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class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Limit to the right of privacy</div> <p>The <b>third-party doctrine</b> is a <a href="/wiki/United_States" title="United States">United States</a> <a href="/wiki/Legal_doctrine" title="Legal doctrine">legal doctrine</a> that holds that people who voluntarily give information to third parties—such as banks, phone companies, <a href="/wiki/Internet_service_provider" title="Internet service provider">internet service providers</a> (ISPs), and e-mail servers—have "no reasonable <a href="/wiki/Expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Expectation of privacy">expectation of privacy</a>" in that information. A lack of privacy protection allows the United States government to obtain information from third parties without a legal <a href="/wiki/Warrant_(law)" title="Warrant (law)">warrant</a> and without otherwise complying with the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment</a> prohibition against <a href="/wiki/Search_and_seizure" title="Search and seizure">search and seizure</a> without <a href="/wiki/Probable_cause" title="Probable cause">probable cause</a> and a judicial <a href="/wiki/Search_warrant" title="Search warrant">search warrant</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Chronology">Chronology</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-party_doctrine&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Chronology"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Followed by the states in 1791, the <a href="/wiki/Fourth_Amendment_to_the_United_States_Constitution" title="Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution">Fourth Amendment to the United States Constitution</a> was enacted in 1792, holding: </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1244412712">.mw-parser-output .templatequote{overflow:hidden;margin:1em 0;padding:0 32px}.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{line-height:1.5em;text-align:left;margin-top:0}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .templatequotecite{padding-left:1.6em}}</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Katz_v._United_States" title="Katz v. United States">Katz v. United States</a></i> (1967), the <a href="/wiki/Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Supreme Court of the United States">United States Supreme Court</a> established its <a href="/wiki/Reasonable_expectation_of_privacy" class="mw-redirect" title="Reasonable expectation of privacy">reasonable expectation of privacy</a> test, which drastically expanded the scope of what was protected by the 4th amendment to include "what [a person] seeks to preserve as private, even in an area accessible to the public." </p><p>In response to <i>Katz v. United States</i> (1967) and <i><a href="/wiki/Berger_v._New_York" title="Berger v. New York">Berger v. New York</a></i> (1967), the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Congress" title="United States Congress">United States Congress</a> enacted the <a href="/wiki/Omnibus_Crime_Control_and_Safe_Streets_Act_of_1968" title="Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968">Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968</a>, of which Title III is known as the "Wiretap Act." Title III was Congress' attempt to extend Fourth Amendment-like protections to telephonic and other wired forms of communication. </p><p>In 1976 (<i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Miller_(1976)" title="United States v. Miller (1976)">United States v. Miller</a></i>) and 1979 (<i><a href="/wiki/Smith_v._Maryland" title="Smith v. Maryland">Smith v. Maryland</a></i>), the Court affirmed that "a person has no legitimate expectation of privacy in information he voluntarily turns over to third parties."<sup id="cite_ref-atlantic_3-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlantic-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In 1986, the United States Congress updated the Omnibus Crime Control and Safe Streets Act of 1968 by enacting the <a href="/wiki/Electronic_Communications_Privacy_Act" title="Electronic Communications Privacy Act">Electronic Communications Privacy Act</a> which included an updated "Wiretap Act" and also extended Fourth Amendment-like protections to <a href="/wiki/Telecommunication" class="mw-redirect" title="Telecommunication">electronic communications</a> in Title II of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act, known as the <a href="/wiki/Stored_Communications_Act" title="Stored Communications Act">Stored Communications Act</a>. </p><p>A 2012 <a href="/wiki/United_States_District_Court_for_the_District_of_Maryland" title="United States District Court for the District of Maryland">Maryland District Court</a> court case (<i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Graham" title="United States v. Graham">United States v. Graham</a></i>) held that historical cell site location data is not protected by the Fourth Amendment. </p><p>In the same year, <a href="/wiki/Associate_Justice_of_the_Supreme_Court_of_the_United_States" title="Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the