttle era </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Space_Shuttle_era-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Future_investigations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Future_investigations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4 Future investigations </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Future_investigations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Feasibility_of_Long_Duration_Space_Flights" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Feasibility_of_Long_Duration_Space_Flights"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.4.1 Feasibility of Long Duration Space Flights </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Feasibility_of_Long_Duration_Space_Flights-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_science_and_medicine" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_science_and_medicine"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Impact on science and medicine </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Impact_on_science_and_medicine-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Impact on science and medicine subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_science_and_medicine-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Pre-Mercury_through_Apollo" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Pre-Mercury_through_Apollo"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.1 Pre-Mercury through Apollo </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Pre-Mercury_through_Apollo-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Ultrasound_microgravity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Ultrasound_microgravity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6.2 Ultrasound microgravity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Ultrasound_microgravity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 External links </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> 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</div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Space medicine</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. 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lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Касмічная медыцына" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_espacial" title="Medicina espacial – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Medicina espacial" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flug-_und_Raumfahrtmedizin" title="Flug- und Raumfahrtmedizin – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Flug- und Raumfahrtmedizin" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_espacial" title="Medicina espacial – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Medicina espacial" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%81%D8%B6%D8%A7%D9%BE%D8%B2%D8%B4%DA%A9%DB%8C" title="فضاپزشکی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="فضاپزشکی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9decine_spatiale" title="Médecine spatiale – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Médecine spatiale" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fiseola%C3%ADocht_is_m%C3%ADochaine_sp%C3%A1is" title="Fiseolaíocht is míochaine spáis – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Fiseolaíocht is míochaine spáis" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%9A%B0%EC%A3%BC%EC%9D%98%ED%95%99" title="우주의학 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="우주의학" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_spaziale" title="Medicina spaziale – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Medicina spaziale" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A8%D7%A4%D7%95%D7%90%D7%94_%D7%91%D7%97%D7%9C%D7%9C" title="רפואה בחלל – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="רפואה בחלל" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%BE%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8B%D2%9B_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Космостық медицина – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Космостық медицина" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E5%AE%87%E5%AE%99%E5%8C%BB%E5%AD%A6" title="宇宙医学 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="宇宙医学" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medycyna_kosmiczna" title="Medycyna kosmiczna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Medycyna kosmiczna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Medicina_espacial" title="Medicina espacial – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Medicina espacial" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%B5%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%B0%D1%8F_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Космическая медицина – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Космическая медицина" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kozmick%C3%A1_medic%C3%ADna" title="Kozmická medicína – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Kozmická medicína" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D0%BE%D1%81%D0%BC%D0%B8%D1%87%D0%BA%D0%B0_%D0%BC%D0%B5%D0%B4%D0%B8%D1%86%D0%B8%D0%BD%D0%B0" title="Космичка медицина – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Космичка медицина" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Svemirska_medicina" title="Svemirska medicina – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Svemirska medicina" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Avaruusl%C3%A4%C3%A4ketiede" title="Avaruuslääketiede – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Avaruuslääketiede" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rymdmedicin" title="Rymdmedicin – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Rymdmedicin" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a 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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">For health conditions encountered during spaceflight</div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:NASA_Medical_Monitoring_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/NASA_Medical_Monitoring_2.jpg/220px-NASA_Medical_Monitoring_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="331" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/NASA_Medical_Monitoring_2.jpg/330px-NASA_Medical_Monitoring_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/NASA_Medical_Monitoring_2.jpg/440px-NASA_Medical_Monitoring_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2848" data-file-height="4288" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Dan_Burbank" class="mw-redirect" title="Dan Burbank">Dan Burbank</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anton_Shkaplerov" title="Anton Shkaplerov">Anton Shkaplerov</a> participate in a medical contingency drill in the <a href="/wiki/Destiny_laboratory" class="mw-redirect" title="Destiny laboratory">Destiny laboratory</a> of the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>. This drill gives crew members the opportunity to work as a team in resolving a simulated medical emergency on board the space station.<a href="#cite_note-ISS_Medical_2013-1">[1]</a></figcaption></figure> Space Medicine is a subspecialty of Emergency Medicine (Fellowship Training Pathway) which evolved from the <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace Medicine">Aerospace Medicine</a> specialty. Space Medicine is dedicated to the prevention and treatment of medical conditions that would limit success in space operations. Space medicine focuses specifically on prevention, acute care, emergency medicine, wilderness medicine, hyper/hypobaric medicine in order to provide medical care of <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a> and <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_participant" title="Spaceflight participant">spaceflight participants</a>. The spaceflight environment poses many unique stressors to the human body, including <a href="/wiki/G-force" title="G-force">G forces</a>, <a href="/wiki/Micro-g_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Micro-g environment">microgravity</a>, unusual atmospheres such as low pressure or high carbon dioxide, and <a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">space radiation</a>. Space medicine applies space physiology, preventive medicine, primary care, emergency medicine, acute care medicine, austere medicine, public health, and toxicology to prevent and treat medical problems in space. This expertise is additionally used to inform vehicle systems design to minimize the risk to human health and performance while meeting mission objectives. <a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Astronautical hygiene</a> is the application of science and technology to the prevention or control of exposure to the hazards that may cause astronaut ill health. Both these sciences work together to ensure that astronauts work in a safe environment. Medical consequences such as possible <a href="/wiki/Blindness" class="mw-redirect" title="Blindness">visual impairment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Osteoporosis" title="Osteoporosis">bone loss</a> have been associated with <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a>.<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140127-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wired-20120723-3">[3]</a> In October 2015, the <a href="/wiki/NASA_Office_of_Inspector_General" title="NASA Office of Inspector General">NASA Office of Inspector General</a> issued a <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">health hazards report</a> related to <a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">space exploration</a>, including a <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human mission to Mars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-AP-20151029-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20151029oig-5">[5]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Hubertus_Strughold" title="Hubertus Strughold">Hubertus Strughold</a> (1898–1987), a former <a href="/wiki/Nazi" class="mw-redirect" title="Nazi">Nazi</a> physician and physiologist, was brought to the <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> after <a href="/wiki/World_War_II" title="World War II">World War II</a> as part of <a href="/wiki/Operation_Paperclip" title="Operation Paperclip">Operation Paperclip</a>.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a> He first coined the term "space medicine" in 1948 and was the first and only Professor of Space Medicine at the <a href="/wiki/School_of_Aviation_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="School of Aviation Medicine">School of Aviation Medicine</a> (SAM) at <a href="/wiki/Randolph_Air_Force_Base" title="Randolph Air Force Base">Randolph Air Force Base</a>, <a href="/wiki/Texas" title="Texas">Texas</a>. In 1949, Strughold was made director of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Department_of_Space_Medicine&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Department of Space Medicine (page does not exist)">Department of Space Medicine</a> at the SAM (which is now the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Air_Force_School_of_Aerospace_Medicine" title="United States Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine">US Air Force School of Aerospace Medicine</a> (USAFSAM) at Wright-Patterson Air Force Base, Ohio. He played an important role in developing the <a href="/wiki/Pressure_suit" title="Pressure suit">pressure suit</a> worn by early American astronauts. He was a co-founder of the Space Medicine Branch of the <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medical_Association" title="Aerospace Medical Association">Aerospace Medical Association</a> in 1950. The aeromedical library at Brooks AFB was named after him in 1977, but later renamed because documents from the <a href="/wiki/Nuremberg_Trials" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuremberg Trials">Nuremberg War Crimes Tribunal</a> linked Strughold to medical experiments in which inmates of the <a href="/wiki/Dachau_concentration_camp" title="Dachau concentration camp">Dachau concentration camp</a> were tortured and killed.<a href="#cite_note-7">[7]</a> Soviet research into Space Medicine was centered at the Scientific Research Testing Institute of Aviation Medicine (NIIAM). In 1949, A.M. Vasilevsky, the Minister of Defense of the USSR, gave instructions via the initiative of <a href="/wiki/Sergei_Korolev" title="Sergei Korolev">Sergei Korolev</a> to NIIAM to conduct biological and medical research. In 1951, NIIAM began to work on the first research work entitled "Physiological and hygienic substantiation of flight capabilities in special conditions", which formulated the main research tasks, the necessary requirements for pressurized cabins, life support systems, rescue and control and recording equipment. At the Korolev design bureau, they created rockets for lifting animals within 200–250 km and 500–600 km, and then began to talk about developing artificial satellites and launching a man into space.<a href="#cite_note-8">[8]</a> Then in 1963 the Institute for Biomedical Problems (IMBP) was founded to undertake the study of space medicine.<a href="#cite_note-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Animal_testing">Animal testing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Animal testing">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></div> Before sending humans, space agencies used animals to study the effects of space travel on the body.<a href="#cite_note-:0-10">[10]</a> After several years of failed animal recoveries, an <a href="/wiki/Aerobee" title="Aerobee">Aerobee</a> rocket launch in September 1951 was the first safe return of a monkey and a group of mice from near space altitudes.