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<li id="toc-Mud" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Mud"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.2 Mud </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Mud-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_characteristics" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_characteristics"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.3 Other characteristics </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_characteristics-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4 Classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Folk_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Folk_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.1 Folk classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Folk_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Dunham_classification" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Dunham_classification"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.2 Dunham classification </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Dunham_classification-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Other_descriptive_terms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Other_descriptive_terms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 1.4.3 Other descriptive terms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Other_descriptive_terms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Formation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Formation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2 Formation </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Formation-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Formation subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Formation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Diagenesis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Diagenesis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 2.1 Diagenesis </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Diagenesis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occurrence" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occurrence"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3 Occurrence </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Occurrence subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Occurrence-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Limestone_and_living_organisms" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limestone_and_living_organisms"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1 Limestone and living organisms </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limestone_and_living_organisms-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Micritic_mud_mounds" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Micritic_mud_mounds"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.1 Micritic mud mounds </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Micritic_mud_mounds-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Organic_reefs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Organic_reefs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 3.1.2 Organic reefs </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Organic_reefs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limestone_landscape" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limestone_landscape"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 4 Limestone landscape </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limestone_landscape-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Uses" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5 Uses </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Uses-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> Toggle Uses subsection </button> <ul id="toc-Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Scarcity" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Scarcity"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.1 Scarcity </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Scarcity-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Occupational_safety_and_health" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Occupational_safety_and_health"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2 Occupational safety and health </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Occupational_safety_and_health-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-United_States" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#United_States"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.2.1 United States </div> </a> <ul id="toc-United_States-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Graffiti" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Graffiti"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 5.3 Graffiti </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Graffiti-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gallery" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gallery"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 6 Gallery </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gallery-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 7 See also </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 8 References </div> </a> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> 9 Further reading </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" title="Table of Contents" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" > Toggle the table of contents </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading">Limestone</h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 95 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-95" aria-hidden="true" > 95 languages </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalksteen" title="Kalksteen – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Kalksteen" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target">Afrikaans</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalk" title="Kalk – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Kalk" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Alemannisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AD%D8%AC%D8%B1_%D8%AC%D9%8A%D8%B1%D9%8A" title="حجر جيري – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="حجر جيري" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target">العربية</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-an mw-list-item"><a href="https://an.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calsinera" title="Calsinera – Aragonese" lang="an" hreflang="an" data-title="Calsinera" data-language-autonym="Aragonés" data-language-local-name="Aragonese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Aragonés</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliar" title="Caliar – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Caliar" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Asturianu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C6%8Fh%C9%99ngda%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Əhəngdaşı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Əhəngdaşı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target">Azərbaycanca</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9A%E0%A7%81%E0%A6%A8%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%AA%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%A5%E0%A6%B0" title="চুনাপাথর – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="চুনাপাথর" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target">বাংলা</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chio%CC%8Dh-hoe-gi%C3%A2m" title="Chio̍h-hoe-giâm – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chio̍h-hoe-giâm" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target">閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ba mw-list-item"><a href="https://ba.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%AD%D0%B7%D0%B1%D0%B8%D0%B7%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Эзбизташ – Bashkir" lang="ba" hreflang="ba" data-title="Эзбизташ" data-language-autonym="Башҡортса" data-language-local-name="Bashkir" class="interlanguage-link-target">Башҡортса</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be mw-list-item"><a href="https://be.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA" title="Вапняк – Belarusian" lang="be" hreflang="be" data-title="Вапняк" data-language-autonym="Беларуская" data-language-local-name="Belarusian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-be-x-old mw-list-item"><a href="https://be-tarask.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA" title="Вапняк – Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" lang="be-tarask" hreflang="be-tarask" data-title="Вапняк" data-language-autonym="Беларуская (тарашкевіца)" data-language-local-name="Belarusian (Taraškievica orthography)" class="interlanguage-link-target">Беларуская (тарашкевіца)</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Варовик – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Варовик" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Български</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bar mw-list-item"><a href="https://bar.wikipedia.org/wiki/Koichstoa" title="Koichstoa – Bavarian" lang="bar" hreflang="bar" data-title="Koichstoa" data-language-autonym="Boarisch" data-language-local-name="Bavarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Boarisch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kre%C4%8Dnjak" title="Krečnjak – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Krečnjak" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bosanski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pedra_calc%C3%A0ria" title="Pedra calcària – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Pedra calcària" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Català</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D1%88%D0%B0%D1%80_%D1%87%D1%83%D0%BB%C4%95" title="Акшар чулĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Акшар чулĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target">Чӑвашла</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1penec" title="Vápenec – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vápenec" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target">Čeština</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cy mw-list-item"><a href="https://cy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calchfaen" title="Calchfaen – Welsh" lang="cy" hreflang="cy" data-title="Calchfaen" data-language-autonym="Cymraeg" data-language-local-name="Welsh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Cymraeg</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalksten" title="Kalksten – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kalksten" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Dansk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstein" title="Kalkstein – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Kalkstein" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target">Deutsch</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lubjakivi" title="Lubjakivi – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Lubjakivi" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Eesti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%91%CF%83%CE%B2%CE%B5%CF%83%CF%84%CF%8C%CE%BB%CE%B9%CE%B8%CE%BF%CF%82" title="Ασβεστόλιθος – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Ασβεστόλιθος" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ελληνικά</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caliza" title="Caliza – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Caliza" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Español</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalko%C5%9Dtono" title="Kalkoŝtono – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Kalkoŝtono" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target">Esperanto</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ext mw-list-item"><a href="https://ext.