United States">Associate Justice</a> <a href="/wiki/Sonia_Sotomayor" title="Sonia Sotomayor">Sonia Sotomayor</a>, writing a concurrence in a case (<i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Jones_(2012)" title="United States v. Jones (2012)">United States v. Jones</a></i>) involving the police placing a <a href="/wiki/GPS" class="mw-redirect" title="GPS">GPS</a> tracker on a suspect without a warrant, noted that </p> <blockquote><p>More fundamentally, it may be necessary to reconsider the premise that an individual has no reasonable expectation of privacy in information voluntarily disclosed to third parties. This approach is ill suited to the digital age, in which people reveal a great deal of information about themselves to third parties in the course of carrying out mundane tasks.<sup id="cite_ref-atlantic_3-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-atlantic-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In <i><a href="/wiki/Carpenter_v._United_States" title="Carpenter v. United States">Carpenter v. United States</a></i> (2018), the Supreme Court ruled warrants are needed for gathering cell phone tracking information, remarking that cell phones are almost a “feature of human anatomy”, “when the Government tracks the location of a cell phone it achieves near perfect surveillance, as if it had attached an ankle monitor to the phone’s user”.<sup id="cite_ref-cnn_4-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-cnn-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and that </p> <blockquote><p>[cell-site location information] provides officers with “an all-encompassing record of the holder’s whereabouts” and “provides an intimate window into a person’s life, revealing not only [an individual’s] particular movements, but through them [their] familial, political, professional, religious, and sexual associations.”<sup id="cite_ref-gratkowski_5-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gratkowski-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></blockquote> <p>In 2019, Utah passed the Electronic Information or Data Privacy Act which requires a warrant for accessing Utah residents' private information stored with third parties.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In June 2020, the <a href="/wiki/United_States_Court_of_Appeals_for_the_Fifth_Circuit" title="United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit">Fifth Circuit</a> found in <i><a href="/wiki/United_States_v._Gratkowski" title="United States v. Gratkowski">United States v. Gratkowski</a></i> that transaction data with exchanges of <a href="/wiki/Virtual_currency" title="Virtual currency">virtual currency</a> such as <a href="/wiki/Bitcoin" title="Bitcoin">Bitcoin</a>, are akin to bank records and not subject to Fourth Amendment protections.<sup id="cite_ref-gratkowski_5-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-gratkowski-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-party_doctrine&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Secrecy_of_correspondence" title="Secrecy of correspondence">Secrecy of correspondence</a></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-party_doctrine&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFThompson_II" class="citation journal cs1">Thompson II, Richard M. "The Fourth Amendment Third-Party Doctrine". <i><a href="/wiki/Congressional_Research_Service" title="Congressional Research Service">Congressional Research Service</a></i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Congressional+Research+Service&rft.atitle=The+Fourth+Amendment+Third-Party+Doctrine&rft.aulast=Thompson+II&rft.aufirst=Richard+M.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.archives.gov/founding-docs">"America's Founding Documents"</a>. <i>National Archives</i>. October 30, 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=National+Archives&rft.atitle=America%27s+Founding+Documents&rft.date=2015-10-30&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.archives.gov%2Ffounding-docs&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-atlantic-3"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-atlantic_3-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-atlantic_3-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVillasenor2013" class="citation web cs1">Villasenor, John (December 30, 2013). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.theatlantic.com/technology/archive/2013/12/what-you-need-to-know-about-the-third-party-doctrine/282721/">"What You Need to Know about the Third-Party Doctrine"</a>. <i>The Atlantic</i>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=The+Atlantic&rft.atitle=What+You+Need+to+Know+about+the+Third-Party+Doctrine&rft.date=2013-12-30&rft.aulast=Villasenor&rft.aufirst=John&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.theatlantic.com%2Ftechnology%2Farchive%2F2013%2F12%2Fwhat-you-need-to-know-about-the-third-party-doctrine%2F282721%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-cnn-4"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-cnn_4-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://cdn.cnn.com/cnn/2018/images/06/22/16-402_h315.pdf">"CARPENTER v. UNITED STATES"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. cdn.cnn.com. 22 June 2018<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2020-07-31</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=CARPENTER+v.