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data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.pin">move to sidebar</button> <button class="vector-pinnable-header-toggle-button vector-pinnable-header-unpin-button" data-event-name="pinnable-header.vector-toc.unpin">hide</button> </div> <ul class="vector-toc-contents" id="mw-panel-toc-list"> <li id="toc-mw-content-text" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a href="#" class="vector-toc-link"> <div class="vector-toc-text">(Top)</div> </a> </li> <li id="toc-Lexical_and_prosodic_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lexical_and_prosodic_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1</span> <span>Lexical and prosodic stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lexical_and_prosodic_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduced_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduced_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>Reduced vowels</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Reduced_vowels-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Reduced vowels subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Reduced_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Schwa_and_r-coloured_schwa" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Schwa_and_r-coloured_schwa"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Schwa and r-coloured schwa</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Schwa_and_r-coloured_schwa-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_unrounded_area" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_unrounded_area"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Reduced vowels in the close unrounded area</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_unrounded_area-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_rounded_area" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_rounded_area"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Reduced vowels in the close rounded area</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_rounded_area-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Syllabic_consonants" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Syllabic_consonants"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Syllabic consonants</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Syllabic_consonants-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Unstressed_full_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Unstressed_full_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Unstressed full vowels</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Unstressed_full_vowels-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Unstressed full vowels subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Unstressed_full_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Compound_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Compound_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Compound words</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Compound_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Degrees_of_lexical_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Degrees_of_lexical_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Degrees of lexical stress</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Degrees_of_lexical_stress-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Degrees of lexical stress subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Degrees_of_lexical_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Descriptions_with_primary_and_secondary_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descriptions_with_primary_and_secondary_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Descriptions with primary and secondary stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descriptions_with_primary_and_secondary_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descriptions_with_primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descriptions_with_primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Descriptions with primary, secondary and tertiary stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descriptions_with_primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Descriptions_with_only_one_level_of_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Descriptions_with_only_one_level_of_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.3</span> <span>Descriptions with only one level of stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Descriptions_with_only_one_level_of_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Comparison" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Comparison"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.4</span> <span>Comparison</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Comparison-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Distinctions_between_reduced_and_unreduced_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Distinctions_between_reduced_and_unreduced_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>Distinctions between reduced and unreduced vowels</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Distinctions_between_reduced_and_unreduced_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternation_between_full_and_reduced_vowels" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternation_between_full_and_reduced_vowels"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>Alternation between full and reduced vowels</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Alternation_between_full_and_reduced_vowels-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Alternation between full and reduced vowels subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Alternation_between_full_and_reduced_vowels-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Alternation_depending_on_lexical_stress" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternation_depending_on_lexical_stress"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Alternation depending on lexical stress</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternation_depending_on_lexical_stress-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternation_depending_on_meaning" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternation_depending_on_meaning"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.2</span> <span>Alternation depending on meaning</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternation_depending_on_meaning-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Alternation_depending_on_type_of_enunciation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Alternation_depending_on_type_of_enunciation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.3</span> <span>Alternation depending on type of enunciation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Alternation_depending_on_type_of_enunciation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Weak_and_strong_forms_of_function_words" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Weak_and_strong_forms_of_function_words"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.4</span> <span>Weak and strong forms of function words</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Weak_and_strong_forms_of_function_words-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Notes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Notes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Notes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Notes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Citations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Citations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.1</span> <span>Citations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Citations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">9.2</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> 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href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Accentazione_e_neutralizzazione_vocalica_in_inglese" title="Accentazione e neutralizzazione vocalica in inglese – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Accentazione e neutralizzazione vocalica in inglese" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A0%D0%B5%D0%B4%D1%83%D0%BA%D1%86%D0%B8%D1%8F_%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B0%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B%D1%85_%D0%B2_%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3%D0%BB%D0%B8%D0%B9%D1%81%D0%BA%D0%BE%D0%BC_%D1%8F%D0%B7%D1%8B%D0%BA%D0%B5" title="Редукция гласных в английском языке – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Редукция гласных в английском языке" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a 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href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><div class="side-box metadata side-box-right noprint selfref"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">This article contains <b><a href="/wiki/Phonetic_transcription" title="Phonetic transcription">phonetic transcriptions</a> in the <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">International Phonetic Alphabet</a> (IPA)</b>. For an introductory guide on IPA symbols, see <a href="/wiki/Help:IPA" title="Help:IPA">Help:IPA</a>. For the distinction between <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ ]</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ /</span> and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa"> </span>⟩, see <a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet#Brackets_and_transcription_delimiters" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA § Brackets and transcription delimiters</a>.</div></div> </div> <p><a href="/wiki/Stress_(linguistics)" title="Stress (linguistics)">Stress</a> is a prominent feature of the <a href="/wiki/English_language" title="English language">English language</a>, both at the level of the word <i>(lexical stress)</i> and at the level of the phrase or sentence <i>(prosodic stress)</i>. Absence of stress on a syllable, or on a word in some cases, is frequently associated in English with <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">vowel reduction</a> – many such syllables are pronounced with a centralized vowel (<a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>) or with certain other vowels that are described as being "reduced" (or sometimes with a <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonant</a> as the syllable nucleus rather than a vowel). Various contradictory <a href="/wiki/Phonology" title="Phonology">phonological</a> analyses exist for these phenomena. </p><p>For example, in the following sentence, a speaker would typically pronounce <i>have</i> with a schwa, as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/həv/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əv/</span> (<a href="/wiki/Homophonous" class="mw-redirect" title="Homophonous">homophonous</a> with <i>of</i>): </p> <dl><dd>Alice and Bob <b>have</b> arrived.