Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)

<!DOCTYPE html> <html lang="en" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML"> <head> <meta charset="utf-8"> <meta http-equiv="x-ua-compatible" content="ie=edge"> <title>Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)</title>  <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/montserrat-v15-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-regular.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/montserrat-v25-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-500.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/montserrat-v15-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-700.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous">  <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/merriweather-v30-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-300.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/merriweather-v22-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-regular.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="preload" href="/assets/fonts/merriweather-v22-latin-ext_cyrillic-ext-700.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous">  <link rel="preload" href="/assets/stylesheets/fontawesome.woff2" as="font" type="font/woff2" crossorigin="anonymous"> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href='/assets/stylesheets/02f295d1f6a8e9c282e7831cd493e8ff-bootstrap.purged.min.css' /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href='/assets/stylesheets/5337b0511e7530e28f005276f70cde44-main.min.css' /> <link rel="stylesheet" media="all" href='/assets/stylesheets/13761c60ba5201f465803f3005ccd7ef-fontawesome-codes.css' /> <link rel="shortcut icon" type="image/x-icon" href='/assets/images/ec7d7606b4e2f3f921b5e1700948efb6-favicon.ico' /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="en" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1351/pac200375060683/html?lang=en" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="de" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1351/pac200375060683/html?lang=de" /> <link rel="alternate" hreflang="x-default" href="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1351/pac200375060683/html" />  <link rel="schema.dcterms" href="http://purl.org/dc/terms/"> <meta name="dcterms.rightsHolder" content="Walter de Gruyter GmbH"> <meta name="dcterms.rights" content="De Gruyter expressly reserves the right to use all content for commercial text and data mining within the meaning of Section 44b of the German Copyright Act."> <link rel="dns-prefetch" href="https://www.google-analytics.com" /> <meta name="google" content="notranslate" /> <meta name="viewport" content="width=device-width, initial-scale=1" /> <meta name="description" content="A consistent set of internationally accepted atomic weights has long been an essential aim of the scientific community because of the relevance of these values to science and technology, as well as to trade and commerce subject to ethical, legal, and international standards. The standard atomic weights of the elements are regularly evaluated, recommended, and published in updated tables by the Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances (CAWIA) of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). These values are invariably associated with carefully evaluated uncertainties. Atomic weights were originally determined by mass ratio measurements coupled with an understanding of chemical stoichiometry, but are now based almost exclusively on knowledge of the isotopic composition (derived from isotope-abundance ratio measurements) and the atomic masses of the isotopes of the elements. Atomic weights and atomic masses are now scaled to a numerical value of exactly 12 for the mass of the carbon isotope of mass number 12. Technological advances in mass spectrometry and nuclear-reaction energies have enabled atomic masses to be determined with a relative uncertainty of better than 1 ×10 −7 . Isotope abundances for an increasing number of elements can be measured to better than 1 ×10 −3 . The excellent precision of such measurements led to the discovery that many elements, in different specimens, display significant variations in their isotope-abundance ratios, caused by a variety of natural and industrial physicochemical processes. While such variations increasingly place a constraint on the uncertainties with which some standard atomic weights can be stated, they provide numerous opportunities for investigating a range of important phenomena in physical, chemical, cosmological, biological, and industrial processes. This review reflects the current and increasing interest