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cal" title="Cal – Extremaduran" lang="ext" hreflang="ext" data-title="Cal" data-language-autonym="Estremeñu" data-language-local-name="Extremaduran" class="interlanguage-link-target">Estremeñu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kareharri" title="Kareharri – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kareharri" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target">Euskara</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%B3%D9%86%DA%AF_%D8%A2%D9%87%DA%A9" title="سنگ آهک – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="سنگ آهک" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target">فارسی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcaire" title="Calcaire – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Calcaire" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target">Français</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fy mw-list-item"><a href="https://fy.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstien" title="Kalkstien – Western Frisian" lang="fy" hreflang="fy" data-title="Kalkstien" data-language-autonym="Frysk" data-language-local-name="Western Frisian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Frysk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aolchloch" title="Aolchloch – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Aolchloch" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Gaeilge</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcaria" title="Calcaria – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Calcaria" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target">Galego</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hak mw-list-item"><a href="https://hak.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sa%CC%8Dk-f%C3%B4i-sa%CC%8Dk" title="Sa̍k-fôi-sa̍k – Hakka Chinese" lang="hak" hreflang="hak" data-title="Sa̍k-fôi-sa̍k" data-language-autonym="客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî" data-language-local-name="Hakka Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target">客家語 / Hak-kâ-ngî</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%84%9D%ED%9A%8C%EC%95%94" title="석회암 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="석회암" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target">한국어</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D4%BF%D6%80%D5%A1%D6%84%D5%A1%D6%80" title="Կրաքար – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Կրաքար" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Հայերեն</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%82%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%BE_%E0%A4%AA%E0%A4%A4%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%A5%E0%A4%B0" title="चूना पत्थर – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="चूना पत्थर" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target">हिन्दी</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapnenac" title="Vapnenac – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vapnenac" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Hrvatski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkopetro" title="Kalkopetro – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Kalkopetro" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ido</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gamping" title="Gamping – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Gamping" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Indonesia</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ia mw-list-item"><a href="https://ia.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcario" title="Calcario – Interlingua" lang="ia" hreflang="ia" data-title="Calcario" data-language-autonym="Interlingua" data-language-local-name="Interlingua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Interlingua</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-os mw-list-item"><a href="https://os.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A7%D1%8A%D1%8B%D1%80%D0%B4%D1%83%D1%80" title="Чъырдур – Ossetic" lang="os" hreflang="os" data-title="Чъырдур" data-language-autonym="Ирон" data-language-local-name="Ossetic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Ирон</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-is mw-list-item"><a href="https://is.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalksteinn" title="Kalksteinn – Icelandic" lang="is" hreflang="is" data-title="Kalksteinn" data-language-autonym="Íslenska" data-language-local-name="Icelandic" class="interlanguage-link-target">Íslenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcare" title="Calcare – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Calcare" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Italiano</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%91%D7%9F_%D7%92%D7%99%D7%A8" title="אבן גיר – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אבן גיר" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target">עברית</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kbp mw-list-item"><a href="https://kbp.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kal%C9%A9k%C9%9B%C9%9B%C9%96%C9%A9" title="Kalɩkɛɛɖɩ – Kabiye" lang="kbp" hreflang="kbp" data-title="Kalɩkɛɛɖɩ" data-language-autonym="Kabɩyɛ" data-language-local-name="Kabiye" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kabɩyɛ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ka mw-list-item"><a href="https://ka.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%83%99%E1%83%98%E1%83%A0%E1%83%A5%E1%83%95%E1%83%90" title="კირქვა – Georgian" lang="ka" hreflang="ka" data-title="კირქვა" data-language-autonym="ქართული" data-language-local-name="Georgian" class="interlanguage-link-target">ქართული</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kk mw-list-item"><a href="https://kk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D3%98%D0%BA%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%81" title="Әктас – Kazakh" lang="kk" hreflang="kk" data-title="Әктас" data-language-autonym="Қазақша" data-language-local-name="Kazakh" class="interlanguage-link-target">Қазақша</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-kw mw-list-item"><a href="https://kw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalgh" title="Kalgh – Cornish" lang="kw" hreflang="kw" data-title="Kalgh" data-language-autonym="Kernowek" data-language-local-name="Cornish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kernowek</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sw mw-list-item"><a href="https://sw.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gange" title="Gange – Swahili" lang="sw" hreflang="sw" data-title="Gange" data-language-autonym="Kiswahili" data-language-local-name="Swahili" class="interlanguage-link-target">Kiswahili</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ky mw-list-item"><a href="https://ky.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%90%D0%BA%D0%B8%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88_%D1%82%D0%B5%D0%B3%D0%B8" title="Акиташ теги – Kyrgyz" lang="ky" hreflang="ky" data-title="Акиташ теги" data-language-autonym="Кыргызча" data-language-local-name="Kyrgyz" class="interlanguage-link-target">Кыргызча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcarea" title="Calcarea – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Calcarea" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ka%C4%BC%C4%B7akmens" title="Kaļķakmens – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Kaļķakmens" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Latviešu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Klintis" title="Klintis – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Klintis" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Lietuvių</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstein" title="Kalkstein – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Kalkstein" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Limburgs</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hu mw-list-item"><a href="https://hu.wikipedia.org/wiki/M%C3%A9szk%C5%91_(k%C5%91zet)" title="Mészkő (kőzet) – Hungarian" lang="hu" hreflang="hu" data-title="Mészkő (kőzet)" data-language-autonym="Magyar" data-language-local-name="Hungarian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Magyar</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%BE%D0%B2%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Варовник – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Варовник" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Македонски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mg mw-list-item"><a href="https://mg.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatosokay" title="Vatosokay – Malagasy" lang="mg" hreflang="mg" data-title="Vatosokay" data-language-autonym="Malagasy" data-language-local-name="Malagasy" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malagasy</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mt mw-list-item"><a href="https://mt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%A0ebla_tal-%C4%A1ir" title="Ġebla tal-ġir – Maltese" lang="mt" hreflang="mt" data-title="Ġebla tal-ġir" data-language-autonym="Malti" data-language-local-name="Maltese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Malti</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Batu_kapur" title="Batu kapur – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Batu kapur" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target">Bahasa Melayu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a href="https://my.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%80%91%E1%80%AF%E1%80%B6%E1%80%B8%E1%80%80%E1%80%BB%E1%80%B1%E1%80%AC%E1%80%80%E1%80%BA" title="ထုံးကျောက် – Burmese" lang="my" hreflang="my" data-title="ထုံးကျောက်" data-language-autonym="မြန်မာဘာသာ" data-language-local-name="Burmese" class="interlanguage-link-target">မြန်မာဘာသာ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalksteen" title="Kalksteen – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Kalksteen" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target">Nederlands</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ne mw-list-item"><a href="https://ne.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9A%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%A8%E0%A4%A2%E0%A5%81%E0%A4%99%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%97%E0%A4%BE" title="चुनढुङ्गा – Nepali" lang="ne" hreflang="ne" data-title="चुनढुङ्गा" data-language-autonym="नेपाली" data-language-local-name="Nepali" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाली</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-new mw-list-item"><a href="https://new.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B8%E0%A4%96%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%83%E0%A4%B2%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%B9%E0%A4%82" title="सख्वाःल्वहं – Newari" lang="new" hreflang="new" data-title="सख्वाःल्वहं" data-language-autonym="नेपाल भाषा" data-language-local-name="Newari" class="interlanguage-link-target">नेपाल भाषा</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E7%81%B0%E5%B2%A9" title="石灰岩 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="石灰岩" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target">日本語</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstein" title="Kalkstein – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Kalkstein" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk bokmål</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn mw-list-item"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkstein" title="Kalkstein – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Kalkstein" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target">Norsk nynorsk</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcari" title="Calcari – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Calcari" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target">Occitan</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ohaktoshlar" title="Ohaktoshlar – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Ohaktoshlar" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target">Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pnb mw-list-item"><a href="https://pnb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%84%D8%A7%D8%A6%D9%85_%D9%BE%D8%AA%DA%BE%D8%B1" title="لائم پتھر – Western Punjabi" lang="pnb" hreflang="pnb" data-title="لائم پتھر" data-language-autonym="پنجابی" data-language-local-name="Western Punjabi" class="interlanguage-link-target">پنجابی</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pap mw-list-item"><a href="https://pap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piedra_di_kalki" title="Piedra di kalki – Papiamento" lang="pap" hreflang="pap" data-title="Piedra di kalki" data-language-autonym="Papiamentu" data-language-local-name="Papiamento" class="interlanguage-link-target">Papiamentu</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wapie%C5%84" title="Wapień – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Wapień" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Polski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calc%C3%A1rio" title="Calcário – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Calcário" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Português</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Calcar" title="Calcar – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Calcar" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Română</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isku_rumi" title="Isku rumi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Isku rumi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target">Runa Simi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-rue mw-list-item"><a href="https://rue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B8%D0%BA" title="Вапняник – Rusyn" lang="rue" hreflang="rue" data-title="Вапняник" data-language-autonym="Русиньскый" data-language-local-name="Rusyn" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русиньскый</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA" title="Известняк – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Известняк" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Русский</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-si mw-list-item"><a href="https://si.