<a href="#cite_note-:12-11">[11]</a> On 3 November 1957, <a href="/wiki/Sputnik_2" title="Sputnik 2">Sputnik 2</a> became the first mission to carry a living animal to space, a dog named <a href="/wiki/Laika" title="Laika">Laika</a>. This flight and others suggested the possibility of safely flying in space within a controlled environment, and provided data on how living beings react to space flight.<a href="#cite_note-:0-10">[10]</a> Later flights with cameras to observe the animal subjects would show in flight conditions such as high-G and zero-G.<a href="#cite_note-:12-11">[11]</a> Russian tests yielded more valuable physiological data from the animal tests.<a href="#cite_note-:12-11">[11]</a> On January 31, 1961, a chimpanzee named <a href="/wiki/Ham_(chimpanzee)" title="Ham (chimpanzee)">Ham</a> was launched into a <a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">sub-orbital</a> flight aboard a <a href="/wiki/Mercury-Redstone_Launch_Vehicle" title="Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle">Mercury-Redstone Launch Vehicle</a>. The flight was meant to model the planned mission of astronaut <a href="/wiki/Alan_Shepard" title="Alan Shepard">Alan Shepard</a>. The mission planned to reach an altitude of 115 miles, and speeds up to 4400 miles per hour.<a href="#cite_note-Animals_in_Space-12">[12]</a> However, the actual flight reached 157 miles and a maximum speed of 5857 miles per hour.<a href="#cite_note-Animals_in_Space-12">[12]</a> During flight, Ham experienced 6.6 minutes of <a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">weightlessness</a>. After splashing down in the Atlantic Ocean, Ham was recovered by the <a href="/wiki/USS_Donner_(LSD-20)" class="mw-redirect" title="USS Donner (LSD-20)">USS Donner.</a><a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> He suffered only limited injuries during flight, only receiving a bruised nose.<a href="#cite_note-:02-14">[14]</a> Ham's vital signs were monitored and collected throughout the 16 minute flight, and used to develop <a href="/wiki/Life_support" title="Life support">life support systems</a> for later human astronauts.<a href="#cite_note-:02-14">[14]</a> Animal testing in space continues currently, with mice, ants, and other animals regularly being sent to the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>.<a href="#cite_note-:03-15">[15]</a> In 2014, eight ant colonies were sent to the ISS to investigate the group behavior of ants in microgravity. The ISS allows for the investigation of animal behavior without sending them in specifically designed capsules.<a href="#cite_note-:03-15">[15]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="North_American_X-15">North American X-15</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: North American X-15">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/North_American_X-15" title="North American X-15">North American X-15</a></div> Rocket-powered aircraft North American X-15 provided an early opportunity to study the effects of a near-space environment on human physiology.<a href="#cite_note-16">[16]</a> At its highest operational speed and altitude, the X-15 provided approximately five minutes of weightlessness. This opportunity allowed for the development of devices to facilitate working in low pressure, high acceleration environments such as pressure suits, and <a href="/wiki/Telemetry" title="Telemetry">telemetering</a> systems to collect physiological data.<a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a> This data and technologies allowed for better mission planning for future space missions.<a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Project_Mercury">Project Mercury</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Project Mercury">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a></div> Space medicine was a critical factor in the United States human space program, starting with <a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Project Mercury</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mills-1965-18">[18]</a> The main precaution taken by Mercury astronauts to defend against high G environments like launch and reentry was a couch with seat belts to make sure astronauts were not forcibly moved from their position. Additionally, experienced pilots proved to be better able to cope with high G scenarios.<a href="#cite_note-:12-11">[11]</a> One of the pressing concerns with Project Mercury's mission environment was the isolated nature of the cabin. There were deeper concerns about psychological issues than there were about physiological health effects. Substantial animal testing proved beyond a reasonable doubt to NASA engineers that spaceflight could be done safely provided a climate controlled environment.<a href="#cite_note-:12-11">[11]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Project_Gemini">Project Gemini</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Project Gemini">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a> program primarily addressed the psychological issues from isolation in space with two crewmembers. Upon returning from space, it was recorded that crewmembers experienced a loss of balance and a decrease in anaerobic ability.<a href="#cite_note-:2-19">[19]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Project_Apollo">Project Apollo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Project Apollo">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> program began with a substantial basis of medical knowledge and precautions from both Mercury and <a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a>. The understanding of high and low G environments was well documented and the effects of isolation had been addressed with Gemini and Apollo having multiple occupants in one capsule. The primary research of the Apollo Program focused on pre-flight and post-flight monitoring.<a href="#cite_note-:2-19">[19]</a> Some Apollo mission plans were postponed or altered due to some or all crewmembers contracting a communicable disease. Apollo 14 instituted a form of quarantine for crewmembers so as to curb the passing of typical illnesses.<a href="#cite_note-:2-19">[19]</a> While the efficacy of the Flight Crew Health Stabilization Program was questionable as some crewmembers still contracted diseases,<a href="#cite_note-:2-19">[19]</a> the program showed enough results to maintain implementation with current space programs.<a href="#cite_note-20">[20]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Effects_of_space-travel">Effects of space-travel</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Effects of space-travel">edit</a>]</div> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Space_body_fluid.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Space_body_fluid.svg/400px-Space_body_fluid.svg.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Space_body_fluid.svg/600px-Space_body_fluid.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/8b/Space_body_fluid.svg/800px-Space_body_fluid.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="250" /></a><figcaption>The effects of microgravity on fluid distribution around the body (greatly exaggerated) (NASA)</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a></div> In October 2018, <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>-funded researchers found that lengthy journeys into <a href="/wiki/Outer_space" title="Outer space">outer space</a>, including travel to the <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">planet Mars</a>, may substantially damage the <a href="/wiki/Gastrointestinal_tract" title="Gastrointestinal tract">gastrointestinal tissues</a> of astronauts. The studies support earlier work that found such journeys could significantly damage the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brains</a> of <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a>, and age them prematurely.<a href="#cite_note-TI-20181002-21">[21]</a> In November 2019, researchers reported that <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a> experienced serious <a href="/wiki/Hemodynamics" title="Hemodynamics">blood flow</a> and <a href="/wiki/Thrombus" title="Thrombus">clot</a> problems while on board the International Space Station, based on a six-month study of 11 healthy astronauts. The results may influence long-term <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a>, including a mission to the planet <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a>, according to the researchers.<a href="#cite_note-CNN-20191115-22">[22]</a><a href="#cite_note-JAMA-20191113-23">[23]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Blood_clots">Blood clots</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Blood clots">edit</a>]</div> Deep vein thrombosis of the internal jugular vein of the neck was first discovered in 2020 in an astronaut on a long duration stay on the ISS, requiring treatment with blood thinners.<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> A subsequent study of eleven astronauts found slowed blood flow in the neck veins and even reversal of blood flow in two of the astronauts.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> NASA is currently conducting more research to study whether these abnormalities could predispose astronauts to blood clots. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Cardiac_rhythms">Cardiac rhythms</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Cardiac rhythms">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_rhythm_problems_during_space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac rhythm problems during space flight">Cardiac rhythm problems during space flight</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Cardiac_dysrhythmia" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac dysrhythmia">Heart rhythm disturbances</a> have been seen among astronauts.<a href="#cite_note-26">[26]</a> Most of these have been related to <a href="/wiki/Cardiovascular_disease" title="Cardiovascular disease">cardiovascular disease</a>, but it is not clear whether this was due to <a href="/wiki/Pre-existing_condition" title="Pre-existing condition">pre-existing conditions</a> or <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">effects of space flight</a>. It is hoped that advanced screening for <a href="/wiki/Coronary_disease" class="mw-redirect" title="Coronary disease">coronary disease</a> has greatly mitigated this risk. Other heart rhythm problems, such as <a href="/wiki/Atrial_fibrillation" title="Atrial fibrillation">atrial fibrillation</a>, can develop over time, necessitating periodic screening of crewmembers’ heart rhythms. Beyond these terrestrial heart risks, some concern exists that prolonged exposure to <a href="/wiki/Microgravity" class="mw-redirect" title="Microgravity">microgravity</a> may lead to heart rhythm disturbances. Although this has not been observed to date, further surveillance is warranted. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decompression_illness_in_spaceflight">Decompression illness in spaceflight</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Decompression illness in spaceflight">edit</a>]</div> In space, astronauts use a <a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">space suit</a>, essentially a self-contained individual spacecraft, to do spacewalks, or <a href="/wiki/Extra-vehicular_activity" class="mw-redirect" title="Extra-vehicular activity">extra-vehicular activities</a> (EVAs). Spacesuits are generally inflated with 100% <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> at a total pressure that is less than a third of normal <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">atmospheric pressure</a>. Eliminating inert atmospheric components such as <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> allows the astronaut to breathe comfortably, but also have the mobility to use their hands, arms, and legs to complete required work, which would be more difficult in a higher pressure suit. After the astronaut dons the spacesuit, air is replaced by 100% oxygen in a process called a "nitrogen purge". In order to reduce the risk of <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">decompression sickness</a>, the astronaut must spend several hours "pre-breathing" at an intermediate nitrogen <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a>, in order to let their body tissues <a href="/wiki/Outgassing" title="Outgassing">outgas</a> nitrogen slowly enough that bubbles are not formed. When the astronaut returns to the "shirt sleeve" environment of the spacecraft after an EVA, pressure is restored to whatever the operating pressure of that spacecraft may be, generally normal atmospheric pressure. <a href="/wiki/Decompression_illness" title="Decompression illness">Decompression illness</a> in spaceflight consists of decompression sickness (DCS) and other injuries due to uncompensated changes in pressure, or <a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">barotrauma</a>. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Decompression_sickness">Decompression sickness</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Decompression sickness">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Decompression_sickness" title="Decompression sickness">Decompression sickness</a> is the injury to the tissues of the body resulting from the presence of nitrogen bubbles in the tissues and blood. This occurs due to a rapid reduction in ambient pressure causing the dissolved nitrogen to come out of solution as gas bubbles within the body.<a href="#cite_note-27">[27]</a> In space the risk of DCS is significantly reduced by using a technique to wash out the nitrogen in the body's tissues. This is achieved by breathing 100% oxygen for a specified period of time before donning the spacesuit, and is continued after a nitrogen purge.