of science in the measured differences between source-specific and even sample-specific atomic weights. These relative comparisons can often be made with a smaller uncertainty than is achieved in the best calibrated “absolute ” (=SI-traceable) atomic-weight determinations. Accurate determinations of the atomic weights of certain elements also influence the values of fundamental constants such as the Avogadro, Faraday, and universal gas constants. This review is in two parts: the first summarizes the development of the science of atomic-weight determinations during the 20th century; the second summarizes the changes and variations that have been recognized in the values and uncertainties of atomic weights, on an element-by-element basis, in the latter part of the 20th century."/> <meta property="og:url" content="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1351/pac200375060683/html"/><meta property="og:site_name" content="De Gruyter"/><meta property="og:title" content="Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)"/><meta property="og:type" content="article"/><meta property="og:locale" content="en"/><meta property="og:image" content="https://www.degruyter.com/document/cover/journal_key/PAC/product"/><meta property="og:image:type" content="image/jpeg"/><meta property="og:description" content="A consistent set of internationally accepted atomic weights has long been an essential aim of the scientific community because of the relevance of these values to science and technology, as well as to trade and commerce subject to ethical, legal, and international standards. The standard atomic weights of the elements are regularly evaluated, recommended, and published in updated tables by the Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances (CAWIA) of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). These values are invariably associated with carefully evaluated uncertainties. Atomic weights were originally determined by mass ratio measurements coupled with an understanding of chemical stoichiometry, but are now based almost exclusively on knowledge of the isotopic composition (derived from isotope-abundance ratio measurements) and the atomic masses of the isotopes of the elements. Atomic weights and atomic masses are now scaled to a numerical value of exactly 12 for the mass of the carbon isotope of mass number 12. Technological advances in mass spectrometry and nuclear-reaction energies have enabled atomic masses to be determined with a relative uncertainty of better than 1 ×10 −7 . Isotope abundances for an increasing number of elements can be measured to better than 1 ×10 −3 . The excellent precision of such measurements led to the discovery that many elements, in different specimens, display significant variations in their isotope-abundance ratios, caused by a variety of natural and industrial physicochemical processes. While such variations increasingly place a constraint on the uncertainties with which some standard atomic weights can be stated, they provide numerous opportunities for investigating a range of important phenomena in physical, chemical, cosmological, biological, and industrial processes. This review reflects the current and increasing interest of science in the measured differences between source-specific and even sample-specific atomic weights. These relative comparisons can often be made with a smaller uncertainty than is achieved in the best calibrated “absolute ” (=SI-traceable) atomic-weight determinations. Accurate determinations of the atomic weights of certain elements also influence the values of fundamental constants such as the Avogadro, Faraday, and universal gas constants. This review is in two parts: the first summarizes the development of the science of atomic-weight determinations during the 20th century; the second summarizes the changes and variations that have been recognized in the values and uncertainties of atomic weights, on an element-by-element basis, in the latter part of the 20th century."/><meta property="og:locale:alternate" content="de"/><meta property="article:author" content="John R. de Laeter"/><meta property="article:author" content="John Karl Böhlke"/><meta property="article:author" content="P. De Bièvre"/><meta property="article:author" content="H. Hidaka"/><meta property="article:author" content="H. S. Peiser"/><meta property="article:author" content="K. J. R. Rosman"/><meta property="article:author" content="P. D. P. 