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B7%84%E0%B7%94%E0%B6%AB%E0%B7%94_%E0%B6%9C%E0%B6%BD%E0%B7%8A" title="හුණු ගල් – Sinhala" lang="si" hreflang="si" data-title="හුණු ගල්" data-language-autonym="සිංහල" data-language-local-name="Sinhala" class="interlanguage-link-target">සිංහල</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Limestone" title="Limestone – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Limestone" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target">Simple English</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk badge-Q17437798 badge-goodarticle mw-list-item" title="good article badge"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A1penec" title="Vápenec – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vápenec" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenčina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apnenec" title="Apnenec – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Apnenec" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Slovenščina</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-so mw-list-item"><a href="https://so.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nuurad" title="Nuurad – Somali" lang="so" hreflang="so" data-title="Nuurad" data-language-autonym="Soomaaliga" data-language-local-name="Somali" class="interlanguage-link-target">Soomaaliga</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9A%D1%80%D0%B5%D1%87%D1%9A%D0%B0%D0%BA" title="Кречњак – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Кречњак" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Српски / srpski</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapnenac" title="Vapnenac – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vapnenac" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalkkikivi" title="Kalkkikivi – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Kalkkikivi" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Suomi</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kalksten" title="Kalksten – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Kalksten" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Svenska</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ta mw-list-item"><a href="https://ta.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%AE%9A%E0%AF%81%E0%AE%A3%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%A3%E0%AE%95%E0%AF%8D%E0%AE%95%E0%AE%B2%E0%AF%8D" title="சுண்ணக்கல் – Tamil" lang="ta" hreflang="ta" data-title="சுண்ணக்கல்" data-language-autonym="தமிழ்" data-language-local-name="Tamil" class="interlanguage-link-target">தமிழ்</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tt mw-list-item"><a href="https://tt.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%98%D0%B7%D0%B2%D0%B5%D1%81%D1%82%D1%8C%D1%82%D0%B0%D1%88" title="Известьташ – Tatar" lang="tt" hreflang="tt" data-title="Известьташ" data-language-autonym="Татарча / tatarça" data-language-local-name="Tatar" class="interlanguage-link-target">Татарча / tatarça</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B8%AB%E0%B8%B4%E0%B8%99%E0%B8%9B%E0%B8%B9%E0%B8%99" title="หินปูน – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="หินปูน" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target">ไทย</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tg mw-list-item"><a href="https://tg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%9E%D2%B3%D0%B0%D0%BA%D1%81%D0%B0%D0%BD%D0%B3" title="Оҳаксанг – Tajik" lang="tg" hreflang="tg" data-title="Оҳаксанг" data-language-autonym="Тоҷикӣ" data-language-local-name="Tajik" class="interlanguage-link-target">Тоҷикӣ</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kire%C3%A7_ta%C5%9F%C4%B1" title="Kireç taşı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Kireç taşı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target">Türkçe</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%B0%D0%BF%D0%BD%D1%8F%D0%BA" title="Вапняк – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Вапняк" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target">Українська</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%90%C3%A1_v%C3%B4i" title="Đá vôi – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Đá vôi" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target">Tiếng Việt</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E7%9F%B3%E7%81%B0%E5%B2%A9" title="石灰岩 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="石灰岩" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target">吴语</a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-yi mw-list-item"><a href="https://yi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%90%D7%9C%D7%9B%D7%A9%D7%98%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9F" title="קאלכשטיין – Yiddish" lang="yi" hreflang="yi" data-title="קאלכשטיין" data-language-autonym="ייִדיש" data-language-local-name="Yiddish" 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<div class="vector-body-before-content"> <div class="mw-indicators"> <div id="mw-indicator-pp-default" class="mw-indicator"><div class="mw-parser-output"><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Protection_policy#semi" title="This article is semi-protected."><img alt="Page semi-protected" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/20px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png" decoding="async" width="20" height="20" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/1/1b/Semi-protection-shackle.svg/40px-Semi-protection-shackle.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" /></a></div></div> </div> <div id="siteSub" class="noprint">From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia</div> </div> <div id="contentSub"><div id="mw-content-subtitle"></div></div> <div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Type of sedimentary rock</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="/wiki/Limestone_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Limestone (disambiguation)">Limestone (disambiguation)</a>.</div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1257001546">.mw-parser-output .infobox-subbox{padding:0;border:none;margin:-3px;width:auto;min-width:100%;font-size:100%;clear:none;float:none;background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .infobox-3cols-child{margin:auto}.mw-parser-output .infobox .navbar{font-size:100%}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme)>div:not(.notheme)[style]{background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .infobox-full-data:not(.notheme) div:not(.notheme){background:#1f1f23!important;color:#f8f9fa}}@media(min-width:640px){body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table{display:table!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>caption{display:table-caption!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table>tbody{display:table-row-group}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table tr{display:table-row!important}body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table th,body.skin--responsive .mw-parser-output .infobox-table td{padding-left:inherit;padding-right:inherit}}</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Limestone</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-subheader" style="background-color: #cddeff"><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary">Sedimentary rock</a></td></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><a href="/wiki/File:ElTorcal0408.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/ElTorcal0408.jpg/220px-ElTorcal0408.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="146" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/ElTorcal0408.jpg/330px-ElTorcal0408.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/ElTorcal0408.jpg/440px-ElTorcal0408.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4288" data-file-height="2854" /></a><div class="infobox-caption">Limestone outcrop in the <a href="/wiki/Torcal_de_Antequera" class="mw-redirect" title="Torcal de Antequera">Torcal de Antequera</a> nature reserve of <a href="/wiki/M%C3%A1laga" title="Málaga">Málaga</a>, Spain</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header" style="background-color: #ededed">Composition</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-full-data"><a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">Calcium carbonate</a>: inorganic crystalline <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> or organic calcareous material</td></tr></tbody></table> Limestone (<a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1123817410">.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su{display:inline-block;font-size:80%;line-height:1;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output .template-chem2-su>span{display:block;text-align:left}.mw-parser-output sub.template-chem2-sub{font-size:80%;vertical-align:-0.35em}.mw-parser-output sup.template-chem2-sup{font-size:80%;vertical-align:0.65em}</style>CaCO3) is a type of <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rock" title="Carbonate rock">carbonate</a> <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rock</a> which is the main source of the material <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a>. It is composed mostly of the <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a>, which are different <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">crystal forms</a> of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3. Limestone forms when these minerals <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitate</a> out of water containing dissolved calcium. This can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes, though biological processes, such as the accumulation of corals and shells in the sea, have likely been more important for the last 540 million years.<a href="#cite_note-1">[1]</a><a href="#cite_note-2">[2]</a> Limestone often contains <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">fossils</a> which provide scientists with information on ancient environments and on the <a href="/wiki/Evolution" title="Evolution">evolution</a> of life.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-3">[3]</a> About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock, and most of this is limestone.<a href="#cite_note-4">[4]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-3">[3]</a> The remaining carbonate rock is mostly <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">dolomite</a>, a closely related rock, which contains a high percentage of the mineral <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaMg(CO3)2. Magnesian limestone is an obsolete and poorly-defined term used variously for dolomite, for limestone containing significant dolomite (dolomitic limestone), or for any other limestone containing a significant percentage of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>.<a href="#cite_note-5">[5]</a> Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">platforms</a>, though smaller amounts were formed in many other environments. Much dolomite is secondary dolomite, formed by chemical alteration of limestone.