</dd></dl> <p>But in other contexts where the word carries stress, it would be pronounced in its "strong" (unreduced) form as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hæv/</span> (homophonous with <i>halve</i><sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>note 1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>). For example: </p> <dl><dd>Alice and Bob <b>have</b> three children.</dd> <dd>[In response to the question "Have Alice and Bob arrived?"] They <b>have</b>.</dd></dl> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Lexical_and_prosodic_stress">Lexical and prosodic stress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Lexical and prosodic stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Lexical stress (word stress) is regarded as <a href="/wiki/Phonemic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonemic">phonemic</a> in English; the position of the stress is generally unpredictable and can serve to distinguish words. For example, the words <i>insight</i> and <i>incite</i> are distinguished in pronunciation only by the syllable being stressed. In <i>insight</i>, the stress is placed on the first syllable; and in <i>incite,</i> on the second. Similarly, the noun and the verb <i>increase</i> are distinguished by the placement of the stress in the same way – this is an example of an <a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">initial-stress-derived noun</a>. </p><p>Moreover, even within a given letter sequence and a given part of speech, lexical stress may distinguish between different words or between different meanings of the same word (depending on differences in theory about what constitutes a distinct word): for example, initial-stress pronunciations of <i><a href="/wiki/Offense_(sports)" title="Offense (sports)">offense</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɔfɛns/</span> and <i><a href="/wiki/Defense_(sports)" title="Defense (sports)">defense</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈdifɛns/</span> in American English denote concepts specific to sports, whereas pronunciations with stress on the words' respective second syllables (<i><a href="/wiki/Crime" title="Crime">offense</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/əˈfɛns/</span> and <i><a href="/wiki/Defense_(legal)" title="Defense (legal)">defense</a></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/dəˈfɛns/</span>) denote concepts related to the legal (and, for <i><a href="/wiki/Defense_(military)" class="mw-redirect" title="Defense (military)">defense</a></i>, the military) field, and encountered in sports only as borrowed from the legal field in the context of adjudicating rule violations. British English stresses the second syllable in both sports and legal use. </p><p>Some words are shown in dictionaries as having two levels of stress: primary and secondary. For example, the <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">RP</a> pronunciation of <i>organization</i> may be given as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˌɔːɡənaɪˈzeɪʃən/</span>, with primary stress on the fourth syllable, secondary stress on the first syllable, and the remaining syllables unstressed. For different ways of analysing levels of stress in English, see <a href="#Degrees_of_lexical_stress">§ Degrees of lexical stress</a> below. </p><p>English also has relatively strong <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosodic</a> stress—particular words within a phrase or sentence receive additional stress to emphasize the information they convey. There is also said to be a natural "tonic stress" that falls on the last stressed syllable of a <a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">prosodic unit</a> – for more on this, see below under <a href="#Descriptions_with_only_one_level_of_stress">§ Descriptions with only one level of stress</a>. </p><p>English is classified as a <i>stress-timed language</i>, which means that there is a tendency to speak so that the stressed syllables come at roughly equal intervals. See <a href="/wiki/Isochrony#Stress_timing" title="Isochrony">Isochrony § Stress timing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Reduced_vowels">Reduced vowels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Reduced vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Certain vowel sounds in English are associated strongly with absence of stress: they occur practically exclusively in unstressed syllables, and conversely, most (though not all) unstressed syllables contain one of these sounds. These are known as <b>reduced vowels</b>, and tend to be characterized by such features as shortness, <a href="/wiki/Lax_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Lax vowel">laxness</a> and <a href="/wiki/Central_vowel" title="Central vowel">central</a> position. (An alternative term is <b>weak vowels</b>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008844_2-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008844-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) The exact set of reduced vowels depends on dialect and speaker; the principal ones are described in the sections below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Schwa_and_r-coloured_schwa">Schwa and r-coloured schwa</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Schwa and r-coloured schwa"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">Schwa</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ə]</span>, is the most common reduced vowel in English.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnight201271_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight201271-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It may be represented <a href="/wiki/Orthography" title="Orthography">in spelling</a> by any of the vowel letters, such as the <i>a</i> in <i><b>a</b>bout</i>, the <i>o</i> in <i>harm<b>o</b>ny</i>, the <i>u</i> in <i>medi<b>u</b>m</i>, the <i>e</i> in <i>synth<b>e</b>sis</i>, the <i>i</i> in <i>dec<b>i</b>mal</i> or the <i>y</i> in <i>anal<b>y</b>sis</i> (although the last three are pronounced instead as a <a href="/wiki/Near-close_vowel" title="Near-close vowel">near-close vowel</a> by some speakers – see the following section). </p><p>In many <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic accent">rhotic dialects</a>, an <a href="/wiki/R-colored_vowel" title="R-colored vowel">r-colored</a> schwa, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɚ]</span>, occurs in words such as <i>wat<b>er</b></i> and <i>stand<b>ar</b>d.</i> Non-rhotic dialects simply have schwa in these positions, except where the dialect has <a href="/wiki/Linking_R" class="mw-redirect" title="Linking R">linking R</a> (although when it is coupled with intrusive R, the underlying phoneme is still a bare <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>, removing any phonemic difference). The r-colored schwa can be analyzed phonemically as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ər/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_unrounded_area">Reduced vowels in the close unrounded area</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Reduced vowels in the close unrounded area"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gentium_schwi.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Gentium_schwi.svg/110px-Gentium_schwi.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Gentium_schwi.svg/165px-Gentium_schwi.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ea/Gentium_schwi.svg/220px-Gentium_schwi.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a><figcaption>A dictionary convention for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ~ə]</span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x1D7B.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/IPA_Unicode_0x1D7B.svg/110px-IPA_Unicode_0x1D7B.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/IPA_Unicode_0x1D7B.svg/165px-IPA_Unicode_0x1D7B.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e4/IPA_Unicode_0x1D7B.svg/220px-IPA_Unicode_0x1D7B.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a><figcaption>The OUP convention for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ~ə]</span></figcaption></figure> <p>In some dialects of English there is a distinction between two <a href="/wiki/Vowel_height" class="mw-redirect" title="Vowel height">vowel heights</a> of reduced vowels: in addition to schwa, there is a distinct <a href="/wiki/Near-close_central_unrounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Near-close central unrounded vowel">near-close central unrounded vowel</a> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ̈]</span> (or equivalently <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɨ̞]</span>). In the British phonetic tradition, the latter vowel is represented with the symbol ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɪ</span>⟩, and in the American tradition ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɨ</span>⟩.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged200695_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200695-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of a <a href="/wiki/Minimal_pair" title="Minimal pair">minimal pair</a> contrasting these two reduced vowels is <i>Ros<b>a</b><span class="nowrap" style="padding-left:0.1em;">'</span>s</i> vs. <i>ros<b>e</b>s</i>: the <i>a</i> in <i>Rosa's</i> is a schwa, while the <i>e</i> in <i>roses</i> (for speakers who make the distinction) is the near-close vowel. See <a href="/wiki/Weak_vowel_merger" class="mw-redirect" title="Weak vowel merger">weak vowel merger</a>. </p><p>Like schwa, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ̈]</span> does not correspond in spelling to any single vowel letter. It can be represented by <i>a</i> (for example, <i>mess<b>a</b>ge</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈmɛsɪ̈dʒ]</span>, <i>clim<b>a</b>te</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈklaɪmɪ̈t]</span>, <i>or<b>a</b>nge</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈɒɹɪ̈ndʒ]</span>), <i>e</i> (<i>pupp<b>e</b>t</i>), <i>i</i> (<i>lim<b>i</b>t</i>), <i>u</i> (<i>min<b>u</b>te</i>), or <i>y</i> (<i>pol<b>y</b>p</i>). </p><p>Among speakers who make this distinction, the distributions of schwa and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ̈]</span> are quite variable, and in many cases the two are in <a href="/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">free variation</a>: the <i>i</i> in <i>dec<b>i</b>mal</i>, for example, may be pronounced with either sound. A symbolization convention recently introduced by <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> for some of their English dictionaries<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xiii_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xiii-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> uses the non-<a href="/wiki/International_Phonetic_Alphabet" title="International Phonetic Alphabet">IPA</a> "compound" symbol <span class="nowrap">⟨ᵻ⟩</span> (<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)"><s>ɪ</s></span>) in words that may be pronounced with either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ̈]</span> or schwa. For example, the word <i>noted</i> is transcribed <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈnəʊtᵻd/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The final vowel of words like <i>happ<b>y</b></i> and <i>coff<b>ee</b></i> is an unstressed front close unrounded vowel most commonly represented with <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span>, although some dialects (including more traditional <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a>) may have <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɪ]</span>. This <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> used to be identified with the phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span>, as in <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r920966791">.