<a href="#cite_note-28">[28]</a><a href="#cite_note-29">[29]</a> DCS may result from inadequate or interrupted pre-oxygenation time, or other factors including the astronaut's level of hydration, physical conditioning, prior injuries and age. Other risks of DCS include inadequate nitrogen purge in the EMU, a strenuous or excessively prolonged EVA, or a loss of suit pressure. Non-EVA crewmembers may also be at risk for DCS if there is a loss of spacecraft cabin pressure. Symptoms of DCS in space may include chest pain, shortness of breath, cough or pain with a deep breath, unusual fatigue, lightheadedness, dizziness, headache, unexplained musculoskeletal pain, tingling or numbness, extremities weakness, or visual abnormalities.<a href="#cite_note-30">[30]</a> Primary treatment principles consist of in-suit repressurization to re-dissolve nitrogen bubbles,<a href="#cite_note-31">[31]</a> 100% oxygen to re-oxygenate tissues,<a href="#cite_note-32">[32]</a> and hydration to improve the circulation to injured tissues.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Barotrauma">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Barotrauma" title="Barotrauma">Barotrauma</a> is the injury to the tissues of air filled spaces in the body as a result of differences in pressure between the body spaces and the ambient atmospheric pressure. Air filled spaces include the middle ears, paranasal sinuses, lungs and gastrointestinal tract.<a href="#cite_note-34">[34]</a><a href="#cite_note-usn-35">[35]</a> One would be predisposed by a pre-existing upper respiratory infection, nasal allergies, recurrent changing pressures, dehydration, or a poor equalizing technique. Positive pressure in the air filled spaces results from reduced barometric pressure during the depressurization phase of an EVA.<a href="#cite_note-36">[36]</a><a href="#cite_note-37">[37]</a> It can cause abdominal distension, ear or sinus pain, decreased hearing, and dental or jaw pain.<a href="#cite_note-usn-35">[35]</a><a href="#cite_note-38">[38]</a> Abdominal distension can be treated with extending the abdomen, gentle massage and encourage passing <a href="/wiki/Flatus" class="mw-redirect" title="Flatus">flatus</a>. Ear and sinus pressure can be relieved with passive release of positive pressure.<a href="#cite_note-pp-39">[39]</a> Pretreatment for susceptible individuals can include oral and nasal <a href="/wiki/Decongestant" title="Decongestant">decongestants</a>, or oral and nasal <a href="/wiki/Steroid" title="Steroid">steroids</a>.<a href="#cite_note-med-40">[40]</a> Negative pressure in air fill spaces results from increased <a href="/wiki/Barometric_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Barometric pressure">barometric pressure</a> during repressurization after an EVA or following a planned restoration of a reduced cabin pressure. Common symptoms include ear or sinus pain, decreased hearing, and tooth or jaw pain.<a href="#cite_note-41">[41]</a> Treatment may include active positive pressure equalization of ears and sinuses,<a href="#cite_note-42">[42]</a><a href="#cite_note-pp-39">[39]</a> oral and nasal decongestants, or oral and nasal steroids, and appropriate pain medication if needed.<a href="#cite_note-med-40">[40]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Decreased_immune_system_functioning">Decreased immune system functioning</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Decreased immune system functioning">edit</a>]</div> Astronauts in space have weakened immune systems, which means that in addition to increased vulnerability to new exposures, viruses already present in the body—which would normally be suppressed—become active.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> In space, <a href="/wiki/T-cells" class="mw-redirect" title="T-cells">T-cells</a> do not reproduce properly, and the cells that do exist are less able to fight off infection.<a href="#cite_note-44">[44]</a> NASA research is measuring the change in the immune systems of its astronauts as well as performing experiments with T-cells in space. On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, reported that, during <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a> seem to adapt to the <a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">space environment</a> in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a>".<a href="#cite_note-PLos-20130429-45">[45]</a> In March 2019, NASA reported that latent <a href="/wiki/Virus" title="Virus">viruses</a> in humans may be activated during <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">space missions</a>, adding possibly more risk to astronauts in future deep-space missions.<a href="#cite_note-EA-20190315-46">[46]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Increased_infection_risk">Increased infection risk</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Increased infection risk">edit</a>]</div> A 2006 Space Shuttle experiment found that <a href="/wiki/Salmonella_typhimurium" class="mw-redirect" title="Salmonella typhimurium">Salmonella typhimurium</a>, a bacterium that can cause <a href="/wiki/Food_poisoning" class="mw-redirect" title="Food poisoning">food poisoning</a>, became more virulent when cultivated in space.<a href="#cite_note-ASU-20070923-47">[47]</a> On April 29, 2013, scientists in Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, funded by <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>, reported that, during <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">spaceflight</a> on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a>, <a href="/wiki/Microbes" class="mw-redirect" title="Microbes">microbes</a> seem to adapt to the <a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">space environment</a> in ways "not observed on Earth" and in ways that "can lead to increases in growth and <a href="/wiki/Virulence" title="Virulence">virulence</a>".<a href="#cite_note-PLos-20130429-45">[45]</a> More recently, in 2017, <a href="/wiki/Bacteria" title="Bacteria">bacteria</a> were found to be more resistant to <a href="/wiki/Antibiotic" title="Antibiotic">antibiotics</a> and to thrive in the near-weightlessness of space.<a href="#cite_note-GZM-20170913-48">[48]</a> <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">Microorganisms</a> have been observed to survive the <a href="/wiki/Vacuum" title="Vacuum">vacuum</a> of outer space.<a href="#cite_note-Dose-49">[49]</a><a href="#cite_note-Horneck-50">[50]</a> Researchers in 2018 reported, after detecting the presence on the <a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a> (ISS) of five <a href="/wiki/Enterobacter" title="Enterobacter">Enterobacter bugandensis</a> bacterial strains, none <a href="/wiki/Pathogen" title="Pathogen">pathogenic</a> to humans, that <a href="/wiki/Microorganism" title="Microorganism">microorganisms</a> on ISS should be carefully monitored to continue assuring a medically healthy environment for <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a>.<a href="#cite_note-EA-20181122-51">[51]</a><a href="#cite_note-BMC-20181123-52">[52]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Effects_of_fatigue">Effects of fatigue</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Effects of fatigue">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_and_sleep_loss_during_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight">Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a> often requires astronaut crews to endure long periods without rest. Studies have shown that lack of sleep can cause <a href="/wiki/Fatigue_(medical)" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue (medical)">fatigue</a> that leads to errors while performing critical tasks.<a href="#cite_note-Harrison_1998-53">[53]</a><a href="#cite_note-Durmer_2005-54">[54]</a><a href="#cite_note-Banks_2007-55">[55]</a> Also, individuals who are fatigued often cannot determine the degree of their impairment.<a href="#cite_note-56">[56]</a> Astronauts and ground crews frequently suffer from the effects of <a href="/wiki/Sleep_deprivation" title="Sleep deprivation">sleep deprivation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm#Disruption" title="Circadian rhythm">circadian rhythm disruption</a>. Fatigue due to sleep loss, sleep shifting and <a href="/wiki/Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">work overload</a> could cause performance errors that put space flight participants at risk of compromising mission objectives as well as the health and safety of those on board. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_balance">Loss of balance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Loss of balance">edit</a>]</div> Leaving and returning to Earth's gravity causes “space sickness,” dizziness, and loss of balance in astronauts. By studying how changes can affect balance in the human body—involving the senses, the brain, the inner ear, and blood pressure—NASA hopes to develop treatments that can be used on Earth and in space to correct balance disorders. Until then, NASA's astronauts must rely on a medication called <a href="/wiki/Midodrine" title="Midodrine">Midodrine</a> (an “anti-dizzy” pill that temporarily increases blood pressure), and/or <a href="/wiki/Promethazine" title="Promethazine">promethazine</a> to help carry out the tasks they need to do to return home safely.<a href="#cite_note-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_bone_density">Loss of bone density</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Loss of bone density">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_osteopenia" title="Spaceflight osteopenia">Spaceflight osteopenia</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Bone_Loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Bone Loss">bone loss</a> associated with <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Wired-20120723-3">[3]</a> The metabolism of calcium is limited in microgravity and will cause calcium to leak out of bones.<a href="#cite_note-:0-10">[10]</a> After a 3–4 month trip into space, it takes about 2–3 years to regain lost bone density.<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a><a href="#cite_note-59">[59]</a> New techniques are being developed to help astronauts recover faster. Research in the following areas holds the potential to aid the process of growing new bone: <ul><li>Diet and Exercise changes may reduce osteoporosis.</li> <li>Vibration Therapy may stimulate bone growth.<a href="#cite_note-60">[60]</a></li> <li>Medication could trigger the body to produce more of the protein responsible for bone growth and formation.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_muscle_mass">Loss of muscle mass</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Loss of muscle mass">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Reduced_muscle_mass,_strength_and_performance_in_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space">Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space</a></div> In space, muscles in the legs, back, spine, and heart weaken and waste away because they no longer are needed to overcome gravity, just as people lose muscle when they age due to reduced physical activity.<a href="#cite_note-Wired-20120723-3">[3]</a> Astronauts rely on research in the following areas to build muscle and maintain body mass: <ul><li>Exercise may build muscle if at least two hours a day is spent doing resistance training routines.</li> <li>Neuromuscular Electrical Stimulation as a method to prevent muscle atrophy.<a href="#cite_note-:1-17">[17]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impairment_of_eyesight">Impairment of eyesight</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Impairment of eyesight">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment_due_to_intracranial_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure">Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure</a></div> During long <a href="/wiki/Space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Space flight">space flight</a> missions, astronauts may develop ocular changes and visual impairment collectively known as the Space Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome (SANS).<a href="#cite_note-NYT-20140127-2">[2]</a><a href="#cite_note-Wired-20120723-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-Mader-2011-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Puiu-20111109-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20120109-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Space-20120313-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-Radiology-20120313-65">[65]</a><a href="#cite_note-SKR-20171103-66">[66]</a> Such vision problems may be a major concern for future deep space flight missions, including a <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human mission to Mars</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Mader-2011-61">[61]</a><a href="#cite_note-Puiu-20111109-62">[62]</a><a href="#cite_note-CNN-20120109-63">[63]</a><a href="#cite_note-Space-20120313-64">[64]</a><a href="#cite_note-WIRED-20140212-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_mental_abilities_and_risk_of_Alzheimer's_disease">Loss of mental abilities and risk of Alzheimer's disease</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Loss of mental abilities and risk of Alzheimer's disease">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>, <a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></div> On December 31, 2012, a <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a>-supported study reported that <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">human spaceflight</a> may harm the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> of <a href="/wiki/Astronauts" class="mw-redirect" title="Astronauts">astronauts</a> and accelerate the onset of <a href="/wiki/Alzheimer%27s_disease" title="Alzheimer's disease">Alzheimer's disease</a>.<a href="#cite_note-PLOS-20121231-68">[68]</a><a href="#cite_note-SpaceRef-20130101-69">[69]</a><a href="#cite_note-NasaWatch-20130103-70">[70]</a> On 2 November 2017, scientists reported that significant changes in the position and structure of the <a href="/wiki/Brain" title="Brain">brain</a> have been found in <a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">astronauts</a> who have taken <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">trips in space</a>, based on <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI studies</a>. Astronauts who took longer space trips were associated with greater brain changes.