<a href="#cite_note-6">[6]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006182-194-7">[7]</a> Limestone is exposed over large regions of the Earth's surface, and because limestone is slightly <a href="/wiki/Solubility" title="Solubility">soluble</a> in rainwater, these exposures often are eroded to become <a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">karst</a> landscapes. Most <a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">cave</a> systems are found in limestone bedrock. Limestone has numerous uses: as a chemical <a href="/wiki/Feedstock" class="mw-redirect" title="Feedstock">feedstock</a> for the production of <a href="/wiki/Lime_(material)" title="Lime (material)">lime</a> used for <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a> (an essential component of <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a>), as aggregate for the base of roads, as white pigment or filler in products such as toothpaste or paint, as a <a href="/wiki/Soil_conditioner" title="Soil conditioner">soil conditioner</a>, and as a popular decorative addition to <a href="/wiki/Rock_gardens" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock gardens">rock gardens</a>. Limestone formations contain about 30% of the world's <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir" title="Petroleum reservoir">petroleum reservoirs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-3">[3]</a> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Description">Description</h2></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg/220px-Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="142" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg/330px-Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7b/Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg/440px-Limestone_Eocene_deposit_at_Sinj_Stari_grad_-_Dalmatia_-_Croatia_IMG_20210820_083857.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3400" data-file-height="2200" /></a><figcaption>This limestone deposit in the <a href="/wiki/Karst" title="Karst">karst</a> of <a href="/wiki/Dinaric_Alps" title="Dinaric Alps">Dinaric Alps</a> near <a href="/wiki/Sinj" title="Sinj">Sinj</a>, <a href="/wiki/Croatia" title="Croatia">Croatia</a>, was formed in the <a href="/wiki/Eocene" title="Eocene">Eocene</a>. </figcaption></figure> Limestone is composed mostly of the <a href="/wiki/Minerals" class="mw-redirect" title="Minerals">minerals</a> <a href="/wiki/Calcite" title="Calcite">calcite</a> and <a href="/wiki/Aragonite" title="Aragonite">aragonite</a>, which are different <a href="/wiki/Polymorphism_(materials_science)" class="mw-redirect" title="Polymorphism (materials science)">crystal forms</a> of <a href="/wiki/Calcium_carbonate" title="Calcium carbonate">calcium carbonate</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3). <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">Dolomite</a>, <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaMg(CO3)2, is an uncommon mineral in limestone, and <a href="/wiki/Siderite" title="Siderite">siderite</a> or other <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_mineral" title="Carbonate mineral">carbonate minerals</a> are rare. However, the calcite in limestone often contains a few percent of <a href="/wiki/Magnesium" title="Magnesium">magnesium</a>. Calcite in limestone is divided into low-magnesium and high-magnesium calcite, with the dividing line placed at a composition of 4% magnesium. High-magnesium calcite retains the calcite mineral structure, which is distinct from dolomite. Aragonite does not usually contain significant magnesium.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980448-449-8">[8]</a> Most limestone is otherwise chemically fairly pure, with <a href="/wiki/Detritus_(geology)" title="Detritus (geology)">clastic sediments</a> (mainly fine-grained <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a> and <a href="/wiki/Clay_mineral" title="Clay mineral">clay minerals</a>) making up less than 5%<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996295-9">[9]</a> to 10%<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006160-10">[10]</a> of the composition. Organic matter typically makes up around 0.2% of a limestone and rarely exceeds 1%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980467-11">[11]</a> Limestone often contains variable amounts of <a href="/wiki/Silica" class="mw-redirect" title="Silica">silica</a> in the form of <a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">chert</a> or siliceous skeletal fragments (such as <a href="/wiki/Sponge" title="Sponge">sponge</a> spicules, <a href="/wiki/Diatoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatoms">diatoms</a>, or <a href="/wiki/Radiolarians" class="mw-redirect" title="Radiolarians">radiolarians</a>).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996301–302-12">[12]</a> <a href="/wiki/Fossil" title="Fossil">Fossils</a> are also common in limestone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-3">[3]</a> Limestone is commonly white to gray in color. Limestone that is unusually rich in organic matter can be almost black in color, while traces of <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> or <a href="/wiki/Manganese" title="Manganese">manganese</a> can give limestone an off-white to yellow to red color. The density of limestone depends on its porosity, which varies from 0.1% for the densest limestone to 40% for chalk. The density correspondingly ranges from 1.5 to 2.7 g/cm3. Although relatively soft, with a <a href="/wiki/Mohs_hardness" class="mw-redirect" title="Mohs hardness">Mohs hardness</a> of 2 to 4, dense limestone can have a crushing strength of up to 180 <a href="/wiki/MPa" class="mw-redirect" title="MPa">MPa</a>.<a href="#cite_note-13">[13]</a> For comparison, <a href="/wiki/Concrete" title="Concrete">concrete</a> typically has a crushing strength of about 40 MPa.<a href="#cite_note-14">[14]</a> Although limestones show little variability in mineral composition, they show great diversity in texture.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996295–296-15">[15]</a> However, most limestone consists of sand-sized grains in a carbonate mud matrix. Because limestones are often of biological origin and are usually composed of sediment that is deposited close to where it formed, classification of limestone is usually based on its grain type and mud content.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996295-9">[9]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Grains">Grains</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ooids,_Joulter_Cays,_Bahamas.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ooids%2C_Joulter_Cays%2C_Bahamas.jpg/220px-Ooids%2C_Joulter_Cays%2C_Bahamas.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ooids%2C_Joulter_Cays%2C_Bahamas.jpg/330px-Ooids%2C_Joulter_Cays%2C_Bahamas.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Ooids%2C_Joulter_Cays%2C_Bahamas.jpg/440px-Ooids%2C_Joulter_Cays%2C_Bahamas.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2560" data-file-height="1920" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Ooid" title="Ooid">Ooids</a> from a <a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">beach</a> on Joulter's Cay, <a href="/wiki/The_Bahamas" title="The Bahamas">The Bahamas</a> </figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ooids_Carmel_Formation_Jurassic.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ooids_Carmel_Formation_Jurassic.jpg/220px-Ooids_Carmel_Formation_Jurassic.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ooids_Carmel_Formation_Jurassic.jpg/330px-Ooids_Carmel_Formation_Jurassic.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7e/Ooids_Carmel_Formation_Jurassic.jpg/440px-Ooids_Carmel_Formation_Jurassic.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3443" data-file-height="2295" /></a><figcaption>Ooids in limestone of the <a href="/wiki/Carmel_Formation" title="Carmel Formation">Carmel Formation</a> (Middle Jurassic) of southwestern Utah.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:CarmelOoids.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/CarmelOoids.jpg/250px-CarmelOoids.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="148" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/CarmelOoids.jpg/330px-CarmelOoids.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/76/CarmelOoids.jpg/500px-CarmelOoids.jpg 2x" data-file-width="701" data-file-height="471" /></a><figcaption>Thin-section view of a Middle <a href="/wiki/Jurassic" title="Jurassic">Jurassic</a> limestone in southern <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a>, U.S. The round grains are <a href="/wiki/Ooid" title="Ooid">ooids</a>; the largest is 1.2 mm (0.05 in) in diameter. This limestone is an oosparite.</figcaption></figure> Most grains in limestone are skeletal fragments of marine organisms such as <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a> or <a href="/wiki/Foraminifera" title="Foraminifera">foraminifera</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980452-16">[16]</a> These organisms secrete structures made of aragonite or calcite, and leave these structures behind when they die. Other carbonate grains composing limestones are <a href="/wiki/Ooids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ooids">ooids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Peloids" class="mw-redirect" title="Peloids">peloids</a>, and limeclasts (<a href="/wiki/Intraclasts" title="Intraclasts">intraclasts</a> and <a href="/w/index.php?title=Extraclast&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Extraclast (page does not exist)">extraclasts</a> [<a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/extraclast" class="extiw" title="ca:extraclast">ca</a>]).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996295–300-17">[17]</a> Skeletal grains have a composition reflecting the organisms that produced them and the environment in which they were produced.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980449-18">[18]</a> Low-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of articulate <a href="/wiki/Brachiopod" title="Brachiopod">brachiopods</a>, planktonic (free-floating) foraminifera, and <a href="/wiki/Coccolith" title="Coccolith">coccoliths</a>. High-magnesium calcite skeletal grains are typical of benthic (bottom-dwelling) foraminifera, <a href="/wiki/Echinoderm" title="Echinoderm">echinoderms</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Coralline_algae" title="Coralline algae">coralline algae</a>. Aragonite skeletal grains are typical of <a href="/wiki/Mollusc" class="mw-redirect" title="Mollusc">molluscs</a>, calcareous <a href="/wiki/Green_algae" title="Green algae">green algae</a>, <a href="/wiki/Stromatoporoid" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromatoporoid">stromatoporoids</a>, <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">corals</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Tube_worm" title="Tube worm">tube worms</a>. The skeletal grains also reflect specific geological periods and environments. For example, coral grains are more common in high-energy environments (characterized by strong currents and turbulence) while bryozoan grains are more common in low-energy environments (characterized by quiet water).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006161-164-19">[19]</a> Ooids (sometimes called ooliths) are sand-sized grains (less than 2mm in diameter) consisting of one or more layers of calcite or aragonite around a central quartz grain or carbonate mineral fragment. These likely form by direct precipitation of calcium carbonate onto the ooid. Pisoliths are similar to ooids, but they are larger than 2 mm in diameter and tend to be more irregular in shape. Limestone composed mostly of ooids is called an <a href="/wiki/Oolite" title="Oolite">oolite</a> or sometimes an oolitic limestone. Ooids form in high-energy environments, such as the Bahama platform, and oolites typically show <a href="/wiki/Cross-bedding" title="Cross-bedding">crossbedding</a> and other features associated with deposition in strong currents.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996297–299-20">[20]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006164–165-21">[21]</a> Oncoliths resemble ooids but show a radial rather than layered internal structure, indicating that they were formed by algae in a normal marine environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996297–299-20">[20]</a> Peloids are structureless grains of microcrystalline carbonate likely produced by a variety of processes.