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps{font-variant:small-caps}.mw-parser-output span.smallcaps-smaller{font-size:85%}</style><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FLEECE</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982291_8-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982291-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2012_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2012-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> See <a href="/wiki/Happy_tensing" class="mw-redirect" title="Happy tensing"><i>happy</i> tensing</a>. However, some contemporary accounts regard it as a symbol representing a close front vowel that is neither the vowel of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">KIT</span> nor that of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">FLEECE</span>; it occurs in contexts where the contrast between these vowels is <a href="/wiki/Neutralization_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Neutralization (linguistics)">neutralized</a>;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKreidler2004_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKreidler2004-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (January 2020)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully2009_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully2009-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (January 2020)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach2009_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2009-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (January 2020)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup> these contexts include unstressed prevocalic position within the word, such as <i>react</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/riˈækt/</span>. For some speakers, however, there is a contrast between this vowel and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span> in such pairs as <i>taxis</i> vs. <i>taxes</i> and <i>studied</i> vs. <i>studded</i>. See <a href="/wiki/English_phonology#Unstressed_syllables" title="English phonology">English phonology: § <i>Unstressed syllables</i> under § <i>Vowels</i></a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Reduced_vowels_in_the_close_rounded_area">Reduced vowels in the close rounded area</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Reduced vowels in the close rounded area"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gentium_schwu.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gentium_schwu.svg/110px-Gentium_schwu.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gentium_schwu.svg/165px-Gentium_schwu.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/c7/Gentium_schwu.svg/220px-Gentium_schwu.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a><figcaption>A dictionary convention for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊ~ə]</span></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:IPA_Unicode_0x1D7F.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/IPA_Unicode_0x1D7F.svg/110px-IPA_Unicode_0x1D7F.svg.png" decoding="async" width="110" height="110" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/IPA_Unicode_0x1D7F.svg/165px-IPA_Unicode_0x1D7F.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/43/IPA_Unicode_0x1D7F.svg/220px-IPA_Unicode_0x1D7F.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="16" data-file-height="16" /></a><figcaption>The OUP convention for <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ʊ~ə]</span></figcaption></figure> <p>According to <a href="#CITEREFBolinger1986">Bolinger (1986</a>:347–360), there is a reduced <a href="/wiki/Rounded_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Rounded vowel">rounded</a> phoneme <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɵ/</span> as in <i>willow</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈwɪlɵ/</span>, <i>omission</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɵˈmɪʃən/</span>, thus forming a three-way contrast with <i>Willa</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈwɪlə/</span> and <i>Willie</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈwɪlɨ/</span> or with <i>a mission</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈmɪʃən/</span> and <i>emission</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɨˈmɪʃən/</span>. This phoneme alternates with the <i>goat</i> vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oʊ<span class="wrap"> </span>~<span class="wrap"> </span>əʊ/</span> </p><p>Analogously to the <span class="nowrap">⟨ᵻ⟩</span> symbol mentioned above, Oxford University Press have devised the non-IPA symbol <span class="nowrap">⟨ᵿ⟩</span> to represent a vowel that may be either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> in <a href="/wiki/Free_variation" title="Free variation">free variation</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xvii_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xvii-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i>awful</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɔːfᵿl/</span> may be pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɔːfəl/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɔːfʊl/</span>. Phonologically, this vowel is an <a href="/wiki/Archiphoneme" class="mw-redirect" title="Archiphoneme">archiphoneme</a> representing the neutralization of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span>. </p><p>A rounded vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span>, corresponding to the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span> <i>happY</i> vowel, is widely used in British works<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (January 2020)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRoachSetterEsling2011_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRoachSetterEsling2011-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (January 2020)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup> for words such as <i>infl<b>u</b>ence</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɪnfluəns/</span>, <i>int<b>o</b></i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɪntu/</span>. Phonologically, this vowel is an <a href="/wiki/Archiphoneme" class="mw-redirect" title="Archiphoneme">archiphoneme</a> representing the neutralization of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Syllabic_consonants">Syllabic consonants</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Syllabic consonants"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The other sounds that can serve as the peaks of reduced syllables are the <a href="/wiki/Syllabic_consonant" title="Syllabic consonant">syllabic consonants</a>, which can result in syllables with no vowel sound. Alternative pronunciations of syllabic consonants are however also possible.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnight2012103_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2012103-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For example, <i>cycle</i> may be pronounced as either <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsaɪkɫ̩]</span> with only a <a href="/wiki/Dark_l" class="mw-redirect" title="Dark l">dark l</a> sound or as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsaɪkəɫ]</span> with a schwa followed by the dark l sound. </p><p>In other words, a syllabic consonant can be phonologically analyzed as consisting of either just the consonant or of an underlying schwa followed by the consonant. The consonants that can be syllabic in English are principally <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span>, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>, for example in <i>cyc<b>l</b>e</i> (spelled by L followed by a silent e), <i>pris<b>m</b></i>, and <i>pris<b>on</b></i>. In <a href="/wiki/Rhoticity_in_English" title="Rhoticity in English">rhotic accents</a>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɜr/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ər/</span> are also pronounced as syllabic <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_alveolar_approximant" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiced alveolar approximant">ɹ</a>]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[<a href="/wiki/Voiced_retroflex_approximant" title="Voiced retroflex approximant">ɻ</a>]</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Unstressed_full_vowels">Unstressed full vowels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Unstressed full vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>All full (unreduced; also called strong) vowels may occur in unstressed position (except under theoretical approaches that routinely assign secondary or tertiary stress to syllables containing such vowels – see <a href="#Degrees_of_lexical_stress">§ Degrees of lexical stress</a> below). Some examples of words with unstressed syllables that are often pronounced with full vowels in <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a> are given below (pronunciation may be different in other varieties of English). </p> <ul><li>Unreduced <a href="/wiki/Short_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Short vowel">short vowels</a>: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> in the final syllable of <i>document</i> when used as a verb (compare the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> heard when the word is used as a noun);<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/æ/</span> in the first syllable of <i>ambition</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɒ/</span> in the second syllable of <i>neon</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʌ/</span> in words with the negative prefix <i>un-</i>, such as <i>unknown</i> (compare <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ə/</span> in <i>until</i>).