<a href="#cite_note-NEJM-20171102-71">[71]</a><a href="#cite_note-QTZ-20171103-72">[72]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Orthostatic_intolerance">Orthostatic intolerance</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Orthostatic intolerance">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Beckman_instruments_incorp_8049g5371.tiff" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Beckman_instruments_incorp_8049g5371.tiff/lossy-page1-220px-Beckman_instruments_incorp_8049g5371.tiff.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="268" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Beckman_instruments_incorp_8049g5371.tiff/lossy-page1-330px-Beckman_instruments_incorp_8049g5371.tiff.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a9/Beckman_instruments_incorp_8049g5371.tiff/lossy-page1-440px-Beckman_instruments_incorp_8049g5371.tiff.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2565" data-file-height="3130" /></a><figcaption>The Beckman cardiovascular reflex conditioning system inflated and deflated cuffs in Gemini and Apollo flight suits to stimulate blood flow to lower limbs.<a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a></figcaption></figure> Under the influence of the earth's <a href="/wiki/Gravity" title="Gravity">gravity</a>, blood and other body fluids are pulled towards the lower body when standing. When gravity is removed during space exploration, hydrostatic pressures throughout the body are removed and the resulting change in blood distribution may be similar lying down on Earth where hydrostatic differences are minimized. Upon return to earth, reduced blood volume from spaceflight results in <a href="/wiki/Orthostatic_hypotension" title="Orthostatic hypotension">orthostatic hypotension</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Dizzy-74">[74]</a> Orthostatic tolerance after spaceflight has been greatly improved by fluid loading countermeasures taken by astronauts before landing.<a href="#cite_note-75">[75]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radiation_effects">Radiation effects</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Radiation effects">edit</a>]</div> <figure class="mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/250px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png" decoding="async" width="250" height="283" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/375px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ef/PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png/500px-PIA17601-Comparisons-RadiationExposure-MarsTrip-20131209.png 2x" data-file-width="900" data-file-height="1017" /></a><figcaption>Comparison of Radiation Doses – includes the amount detected on the trip from Earth to Mars by the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_assessment_detector" title="Radiation assessment detector">RAD</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">MSL</a> (2011–2013).<a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531a-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531b-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20130530-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-SN-20130629-79">[79]</a> </figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_radiation_carcinogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis">Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis</a></div> Soviet <a href="/wiki/Cosmonaut" class="mw-redirect" title="Cosmonaut">cosmonaut</a> <a href="/wiki/Valentin_Lebedev" title="Valentin Lebedev">Valentin Lebedev</a>, who spent 211 days in orbit during 1982 (an absolute record for stay in Earth's orbit), lost his eyesight to progressive <a href="/wiki/Cataract" title="Cataract">cataract</a>. Lebedev stated: “I suffered from a lot of radiation in space. It was all concealed back then, during the Soviet years, but now I can say that I caused damage to my health because of that flight.”<a href="#cite_note-Wired-20120723-3">[3]</a><a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> On 31 May 2013, NASA scientists reported that a possible <a href="/wiki/Human_mission_to_Mars" title="Human mission to Mars">human mission to Mars</a> may involve a great <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">radiation risk</a> based on the amount of <a href="/wiki/Radiation" title="Radiation">energetic particle radiation</a> detected by the <a href="/wiki/Radiation_assessment_detector" title="Radiation assessment detector">RAD</a> on the <a href="/wiki/Mars_Science_Laboratory" title="Mars Science Laboratory">Mars Science Laboratory</a> while traveling from the <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a> to <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> in 2011–2012.<a href="#cite_note-WIRED-20140212-67">[67]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531a-76">[76]</a><a href="#cite_note-SCI-20130531b-77">[77]</a><a href="#cite_note-NYT-20130530-78">[78]</a><a href="#cite_note-SN-20130629-79">[79]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Loss_of_kidney_function">Loss of kidney function</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Loss of kidney function">edit</a>]</div> On 11 June 2024 researchers at the University College of London's Department of Renal Medicine reported that "Serious health risks emerge (with respect to the kidneys) the longer a person is exposed to Galactic Radiation and microgravity."<a href="#cite_note-NC-20240611-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-YN-20240612-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a><a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> In fact, based on their current research with mice, the researchers predicted that astronauts who have been exposed to micro-gravity, reduced gravity, and Galactic radiation for 3 years or so on a Mars mission may have to return to Earth while attached to dialysis machines.<a href="#cite_note-85">[85]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sleep_disorders">Sleep disorders</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sleep disorders">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep in space</a> and <a href="/wiki/Performance_Errors_due_to_Fatigue_and_Sleep_Loss" class="mw-redirect" title="Performance Errors due to Fatigue and Sleep Loss">Performance Errors due to Fatigue and Sleep Loss</a></div> Spaceflight has been observed to disrupt physiological processes that influence sleep patterns in human beings.<a href="#cite_note-physiology.org-86">[86]</a> Astronauts exhibit asynchronized cortisol rhythmicity, dampened diurnal fluctuations in body temperature, and diminished sleep quality.<a href="#cite_note-physiology.org-86">[86]</a> Sleep pattern disruption in astronauts is a form of extrinsic (environmentally caused) <a href="/wiki/Circadian_rhythm_sleep_disorder" title="Circadian rhythm sleep disorder">circadian rhythm sleep disorder</a>.<a href="#cite_note-physiology.org-86">[86]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Spaceflight_analogues">Spaceflight analogues</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Spaceflight analogues">edit</a>]</div> Biomedical research in space is expensive and logistically and technically complicated, and thus limited. Conducting medical research in space alone will not provide humans with the depth of knowledge needed to ensure the safety of inter-planetary travelers. Complementary to research in space is the use of spaceflight analogues. Analogues are particularly useful for the study of immunity, sleep, psychological factors, human performance, habitability, and telemedicine. Examples of spaceflight analogues include confinement chambers (<a href="/wiki/Mars-500" class="mw-redirect" title="Mars-500">Mars-500</a>), sub-aqua habitats (<a href="/wiki/NEEMO" title="NEEMO">NEEMO</a>), and Antarctic (<a href="/wiki/Concordia_Station" title="Concordia Station">Concordia Station</a>) and Arctic <a href="/wiki/FMARS" class="mw-redirect" title="FMARS">FMARS</a> and (<a href="/wiki/Haughton%E2%80%93Mars_Project" title="Haughton–Mars Project">Haughton–Mars Project</a>) stations.<a href="#cite_note-WIRED-20140212-67">[67]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Space_medicine_careers">Space medicine careers</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Space medicine careers">edit</a>]</div> Physicians in space medicine generally work in operations or research at NASA or, more recently, space companies that are flying private or commercial astronauts or spaceflight participants. Board certification is generally required for individuals pursuing opportunities in this challenging and exciting career. Research physicians study specific space medical problems, such as the Space Associated Neuro-ocular Syndrome, or focus on medical capabilities for future deep space exploration missions. Research physicians do not have clinical responsibilities in the care of astronauts and thereby are often not specialty-trained in Space Medicine. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Related_degrees,_areas_of_specialization,_and_certifications">Related degrees, areas of specialization, and certifications</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Related degrees, areas of specialization, and certifications">edit</a>]</div> There are currently only 3 fellowships in Space Medicine: University of Texas at Houston, UCLA, and Harvard. Please see <a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medicine" class="mw-redirect" title="Aerospace Medicine">Aerospace Medicine</a> page for similar Aerospace Medicine preventative medicine training pathways. All of the above training programs should include training in the following areas: <ul><li>Acute Care Medicine</li> <li>Commercial Spaceflight Training</li> <li>Flight Medicine</li> <li>Interventional Radiology Procedures</li> <li>Human Life Support Systems for Space</li> <li>Emergency Medicine</li> <li>Aerospace studies</li> <li>Global Health</li> <li>Hyperbaric and Hypobaric Medicine</li> <li>Public Health</li> <li>Disaster medicine</li> <li>Prehospital medicine</li> <li>Wilderness and extreme medicine</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_nursing">Space nursing</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Space nursing">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a> is the <a href="/wiki/Nursing" title="Nursing">nursing</a> specialty that studies how <a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">space travel</a> impacts human response patterns. Similar to space medicine, the specialty also contributes to knowledge about nursing care of earthbound patients.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a><a href="#cite_note-88">[88]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Medicine_in_flight">Medicine in flight</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Medicine in flight">edit</a>]</div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Medical_treatment_during_spaceflight" title="Medical treatment during spaceflight">Medical treatment during spaceflight</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep in space</a></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sleep_medicine">Sleep medicine</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Sleep medicine">edit</a>]</div> The use of hypnotic sleep aids is widespread among astronauts, with one 10 year long study finding that 75% and 78% of ISS and space shuttle crew members reported taking such medications while in space.<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> Of astronauts who took hypnotic medications, frequency of use was 52% of all nights. NASA allocates 8.5 hours of 'downtime' for sleep per day for astronauts aboard the ISS, but the average duration of sleep is only 6 hours.<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> Poor sleep quality and quantity can compromise the daytime performance and attentiveness of space crew. As such, improving nighttime sleep has been a topic of NASA-funded research for more than half a century.<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> The following pharmacological and environmental strategies have been investigated in the context of sleep in space: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Light_therapy" title="Light therapy">Light therapy</a> involving exposure to visible light at varying intensities and wavelengths to entrain circadian rhythm, is key a topic of interest in NASA-funded research.<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> Various photoreceptors in the human eye such as melanopsin, rhodopsin, and photopsin communicate with the <a href="/wiki/Suprachiasmatic_nucleus" title="Suprachiasmatic nucleus">suprachiasmatic nucleus</a> (the master circadian pacemaker of the brain) to entrain circadian rhythm.<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> Melanopsin photoreceptors are most sensitive to blue light wavelengths in the range of 470-490 nm (blue light).<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> NASA has trialed and implemented rhythmic light panels on the ISS to assist entrain the circadian rhythms of astronauts.<a href="#cite_note-95">[95]</a><a href="#cite_note-96">[96]</a> NASA is soon to test more advanced light panels that change their output light intensity and wavelengths according to time of day, with red-tinted lights (<600 nm) set to be used at night to provide visibility at 'night' and shorter wavelengths of high light intensity to be used in the 'morning' or at times where alertness and vigilance are needed.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a><a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Melatonin" title="Melatonin">Melatonin</a>, a naturally occurring hormone secreted by pineal gland, has shown positive effects in reducing sleep latency in orbit.