<a href="#cite_note-22">[22]</a> Many are thought to be fecal pellets produced by marine organisms. Others may be produced by <a href="/wiki/Endolithic" class="mw-redirect" title="Endolithic">endolithic</a> (boring) algae<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996298-23">[23]</a> or other microorganisms<a href="#cite_note-24">[24]</a> or through breakdown of mollusc shells.<a href="#cite_note-25">[25]</a> They are difficult to see in a limestone sample except in thin section and are less common in ancient limestones, possibly because compaction of carbonate sediments disrupts them.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996298-23">[23]</a> Limeclasts are fragments of existing limestone or partially <a href="/wiki/Lithification" title="Lithification">lithified</a> carbonate sediments. Intraclasts are limeclasts that originate close to where they are deposited in limestone, while extraclasts come from outside the depositional area. Intraclasts include grapestone, which is clusters of peloids cemented together by organic material or mineral cement. Extraclasts are uncommon, are usually accompanied by other clastic sediments, and indicate deposition in a tectonically active area or as part of a <a href="/wiki/Turbidity_current" title="Turbidity current">turbidity current</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996299-300,_304-26">[26]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Mud">Mud</h3></div> The grains of most limestones are embedded in a matrix of carbonate mud. This is typically the largest fraction of an ancient carbonate rock.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996298-23">[23]</a> Mud consisting of individual crystals less than 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length is described as micrite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980460-27">[27]</a> In fresh carbonate mud, micrite is mostly small aragonite needles, which may precipitate directly from seawater,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996300-28">[28]</a> be secreted by algae,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006166-29">[29]</a> or be produced by abrasion of carbonate grains in a high-energy environment.<a href="#cite_note-trower-etal-2019-30">[30]</a> This is converted to calcite within a few million years of deposition. Further recrystallization of micrite produces microspar, with grains from 5 to 15 μm (0.20 to 0.59 mils) in diameter.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996300-28">[28]</a> Limestone often contains larger crystals of calcite, ranging in size from 0.02 to 0.1 mm (0.79 to 3.94 mils), that are described as sparry calcite or sparite. Sparite is distinguished from micrite by a grain size of over 20 μm (0.79 mils) and because sparite stands out under a hand lens or in thin section as white or transparent crystals. Sparite is distinguished from carbonate grains by its lack of internal structure and its characteristic crystal shapes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006166–167-31">[31]</a> Geologists are careful to distinguish between sparite deposited as cement and sparite formed by recrystallization of micrite or carbonate grains. Sparite cement was likely deposited in pore space between grains, suggesting a high-energy depositional environment that removed carbonate mud. Recrystallized sparite is not diagnostic of depositional environment.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006166–167-31">[31]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Other_characteristics">Other characteristics</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Seven_Sisters_3.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Seven_Sisters_3.jpg/220px-Seven_Sisters_3.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="206" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Seven_Sisters_3.jpg/330px-Seven_Sisters_3.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/2f/Seven_Sisters_3.jpg/440px-Seven_Sisters_3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5030" data-file-height="4700" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Beachy_Head" title="Beachy Head">Beachy Head</a> cliffs are composed of chalk.</figcaption></figure> Limestone outcrops are recognized in the <a href="/wiki/Field_work" class="mw-redirect" title="Field work">field</a> by their softness (calcite and aragonite both have a Mohs hardness of less than 4, well below common silicate minerals) and because limestone bubbles vigorously when a drop of dilute <a href="/wiki/Hydrochloric_acid" title="Hydrochloric acid">hydrochloric acid</a> is dropped on it. Dolomite is also soft but reacts only feebly with dilute hydrochloric acid, and it usually weathers to a characteristic dull yellow-brown color due to the presence of ferrous iron. This is released and oxidized as the dolomite weathers.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996295-9">[9]</a> Impurities (such as <a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a>, sand, organic remains, <a href="/wiki/Iron_oxide" title="Iron oxide">iron oxide</a>, and other materials) will cause limestones to exhibit different colors, especially with <a href="/wiki/Weathering" title="Weathering">weathered</a> surfaces. The makeup of a carbonate rock outcrop can be estimated in the field by etching the surface with dilute hydrochloric acid. This etches away the calcite and aragonite, leaving behind any silica or dolomite grains. The latter can be identified by their <a href="/wiki/Rhombohedral" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhombohedral">rhombohedral</a> shape.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996295-9">[9]</a> Crystals of calcite, <a href="/wiki/Quartz" title="Quartz">quartz</a>, <a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(mineral)" title="Dolomite (mineral)">dolomite</a> or <a href="/wiki/Barite" class="mw-redirect" title="Barite">barite</a> may line small cavities (<a href="/wiki/Vugs" class="mw-redirect" title="Vugs">vugs</a>) in the rock. Vugs are a form of secondary porosity, formed in existing limestone by a change in environment that increases the solubility of calcite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996315–317-32">[32]</a> Dense, massive limestone is sometimes described as "marble". For example, the famous <a href="/wiki/Portoro_marble" class="mw-redirect" title="Portoro marble">Portoro "marble"</a> of Italy is actually a dense black limestone.<a href="#cite_note-33">[33]</a> True <a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">marble</a> is produced by recrystallization of limestone during regional <a href="/wiki/Metamorphism" title="Metamorphism">metamorphism</a> that accompanies the mountain building process (<a href="/wiki/Orogeny" title="Orogeny">orogeny</a>). It is distinguished from dense limestone by its coarse crystalline texture and the formation of distinctive minerals from the silica and clay present in the original limestone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996474-34">[34]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Classification">Classification</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/List_of_types_of_limestone" title="List of types of limestone">List of types of limestone</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Pamukkale_12.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pamukkale_12.jpg/220px-Pamukkale_12.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="140" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pamukkale_12.jpg/330px-Pamukkale_12.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/2/26/Pamukkale_12.jpg/440px-Pamukkale_12.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1186" data-file-height="756" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">Travertine</a> limestone terraces of <a href="/wiki/Pamukkale" title="Pamukkale">Pamukkale</a>, <a href="/wiki/Turkey" title="Turkey">Turkey</a>.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Luray_Caverns,_Dream_Lake_-_mirror-lake_of_caverns_(2015-05-09_14.03.28_by_Stan_Mouser).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Luray_Caverns%2C_Dream_Lake_-_mirror-lake_of_caverns_%282015-05-09_14.03.28_by_Stan_Mouser%29.jpg/220px-Luray_Caverns%2C_Dream_Lake_-_mirror-lake_of_caverns_%282015-05-09_14.03.28_by_Stan_Mouser%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Luray_Caverns%2C_Dream_Lake_-_mirror-lake_of_caverns_%282015-05-09_14.03.28_by_Stan_Mouser%29.jpg/330px-Luray_Caverns%2C_Dream_Lake_-_mirror-lake_of_caverns_%282015-05-09_14.03.28_by_Stan_Mouser%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e7/Luray_Caverns%2C_Dream_Lake_-_mirror-lake_of_caverns_%282015-05-09_14.03.28_by_Stan_Mouser%29.jpg/440px-Luray_Caverns%2C_Dream_Lake_-_mirror-lake_of_caverns_%282015-05-09_14.03.28_by_Stan_Mouser%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5472" data-file-height="3648" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cave_formations" class="mw-redirect" title="Cave formations">Cave limestone formations</a> in the <a href="/wiki/Luray_Caverns" title="Luray Caverns">Luray Caverns</a> of the northern <a href="/wiki/Shenandoah_Valley" title="Shenandoah Valley">Shenandoah Valley</a></figcaption></figure>Two major classification schemes, the Folk and Dunham, are used for identifying the types of <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonate rocks">carbonate rocks</a> collectively known as limestone. <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Folk_classification">Folk classification</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Folk%27s_carbonate_classification" class="mw-redirect" title="Folk's carbonate classification">Folk's carbonate classification</a></div> <a href="/wiki/Robert_L._Folk" title="Robert L. Folk">Robert L. Folk</a> developed a classification system that places primary emphasis on the detailed composition of grains and interstitial material in <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_rocks" class="mw-redirect" title="Carbonate rocks">carbonate rocks</a>.<a href="#cite_note-35">[35]</a> Based on composition, there are three main components: allochems (grains), matrix (mostly micrite), and cement (sparite). The Folk system uses two-part names; the first refers to the grains and the second to the cement. For example, a limestone consisting mainly of ooids, with a crystalline matrix, would be termed an oosparite. It is helpful to have a <a href="/wiki/Petrographic_microscope" title="Petrographic microscope">petrographic microscope</a> when using the Folk scheme, because it is easier to determine the components present in each sample.<a href="#cite_note-Folk-36">[36]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Dunham_classification">Dunham classification</h4></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Dunham_classification" title="Dunham classification">Dunham classification</a></div> Robert J. Dunham published his system for limestone in 1962. It focuses on the depositional fabric of carbonate rocks. Dunham divides the rocks into four main groups based on relative proportions of coarser clastic particles, based on criteria such as whether the grains were originally in mutual contact, and therefore self-supporting, or whether the rock is characterized by the presence of frame builders and algal mats. Unlike the Folk scheme, Dunham deals with the original porosity of the rock. The Dunham scheme is more useful for hand samples because it is based on texture, not the grains in the sample.<a href="#cite_note-Dunham-37">[37]</a> A revised classification was proposed by Wright (1992). It adds some diagenetic patterns to the classification scheme.<a href="#cite_note-Wright1992-38">[38]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Other_descriptive_terms">Other descriptive terms</h4></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Chalk_(%22Upper_Chalk%22_Formation,_Upper_Cretaceous;_White_Cliffs_of_Dover,_England,_southern_Britain).