+UNITED+STATES&rft.pub=cdn.cnn.com&rft.date=2018-06-22&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fcdn.cnn.com%2Fcnn%2F2018%2Fimages%2F06%2F22%2F16-402_h315.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-gratkowski-5"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-gratkowski_5-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-gratkowski_5-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ca5.uscourts.gov/opinions/pub/19/19-50492-CR0.pdf">"US v. Gratkowski"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. 30 June 2020.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=US+v.+Gratkowski&rft.date=2020-06-30&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.ca5.uscourts.gov%2Fopinions%2Fpub%2F19%2F19-50492-CR0.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://legiscan.com/UT/bill/HB0057/2019">"Utah HB0057 | 2019 | General Session"</a>. <i>LegiScan</i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=LegiScan&rft.atitle=Utah+HB0057+%7C+2019+%7C+General+Session&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Flegiscan.com%2FUT%2Fbill%2FHB0057%2F2019&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-7"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-7">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation magazine cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.wired.com/story/utah-digital-privacy-legislation/">"Utah Just Became a Leader in Digital Privacy"</a>. <i>Wired</i>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1059-1028">1059-1028</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Wired&rft.atitle=Utah+Just+Became+a+Leader+in+Digital+Privacy&rft.issn=1059-1028&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.wired.com%2Fstory%2Futah-digital-privacy-legislation%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-8"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-8">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.swlaw.com/blog/data-security/2019/05/01/what-does-the-new-utah-electronic-data-privacy-law-do/">"What Does the New Utah Electronic Data Privacy Law Do? | Data Privacy and Protection Blog"</a><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=What+Does+the+New+Utah+Electronic+Data+Privacy+Law+Do%3F+%7C+Data+Privacy+and+Protection+Blog&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.swlaw.com%2Fblog%2Fdata-security%2F2019%2F05%2F01%2Fwhat-does-the-new-utah-electronic-data-privacy-law-do%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-9"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-9">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.huntonprivacyblog.com/2019/04/01/utah-governor-signs-electronic-data-privacy-bill-requiring-warrants-to-access-certain-types-of-data/">"Utah Governor Signs Electronic Data Privacy Bill Requiring Warrants to Access Certain Types of Data"</a>. <i>Privacy & Information Security Law Blog</i>. 2019-04-01<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">2019-09-23</span></span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Privacy+%26+Information+Security+Law+Blog&rft.atitle=Utah+Governor+Signs+Electronic+Data+Privacy+Bill+Requiring+Warrants+to+Access+Certain+Types+of+Data&rft.date=2019-04-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.huntonprivacyblog.com%2F2019%2F04%2F01%2Futah-governor-signs-electronic-data-privacy-bill-requiring-warrants-to-access-certain-types-of-data%2F&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> </ol></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-party_doctrine&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFKerr2009" class="citation journal cs1"><a href="/wiki/Orin_Kerr" title="Orin Kerr">Kerr, Orin S.</a> (2009). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20091007084048/http://www.michiganlawreview.org/assets/pdfs/107/4/kerr.pdf">"The Case for the Third-Party Doctrine"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Michigan_Law_Review" title="Michigan Law Review">Mich. L. Rev.</a></i> <b>107</b> (4): 561–602. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.michiganlawreview.org/assets/pdfs/107/4/kerr.pdf">the original</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> on October 7, 2009.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Mich.+L.+Rev.&rft.atitle=The+Case+for+the+Third-Party+Doctrine&rft.volume=107&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=561-602&rft.date=2009&rft.aulast=Kerr&rft.aufirst=Orin+S.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.michiganlawreview.org%2Fassets%2Fpdfs%2F107%2F4%2Fkerr.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaker2018" class="citation journal cs1">Chaker, Vania (21 September 2018). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journaloftechlaw.org/your-spying-smartphone-vania-chaker">"Your Spying Smartphone: Individual Privacy Is Narrowly Strengthened in Carpenter v. United States, The U.S. Supreme Court's Most Recent Fourth Amendment Ruling"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Tech_Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Tech Law (page does not exist)">Journal of Tech Law</a></i><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 September</span> 2018</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Tech+Law&rft.atitle=Your+Spying+Smartphone%3A+Individual+Privacy+Is+Narrowly+Strengthened+in+Carpenter+v.+United+States%2C+The+U.S.+Supreme+Court%27s+Most+Recent+Fourth+Amendment+Ruling&rft.date=2018-09-21&rft.aulast=Chaker&rft.aufirst=Vania&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journaloftechlaw.org%2Fyour-spying-smartphone-vania-chaker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFChaker2019" class="citation journal cs1">Chaker, Vania (6 August 2019). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.journaloftechlaw.org/issues/23-2-chaker">"Chimaera I: Chimaera Unleashed: The Specter of Warrantless Governmental Intrusion Is a Phantom that Has Achieved Greater Life in the Ether of Internet Communications"</a>. <i><a href="/w/index.php?title=Journal_of_Tech_Law&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Journal of Tech Law (page does not exist)">Journal of Tech Law</a></i>. <b>23</b><span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">6 August</span> 2019</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Tech+Law&rft.atitle=Chimaera+I%3A+Chimaera+Unleashed%3A+The+Specter+of+Warrantless+Governmental+Intrusion+Is+a+Phantom+that+Has+Achieved+Greater+Life+in+the+Ether+of+Internet+Communications&rft.volume=23&rft.date=2019-08-06&rft.aulast=Chaker&rft.aufirst=Vania&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.journaloftechlaw.org%2Fissues%2F23-2-chaker&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AThird-party+doctrine" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Third-party_doctrine&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20170214223733/http://www.nyls.edu/documents/justice-action-center/student_capstone_journal/cap12collins.pdf">The Third Party Doctrine in the Digital Age</a>, Justice Action CenterStudent Capstone Journal, 2012</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.abajournal.com/magazine/article/the_data_question_should_the_third-party_records_doctrine_be_revisited/">The Data Question: Should the Third-Party Records Doctrine Be Revisited?</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.fas.org/sgp/crs/misc/R43586.pdf">The Fourth Amendment Third-Party Doctrine</a>, Congressional Research Service, 2014</li></ul>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?type=1x1" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Third-party_doctrine&oldid=1228751012">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Third-party_doctrine&oldid=1228751012</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:American_legal_terminology" title="Category:American legal terminology">American legal terminology</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Fourth_Amendment_case_law" title="Category:United States Fourth Amendment case law">United States Fourth Amendment case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_criminal_investigation_case_law" title="Category:United States criminal investigation case law">United States criminal investigation case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_evidence_case_law" title="Category:United States evidence case law">United States evidence case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_privacy_case_law" title="Category:United States privacy case law">United States privacy case law</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:United_States_Third-Party_Doctrine" title="Category:United States Third-Party Doctrine">United States Third-Party Doctrine</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Privacy_law_in_the_United_States" title="Category:Privacy law in the United States">Privacy law in the United States</a></li></ul></div><div id="mw-hidden-catlinks" class="mw-hidden-catlinks mw-hidden-cats-hidden">Hidden categories: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Articles_with_short_description" title="Category:Articles with short description">Articles with short description</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Short_description_is_different_from_Wikidata" title="Category:Short description is different from Wikidata">Short description is different from Wikidata</a></li></ul></div></div> </div> </main> </div> <div class="mw-footer-container"> <footer id="footer" class="mw-footer" > <ul id="footer-info"> <li id="footer-info-lastmod"> This page was last edited on 13 June 2024, at 00:08<span class="anonymous-show"> (UTC)</span>.</li> <li id="footer-info-copyright">Text is available under the <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Text_of_the_Creative_Commons_Attribution-ShareAlike_4.0_International_License" title="Wikipedia:Text of the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International License">Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 License</a>; additional terms may apply. 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