<a href="#cite_note-99">[99]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">Nonbenzodiazepines</a> sedative-hypnotics (also known as "z drugs") such as <a href="/wiki/Zolpidem" title="Zolpidem">Zolpidem</a>, <a href="/wiki/Zopiclone" title="Zopiclone">Zopiclone</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Zaleplon" title="Zaleplon">Zaleplon</a> are the most commonly dispensed medications on the International Space Station.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> Despite their widespread use amongst astronauts, relatively little research has been conducted on nonbenzodiazepines in the context of spaceflight. Prior research suggests that nonbenzodiazepines may produce less residual impairment than most benzodiazepines.<a href="#cite_note-101">[101]</a> The shortest acting nonbenzodiazepine, Zaleplon, produces little to no cognitive impairment (at clinically relevant doses) even when dosed as little as an hour before awakening.<a href="#cite_note-102">[102]</a> Astronauts frequently take second doses of hypnotic drugs, the shorter duration of action of <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">nonbenzodiazepines</a> may be better suited to middle-of-the-night dosing<a href="#cite_note-:3-103">[103]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Benzodiazepines" class="mw-redirect" title="Benzodiazepines">Benzodiazepines</a> are frequently used medications in space, though less often than <a href="/wiki/Nonbenzodiazepine" title="Nonbenzodiazepine">nonbenzodiazepine</a> "z-drugs".<a href="#cite_note-104">[104]</a> The longer acting nature of some benzodiazepines used by astronauts, such as <a href="/wiki/Temazepam" title="Temazepam">temazepam</a>, has been cited as "non-ideal" for spaceflight use due to a high tendency of causing morning impairments.<a href="#cite_note-:3-103">[103]</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modafinil" title="Modafinil">Modafinil</a>, a wakefulness drug, is available on the space station to mitigate the deleterious effects of sleep disruption and "optimise performance while fatigued".<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Modafinil has shown positive results in restoring cognitive function to baseline in the face of total sleep deprivation, though no studies examining modafinil's effects in astronauts have been conducted.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultrasound_and_space">Ultrasound and space</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Ultrasound and space">edit</a>]</div> <a href="/wiki/Ultrasound" title="Ultrasound">Ultrasound</a> is the main diagnostic imaging tool on ISS and for the foreseeable future missions. X-rays and <a href="/wiki/CT_scan" title="CT scan">CT scans</a> involve radiation which is unacceptable in the space environment. Though <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a> uses magnetics to create images, it is too large at present to consider as a viable option. Ultrasound, which uses sound waves to create images and comes in laptop size packages, provides imaging of a wide variety of tissues and organs. It is currently being used to look at the eyeball and the optic nerve to help determine the cause(s) of changes that NASA has noted mostly in long duration astronauts. NASA is also pushing the limits of ultrasound use regarding musculoskeletal problems as these are some of the most common and most likely problems to occur. Significant challenges to using ultrasounds on space missions is training the astronaut to use the equipment (ultrasound technicians spend years in training and developing the skills necessary to be "good" at their job) as well as interpreting the images that are captured. Much of ultrasound interpretation is done real-time but it is impractical to train astronauts to actually read/interpret ultrasounds. Thus, the data is currently being sent back to <a href="/wiki/Mission_control" class="mw-redirect" title="Mission control">mission control</a> and forwarded to medical personnel to read and interpret. Future exploration class missions will need to be autonomous due to transmission times taking too long for urgent/emergent medical conditions. The ability to be autonomous, or to use other equipment such as MRIs, is currently being researched. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Space_Shuttle_era">Space Shuttle era</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Space Shuttle era">edit</a>]</div> With the additional lifting capability presented by the Space Shuttle program, NASA designers were able to create a more comprehensive medical readiness kit. The SOMS consists of two separate packages: the Medications and Bandage Kit (MBK) and the Emergency Medical Kit (EMK). While the MBK contained capsulate medications (tablets, capsules, and suppositories), bandage materials, and topical medication, the EMK had medications to be administered by injection, items for performing minor surgeries, diagnostic/therapeutic items, and a microbiological test kit.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> <a href="/wiki/John_Glenn" title="John Glenn">John Glenn</a>, the first American astronaut to orbit the Earth, returned with much fanfare to space once again on <a href="/wiki/STS-95" title="STS-95">STS-95</a> at 77 years of age to confront the physiological challenges preventing long-term space travel for astronauts—loss of bone density, loss of muscle mass, balance disorders, sleep disturbances, cardiovascular changes, and immune system depression—all of which are problems confronting aging people as well as astronauts.<a href="#cite_note-107">[107]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Future_investigations">Future investigations</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Future investigations">edit</a>]</div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Feasibility_of_Long_Duration_Space_Flights">Feasibility of Long Duration Space Flights</h4>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Feasibility of Long Duration Space Flights">edit</a>]</div> In the interest of creating the possibility of longer duration space flight, NASA has invested in the research and application of preventative space medicine, not only for medically preventable pathologies but trauma as well. Although trauma constitutes more of a life-threatening situation, medically preventable pathologies pose more of a threat to astronauts. "The involved crewmember is endangered because of mission stress and the lack of complete treatment capabilities on board the spacecraft, which could result in the manifestation of more severe symptoms than those usually associated with the same disease in the terrestrial environment. Also, the situation is potentially hazardous for the other crewmembers because the small, closed, ecological system of the spacecraft is conducive to disease transmission. Even if the disease is not transmitted, the safety of the other crewmembers may be jeopardized by the loss of the capabilities of the crewmember who is ill. Such an occurrence will be more serious and potentially hazardous as the durations of crewed missions increase and as operational procedures become more complex. Not only do the health and safety of the crewmembers become critical, but the probability of mission success is lessened if the illness occurs during flight. Aborting a mission to return an ill crewmember before mission goals are completed is costly and potentially dangerous."<a href="#cite_note-108">[108]</a> Treatment of trauma may involve surgery in zero-gravity,<a href="#cite_note-109">[109]</a> which is a challenging proposition given the need for blood sample containment. Diagnosis and monitoring of crew members is a particularly vital need. NASA tested the rHEALTH ONE<a href="#cite_note-110">[110]</a> to advance this capability for on-orbit, travel to Moon and Mars. This capability is mapped to Risk of Adverse Health Outcomes and Decrements in Performance Due to Medical Conditions that occur in Mission, as well as Long Term Health Outcomes Due to Mission Exposures. Without an approach to perform onboard medical monitoring, loss of crew members may jeopardize long duration missions. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Impact_on_science_and_medicine">Impact on science and medicine</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Impact on science and medicine">edit</a>]</div> Astronauts are not the only ones who benefit from space medicine research. Several medical products have been developed that are <a href="/wiki/Space_spinoffs" class="mw-redirect" title="Space spinoffs">space spinoffs</a>, which are practical applications for the field of medicine arising out of the space program. Because of joint research efforts between NASA, the National Institutes on Aging (a part of the National Institutes of Health), and other aging-related organizations, space exploration has benefited a particular segment of society, seniors. Evidence of aging related medical research conducted in space was most publicly noticeable during STS-95. These spin-offs are sometimes termed as "exomedicine". <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pre-Mercury_through_Apollo">Pre-Mercury through Apollo</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Pre-Mercury through Apollo">edit</a>]</div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation therapy</a> for the treatment of cancer: In conjunction with the <a href="/wiki/Cleveland_Clinic" title="Cleveland Clinic">Cleveland Clinic</a>, the cyclotron at <a href="/wiki/Glenn_Research_Center" title="Glenn Research Center">Glenn Research Center</a> in Cleveland, Ohio was used in the first clinical trials for the treatment and evaluation of <a href="/wiki/Neutron_therapy" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutron therapy">neutron therapy</a> for cancer patients.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a></li> <li>Foldable <a href="/wiki/Walker_(mobility)" title="Walker (mobility)">walkers</a>: Made from a lightweight metal material developed by NASA for aircraft and spacecraft, foldable walkers are portable and easy to manage.</li> <li>Personal alert systems: These are emergency alert devices that can be worn by individuals who may require emergency medical or safety assistance. When a button is pushed, the device sends a signal to a remote location for help. To send the signal, the device relies on telemetry technology developed at NASA.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Computed_axial_tomography" class="mw-redirect" title="Computed axial tomography">CAT</a> and <a href="/wiki/Magnetic_resonance_imaging" title="Magnetic resonance imaging">MRI</a> scans: These devices are used by hospitals to see inside the <a href="/wiki/Human_body" title="Human body">human body</a>. Their development would not have been possible without the technology provided by NASA after it found a way to take better pictures of the Earth's moon.<a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a></li> <li>Neuromuscular Electric Stimulation (NMES): A form of treatment originally developed to combat muscle atrophy in space that has been found to have applications outside of space. A prominent example of NMES being used outside of space medicine is muscle stimulator devices for paralyzed individuals. These devices can be used from up to half an hour per day to prevent muscle atrophy in paralyzed individuals.<a href="#cite_note-:1b-113">[113]</a> It provides electrical stimulation to muscles which is equal to jogging three miles per week. A well-known example is that Christopher Reeve used these in his therapy. Outside of paralyzed individuals, it also has applications in sports medicine, where it is used to manage or prevent potential damages that those high-intensity lifestyles have on athletes.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a></li> <li>Orthopedic evaluation tools: equipment to evaluate posture, gait and balance disturbances was developed at NASA, along with a radiation-free way to measure bone flexibility using vibration.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabetes" title="Diabetes">Diabetic</a> foot mapping: This technique was developed at NASA's center in Cleveland, Ohio to help monitor the effects of diabetes in feet.</li> <li>Foam cushioning: special foam used for cushioning astronauts during liftoff is used in pillows and mattresses at many nursing homes and hospitals to help prevent ulcers, relieve pressure, and provide a better night's sleep.</li> <li>Kidney dialysis machines: the <a href="/wiki/Marquardt_Corporation" title="Marquardt Corporation">Marquardt Corporation</a>, an ancestor company with NASA, were developing a system that would purify and recycle water during space missions in the late 1960s.<a href="#cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-115">[115]</a> From this project, the Marquardt Corporation observed that these processes could be used in removing toxic waste from used dialysis fluid.<a href="#cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-115">[115]</a> This allowed the development of a kidney dialysis machine.<a href="#cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-115">[115]</a> These machines rely on technology developed by NASA in order to process and remove toxic waste from used dialysis fluid.<a href="#cite_note-ntrs.nasa.gov-115">[115]</a></li></ul> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008_(cropped).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008_%28cropped%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="238" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008_%28cropped%29.jpg/330px-Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008_%28cropped%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/88/Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008_%28cropped%29.jpg/440px-Stephen_hawking_and_lucy_hawking_nasa_2008_%28cropped%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1458" data-file-height="1578" /></a><figcaption>Dr. Stephen Hawking used the "talking wheelchair" or the Versatile Portable Speech Prosthesis. To operate the VSP, Dr. Hawking used a thumb switch and a blink-switch that was attached to his glasses to control his computer.