</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Long_vowel" class="mw-redirect" title="Long vowel">Long vowels</a>: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɑː/</span> in the final syllable of <i>grandma</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔː/</span> in the final syllable of <i>outlaw</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/uː/</span> in <i>tofu</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɜː/</span> in the noun <i>convert</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span> in <i>manatee</i>. Note that this last may stand in contrast to the <i>happY</i> vowel found at the end of <i>humanity</i>. This contrast is further described under <a href="#Distinctions_between_reduced_and_unreduced_vowels">§ Distinctions between reduced and unreduced vowels</a> below.</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diphthong" title="Diphthong">Diphthongs</a>: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/eɪ/</span> in <i>Monday</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oʊ/</span> in <i>piano</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aʊ/</span> in <i>discount</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/aɪ/</span> in <i>idea</i>; <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɔɪ/</span> in <i>royale</i>.</li></ul> <p>Many other full unstressed vowels also derive historically from stressed vowels, due to shifts of stress over time, such as stress shifting away from the final syllable of French loan words, like <i>ballet</i> and <i>bureau</i>, in British English though not American English, or the loss or change of stress in compound phrases (as in <i>óverseas vóyage</i> from <i>overséas</i> plus <i>vóyage</i>). There is a tendency, though, for such vowels to become reduced over time, especially in very common words. </p><p>With vowels represented as ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ɪ</span>⟩ and ⟨<span title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)" class="IPA" lang="und-Latn-fonipa">ʊ</span>⟩, it may be hard to ascertain whether they represent a full vowel or a reduced vowel. A word that illustrates this challenge is <i>chauvinism</i>, where the first <i>i</i> is either the reduced vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɨ/</span> or the unreduced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span>, while the second is definitively the unreduced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Compound_words">Compound words</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Compound words"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Full vowels are commonly, but not always, preserved in unstressed syllables in <a href="/wiki/Compound_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound word">compound words</a>, such as in <i>bedsh<b>ee</b>t</i>, <i>moonl<b>i</b>t</i>, <i>tentp<b>e</b>g</i>, <i>snowm<b>a</b>n</i>, and <i>kettledr<b>u</b>m</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-phonetic-blog.blogspot.com_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phonetic-blog.blogspot.com-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, in some compounds that are used fairly frequently and therefore more familiarly, the vowel of the unstressed part may be reduced in contrast to compounds that are not: thus, <i>postman</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈpoʊstmən/</span> but <i>snowman</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈsnoʊmæn/</span>; <i>England</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈɪŋɡlənd/</span> but <i>Thailand</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈtaɪlænd/</span>; <i>cupboard</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkʌbə(r)d/</span> but <i>blackboard</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈblækbɔː(r)d/</span>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Degrees_of_lexical_stress">Degrees of lexical stress</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Degrees of lexical stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descriptions_with_primary_and_secondary_stress">Descriptions with primary and secondary stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Descriptions with primary and secondary stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In many phonological approaches, and in many dictionaries, English is represented as having two levels of stress: primary and secondary. In every lexical word, and in some grammatical words, one syllable is identified as having primary stress, though in monosyllables the stress is not generally marked. In addition, longer words may have one or more syllables identified as having secondary stress. Syllables that have neither primary nor secondary stress are called unstressed. </p><p>In International Phonetic Alphabet transcriptions, primary stress is denoted with <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˈ</span>⟩</span> and secondary stress with <span class="nowrap">⟨<span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">ˌ</span>⟩</span>. IPA stress marks are placed before the stressed syllable. When citing words in English spelling, primary stress is sometimes denoted with an acute accent <span class="nowrap">⟨´⟩</span> and secondary stress with a grave accent <span class="nowrap">⟨`⟩</span>, placed over the vowel of the stressed syllable. </p><p>Secondary stress is frequently indicated in the following cases: </p> <ul><li>In words where the primary stress falls on the third syllable or later, it is normal for secondary stress to be marked on one of the first two syllables<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> of the word. In words where the primary stress falls on the third syllable, secondary stress usually falls on the first rather than the second syllable. For example, <i>ìnterjéction</i> and <i>èvolútion</i> have their primary stress on the third syllable, and secondary stress on the first syllable. However, in certain words with primary stress on the third syllable, the second syllable may have secondary stress corresponding to the primary stress of a shorter related word or base. For example, <i>electricity</i> is pronounced by some speakers with secondary stress on the second syllable (<i>elèctrícity</i>), corresponding to the primary stress in <i>eléctric</i>. In words where the primary stress falls on the fourth syllable or later, the position of the secondary stress on either the first or second syllable often corresponds to the position of the primary stress in a shorter related word or base. For example, <i>òrganizátion</i> and <i>assòciátion</i>, which both have primary stress on the fourth syllable, have secondary stress on the first and second syllable respectively: the same positions as the primary stress on the first syllable of <i>organize</i> and the second syllable of <i>associate</i>.</li> <li>In words where the primary stress falls on the third or fourth syllable from the end, a following syllable may be marked with secondary stress.</li> <li>In many <a href="/wiki/Compound_word" class="mw-redirect" title="Compound word">compound words</a>, the stressed syllable of the prominent part of the compound is marked with primary stress, while the stressed syllable of the other part may be marked with secondary stress. For example, <i>còunterintélligence</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˌkaʊntər.ɪnˈtɛlɪdʒəns]</span>, and <i>cóunterfòil</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈkaʊntərˌfɔɪl]</span>. Dictionaries are not always consistent in this, particularly when the secondary stress would come after the primary – for instance the <i>foil</i> of <i>counterfoil</i> is transcribed with secondary stress in <a href="/wiki/Merriam-Webster" title="Merriam-Webster">Merriam-Webster</a> dictionaries but not in the <a href="/wiki/OED" class="mw-redirect" title="OED">OED</a>, although both of them assign secondary stress to the <i>counter</i> of <i>counterintelligence.</i></li> <li>In some dictionaries (particularly American ones), all syllables that contain a full (unreduced) vowel are ascribed at least secondary stress, even when they come after the primary stress (as in the <i>counter<b>foil</b></i> example above). <a href="#CITEREFBolinger1986">Bolinger (1986</a>:358–360) notes that such dictionaries make use of the secondary-stress mark to distinguish full vowels from reduced vowels in unstressed syllables, as they may not have distinct symbols for reduced vowels. <a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">John Wells</a> remarks, "Some analysts (particularly Americans) argue [...] that the presence of a strong [= full] vowel is sufficient evidence that the syllable in question is stressed. In the British tradition we regard them as unstressed."<sup id="cite_ref-phonetic-blog.blogspot.com_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-phonetic-blog.blogspot.com-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul> <p>Note that this last-mentioned group of syllables are those ascribed tertiary stress in the approach described in the next section. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descriptions_with_primary,_secondary_and_tertiary_stress"><span id="Descriptions_with_primary.2C_secondary_and_tertiary_stress"></span>Descriptions with primary, secondary and tertiary stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Descriptions with primary, secondary and tertiary stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some theories, English has been described as having three levels of stress: primary, secondary, and tertiary (in addition to the unstressed level, which in this approach may also be called quaternary stress). For example,<i>²coun.ter.³in.¹tel.li.gence</i> has a primary, secondary, and tertiary stress, and <i>¹coun.ter.³foil</i> has a primary and tertiary stress. Exact treatments vary, but it is common for tertiary stress to be assigned to those syllables that, while not assigned primary or secondary stress, nonetheless contain <i>full</i> vowels (unreduced vowels, i.e., those not among the reduced vowels listed in the previous section).<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirstDi_Cristo199857_20-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirstDi_Cristo199857-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatalin200889_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatalin200889-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Dictionaries do not generally mark tertiary stress, but as mentioned above, some of them treat all syllables with unreduced vowels as having at least secondary stress. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Descriptions_with_only_one_level_of_stress">Descriptions with only one level of stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Descriptions with only one level of stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Phoneticians such as <a href="/wiki/Peter_Ladefoged" title="Peter Ladefoged">Peter Ladefoged</a> have noted that it is possible to describe English with only one degree of stress, as long as unstressed syllables are phonemically distinguished for <a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">vowel reduction</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged200683_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200683-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this view, the posited multiple levels, whether primary–secondary or primary–secondary–tertiary, are mere <a href="/wiki/Phonetic" class="mw-redirect" title="Phonetic">phonetic</a> detail and not true <a href="/wiki/Phoneme" title="Phoneme">phonemic</a> stress. They report that often the alleged secondary (or tertiary) stress in English is not characterized by the increase in respiratory activity normally associated with primary stress in English or with all stress in other languages. In their analysis, an English syllable may be either stressed or unstressed, and if unstressed, the vowel may be either full or reduced. This is all that is required for a phonemic treatment. </p><p>The difference between what is normally called primary and secondary stress, in this analysis, is explained by the observation that the last stressed syllable in a normal <a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">prosodic unit</a> receives additional <a href="/wiki/Intonation_(linguistics)" title="Intonation (linguistics)">intonational</a> or "tonic" stress. Since a word spoken in isolation, in <a href="/wiki/Citation_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Citation form">citation form</a> (as for example when a lexicographer determines which syllables are stressed) acquires this additional tonic stress, it may appear to be inherent in the word itself rather than derived from the utterance in which the word occurs. (The tonic stress may also occur elsewhere than on the final stressed syllable, if the speaker uses contrasting or other <a href="/wiki/Prosody_(linguistics)" title="Prosody (linguistics)">prosody</a>.) </p><p>This combination of lexical stress, phrase- or clause-final prosody, and the lexical reduction of some unstressed vowels, conspires to create the impression of multiple levels of stress. In Ladefoged's approach, our examples are transcribed phonemically as <i>cóunterintélligence</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkaʊntər.ɪnˈtɛlɪdʒəns/</span>, with two stressed syllables, and <i>cóunterfoil</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈkaʊntərfɔɪl/</span>, with one. In citation form, or at the end of a <a href="/wiki/Prosodic_unit" title="Prosodic unit">prosodic unit</a> (marked <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[‖]</span>), extra stress appears from the utterance that is not inherent in the words themselves: <i>cóunterin<u>tél</u>ligence</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈkaʊntər.ɪnˈˈtɛlɪdʒəns‖]</span> and <i><u>cóun</u>terfoil</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈˈkaʊntərfɔɪl‖]</span>. </p><p>To determine where the actual lexical stress is in a word, one may try pronouncing the word in a phrase, with other words before and after it and without any pauses between them, to eliminate the effects of tonic stress: in <i>the còunterintèlligence commúnity,</i> for example, one can hear secondary (that is, lexical) stress on two syllables of <i>counterintelligence,</i> as the primary (tonic) stress has shifted to <i>community</i>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Comparison">Comparison</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Comparison"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The following table summarizes the relationships between the aforementioned analyses of levels of stress in English: Ladefoged's binary account (which recognizes only one level of lexical stress), a quaternary account (which recognizes primary, secondary and tertiary stress), and typical dictionary approaches (which recognize primary and secondary stress, although their interpretations of secondary stress vary). </p> <table class="wikitable"> <tbody><tr> <th>Description</th> <th>Example</th> <th>Binary<br />approach</th> <th>Quaternary approach</th> <th>Dictionary approaches </th></tr> <tr> <td>The most prominent syllable when a word is spoken alone.</td> <td><i>organi<b>za</b>tion</i></td> <td rowspan="2">Stressed</td> <td>Primary stress</td> <td>Primary stress </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other phonetically prominent syllables in a word.</td> <td><i><b>or</b>ganization</i></td> <td>Secondary stress</td> <td>Secondary stress </td></tr> <tr> <td>Other syllables with unreduced vowels.</td> <td><i>counter<b>foil</b></i></td> <td rowspan="2">Unstressed</td> <td>Tertiary stress</td> <td>Secondary stress (esp. U.S.) or unstressed </td></tr> <tr> <td>Syllables with reduced vowels.</td> <td><i>count<b>er</b>foil</i></td> <td>Unstressed (quaternary stress)</td> <td>Unstressed </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>As described in the section above, the binary account explains the distinction observed between "primary" and "secondary" stress as resulting from the prosodic, tonic stress that naturally falls on the final stressed syllable in a unit. It also recognizes the distinction between unstressed syllables with full vowels, and unstressed syllables with reduced vowels, but considers this to be a difference involving vowel reduction and not one of stress. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Distinctions_between_reduced_and_unreduced_vowels">Distinctions between reduced and unreduced vowels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Distinctions between reduced and unreduced vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>As mentioned in the previous section, some linguists postulate a phonemic distinction between syllables that contain reduced vowels (as listed <a href="#Reduced_vowels">above</a> – syllabic consonants are also included in this category), and those that contain full (unreduced) vowels, despite being unstressed. This approach is taken by linguists such as Ladefoged<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Bolinger,<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986_24-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> who thus consider that there are two "tiers" of vowels in English, full and reduced. The reduced/unreduced distinction is regarded as one of vowel quality not involving any difference in stress. (This contrasts with analyses that ascribe secondary or tertiary stress to syllables with unreduced vowels.) </p><p>This distinction can be used to explain the (potential) contrast between the final vowel of words such as <i>humanity</i>, <i>chicory</i>, <i>shivery</i>, which may end with reduced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɨ/</span>, and that of <i>manatee</i>, <i>chickaree</i>, <i>shivaree</i>, which may end with unreduced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/iː/</span>. Another example, for some speakers, is provided by the words <i>farrow</i> and <i>Pharaoh</i>; the former may end with a reduced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɵ/</span> while the latter may end with the unreduced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/oʊ/</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986348_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986348-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Alternatively, these reduced vowels can be analyzed as instances of the same phonemes as full vowels. In that case, it may be the phonemic secondary stress that distinguishes these words. </p> <table class="wikitable"> <caption>Potential distinction between reduced vowels and unstressed full vowels </caption> <tbody><tr> <td> </td> <th>Reduced vowel set </th> <th>Secondary stress </th> <th>No distinction </th></tr> <tr> <th>shivery – shivaree </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈʃɪvərɨ<span class="wrap"> </span>–<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʃɪvəriː/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈʃɪvəriː<span class="wrap"> </span>–<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈʃɪvəˌriː/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈʃɪvəriː/</span> (both) </td></tr> <tr> <th>farrow – Pharaoh </th> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈfærɵ<span class="wrap"> </span>–<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈfæroʊ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈfæroʊ<span class="wrap"> </span>–<span class="wrap"> </span>ˈfæˌroʊ/</span> </td> <td><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈfæroʊ/</span> (both) </td></tr></tbody></table> <p>Some linguists have observed phonetic consequences of vowel reduction that go beyond the pronunciation of the vowel itself. Bolinger (1986) observes that a preceding <a href="/wiki/Voiceless_stop" class="mw-redirect" title="Voiceless stop">voiceless stop</a> is likely to retain its <a href="/wiki/Aspiration_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Aspiration (phonetics)">aspiration</a> before an unstressed full vowel, but not before a reduced vowel; and that <a href="/wiki/Flapping" title="Flapping">flapping</a> of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/d/</span> in American English is possible before a reduced vowel but not before a full vowel. Hence the <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> in <i>manatee</i> would be an aspirated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tʰ]</span>, while that in <i>humanity</i> would be unaspirated <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[t]</span> or a flap <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɾ]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986358_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986358-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="#CITEREFWells1990">Wells (1990)</a> explains such phenomena by claiming that, in the absence of <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> boundaries or <a href="/wiki/Phonotactics" title="Phonotactics">phonotactical</a> constraints, a consonant between a full and a reduced vowel generally belongs to the syllable with the full vowel, whereas a consonant between two reduced vowels belongs to the preceding syllable.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells199076–86_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells199076–86-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> According to this analysis, <i>manatee</i> is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ˈmæn.ə.tiː/</span> and <i>humanity</i> is <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/hjʊ.ˈmæn.