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Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)' /> <meta name="citation_xml_url" content="https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1351/pac200375060683/xml" /> <meta name="citation_journal_title" content="Pure and Applied Chemistry" /> <meta name="citation_publication_date" content='2003/01/01' /> <meta name="citation_doi" content="10.1351/pac200375060683" /> <meta name="citation_fulltext_world_readable" content="" /> <script type="application/ld+json">{"author":[{"@type":"Person","name":"John R. de Laeter"},{"@type":"Person","name":"John Karl Böhlke"},{"@type":"Person","name":"P. De Bièvre"},{"@type":"Person","name":"H. Hidaka"},{"@type":"Person","name":"H. S. Peiser"},{"@type":"Person","name":"K. J. R. Rosman"},{"@type":"Person","name":"P. D. P. 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Your documents are now available to view.</p> <div id="orderCompleteItemList"> </div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <main id="main" class='language_en min-vh-100 '> <div class="row no-theme-gutter-x g-0 " id="docContent"> <div class='offset-lg-1 col-lg-8 pb-2'> <div class='row g-0 '> <div class="col p-3 pt-5"> <div class="d-flex flex-wrap flex-column flex-md-row justify-content-between"> <div> <div class="mb-2"> <span class="fa fas fa-icon-authorized"></span> <span class="accessAccessible me-2">Publicly Available</span> <span class="publisherAndPublicationDate metadataInfoMainContent"> <span class="publisher"> Published by <a class="ga_published_by ga_published_by_header" href='/search?query=*&publisherFacet=De+Gruyter'>De Gruyter</a> </span> <span class="publicationDate">January 1, 2009</span> </span> </div> <div id="mobilePurchaseDiv" class="d-none"> <a class="mobilePurchaseButton" href="#"> Purchase article <svg width="17" height="16" viewBox="0 0 17 16" fill="none" xmlns="http://www.w3.org/2000/svg"> <path fill-rule="evenodd" clip-rule="evenodd" d="M12.75 10.3238L11.4513 9L9.5 11.1469L9.5 1L7.5 1L7.5 11.1473L5.54829 9L4.24962 10.3238L8.49981 15L12.75 10.3238Z" fill="#007596"/> </svg> </a> </div> <h1>Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)</h1> <ul class="contributors list-unstyled mb-2"> <li class="contributors-AUTHOR mb-2"> <span class="metadataAndContributorsFont"><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">John R. de Laeter</span> <contributor-popdown name="John R. de Laeter" position="1" email="" affiliations="" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">John Karl Böhlke</span> <contributor-popdown name="John Karl Böhlke" position="2" email="" affiliations="" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">P. De Bièvre</span> <contributor-popdown name="P. De Bièvre" position="3" email="" affiliations="" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">H. Hidaka</span> <contributor-popdown name="H. Hidaka" position="4" email="" affiliations="" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">H. S. Peiser</span> <contributor-popdown name="H. S. Peiser" position="5" email="" affiliations="" > </contributor-popdown> </span><span class="comma">, </span><span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">K. J. R. Rosman</span> <contributor-popdown name="K. J. R. Rosman" position="6" email="" affiliations="" > </contributor-popdown> </span> and <span class="contributor"> <span class="displayName linkAnimation">P. D. P. Taylor</span> <contributor-popdown name="P. D. P. Taylor" position="7" email="" affiliations="" > </contributor-popdown> </span></span> </li> </ul> <div class="subTitleInfoProductPage">From the journal <a class="ga_parent ga_parent_journal" href="/journal/key/pac/html">Pure and Applied Chemistry</a></div> <div class="doi"><a href="https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683" class="linkWithoutStyle subTitleInfoProductPage ga_doi" target="_blank">https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683</a></div> </div> <div class="d-sm-none pt-3 pb-3 border-bottom"> <div class="alternateForms d-none"> <a href="/document/doi/10.1351/pac200375060683/pdf?licenseType=free" data-doi="10.1351/pac200375060683" class="ga_download_button_pdf_article downloadCompletePdfArticle downloadPdf btn btn-primary fw-bold py-2 w-100 vgwort-click"> <span>Download article (PDF)</span> <span class="fa fas fa-download-button"></span> </a> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="d-flex align-items-center flex-wrap px-4 px-lg-2 "> <button id='citationsModalButton' type="button" class="btn btn-main-content ga_cite_this me-2" href='#citationsModal' data-bs-toggle="modal" data-bs-target="#citationsModal" data-doi="10.1351/pac200375060683" aria-controls='citationsModal'> Cite this </button> <button id="socialModalButton" type="button" class="btn btn-main-content ga_share_this me-2" href="#socialModal" data-bs-toggle="modal" data-bs-target="#socialModal" aria-controls="socialModal"> Share