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></figcaption></figure> <ul><li>Talking <a href="/wiki/Wheelchair" title="Wheelchair">wheelchairs</a>: paralyzed individuals who have difficulty speaking may use a talking feature on their wheelchairs which was developed by NASA to create synthesized speech for aircraft. "Talking Wheelchairs" or The Versatile Portable Speech Prosthesis (VSP) is a technology that aids in the communication for non-verbal persons.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> The project started in May 1978 and finished in November 1981.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> Originally, this technology was created for people who were diagnosed with <a href="/wiki/Cerebral_palsy" title="Cerebral palsy">cerebral palsy</a> who were using traditional electric wheelchairs.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> This technology is portable and versatile, as well as a highly successful speech prosthesis.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> However, the nickname "talking wheelchair" has created some separation from the wheelchair itself.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> The VSP is easily accessible to the person using it by operation of single or multiple switches or by keyboard, and uses a synthetic voice used for verbal speech.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> The synthetic voice provides communication opportunities that regular speaking persons have such as: communicating with people in a crowd, communicating in the dark, communicating with people who have vision problems, communicating with younger children, communicating when the listener's back is turned, etc.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> The synthetic voice also provides a sense of personal and individual communication as the keyboard can be programmed with “fun” words as well as “throw-away lines”.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> The first version of the versatile portable speech prosthesis was completed in May 1979.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> There were additions made to the VSP in November 1979 and provided more controls for speech.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> By November 1979, VSP was capable of taking English text and successful in putting out English speech.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> The user was also able to store and retrieve vocabulary, as well as edit and create new vocabulary.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> The controls and plugs on the VSP were versatile allowing plug-and-go ability.<a href="#cite_note-R_e_P_O_R-117">[117]</a> With the limitations of ASR systems, Portable Speech Prosthesis have moved to the use of Silent Speech Recognition (SSR).<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-118">[118]</a> The goal of using SSR with VSP is to recognize information that is speech related with some modals such as surface electromyography (sEMG).<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-118">[118]</a> Speech recognition models used algorithms for extracting speech-related features through the sEMG signals.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-118">[118]</a> The patterns of sEMG signals used grammar models to recognize sequences of words.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-118">[118]</a> Phoneme-based models were also used when recognizing vocabulary of previously untrained words.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-118">[118]</a> Multi-point sensors were used with these algorithms in which they could be arranged in a flexible way to record the measurements of sEMG signals from the small articular muscles found in the human face and neck.<a href="#cite_note-ReferenceA-118">[118]</a></li> <li>Collapsible, lightweight wheelchairs: wheelchairs designed for portability that can be folded and put into trunks of cars. They rely on synthetic materials that NASA developed for its air and space craft</li> <li>Surgically implantable heart <a href="/wiki/Pacemaker" class="mw-redirect" title="Pacemaker">pacemaker</a>: these devices depend on technologies developed by NASA for use with satellites. They communicate information about the activity of the pacemaker, such as how much time remains before the batteries need to be replaced.<a href="#cite_note-pacemaker-119">[119]</a></li> <li>Implantable heart <a href="/wiki/Defibrillator" class="mw-redirect" title="Defibrillator">defibrillator</a>: this tool continuously monitors heart activity and can deliver an electric shock to restore heartbeat regularity.</li> <li>EMS communications: technology used to communicate telemetry between Earth and space was developed by NASA to monitor the health of astronauts in space from the ground. Ambulances use this same technology to send information—like <a href="/wiki/EKG" class="mw-redirect" title="EKG">EKG</a> readings—from patients in transport to hospitals. This allows faster and better treatment.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a> therapy: The weightlessness of space can allow some individuals with limited mobility on Earth—even those normally confined to wheelchairs—the freedom to move about with ease. Physicist <a href="/wiki/Stephen_Hawking" title="Stephen Hawking">Stephen Hawking</a> took advantage of weightlessness in NASA's <a href="/wiki/Vomit_Comet" class="mw-redirect" title="Vomit Comet">Vomit Comet</a> aircraft in 2007.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a> This idea also led to the development of the <a href="/w/index.php?title=Anti-Gravity_Treadmill&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Anti-Gravity Treadmill (page does not exist)">Anti-Gravity Treadmill</a> from NASA technology, which employs "differential air pressure to mimic...gravity".<a href="#cite_note-antigrav-121">[121]</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Ultrasound_microgravity">Ultrasound microgravity</h3>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Ultrasound microgravity">edit</a>]</div> The <a href="/wiki/Advanced_Diagnostic_Ultrasound_in_Microgravity" title="Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity">Advanced Diagnostic Ultrasound in Microgravity</a> Study is funded by the <a href="/wiki/National_Space_Biomedical_Research_Institute" title="National Space Biomedical Research Institute">National Space Biomedical Research Institute</a> and involves the use of ultrasound among Astronauts including former ISS Commanders <a href="/wiki/Leroy_Chiao" title="Leroy Chiao">Leroy Chiao</a> and <a href="/wiki/Gennady_Padalka" title="Gennady Padalka">Gennady Padalka</a> who are guided by remote experts to diagnose and potentially treat hundreds of medical conditions in space. This study has a widespread impact and has been extended to cover professional and Olympic sports injuries as well as medical students. It is anticipated that remote guided ultrasound will have application on Earth in emergency and rural care situations. Findings from this study were submitted for publication to the journal <a href="/wiki/Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a> aboard the International Space Station; the first article submitted in space.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a><a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a><a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: See also">edit</a>]</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 22em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_gravity" title="Artificial gravity">Artificial gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fatigue_and_sleep_loss_during_spaceflight" class="mw-redirect" title="Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight">Fatigue and sleep loss during spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc_damage_and_spaceflight" title="Intervertebral disc damage and spaceflight">Intervertebral disc damage and spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">List of microorganisms tested in outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mars_analog_habitat" title="Mars analog habitat">Mars analog habitat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_treatment_during_spaceflight" title="Medical treatment during spaceflight">Medical treatment during spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microgravity_University" title="Microgravity University">Microgravity University</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced-gravity_aircraft" title="Reduced-gravity aircraft">Reduced-gravity aircraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_stone_formation_in_space" title="Renal stone formation in space">Renal stone formation in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_osteopenia" title="Spaceflight osteopenia">Spaceflight osteopenia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_radiation_carcinogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis">Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Space food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Nursing_Society" title="Space Nursing Society">Space Nursing Society</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_pharmacology" title="Space pharmacology">Space pharmacology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Team_composition_and_cohesion_in_spaceflight_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions">Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment_due_to_intracranial_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure">Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2>[<a href="/w/index.php?title=Space_medicine&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: References">edit</a>]</div> <dl><dt>Notes</dt></dl> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output 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href="http://spacemedicineassociation.org/sma/">Space Medicine Association</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://iss.sfo.jaxa.jp/med/index_e.html">Description of space medicine</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20070317024607/http://iss.sfo.jaxa.jp/med/index_e.html">Archived</a> 2007-03-17 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://history.nasa.gov/series95.html">NASA History Series Publications</a> (many of which are online)</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.today/20130203203510/http://www.temec.com/portal/node/99">Sleep in Space, Digital Sleep Recorder used by NASA in STS-90 and STS-95 missions</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/IVGEN.html">A Solution for Medical Needs and Cramped Quarters in Space – NASA</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20160412152906/http://www.nasa.gov/mission_pages/station/research/news/IVGEN.html">Archived</a> 2016-04-12 at the <a href="/wiki/Wayback_Machine" title="Wayback Machine">Wayback Machine</a></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul 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.navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-title{background-color:#ddf}.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-group,.mw-parser-output .navbox-subgroup .navbox-abovebelow{background-color:#e6e6ff}.mw-parser-output .navbox-even{background-color:#f7f7f7}.mw-parser-output .navbox-odd{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox .hlist td ul,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .navbox td.hlist ul{padding:0.125em 0}.mw-parser-output .navbox .navbar{display:block;font-size:100%}.mw-parser-output .navbox-title .navbar{float:left;text-align:left;margin-right:0.5em}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .navbox-image img{max-width:none!important}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .navbox{display:none!important}}</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Space_medicine" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align:center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239400231">.mw-parser-output .navbar{display:inline;font-size:88%;font-weight:normal}.mw-parser-output .navbar-collapse{float:left;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .navbar-boxtext{word-spacing:0}.mw-parser-output .navbar ul{display:inline-block;white-space:nowrap;line-height:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::before{margin-right:-0.125em;content:"[ "}.mw-parser-output .navbar-brackets::after{margin-left:-0.125em;content:" ]"}.mw-parser-output .navbar li{word-spacing:-0.125em}.mw-parser-output .navbar a>span,.mw-parser-output .navbar a>abbr{text-decoration:inherit}.mw-parser-output .navbar-mini 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title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Space_medicine" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Space medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Main areas</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Artificial_gravity" title="Artificial gravity">Artificial gravity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Astronautical hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_in_space" title="Neuroscience in space">Neuroscience in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Space exposure">Space exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Space food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Illness and injuries</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asthenization" class="mw-redirect" title="Asthenization">Asthenization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ebullism" title="Ebullism">Ebullism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Illness_and_injuries_during_spaceflight" title="Illness