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Chalk_%28%22Upper_Chalk%22_Formation%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_White_Cliffs_of_Dover%2C_England%2C_southern_Britain%29.jpg/220px-Chalk_%28%22Upper_Chalk%22_Formation%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_White_Cliffs_of_Dover%2C_England%2C_southern_Britain%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="182" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Chalk_%28%22Upper_Chalk%22_Formation%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_White_Cliffs_of_Dover%2C_England%2C_southern_Britain%29.jpg/330px-Chalk_%28%22Upper_Chalk%22_Formation%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_White_Cliffs_of_Dover%2C_England%2C_southern_Britain%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/52/Chalk_%28%22Upper_Chalk%22_Formation%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_White_Cliffs_of_Dover%2C_England%2C_southern_Britain%29.jpg/440px-Chalk_%28%22Upper_Chalk%22_Formation%2C_Upper_Cretaceous%3B_White_Cliffs_of_Dover%2C_England%2C_southern_Britain%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="864" data-file-height="715" /></a><figcaption>Chalk from the White Cliffs of Dover (<a href="/wiki/Chalk_Group" title="Chalk Group">Chalk Group</a>), England</figcaption></figure> <a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">Travertine</a> is a term applied to calcium carbonate deposits formed in freshwater environments, particularly <a href="/wiki/Waterfall" title="Waterfall">waterfalls</a>, cascades and <a href="/wiki/Hot_springs" class="mw-redirect" title="Hot springs">hot springs</a>. Such deposits are typically massive, dense, and banded. When the deposits are highly porous, so that they have a spongelike texture, they are typically described as <a href="/wiki/Tufa" title="Tufa">tufa</a>. Secondary calcite deposited by <a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">supersaturated</a> <a href="/wiki/Meteoric_water" title="Meteoric water">meteoric waters</a> (<a href="/wiki/Groundwater" title="Groundwater">groundwater</a>) in caves is also sometimes described as travertine. This produces <a href="/wiki/Speleothem" title="Speleothem">speleothems</a>, such as <a href="/wiki/Stalagmite" title="Stalagmite">stalagmites</a> and <a href="/wiki/Stalactite" title="Stalactite">stalactites</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980479-480-39">[39]</a> <a href="/wiki/Coquina" title="Coquina">Coquina</a> is a poorly consolidated limestone composed of abraded pieces of <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a>, <a href="/wiki/Exoskeleton" title="Exoskeleton">shells</a>, or other fossil debris. When better consolidated, it is described as coquinite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006172-40">[40]</a> <a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">Chalk</a> is a soft, earthy, fine-textured limestone composed of the tests of planktonic microorganisms such as foraminifera, while <a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">marl</a> is an earthy mixture of carbonates and silicate sediments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006172-40">[40]</a> <div style="clear:both;" class=""></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Formation">Formation</h2></div> Limestone forms when calcite or aragonite <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(chemistry)" title="Precipitation (chemistry)">precipitate</a> out of water containing dissolved calcium, which can take place through both biological and nonbiological processes.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006177-41">[41]</a> The solubility of calcium carbonate (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3) is controlled largely by the amount of dissolved <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> (<link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CO2) in the water. This is summarized in the reaction: <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 → Ca2+ + 2 HCO−3</dd></dl> Increases in temperature or decreases in pressure tend to reduce the amount of dissolved <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CO2 and precipitate <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3. Reduction in salinity also reduces the solubility of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3, by several orders of magnitude for fresh water versus seawater.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006174–176-42">[42]</a> Near-surface water of the earth's oceans are oversaturated with <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3 by a factor of more than six.<a href="#cite_note-43">[43]</a> The failure of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3 to rapidly precipitate out of these waters is likely due to interference by dissolved magnesium <a href="/wiki/Ion" title="Ion">ions</a> with <a href="/wiki/Nucleation" title="Nucleation">nucleation</a> of calcite crystals, the necessary first step in precipitation. Precipitation of aragonite may be suppressed by the presence of naturally occurring organic phosphates in the water. Although <a href="/wiki/Ooids" class="mw-redirect" title="Ooids">ooids</a> likely form through purely inorganic processes, the bulk of <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3 precipitation in the oceans is the result of biological activity.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006176–182-44">[44]</a> Much of this takes place on <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">carbonate platforms</a>. <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lake_Ontario_Whiting_NASA_Satellite_Image.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Lake_Ontario_Whiting_NASA_Satellite_Image.jpg/220px-Lake_Ontario_Whiting_NASA_Satellite_Image.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Lake_Ontario_Whiting_NASA_Satellite_Image.jpg/330px-Lake_Ontario_Whiting_NASA_Satellite_Image.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fe/Lake_Ontario_Whiting_NASA_Satellite_Image.jpg/440px-Lake_Ontario_Whiting_NASA_Satellite_Image.jpg 2x" data-file-width="720" data-file-height="480" /></a><figcaption>An aerial view of a whiting event precipitation cloud in Lake Ontario.</figcaption></figure> The origin of carbonate mud,<a href="#cite_note-trower-etal-2019-30">[30]</a> and the processes by which it is converted to micrite,<a href="#cite_note-45">[45]</a> continue to be a subject of research. Modern carbonate mud is composed mostly of aragonite needles around 5 μm (0.20 mils) in length. Needles of this shape and composition are produced by calcareous algae such as <a href="/wiki/Penicillus_(alga)" title="Penicillus (alga)">Penicillus</a>, making this a plausible source of mud.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980460–464-46">[46]</a> Another possibility is direct precipitation from the water. A phenomenon known as whitings occurs in shallow waters, in which white streaks containing dispersed micrite appear on the surface of the water. It is uncertain whether this is freshly precipitated aragonite or simply material stirred up from the bottom, but there is some evidence that whitings are caused by biological precipitation of aragonite as part of a <a href="/wiki/Algal_bloom" title="Algal bloom">bloom</a> of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> or <a href="/wiki/Microalgae" title="Microalgae">microalgae</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006180-47">[47]</a> However, <a href="/wiki/Stable_isotope_ratio" title="Stable isotope ratio">stable isotope ratios</a> in modern carbonate mud appear to be inconsistent with either of these mechanisms, and abrasion of carbonate grains in high-energy environments has been put forward as a third possibility.<a href="#cite_note-trower-etal-2019-30">[30]</a> Formation of limestone has likely been dominated by biological processes throughout the <a href="/wiki/Phanerozoic" title="Phanerozoic">Phanerozoic</a>, the last 540 million years of the Earth's history. Limestone may have been deposited by microorganisms in the <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a>, prior to 540 million years ago, but inorganic processes were probably more important and likely took place in an ocean more highly oversaturated in calcium carbonate than the modern ocean.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006177,_181-48">[48]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diagenesis">Diagenesis</h3></div> <a href="/wiki/Diagenesis" title="Diagenesis">Diagenesis</a> is the process in which sediments are compacted and <a href="/wiki/Lithification" title="Lithification">turned into solid rock</a>. During diagenesis of carbonate sediments, significant chemical and textural changes take place. For example, aragonite is converted to low-magnesium calcite. Diagenesis is the likely origin of pisoliths, concentrically layered particles ranging from 1 to 10 mm (0.039 to 0.394 inches) in diameter found in some limestones. Pisoliths superficially resemble ooids but have no nucleus of foreign matter, fit together tightly, and show other signs that they formed after the original deposition of the sediments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980497–501-49">[49]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:%C3%87%C3%B6rt_yumrusu,_Chert.2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%C3%87%C3%B6rt_yumrusu%2C_Chert.2.jpg/220px-%C3%87%C3%B6rt_yumrusu%2C_Chert.2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%C3%87%C3%B6rt_yumrusu%2C_Chert.2.jpg/330px-%C3%87%C3%B6rt_yumrusu%2C_Chert.2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/7a/%C3%87%C3%B6rt_yumrusu%2C_Chert.2.jpg/440px-%C3%87%C3%B6rt_yumrusu%2C_Chert.2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a><figcaption>Chert nodule within soft limestone at <a href="/wiki/Ak%C3%A7akoca" title="Akçakoca">Akçakoca</a>, Turkey</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Stylolites_mcr1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Stylolites_mcr1.jpg/220px-Stylolites_mcr1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Stylolites_mcr1.jpg/330px-Stylolites_mcr1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3e/Stylolites_mcr1.jpg/440px-Stylolites_mcr1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2048" data-file-height="1536" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Stylolite" title="Stylolite">Stylolites</a> in limestone</figcaption></figure> Silicification occurs early in diagenesis, at low pH and temperature, and contributes to fossil preservation.<a href="#cite_note-Götz-2017-50">[50]</a> Silicification takes place through the reaction:<a href="#cite_note-Götz-2017-50">[50]</a> <dl><dd><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1123817410" />CaCO3 + H2O + CO2 + H4SiO4 → SiO2 + Ca2+ + 2 HCO−3 + 2 H2O</dd></dl> Fossils are often preserved in exquisite detail as chert.<a href="#cite_note-Götz-2017-50">[50]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980497-503-51">[51]</a> Cementing takes place rapidly in carbonate sediments, typically within less than a million years of deposition. Some cementing occurs while the sediments are still under water, forming <a href="/wiki/Hardground" class="mw-redirect" title="Hardground">hardgrounds</a>. Cementing accelerates after the retreat of the sea from the depositional environment, as rainwater infiltrates the sediment beds, often within just a few thousand years. As rainwater mixes with groundwater, aragonite and high-magnesium calcite are converted to low-calcium calcite. Cementing of thick carbonate deposits by rainwater may commence even before the retreat of the sea, as rainwater can infiltrate over 100 km (60 miles) into sediments beneath the continental shelf.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996312-52">[52]</a> As carbonate sediments are increasingly deeply buried under younger sediments, chemical and mechanical compaction of the sediments increases. Chemical compaction takes place by <a href="/wiki/Pressure_solution" title="Pressure solution">pressure solution</a> of the sediments. This process dissolves minerals from points of contact between grains and redeposits it in pore space, reducing the porosity of the limestone from an initial high value of 40% to 80% to less than 10%.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980507–509-53">[53]</a> Pressure solution produces distinctive <a href="/wiki/Stylolite" title="Stylolite">stylolites</a>, irregular surfaces within the limestone at which silica-rich sediments accumulate. These may reflect dissolution and loss of a considerable fraction of the limestone bed. At depths greater than 1 km (0.62 miles), burial cementation completes the lithification process. Burial cementation does not produce stylolites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996312-316-54">[54]</a> When overlying beds are eroded, bringing limestone closer to the surface, the final stage of diagenesis takes place. This produces secondary porosity as some of the cement is dissolved by rainwater infiltrating the beds. This may include the formation of <a href="/wiki/Vug" title="Vug">vugs</a>, which are crystal-lined cavities within the limestone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996312-316-54">[54]</a> Diagenesis may include conversion of limestone to dolomite by magnesium-rich fluids. There is considerable evidence of replacement of limestone by dolomite, including sharp replacement boundaries that cut across bedding.