ᵻt.i/</span>; it is then asserted that voiceless stops are only aspirated at the beginning of syllables, and <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/t/</span> can only be flapped at the end of a syllable (as in <i>might I</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/maɪt.aɪ/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mʌɪɾaɪ]</span> versus <i>my tie</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/maɪ.taɪ/</span> → <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[maɪtʰaɪ]</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Alternation_between_full_and_reduced_vowels">Alternation between full and reduced vowels</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Alternation between full and reduced vowels"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Reduced vowels frequently <a href="/wiki/Alternation_(linguistics)" title="Alternation (linguistics)">alternate</a> with full vowels: a given word or <a href="/wiki/Morpheme" title="Morpheme">morpheme</a> may be pronounced with a reduced vowel in some instances and a full vowel in other instances, usually depending on the degree of stress (lexical or prosodic) given to it. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternation_depending_on_lexical_stress">Alternation depending on lexical stress</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Alternation depending on lexical stress"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>When the stress pattern of words changes, the vowels in certain syllables may switch between full and reduced. For example, in <i>photograph</i> and <i>photographic</i>, where the first syllable has (at least secondary) stress and the second syllable is unstressed, the first <i>o</i> is pronounced with a full vowel (the diphthong of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">GOAT</span>), and the second <i>o</i> with a reduced vowel (<a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">schwa</a>). However, in <i>photography</i> and <i>photographer</i>, where the stress moves to the second syllable, the first syllable now contains schwa while the second syllable contains a full vowel (that of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">LOT</span>). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternation_depending_on_meaning">Alternation depending on meaning</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Alternation depending on meaning"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of English verb-adjective pairs are distinguished solely by vowel reduction. For example, in some dialects, <i>separate</i> as a verb (as in 'what separates nation from nation') has a full vowel in the final syllable, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsɛpəreɪt]</span>, whereas the corresponding adjective (as in 'they sleep in separate rooms') has a reduced vowel: <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsɛpərət]</span><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ˈsɛprət]</span>.<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A distinction may be made in a similar way between a verb and a noun, as in the case of <i>document</i> (pronounced with a schwa in the noun's final syllable and sometimes pronounced with a full vowel <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɛ/</span> in the verb's final syllable). Finally, differences in syllabic stress and vowel reduction (or lack of the latter) may distinguish between meanings even within a given part of speech, with the best-known such pairs in American English being <i>offense</i> and <i>defense</i> (in each case with the first syllable accented in the context of sports and the second syllable accented in legal contexts). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Alternation_depending_on_type_of_enunciation">Alternation depending on type of enunciation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Alternation depending on type of enunciation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some words, the reduction of a vowel depends on how quickly or carefully the speaker enunciates the word. For example, the <i>o</i> in <i>obscene</i> is commonly reduced to schwa, but in more careful enunciation it may also be pronounced as a full vowel (that of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r920966791"><span class="smallcaps smallcaps-smaller">LOT</span>). Compare this with the <i>o</i> in <i>gallon</i>, which is never a full vowel, no matter how carefully one enunciates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986358_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986358-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Weak_and_strong_forms_of_function_words">Weak and strong forms of function words</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Weak and strong forms of function words"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Some monosyllabic English <a href="/wiki/Function_word" title="Function word">function words</a> have a <b>weak form</b> with a reduced vowel, used when the word has no prosodic stress, and a phonemically distinct <b>strong form</b> with a full vowel, used when the word is stressed (and as the <a href="/wiki/Citation_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Citation form">citation form</a> or <a href="/wiki/Isolation_form" class="mw-redirect" title="Isolation form">isolation form</a> when a word is mentioned standing alone). In the case of many such words the strong form is also used when the word comes at the end of a sentence or phrase. </p><p>An example of such a word is the <a href="/wiki/Modal_verb" title="Modal verb">modal verb</a> <i>can</i>. When appearing unstressed within a sentence and governing a verb (as in <i>I can do it</i>), the weak form <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kən/</span> is used. However the strong form <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/kæn/</span> is used: </p> <ul><li>when the word is stressed: <i>I don't <b>have</b> to do it, but I <b>can</b> do it</i></li> <li>when the word is phrase-final, i.e. without a governed verb: <i>we won't be doing it, but they <b>can</b> if they want</i></li> <li>when the word is referred to in isolation: <i>The verb "<b>can</b>" is one of the English modals.</i></li></ul> <p>In the case of most words with such alternative forms, the weak form is much more common (since it is relatively rare for function words to receive prosodic stress). This is particularly true of the <a href="/wiki/English_articles" title="English articles">English articles</a> <i>the</i>, <i>a</i>, <i>an</i>, whose strong forms are used within normal sentences only on the rare occasions when definiteness or indefiniteness is being emphasized: <i>Did you find the cat? I found <b>a</b> </i><span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[eɪ]</span><i> cat.</i> (i.e. maybe not the one you were referring to). The weak form of <i>the</i> is typically <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ði]</span> before a vowel-initial word (<i>the apple</i>) but <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ðə]</span> before a consonant-initial word (<i>the pear</i>), although this distinction is being lost in the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006_23-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources"><span title="This citation requires a reference to the specific page or range of pages in which the material appears (January 2020)">pages needed</span></a></i>]</sup> A similar distinction is sometimes made with <i>to</i>: <i>to Oxford</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tu]</span> vs. <i>to Cambridge</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[tə]</span>. </p><p>The exact set of words that have weak forms depends on dialect and speaker; the following is a list of the chief words of this type in <a href="/wiki/Received_Pronunciation" title="Received Pronunciation">Received Pronunciation</a>:<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach200989–96_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200989–96-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <dl><dd>Always reduced: <dl><dd><i>a</i>, <i>an</i>, <i>and</i>, <i>be</i>, <i>been</i>, <i>but</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>her</i>, <i>him</i>, <i>his</i>, <i>just</i>, <i>me</i>, <i>or</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>than</i>, <i>that</i> (as conjunction), <i>the</i>, <i>them</i>, <i>us</i>, <i>we</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>you</i>, <i>your</i>.</dd></dl></dd> <dd>Reduced, but stressed at the end of a sentence: <dl><dd><i>as</i>, <i>at</i>, <i>for</i>, <i>from</i>, <i>of</i>, <i>to</i>, <i>some</i>, <i>there</i>.</dd></dl></dd> <dd>Reduced, but stressed at the end of a sentence and when <a href="/wiki/List_of_English_contractions" class="mw-redirect" title="List of English contractions">contracted</a> with the negative <i>not</i>: <dl><dd><i>am</i>, <i>are</i>, <i>can</i>, <i>could</i>, <i>do</i>, <i>does</i>, <i>had</i>, <i>has</i>, <i>have</i>, <i>must</i>, <i>shall</i>, <i>should</i>, <i>was</i>, <i>were</i>, <i>will</i>, <i>would</i>.</dd></dl></dd></dl> <p>In most of the above words the weak form contains schwa, or a syllabic consonant in the case of those ending <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/l/</span>, <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/m/</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/n/</span>. However, in <i>be</i>, <i>he</i>, <i>me</i>, <i>she</i>, <i>we</i>, <i>been</i>, <i>him</i> the vowel may be the reduced form of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ɪ/</span>, or else <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[i]</span>; and in <i>do</i>, <i>who</i>, <i>you</i> it may be the reduced form of <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">/ʊ/</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[u]</span>. (For <i>the</i> and <i>to</i>, see above.) These various sounds are described in the <a href="#Reduced_vowels">§ Reduced vowels</a> section above. </p><p>The weak form of <i>that</i> is used only for the <a href="/wiki/Conjunction_(grammar)" title="Conjunction (grammar)">conjunction</a> or <a href="/wiki/Relative_pronoun" title="Relative pronoun">relative pronoun</a> (<i>I said that you can; The man that you saw</i>), and not for the <a href="/wiki/Demonstrative" title="Demonstrative">demonstrative</a> pronoun or adjective (<i>Put that down; I like that colour</i>). </p><p>Another common word with a reduced form is <i>our</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ɑɚ]~[ɑː]</span>, but this is derived through <a href="/wiki/Smoothing_(phonetics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Smoothing (phonetics)">smoothing</a> rather than vowel reduction. </p><p>Other words that have weak forms in many varieties of English include <i>your</i> (weakly pronounced as <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jə]</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[jɚ]</span> in <a href="/wiki/Rhotic_accent" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhotic accent">rhotic accents</a>), and <i>my</i> (pronounced <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mɨ]</span> or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[mi]</span>). These are sometimes given the <a href="/wiki/Eye_dialect" title="Eye dialect">eye dialect</a> spellings <i>yer</i> and <i>me</i>. </p><p>In highly formal <a href="/wiki/Register_(sociolinguistics)" title="Register (sociolinguistics)">registers</a> with exaggeratedly careful enunciation, weak forms may be avoided. An example is <a href="/wiki/Singing" title="Singing">singing</a>, where strong forms may be used almost exclusively, apart (normally) from <i>a</i>, although weak forms may be used more frequently as tempo increases and note-values shorten.