this </button> <div class="dimensions __dimensions_badge_embed__ ga_dimensions_citation me-2" data-doi="10.1351/pac200375060683" data-hide-zero-citations="true" data-legend="never" data-style="large_rectangle"></div> </div> <div id="div-document-progress-bar" class="sticky-top d-none"> <div class="row"> <div class="col-12"> <div class="progress progress-bar-toolbar"> <div id="document-progress-bar" class="progress-bar bg-primary" role="progressbar" aria-label="Document progress bar" aria-valuenow="0" aria-valuemin="0" aria-valuemax="100"></div> </div> </div> </div> </div> <div id="document-main-content" class='row'> <div class="container-fluid px-3 px-lg-0 py-2"> <div class="col"> <div class="d-none analyticsHolder" data-subjects='CH|CH-06|CH-12|CH-22' data-publisherCode='DEG' data-license='free' data-publisher='De Gruyter' data-contentName='Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)' data-doi='10.1351/pac200375060683' data-parentIdentifier='PAC' data-parentName='Pure and Applied Chemistry' data-languages='de' ></div> <div id="documentContent" class="content py-2" data-doi='10.1351/pac200375060683' data-accessrestricted="false" data-countertype="document"> <div class="px-2"> <div style="width: 100%; position: relative;"> <div class="pdf-container" data-url="/document/doi/10.1351/pac200375060683/pdf?stream=true" lang="de"></div> </div> <div id="text-container"> <div xmlns:dgdoi="http://degruyter.com/resources/doi-from-crossref" xmlns:dgpm="http://degruyter.com/resources/fetched-pubmed-id" class="contentWrapper"><div class="article" lang="de"><div class="abstract"><p>A consistent set of internationally accepted atomic weights has long been an essential aim of the scientific community because of the relevance of these values to science and technology, as well as to trade and commerce subject to ethical, legal, and international standards. The standard atomic weights of the elements are regularly evaluated, recommended, and published in updated tables by the Commission on Atomic Weights and Isotopic Abundances (CAWIA) of the International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). These values are invariably associated with carefully evaluated uncertainties. Atomic weights were originally determined by mass ratio measurements coupled with an understanding of chemical stoichiometry, but are now based almost exclusively on knowledge of the isotopic composition (derived from isotope-abundance ratio measurements) and the atomic masses of the isotopes of the elements. Atomic weights and atomic masses are now scaled to a numerical value of exactly 12 for the mass of the carbon isotope of mass number 12. Technological advances in mass spectrometry and nuclear-reaction energies have enabled atomic masses to be determined with a relative uncertainty of better than 1 ×10<sup>−7</sup> . Isotope abundances for an increasing number of elements can be measured to better than 1 ×10<sup>−3</sup> . The excellent precision of such measurements led to the discovery that many elements, in different specimens, display significant variations in their isotope-abundance ratios, caused by a variety of natural and industrial physicochemical processes. While such variations increasingly place a constraint on the uncertainties with which some standard atomic weights can be stated, they provide numerous opportunities for investigating a range of important phenomena in physical, chemical, cosmological, biological, and industrial processes. This review reflects the current and increasing interest of science in the measured differences between source-specific and even sample-specific atomic weights. These relative comparisons can often be made with a smaller uncertainty than is achieved in the best calibrated “absolute ” (=SI-traceable) atomic-weight determinations. Accurate determinations of the atomic weights of certain elements also influence the values of fundamental constants such as the Avogadro, Faraday, and universal gas constants. This review is in two parts: the first summarizes the development of the science of atomic-weight determinations during the 20th century; the second summarizes the changes and variations that have been recognized in the values and uncertainties of atomic weights, on an element-by-element basis, in the latter part of the 20th century.