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006186–187-55">[55]</a> The process of <a href="/wiki/Dolomitization" title="Dolomitization">dolomitization</a> remains an area of active research,<a href="#cite_note-machel-2004-56">[56]</a> but possible mechanisms include exposure to concentrated brines in hot environments (evaporative reflux) or exposure to diluted seawater in delta or estuary environments (Dorag dolomitization).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980512–528-57">[57]</a> However, Dorag dolomitization has fallen into disfavor as a mechanism for dolomitization,<a href="#cite_note-58">[58]</a> with one 2004 review paper describing it bluntly as "a myth".<a href="#cite_note-machel-2004-56">[56]</a> Ordinary seawater is capable of converting calcite to dolomite, if the seawater is regularly flushed through the rock, as by the ebb and flow of tides (tidal pumping).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006186–187-55">[55]</a> Once dolomitization begins, it proceeds rapidly, so that there is very little carbonate rock containing mixed calcite and dolomite. Carbonate rock tends to be either almost all calcite/aragonite or almost all dolomite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980512–528-57">[57]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occurrence">Occurrence</h2></div> About 20% to 25% of sedimentary rock is carbonate rock,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-3">[3]</a> and most of this is limestone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996295–300-17">[17]</a><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-3">[3]</a> Limestone is found in sedimentary sequences as old as 2.7 billion years.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980445-59">[59]</a> However, the compositions of carbonate rocks show an uneven distribution in time in the geologic record. About 95% of modern carbonates are composed of high-magnesium calcite and aragonite.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980448-60">[60]</a> The aragonite needles in carbonate mud are converted to low-magnesium calcite within a few million years, as this is the most stable form of calcium carbonate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996300-28">[28]</a> Ancient carbonate formations of the <a href="/wiki/Precambrian" title="Precambrian">Precambrian</a> and <a href="/wiki/Paleozoic" title="Paleozoic">Paleozoic</a> contain abundant dolomite, but limestone dominates the carbonate beds of the <a href="/wiki/Mesozoic" title="Mesozoic">Mesozoic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Cenozoic" title="Cenozoic">Cenozoic</a>. Modern dolomite is quite rare. There is evidence that, while the modern ocean favors precipitation of aragonite, the oceans of the Paleozoic and middle to late Cenozoic favored precipitation of calcite. This may indicate a lower Mg/Ca ratio in the ocean water of those times.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-161-61">[61]</a> This magnesium depletion may be a consequence of more rapid <a href="/wiki/Sea_floor_spreading" class="mw-redirect" title="Sea floor spreading">sea floor spreading</a>, which removes magnesium from ocean water. The modern ocean and the ocean of the Mesozoic have been described as "aragonite seas".<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006176-177-62">[62]</a> Most limestone was formed in shallow marine environments, such as <a href="/wiki/Continental_shelves" class="mw-redirect" title="Continental shelves">continental shelves</a> or <a href="/wiki/Carbonate_platform" title="Carbonate platform">platforms</a>. Such environments form only about 5% of the ocean basins, but limestone is rarely preserved in continental slope and deep sea environments. The best environments for deposition are warm waters, which have both a high organic productivity and increased saturation of calcium carbonate due to lower concentrations of dissolved carbon dioxide. Modern limestone deposits are almost always in areas with very little silica-rich sedimentation, reflected in the relative purity of most limestones. Reef organisms are destroyed by muddy, brackish river water, and carbonate grains are ground down by much harder silicate grains.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980446,_733-63">[63]</a> Unlike clastic sedimentary rock, limestone is produced almost entirely from sediments originating at or near the place of deposition.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980468-470-64">[64]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:El_Cap_GUMO.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/El_Cap_GUMO.jpg/250px-El_Cap_GUMO.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/El_Cap_GUMO.jpg/330px-El_Cap_GUMO.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/c/ce/El_Cap_GUMO.jpg/500px-El_Cap_GUMO.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3456" data-file-height="2304" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/El_Capitan_(Texas)" title="El Capitan (Texas)">El Capitan</a>, an ancient limestone reef in Texas</figcaption></figure> Limestone formations tend to show abrupt changes in thickness. Large moundlike features in a limestone formation are interpreted as ancient <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">reefs</a>, which when they appear in the geologic record are called bioherms. Many are rich in fossils, but most lack any connected organic framework like that seen in modern reefs. The fossil remains are present as separate fragments embedded in ample mud matrix. Much of the sedimentation shows indications of occurring in the intertidal or supratidal zones, suggesting sediments rapidly fill available <a href="/wiki/Accommodation_(geology)" title="Accommodation (geology)">accommodation space</a> in the shelf or platform.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980446-447-65">[65]</a> Deposition is also favored on the seaward margin of shelves and platforms, where there is upwelling deep ocean water rich in nutrients that increase organic productivity. Reefs are common here, but when lacking, ooid shoals are found instead. Finer sediments are deposited close to shore.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996306-307-66">[66]</a> The lack of deep sea limestones is due in part to rapid <a href="/wiki/Subduction" title="Subduction">subduction</a> of oceanic crust, but is more a result of dissolution of calcium carbonate at depth. The solubility of calcium carbonate increases with pressure and even more with higher concentrations of carbon dioxide, which is produced by decaying organic matter settling into the deep ocean that is not removed by <a href="/wiki/Photosynthesis" title="Photosynthesis">photosynthesis</a> in the dark depths. As a result, there is a fairly sharp transition from water saturated with calcium carbonate to water unsaturated with calcium carbonate, the <a href="/wiki/Lysocline" title="Lysocline">lysocline</a>, which occurs at the <a href="/wiki/Calcite_compensation_depth" class="mw-redirect" title="Calcite compensation depth">calcite compensation depth</a> of 4,000 to 7,000 m (13,000 to 23,000 feet). Below this depth, foraminifera tests and other skeletal particles rapidly dissolve, and the sediments of the ocean floor abruptly transition from carbonate ooze rich in foraminifera and coccolith remains (<a href="/wiki/Globigerina" title="Globigerina">Globigerina</a> ooze) to silicic mud lacking carbonates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980474-479-67">[67]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:M%C3%B8nsted_kalkgruber_exposure_fused_2014-07-18.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/M%C3%B8nsted_kalkgruber_exposure_fused_2014-07-18.jpg/220px-M%C3%B8nsted_kalkgruber_exposure_fused_2014-07-18.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/M%C3%B8nsted_kalkgruber_exposure_fused_2014-07-18.jpg/330px-M%C3%B8nsted_kalkgruber_exposure_fused_2014-07-18.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/99/M%C3%B8nsted_kalkgruber_exposure_fused_2014-07-18.jpg/440px-M%C3%B8nsted_kalkgruber_exposure_fused_2014-07-18.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3880" data-file-height="2592" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/M%C3%B8nsted" title="Mønsted">Mønsted</a> is the largest limestone <a href="/wiki/Mining" title="Mining">mine</a> in the world.</figcaption></figure> In rare cases, <a href="/wiki/Turbidite" title="Turbidite">turbidites</a> or other silica-rich sediments bury and preserve benthic (deep ocean) carbonate deposits. Ancient benthic limestones are microcrystalline and are identified by their tectonic setting. Fossils typically are foraminifera and coccoliths. No pre-Jurassic benthic limestones are known, probably because carbonate-shelled plankton had not yet evolved.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996308-309-68">[68]</a> Limestones also form in freshwater environments.<a href="#cite_note-69">[69]</a> These limestones are not unlike marine limestone, but have a lower diversity of organisms and a greater fraction of silica and clay minerals characteristic of <a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">marls</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Green_River_Formation" title="Green River Formation">Green River Formation</a> is an example of a prominent freshwater sedimentary formation containing numerous limestone beds.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980480-482-70">[70]</a> Freshwater limestone is typically micritic. Fossils of <a href="/wiki/Charophyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Charophyte">charophyte</a> (stonewort), a form of freshwater green algae, are characteristic of these environments, where the charophytes produce and trap carbonates.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996309-310-71">[71]</a> Limestones may also form in <a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">evaporite</a> <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_depositional_environment" class="mw-redirect" title="Sedimentary depositional environment">depositional environments</a>.<a href="#cite_note-72">[72]</a><a href="#cite_note-73">[73]</a> Calcite is one of the first minerals to precipitate in marine evaporites.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006662-74">[74]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limestone_and_living_organisms">Limestone and living organisms</h3></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Lembongan-penida-snorkeling.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Lembongan-penida-snorkeling.jpg/220px-Lembongan-penida-snorkeling.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Lembongan-penida-snorkeling.jpg/330px-Lembongan-penida-snorkeling.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ab/Lembongan-penida-snorkeling.jpg/440px-Lembongan-penida-snorkeling.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3200" data-file-height="2400" /></a><figcaption>Coral reef at <a href="/wiki/Nusa_Lembongan" title="Nusa Lembongan">Nusa Lembongan</a>, Bali, Indonesia</figcaption></figure> Most limestone is formed by the activities of living organisms near reefs, but the organisms responsible for reef formation have changed over geologic time. For example, <a href="/wiki/Stromatolites" class="mw-redirect" title="Stromatolites">stromatolites</a> are mound-shaped structures in ancient limestones, interpreted as colonies of <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacteria" title="Cyanobacteria">cyanobacteria</a> that accumulated carbonate sediments, but stromatolites are rare in younger limestones.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980446,_471–474-75">[75]</a> Organisms precipitate limestone both directly as part of their skeletons, and indirectly by removing carbon dioxide from the water by photosynthesis and thereby decreasing the solubility of calcium carbonate.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996309-310-71">[71]</a> Limestone shows the same range of <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_structures" title="Sedimentary structures">sedimentary structures</a> found in other sedimentary rocks. However, finer structures, such as <a href="/wiki/Lamination_(geology)" title="Lamination (geology)">lamination</a>, are often destroyed by the burrowing activities of organisms (<a href="/wiki/Bioturbation" title="Bioturbation">bioturbation</a>). Fine lamination is characteristic of limestone formed in <a href="/wiki/Playa_lake" class="mw-redirect" title="Playa lake">playa lakes</a>, which lack the burrowing organisms.