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (June 2012)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p><p>The vowel reduction in weak forms may be accompanied by other <a href="/wiki/Sound_changes" class="mw-redirect" title="Sound changes">sound changes</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Phonological_history_of_English_consonants#''H''-dropping" title="Phonological history of English consonants">h-dropping</a>, consonant <a href="/wiki/Elision" title="Elision">elision</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Assimilation_(linguistics)" class="mw-redirect" title="Assimilation (linguistics)">assimilation</a>. For example, <i>and</i> may reduce to <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ən]</span> or just the syllabic consonant <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[n̩]</span>, or <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[ŋ̍]</span> by assimilation with a following <a href="/wiki/Velar_consonant" title="Velar consonant">velar</a>, as in <i>lock and key</i>. Compare also <a href="/wiki/Definite_article_reduction" title="Definite article reduction">definite article reduction</a>. </p><p>Synchronically, '<i>em</i> <span class="IPA nowrap" lang="und-Latn-fonipa" title="Representation in the International Phonetic Alphabet (IPA)">[əm]</span> functions as a weak form of <i>them</i>, though historically it is derived from a different pronoun, the Old English <i>hem</i>.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The <a href="/wiki/Homonym" title="Homonym">homonymy</a> resulting from the use of some of the weak forms can lead to confusion in writing; the identity of the weak forms of <i>have</i> and <i>of</i> sometimes leads to misspellings such as "would of", "could of", etc. for <i>would have</i>, <i>could have</i>, etc. </p><p>English weak forms are <a href="/wiki/Clitic" title="Clitic">clitics</a>: they form a rhythmic pattern with an adjacent word, and cannot occur alone. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Notes">Notes</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Notes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">In English dialects that have not undergone the <a href="/wiki/Trap%E2%80%93bath_split" title="Trap–bath split"><i>trap</i>–<i>bath</i> split</a>.</span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/English_phonology" title="English phonology">English phonology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schwa" class="mw-redirect" title="Schwa">Schwa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tenseness" title="Tenseness">Tenseness</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction" title="Vowel reduction">Vowel reduction</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Vowel_reduction_in_Russian" title="Vowel reduction in Russian">Vowel reduction in Russian</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Initial-stress-derived_noun" title="Initial-stress-derived noun">Initial-stress-derived nouns</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Citations">Citations</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Citations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239543626"><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 25em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008844-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008844_2-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells2008">Wells (2008)</a>, p. 844.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight201271-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnight201271_3-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnight2012">Knight (2012)</a>, p. 71.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200695-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged200695_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefoged2006">Ladefoged (2006)</a>, p. 95.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xiii-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xiii_5-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001">Upton, Kretzschmar & Konopka (2001)</a>, p. xiii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFKey_to_Pronunciation" class="citation web cs1">Key to Pronunciation. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.oed.com/public/keytopronunciation">"Oxford English Dictionary"</a>. Oxford University Press.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.au=Key+to+Pronunciation&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fpublic%2Fkeytopronunciation&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-noted" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=noted">"noted"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=noted&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3Dnoted&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells1982291-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells1982291_8-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1982">Wells (1982)</a>, p. 291.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2012-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2012_9-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells2012">Wells (2012)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKreidler2004-10"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKreidler2004_10-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKreidler2004">Kreidler (2004)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEMcCully2009-11"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMcCully2009_11-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFMcCully2009">McCully (2009)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach2009-12"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach2009_12-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach2009">Roach (2009)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xvii-13"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001xvii_13-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001">Upton, Kretzschmar & Konopka (2001)</a>, p. xvii.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells2008-14"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells2008_14-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells2008">Wells (2008)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEJonesRoachSetterEsling2011-15"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEJonesRoachSetterEsling2011_15-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFJonesRoachSetterEsling2011">Jones et al. (2011)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKnight2012103-16"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKnight2012103_16-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKnight2012">Knight (2012)</a>, p. 103.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-17"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-17">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20200919215412/https://www.lexico.com/definition/document">"DOCUMENT | Meaning & Definition for UK English"</a>. Lexico.com. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.lexico.com/definition/document">the original</a> on September 19, 2020<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2022-08-24</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=DOCUMENT+%26%23124%3B+Meaning+%26+Definition+for+UK+English&rft.pub=Lexico.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.lexico.com%2Fdefinition%2Fdocument&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-phonetic-blog.blogspot.com-18"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-phonetic-blog.blogspot.com_18-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-phonetic-blog.blogspot.com_18-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text">John Wells, "strong and weak", in <i>John Wells's phonetic blog</i>, 25 March 2011 <a rel="nofollow" class="external autonumber" href="http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2011/03/strong-and-weak.html">[1]</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-19"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-19">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2011" class="citation web cs1">Wells, John (16 November 2011). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://phonetic-blog.blogspot.com/2011/11/gigo.html">"GIGO"</a>. <i>John Wells's phonetic blog</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">4 March</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=John+Wells%27s+phonetic+blog&rft.atitle=GIGO&rft.date=2011-11-16&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fphonetic-blog.blogspot.com%2F2011%2F11%2Fgigo.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEHirstDi_Cristo199857-20"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHirstDi_Cristo199857_20-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFHirstDi_Cristo1998">Hirst & Di Cristo (1998)</a>, p. 57.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEKatalin200889-21"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEKatalin200889_21-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFKatalin2008">Katalin (2008)</a>, p. 89.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged200683-22"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged200683_22-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefoged2006">Ladefoged (2006)</a>, p. 83.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006-23"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006_23-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELadefoged2006_23-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLadefoged2006">Ladefoged (2006)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986_24-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBolinger1986">Bolinger (1986)</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986348-25"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986348_25-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBolinger1986">Bolinger (1986)</a>, p. 348.