</p></div><section class="frontNote"><hr></hr><p>Project Year: 1999, Project Code: 1999-043-1-200</p><hr></hr></section><div class="contrib-group"></div><div class="publicationDates mb-3"><div class="publishedOnlineDate"><span class="label-publishedOnline"><span><strong>Online erschienen: </strong></span></span>2009-1-1</div><div class="publishedInPrintDate"><span class="label-publishedInPrint"><span><strong>Erschienen im Druck: </strong></span></span>2003-1-1</div></div><div class="copyrightStatement"><p>© 2013 Walter de Gruyter GmbH, Berlin/Boston</p></div></div></div> </div> </div> </div> <div class="modal" id="citationsModal" tabindex="-1" role="dialog" aria-label='Cite this' aria-hidden="true"> <div class="modal-dialog modal-dialog-centered modal-lg" role="document"> <div class="modal-content bg-white"> <div class="modal-body"> <button type="button" class="btn-close float-end btn-modal-close" data-bs-dismiss="modal" aria-label='Close'></button> <div id="citations"> <div class="row pb-2"> <div class="col"> <div class="text-dark fw-bold">Cite this article</div> </div> </div> <div class="row p-2"> <div class="col-lg-auto ps-4 mb-3 mb-lg-0"> <ul class="nav d-flex flex-lg-column" id="citationSelector" role="tablist"> <li class="nav-item py-1" role="presentation"> <a class="nav-link citations py-0 font-size-14 active" id="MLA-tab" data-bs-toggle="tab" href="#MLA" role="tab" aria-controls="MLA" aria-selected="true"> <span class="text-primary fa fas fa-ok me-2"></span> <span class="font-family-standard text-dark">MLA</span> </a> </li> <li class="nav-item py-1" role="presentation"> <a class="nav-link citations py-0 font-size-14 " id="APA-tab" data-bs-toggle="tab" href="#APA" role="tab" aria-controls="APA" aria-selected="true"> <span class="text-primary fa fas fa-ok me-2"></span> <span class="font-family-standard text-dark">APA</span> </a> </li> <li class="nav-item py-1" role="presentation"> <a class="nav-link citations py-0 font-size-14 " id="Harvard-tab" data-bs-toggle="tab" href="#Harvard" role="tab" aria-controls="Harvard" aria-selected="true"> <span class="text-primary fa fas fa-ok me-2"></span> <span class="font-family-standard text-dark">Harvard</span> </a> </li> <li class="nav-item py-1" role="presentation"> <a class="nav-link citations py-0 font-size-14 " id="Chicago-tab" data-bs-toggle="tab" href="#Chicago" role="tab" aria-controls="Chicago" aria-selected="true"> <span class="text-primary fa fas fa-ok me-2"></span> <span class="font-family-standard text-dark">Chicago</span> </a> </li> <li class="nav-item py-1" role="presentation"> <a class="nav-link citations py-0 font-size-14 " id="Vancouver-tab" data-bs-toggle="tab" href="#Vancouver" role="tab" aria-controls="Vancouver" aria-selected="true"> <span class="text-primary fa fas fa-ok me-2"></span> <span class="font-family-standard text-dark">Vancouver</span> </a> </li> </ul> </div> <div class="col"> <div class="tab-content border pt-4 px-4" id="citationContent"> <div class="tab-pane fade show active" id="MLA" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="MLA-tab">de Laeter, John R., Böhlke, John Karl, De Bièvre, P., Hidaka, H., Peiser, H. S., Rosman, K. J. R. and Taylor, P. D. P.. "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" <i>Pure and Applied Chemistry</i>, vol. 75, no. 6, 2003, pp. 683-800. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683'>https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="APA" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="APA-tab">de Laeter, J., Böhlke, J., De Bièvre, P., Hidaka, H., Peiser, H., Rosman, K. & Taylor, P. (2003). Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report). <i>Pure and Applied Chemistry</i>, <i>75</i>(6), 683-800. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683'>https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="Harvard" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="Harvard-tab">de Laeter, J., Böhlke, J., De Bièvre, P., Hidaka, H., Peiser, H., Rosman, K. and Taylor, P. (2003) Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report). Pure and Applied Chemistry, Vol. 75 (Issue 6), pp. 683-800. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683'>https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="Chicago" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="Chicago-tab">de Laeter, John R., Böhlke, John Karl, De Bièvre, P., Hidaka, H., Peiser, H. S., Rosman, K. J. R. and Taylor, P. D. P.. "Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)" <i>Pure and Applied Chemistry</i> 75, no. 6 (2003): 683-800. <a href='https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683'>https://doi.org/10.1351/pac200375060683</a></div> <div class="tab-pane fade " id="Vancouver" role="tabpanel" aria-labelledby="Vancouver-tab">de Laeter J, Böhlke J, De Bièvre P, Hidaka H, Peiser H, Rosman K, Taylor P. Atomic weights of the elements. 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Atomic weights of the elements. Review 2000 (IUPAC Technical Report)