and injuries during spaceflight">Illness and injuries during spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Medical_treatment_during_spaceflight" title="Medical treatment during spaceflight">Medical treatment during spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_osteopenia" title="Spaceflight osteopenia">Spaceflight osteopenia</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Organizations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Aerospace_Medical_Association" title="Aerospace Medical Association">Aerospace Medical Association</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/National_Space_Biomedical_Research_Institute" title="National Space Biomedical Research Institute">National Space Biomedical Research Institute</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rubicon_Foundation" title="Rubicon Foundation">Rubicon Foundation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Nursing_Society" title="Space Nursing Society">Space Nursing Society</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align:center;;width:1%">Other topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adverse_health_effects_from_lunar_dust_exposure" class="mw-redirect" title="Adverse health effects from lunar dust exposure">Adverse health effects from lunar dust exposure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cardiac_rhythm_problems_during_space_flight" class="mw-redirect" title="Cardiac rhythm problems during space flight">Cardiac rhythm problems during space flight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Central_nervous_system_effects_from_radiation_exposure_during_spaceflight" title="Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight">Central nervous system effects from radiation exposure during spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Effects_of_sleep_deprivation_in_space" title="Effects of sleep deprivation in space">Effects of sleep deprivation in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidemiology_data_for_low-linear_energy_transfer_radiation" title="Epidemiology data for low-linear energy transfer radiation">Epidemiology data for low-linear energy transfer radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intervertebral_disc_damage_and_spaceflight" title="Intervertebral disc damage and spaceflight">Intervertebral disc damage and spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">List of microorganisms tested in outer space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Radiobiology_evidence_for_protons_and_HZE_nuclei" title="Radiobiology evidence for protons and HZE nuclei">Radiobiology evidence for protons and HZE nuclei</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reduced_muscle_mass,_strength_and_performance_in_space" class="mw-redirect" title="Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space">Reduced muscle mass, strength and performance in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Renal_stone_formation_in_space" title="Renal stone formation in space">Renal stone formation in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight_radiation_carcinogenesis" class="mw-redirect" title="Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis">Spaceflight radiation carcinogenesis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Team_composition_and_cohesion_in_spaceflight_missions" class="mw-redirect" title="Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions">Team composition and cohesion in spaceflight missions</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visual_impairment_due_to_intracranial_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure">Visual impairment due to intracranial pressure</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Spaceflight" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Spaceflight" title="Template:Spaceflight"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Spaceflight" title="Template talk:Spaceflight"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Spaceflight" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Spaceflight"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Spaceflight" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Spaceflight" title="Spaceflight">Spaceflight</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_mechanics" title="Orbital mechanics">Astrodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/History_of_spaceflight" title="History of spaceflight">History</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Timeline_of_spaceflight" title="Timeline of spaceflight">Timeline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Race" title="Space Race">Space Race</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight_records" title="List of spaceflight records">Records</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents and incidents</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy" title="Space policy">Space policy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Space_programme_of_Australia" title="Category:Space programme of Australia">Australia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chinese_space_program" title="Chinese space program">China</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Space_Agency_Science_Programme" title="European Space Agency Science Programme">European Space Agency</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/European_Union_Space_Programme" title="European Union Space Programme">European Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Indian_Space_Research_Organisation" class="mw-redirect" title="Indian Space Research Organisation">India</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Japanese_space_program" title="Japanese space program">Japan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Roscosmos" title="Roscosmos">Russia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_program" title="Soviet space program">Soviet Union</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_policy_of_the_United_States" title="Space policy of the United States">United States</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Space law</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outer_Space_Treaty" title="Outer Space Treaty">Outer Space Treaty</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rescue_Agreement" title="Rescue Agreement">Rescue Agreement</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Liability_Convention" title="Space Liability Convention">Space Liability Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Registration_Convention" title="Registration Convention">Registration Convention</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Moon_Treaty" title="Moon Treaty">Moon Treaty</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">Space warfare</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_command" title="Space command">Space command</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Space force</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Militarisation_of_space" title="Militarisation of space">Militarisation of space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Private_spaceflight" title="Private spaceflight">Private spaceflight</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Billionaire_space_race" title="Billionaire space race">Billionaire space race</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_space_science" title="Outline of space science">Applications</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronomy" title="Astronomy">Astronomy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth_observation_satellite" title="Earth observation satellite">Earth observation</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">Archaeology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_imagery" title="Satellite imagery">Imagery and mapping</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reconnaissance_satellite" title="Reconnaissance satellite">Reconnaissance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weather_satellite" title="Weather satellite">Weather and environment monitoring</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Communications_satellite" title="Communications satellite">Communications satellite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_Internet_access" title="Satellite Internet access">Internet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_radio" title="Satellite radio">Radio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_phone" title="Satellite phone">Telephone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_television" title="Satellite television">Television</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Satellite_navigation" title="Satellite navigation">Satellite navigation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_use_of_space" title="Commercial use of space">Commercial use of space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_launch_market_competition" title="Space launch market competition">Space launch market competition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Space architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Space exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_research" title="Space research">Space research</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Space technology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Space weather</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astronaut" title="Astronaut">Astronaut</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Commercial_astronaut" title="Commercial astronaut">commercial</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Life-support_system" title="Life-support system">Life-support system</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals in space</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bioastronautics" title="Bioastronautics">Bioastronautics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_suit" title="Space suit">Space suit</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Extravehicular_activity" title="Extravehicular activity">Extravehicular activity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Overview_effect" title="Overview effect">Overview effect</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Weightlessness" title="Weightlessness">Weightlessness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Space toilet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Space tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Space colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_diving" title="Space diving">Space diving</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Programs</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vostok_programme" title="Vostok programme">Vostok</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Mercury" title="Project Mercury">Mercury</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voskhod_programme" title="Voskhod programme">Voskhod</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Project_Gemini" title="Project Gemini">Gemini</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soyuz_programme" title="Soyuz programme">Soyuz</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo_program" title="Apollo program">Apollo</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Skylab" title="Skylab">Skylab</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Apollo%E2%80%93Soyuz" title="Apollo–Soyuz">Apollo–Soyuz</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_Shuttle_program" title="Space Shuttle program">Space Shuttle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mir" title="Mir">Mir</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Shuttle%E2%80%93Mir_program" title="Shuttle–Mir program">Shuttle–Mir</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/International_Space_Station" title="International Space Station">International Space Station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/China_Manned_Space_Program" title="China Manned Space Program">Shenzhou</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tiangong_program" title="Tiangong program">Tiangong</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/New_Shepard" title="New Shepard">New Shepard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Artemis_program" title="Artemis program">Artemis</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%;text-align: center;">Health issues</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">Effect of spaceflight on the human body</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_adaptation_syndrome" title="Space adaptation syndrome">Space adaptation syndrome</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Health_threat_from_cosmic_rays" class="mw-redirect" title="Health threat from cosmic rays">Health threat from cosmic rays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Space psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_and_survival" title="Space and survival">Space and survival</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Space medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space nursing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_sexology" title="Space sexology">Space sexology</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft" title="Spacecraft">Spacecraft</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Launch_vehicle" title="Launch vehicle">Launch vehicle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocket" title="Rocket">Rocket</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_capsule" title="Space capsule">Space capsule</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_module" title="Orbital module">Orbital module</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reentry_capsule" title="Reentry capsule">Reentry capsule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Service_module" title="Service module">Service