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986358-26"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986358_26-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBolinger1986358_26-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBolinger1986">Bolinger (1986)</a>, p. 358.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWells199076–86-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWells199076–86_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWells1990">Wells (1990)</a>, pp. 76–86.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">OED</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-29">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><i><a href="/wiki/Macquarie_Dictionary" title="Macquarie Dictionary">Macquarie Dictionary, Fourth Edition</a></i> (2005). Melbourne, The Macquarie Library Pty Ltd. <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/1-876429-14-3" title="Special:BookSources/1-876429-14-3">1-876429-14-3</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTERoach200989–96-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTERoach200989–96_30-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFRoach2009">Roach (2009)</a>, p. 89–96.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-31"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-31">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFYavas2015" class="citation book cs1">Yavas, Mehmet (2015). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=cGdcCwAAQBAJ&pg=PA98"><i>Applied English Phonology</i></a> (3rd ed.). John Wiley & Sons. p. 98. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/9781118944530" title="Special:BookSources/9781118944530"><bdi>9781118944530</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Applied+English+Phonology&rft.pages=98&rft.edition=3rd&rft.pub=John+Wiley+%26+Sons&rft.date=2015&rft.isbn=9781118944530&rft.aulast=Yavas&rft.aufirst=Mehmet&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DcGdcCwAAQBAJ%26pg%3DPA98&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-32"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-32">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFReference-OED-'em" class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/search/dictionary/?q=%27em">"<span class="cs1-kern-left"></span>'em"</a></span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Oxford_English_Dictionary" title="Oxford English Dictionary">Oxford English Dictionary</a></i> (Online ed.). <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=%27em&rft.btitle=Oxford+English+Dictionary&rft.edition=Online&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.oed.com%2Fsearch%2Fdictionary%2F%3Fq%3D%2527em&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span> <span style="font-size:0.95em; font-size:95%; color: var( --color-subtle, #555 )">(Subscription or <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.oed.com/public/login/loggingin#withyourlibrary">participating institution membership</a> required.)</span></span> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sources">Sources</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Stress_and_vowel_reduction_in_English&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFBolinger1986" class="citation cs2"><a href="/wiki/Dwight_Bolinger" title="Dwight Bolinger">Bolinger, Dwight</a> (1986), <i>Intonation and Its Parts: Melody in Spoken English</i>, Stanford University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-8047-1241-7" title="Special:BookSources/0-8047-1241-7"><bdi>0-8047-1241-7</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intonation+and+Its+Parts%3A+Melody+in+Spoken+English&rft.pub=Stanford+University+Press&rft.date=1986&rft.isbn=0-8047-1241-7&rft.aulast=Bolinger&rft.aufirst=Dwight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFCelce-MurciaBrintonGoodwin1996" class="citation cs2">Celce-Murcia, Marianne; Brinton, Donna M.; Goodwin, Janet M. (1996), <i>Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages</i>, Cambridge University Press, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-521-40504-1" title="Special:BookSources/0-521-40504-1"><bdi>0-521-40504-1</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Teaching+Pronunciation%3A+A+Reference+for+Teachers+of+English+to+Speakers+of+Other+Languages&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=1996&rft.isbn=0-521-40504-1&rft.aulast=Celce-Murcia&rft.aufirst=Marianne&rft.au=Brinton%2C+Donna+M.&rft.au=Goodwin%2C+Janet+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFHirstDi_Cristo1998" class="citation cs2">Hirst; Di Cristo (1998), <i>Intonation Systems: A Survey of Twenty Languages</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Intonation+Systems%3A+A+Survey+of+Twenty+Languages&rft.date=1998&rft.au=Hirst&rft.au=Di+Cristo&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFJonesRoachSetterEsling2011" class="citation cs2">Jones, D.; Roach, Peter; Setter, J.; Esling, J. (2011), <i>English Pronouncing Dictionary, 18th Ed.</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Pronouncing+Dictionary%2C+18th+Ed.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2011&rft.aulast=Jones&rft.aufirst=D.&rft.au=Roach%2C+Peter&rft.au=Setter%2C+J.&rft.au=Esling%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKatalin2008" class="citation cs2">Katalin (2008), <i>Beginner's English Dialectology</i></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Beginner%27s+English+Dialectology&rft.date=2008&rft.au=Katalin&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKnight2012" class="citation cs2">Knight, Rachael-Anne Knight (2012), <i>Phonetics- A course book</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Phonetics-+A+course+book&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2012&rft.aulast=Knight&rft.aufirst=Rachael-Anne+Knight&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKreidler2004" class="citation cs2">Kreidler, Charles (2004), <i>The Pronunciation of English</i>, Blackwell</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Pronunciation+of+English&rft.pub=Blackwell&rft.date=2004&rft.aulast=Kreidler&rft.aufirst=Charles&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFLadefoged2006" class="citation cs2">Ladefoged, Peter (2006), <i>A Course in Phonetics</i>, Thomson</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=A+Course+in+Phonetics&rft.pub=Thomson&rft.date=2006&rft.aulast=Ladefoged&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFGarcia_Lecumberri2000" class="citation cs2">Garcia Lecumberri, M. Luisa (2000), <i>English Transcription Course</i>, <a href="/wiki/Oxford_University_Press" title="Oxford University Press">Oxford University Press</a> US, <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-340-75978-X" title="Special:BookSources/0-340-75978-X"><bdi>0-340-75978-X</bdi></a></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Transcription+Course&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press+US&rft.date=2000&rft.isbn=0-340-75978-X&rft.aulast=Garcia+Lecumberri&rft.aufirst=M.+Luisa&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFMcCully2009" class="citation cs2">McCully, C. (2009), <i>The Sound Structure of English</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Sound+Structure+of+English&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=McCully&rft.aufirst=C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFRoach2009" class="citation cs2">Roach, Peter (2009), <i>English Phonetics and Phonology, 4th Ed.</i>, Cambridge University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=English+Phonetics+and+Phonology%2C+4th+Ed.&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Roach&rft.aufirst=Peter&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFUptonKretzschmarKonopka2001" class="citation cs2">Upton, C; Kretzschmar; Konopka (2001), <i>Oxford Dictionary of Pronunciation for Current English</i>, Oxford University Press</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Oxford+Dictionary+of+Pronunciation+for+Current+English&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=2001&rft.aulast=Upton&rft.aufirst=C&rft.au=Kretzschmar&rft.au=Konopka&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1041539562">.mw-parser-output .citation{word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}</style><cite id="CITEREFWells1982" class="citation book"><a href="/wiki/John_C._Wells" title="John C. Wells">Wells, John C.</a> (1982), <i>Accents of English</i>, Vol. 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Cambridge University Press, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759">10.1017/CBO9780511611759</a>, <a href="/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Number" class="mw-redirect" title="International Standard Book Number">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2" title="Special:BookSources/0-52128540-2">0-52128540-2</a><span class="Z3988" title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fde.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Accents+of+English&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft.date=1982&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.volume=2%3A+The+British+Isles&rft.isbn=0-52128540-2&rft_id=info:doi/10.1017%2FCBO9780511611759"><span style="display: none;"> </span></span></cite></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells1990" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (1990), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phon.ucl.ac.uk/home/wells/syllabif.htm">"Syllabification and allophony"</a>, in Ramsaran, Susan (ed.), <i>Studies in the pronunciation of English</i>, pp. 76–86</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Syllabification+and+allophony&rft.btitle=Studies+in+the+pronunciation+of+English&rft.pages=76-86&rft.date=1990&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phon.ucl.ac.uk%2Fhome%2Fwells%2Fsyllabif.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2008" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2008), <i>Longman Pronunciation Dictionary, 3rd Ed.</i>, Longman</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Longman+Pronunciation+Dictionary%2C+3rd+Ed.&rft.pub=Longman&rft.date=2008&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWells2012" class="citation cs2">Wells, John C. (2012-06-07), <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.phonetic-blog.blogspot.co.uk/2012/06/happy-again.html"><i>HappY Again</i></a><span class="reference-accessdate">, retrieved <span class="nowrap">2015-07-31</span></span></cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=HappY+Again&rft.date=2012-06-07&rft.aulast=Wells&rft.aufirst=John+C.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.phonetic-blog.blogspot.co.uk%2F2012%2F06%2Fhappy-again.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AStress+and+vowel+reduction+in+English" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output 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