module</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceplane" title="Spaceplane">Spaceplane</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Robotic_spacecraft" class="mw-redirect" title="Robotic spacecraft">Robotic spacecraft</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">Satellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_probe" class="mw-redirect" title="Space probe">Space probe</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lander_(spacecraft)" title="Lander (spacecraft)">Lander</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rover_(space_exploration)" title="Rover (space exploration)">Rover</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Self-replicating_spacecraft" title="Self-replicating spacecraft">Self-replicating spacecraft</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Space telescope</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_propulsion" title="Spacecraft propulsion">Spacecraft propulsion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Rocket_engine" title="Rocket engine">Rocket engine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spacecraft_electric_propulsion" title="Spacecraft electric propulsion">Electric propulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_sail" title="Solar sail">Solar sail</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravity_assist" title="Gravity assist">Gravity assist</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%">Destinations</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Sub-orbital_spaceflight" title="Sub-orbital spaceflight">Sub-orbital</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_spaceflight" title="Orbital spaceflight">Orbital</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Geocentric_orbit" title="Geocentric orbit">Geocentric</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geosynchronous_orbit" title="Geosynchronous orbit">Geosynchronous</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interplanetary_spaceflight" title="Interplanetary spaceflight">Interplanetary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Interstellar_travel" title="Interstellar travel">Interstellar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intergalactic_travel" title="Intergalactic travel">Intergalactic</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Space_launch" title="Space launch">Space launch</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Direct_ascent" title="Direct ascent">Direct ascent</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Escape_velocity" title="Escape velocity">Escape velocity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Expendable_launch_system" title="Expendable launch system">Expendable</a> and <a href="/wiki/Reusable_launch_vehicle" title="Reusable launch vehicle">reusable launch systems</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Launch_pad" title="Launch pad">Launch pad</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Non-rocket_spacelaunch" title="Non-rocket spacelaunch">Non-rocket spacelaunch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spaceport" title="Spaceport">Spaceport</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Ground_segment" title="Ground segment">Ground segment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Flight_controller" title="Flight controller">Flight controller</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ground_station" title="Ground station">Ground station</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbital_pass" title="Orbital pass">Pass</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mission_control_center" title="Mission control center">Mission control center</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2" style="text-align: center;"><div> <ul><li> <img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /> <a href="/wiki/Category:Spaceflight" title="Category:Spaceflight">Category</a></li> <li> <a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Spaceflight" title="Portal:Spaceflight">Portal</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="..._in_space" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;;background:"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:In_space" title="Template:In space"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:In_space" title="Template talk:In space"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:In_space" title="Special:EditPage/Template:In space"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="..._in_space" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/List_of_topics_in_space" title="List of topics in space">... in space</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Biology</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_presence_in_space" title="Human presence in space">Human</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Effect_of_spaceflight_on_the_human_body" title="Effect of spaceflight on the human body">The human body</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astronautical_hygiene" title="Astronautical hygiene">Hygiene</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Locomotion_in_space" title="Locomotion in space">Locomotion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Medicine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Neuroscience_in_space" title="Neuroscience in space">Neuroscience</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_psychology" title="Space psychology">Psychology</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Psychological_and_sociological_effects_of_spaceflight" title="Psychological and sociological effects of spaceflight">Psychological and sociological effects</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sex_in_space" title="Sex in space">Sex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sleep_in_space" title="Sleep in space">Sleep</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Non-human</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Animals_in_space" title="Animals in space">Animals</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/F%C3%A9licette" title="Félicette">Cats</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nadezhda_(cockroach)" title="Nadezhda (cockroach)">Cockroaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soviet_space_dogs" title="Soviet space dogs">Dogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Orbiting_Frog_Otolith" title="Orbiting Frog Otolith">Frogs</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fruit_flies_in_space" title="Fruit flies in space">Fruit flies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fe,_Fi,_Fo,_Fum,_and_Phooey" title="Fe, Fi, Fo, Fum, and Phooey">Mice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monkeys_and_apes_in_space" title="Monkeys and apes in space">Primates</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Zond_5" title="Zond 5">Tortoises</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Astrobiology" title="Astrobiology">Extraterrestrial life</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_microorganisms_tested_in_outer_space" title="List of microorganisms tested in outer space">Microorganisms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Plants_in_space" title="Plants in space">Plants</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Astrobotany" title="Astrobotany">Astrobotany</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><a href="/wiki/File:Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="STS-39 in Earth orbit"><img alt="STS-39 in Earth orbit" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/140px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="92" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/210px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg/280px-Aurora-SpaceShuttle-EO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1782" data-file-height="1173" /></a></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_environment" title="Space environment">Environment</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_climate" title="Space climate">Climate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Corrosion_in_space" title="Corrosion in space">Corrosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_debris" title="Space debris">Debris</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cosmic_dust" title="Cosmic dust">Dust</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Magnetosphere" title="Magnetosphere">Magnetosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weather" title="Space weather">Weather</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_weathering" title="Space weathering">Weathering</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:">Society</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_advertising" title="Space advertising">Advertising</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Alcohol_and_spaceflight" title="Alcohol and spaceflight">Alcohol</a></li> <li>Archaeology <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing_(archaeology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Remote sensing (archaeology)">of Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_archaeology" title="Space archaeology">of items in space</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_art#Art_in_space" title="Space art">Art</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_burial" title="Space burial">Burial</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_colonization" title="Space colonization">Colonization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_economy" title="Space-based economy">Economy</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Mining</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_trade" title="Space trade">Trade</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_ethics" title="Space ethics">Ethics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_exploration" title="Space exploration">Exploration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Food</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_law" title="Space law">Law</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_force" title="Space force">Military</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Music_in_space" title="Music in space">Music</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Religion_in_space" title="Religion in space">Religion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Christmas_on_the_International_Space_Station" title="Christmas on the International Space Station">Christmas</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_selfie" title="Space selfie">Selfies</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_tourism" title="Space tourism">Tourism</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Voting_in_space" title="Voting in space">Voting</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_warfare" title="Space warfare">War</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Women_in_space" title="Women in space">Women</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="text-align: center;;width:1%;background:"><a href="/wiki/Space_technology" title="Space technology">Technology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Human_spaceflight" title="Human spaceflight">Human spaceflight</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/List_of_spaceflight-related_accidents_and_incidents" title="List of spaceflight-related accidents and incidents">Accidents</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_architecture" title="Space architecture">Architecture</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_farming" title="Space farming">Farming</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_food" title="Space food">Food</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_Cola_Wars" title="Space Cola Wars">Carbonated drinks</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_toilet" title="Space toilet">Toilets</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Writing_in_space" title="Writing in space">Writing</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other technologies</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space_logistics" title="Space logistics">Logistics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_manufacturing" title="Space manufacturing">Manufacturing</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Asteroid_mining" title="Asteroid mining">Mining</a></li> <li>Power <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Batteries_in_space" title="Batteries in space">Batteries</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nuclear_power_in_space" title="Nuclear power in space">Nuclear</a></li> <li>Solar <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_solar_power" title="Space-based solar power">for Earth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_panels_on_spacecraft" title="Solar panels on spacecraft">for spacecraft</a></li></ul></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space-based_radar" title="Space-based radar">Radar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_telescope" title="Space telescope">Telescopes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Space_weapon" title="Space weapon">Weapons</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="text-align: center;"><div><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/32px-Earth-moon.jpg" decoding="async" width="32" height="26" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/48px-Earth-moon.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5c/Earth-moon.jpg/64px-Earth-moon.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="2400" /> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Outer_space" title="Portal:Outer space">Outer space portal</a></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1038841319"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q1430622#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div 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