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980446–471-76">[76]</a> Limestones also show distinctive features such as geopetal structures, which form when curved shells settle to the bottom with the concave face downwards. This traps a void space that can later be filled by sparite. Geologists use geopetal structures to determine which direction was up at the time of deposition, which is not always obvious with highly deformed limestone formations.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996304-77">[77]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Cyanobacterium" class="mw-redirect" title="Cyanobacterium">cyanobacterium</a> Hyella balani can bore through limestone; as can the <a href="/wiki/Green_alga" class="mw-redirect" title="Green alga">green alga</a> Eugamantia sacculata and the <a href="/wiki/Fungus" title="Fungus">fungus</a> Ostracolaba implexa.<a href="#cite_note-78">[78]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Micritic_mud_mounds">Micritic mud mounds</h4></div> Micricitic mud mounds are subcircular domes of micritic calcite that lacks internal structure. Modern examples are up to several hundred meters thick and a kilometer across, and have steep slopes (with slope angles of around 50 degrees). They may be composed of peloids swept together by currents and stabilized by <a href="/wiki/Thalassia_(plant)" title="Thalassia (plant)">Thalassia</a> grass or <a href="/wiki/Mangroves" class="mw-redirect" title="Mangroves">mangroves</a>. Bryozoa may also contribute to mound formation by helping to trap sediments.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996307-79">[79]</a> Mud mounds are found throughout the geologic record, and prior to the <a href="/wiki/Early_Ordovician" title="Early Ordovician">early Ordovician</a>, they were the dominant reef type in both deep and shallow water. These mud mounds likely are microbial in origin. Following the appearance of frame-building reef organisms, mud mounds were restricted mainly to deeper water.<a href="#cite_note-80">[80]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Organic_reefs">Organic reefs</h4></div> Organic reefs form at low latitudes in shallow water, not more than a few meters deep. They are complex, diverse structures found throughout the fossil record. The frame-building organisms responsible for organic reef formation are characteristic of different geologic time periods: <a href="/wiki/Archaeocyathid" class="mw-redirect" title="Archaeocyathid">Archaeocyathids</a> appeared in the <a href="/wiki/Early_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Early Cambrian">early Cambrian</a>; these gave way to sponges by the <a href="/wiki/Late_Cambrian" class="mw-redirect" title="Late Cambrian">late Cambrian</a>; later successions included stromatoporoids, corals, algae, bryozoa, and <a href="/wiki/Rudist" class="mw-redirect" title="Rudist">rudists</a> (a form of bivalve mollusc).<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996307–308-81">[81]</a><a href="#cite_note-82">[82]</a><a href="#cite_note-83">[83]</a> The extent of organic reefs has varied over geologic time, and they were likely most extensive in the middle Devonian, when they covered an area estimated at 5,000,000 km2 (1,900,000 sq mi). This is roughly ten times the extent of modern reefs. The Devonian reefs were constructed largely by stromatoporoids and <a href="/wiki/Tabulata" title="Tabulata">tabulate corals</a>, which were devastated by the <a href="/wiki/Late_Devonian_extinction" title="Late Devonian extinction">late Devonian extinction</a>.<a href="#cite_note-84">[84]</a> Organic reefs typically have a complex internal structure. Whole body fossils are usually abundant, but ooids and interclasts are rare within the reef. The core of a reef is typically massive and unbedded, and is surrounded by a <a href="/wiki/Scree" title="Scree">talus</a> that is greater in volume than the core. The talus contains abundant intraclasts and is usually either floatstone, with 10% or more of grains over 2mm in size embedded in abundant matrix, or rudstone, which is mostly large grains with sparse matrix. The talus grades to planktonic fine-grained carbonate mud, then noncarbonate mud away from the reef.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattTracy1996307–308-81">[81]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Limestone_landscape">Limestone landscape</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Karst_topography" class="mw-redirect" title="Karst topography">Karst topography</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Maczuga_Herkulesa_(background_Castle_Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Maczuga_Herkulesa_%28background_Castle_Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a%29.jpg/220px-Maczuga_Herkulesa_%28background_Castle_Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Maczuga_Herkulesa_%28background_Castle_Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a%29.jpg/330px-Maczuga_Herkulesa_%28background_Castle_Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/3/3c/Maczuga_Herkulesa_%28background_Castle_Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a%29.jpg/440px-Maczuga_Herkulesa_%28background_Castle_Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1704" data-file-height="2272" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Maczuga_Herkulesa" title="Maczuga Herkulesa">The Cudgel of Hercules</a>, a tall limestone rock in Poland (<a href="/wiki/Pieskowa_Ska%C5%82a" title="Pieskowa Skała">Pieskowa Skała Castle</a> in the background)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Cenote_in_valladolid_mexico_(21362599476).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Cenote_in_valladolid_mexico_%2821362599476%29.jpg/220px-Cenote_in_valladolid_mexico_%2821362599476%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Cenote_in_valladolid_mexico_%2821362599476%29.jpg/330px-Cenote_in_valladolid_mexico_%2821362599476%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/ad/Cenote_in_valladolid_mexico_%2821362599476%29.jpg/440px-Cenote_in_valladolid_mexico_%2821362599476%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3000" data-file-height="4000" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/w/index.php?title=Samul%C3%A1&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Samulá (page does not exist)">Samulá</a> <a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">cenote</a> in <a href="/wiki/Valladolid_Municipality,_Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Valladolid Municipality, Yucatán">Valladolid</a>, <a href="/wiki/Yucat%C3%A1n" title="Yucatán">Yucatán</a>, <a href="/wiki/Mexico" title="Mexico">Mexico</a></figcaption></figure><figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:La_Zaplaz,_Piatra_Craiului.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/La_Zaplaz%2C_Piatra_Craiului.jpg/250px-La_Zaplaz%2C_Piatra_Craiului.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="293" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/La_Zaplaz%2C_Piatra_Craiului.jpg/330px-La_Zaplaz%2C_Piatra_Craiului.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/fa/La_Zaplaz%2C_Piatra_Craiului.jpg/500px-La_Zaplaz%2C_Piatra_Craiului.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2304" data-file-height="3072" /></a><figcaption>La Zaplaz formations in the <a href="/wiki/Piatra_Craiului_Mountains" title="Piatra Craiului Mountains">Piatra Craiului Mountains</a>, <a href="/wiki/Romania" title="Romania">Romania</a>.</figcaption></figure>Limestone is partially soluble, especially in acid, and therefore forms many erosional landforms. These include <a href="/wiki/Limestone_pavement" title="Limestone pavement">limestone pavements</a>, <a href="/wiki/Pot_hole" class="mw-redirect" title="Pot hole">pot holes</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cenote" title="Cenote">cenotes</a>, caves and gorges. Such erosion landscapes are known as <a href="/wiki/Karsts" class="mw-redirect" title="Karsts">karsts</a>. Limestone is less <a href="/wiki/Resistance_(geology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Resistance (geology)">resistant</a> to erosion than most <a href="/wiki/Igneous" class="mw-redirect" title="Igneous">igneous</a> rocks, but more resistant than most other <a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">sedimentary rocks</a>. It is therefore usually associated with hills and <a href="/wiki/Downland" title="Downland">downland</a>, and occurs in regions with other sedimentary rocks, typically clays.<a href="#cite_note-thornbury-1969-85">[85]</a><a href="#cite_note-86">[86]</a> Karst regions overlying limestone bedrock tend to have fewer visible above-ground sources (ponds and streams), as surface water easily drains downward through <a href="/wiki/Joint_(geology)" title="Joint (geology)">joints</a> in the limestone. While draining, water and organic acid from the soil slowly (over thousands or millions of years) enlarges these cracks, dissolving the calcium carbonate and carrying it away in <a href="/wiki/Solution_(chemistry)" title="Solution (chemistry)">solution</a>. Most <a href="/wiki/Cave" title="Cave">cave</a> systems are through limestone bedrock. Cooling groundwater or mixing of different groundwaters will also create conditions suitable for cave formation.<a href="#cite_note-thornbury-1969-85">[85]</a> Coastal limestones are often eroded by organisms which bore into the rock by various means. This process is known as <a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">bioerosion</a>. It is most common in the tropics, and it is known throughout the <a href="/wiki/Fossil_record" class="mw-redirect" title="Fossil record">fossil record</a>.<a href="#cite_note-87">[87]</a> Bands of limestone emerge from the Earth's surface in often spectacular rocky outcrops and islands. Examples include the <a href="/wiki/Rock_of_Gibraltar" title="Rock of Gibraltar">Rock of Gibraltar</a>,<a href="#cite_note-Quaternary_Science_Reviews_23_(2004)_2017–2029-88">[88]</a> the <a href="/wiki/The_Burren" title="The Burren">Burren</a> in County Clare, Ireland;<a href="#cite_note-89">[89]</a> <a href="/wiki/Malham_Cove" title="Malham Cove">Malham Cove</a> in <a href="/wiki/North_Yorkshire" title="North Yorkshire">North Yorkshire</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Isle_of_Wight" title="Isle of Wight">Isle of Wight</a>,<a href="#cite_note-90">[90]</a> England; the <a href="/wiki/Great_Orme" title="Great Orme">Great Orme</a> in Wales;<a href="#cite_note-91">[91]</a> on <a href="/wiki/F%C3%A5r%C3%B6" title="Fårö">Fårö</a> near the Swedish island of <a href="/wiki/Gotland" title="Gotland">Gotland</a>,<a href="#cite_note-92">[92]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Niagara_Escarpment" title="Niagara Escarpment">Niagara Escarpment</a> in Canada/United States;<a href="#cite_note-93">[93]</a> <a href="/wiki/Notch_Peak" title="Notch Peak">Notch Peak</a> in Utah;<a href="#cite_note-94">[94]</a> the <a href="/wiki/Ha_Long_Bay" class="mw-redirect" title="Ha Long Bay">Ha Long Bay</a> National Park in Vietnam;<a href="#cite_note-Thanh-95">[95]</a> and the hills around the <a href="/wiki/Lijiang_River" class="mw-redirect" title="Lijiang River">Lijiang River</a> and <a href="/wiki/Guilin" title="Guilin">Guilin</a> city in China.<a href="#cite_note-Tony-96">[96]</a> The <a href="/wiki/Florida_Keys" title="Florida Keys">Florida Keys</a>, islands off the south coast of <a href="/wiki/Florida" title="Florida">Florida</a>, are composed mainly of <a href="/wiki/Oolite" title="Oolite">oolitic</a> limestone (the Lower Keys) and the carbonate skeletons of <a href="/wiki/Coral" title="Coral">coral</a> reefs (the Upper Keys), which thrived in the area during interglacial periods when sea level was higher than at present.<a href="#cite_note-97">[97]</a> Unique habitats are found on <a href="/wiki/Alvar" title="Alvar">alvars</a>, extremely level expanses of limestone with thin soil mantles. The largest such expanse in Europe is the <a href="/wiki/Stora_Alvaret" title="Stora Alvaret">Stora Alvaret</a> on the island of <a href="/wiki/%C3%96land" title="Öland">Öland</a>, Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-98">[98]</a> Another area with large quantities of limestone is the island of Gotland, Sweden.<a href="#cite_note-Laufeld1974-99">[99]</a> Huge quarries in northwestern Europe, such as those of Mount Saint Peter (Belgium/Netherlands), extend for more than a hundred kilometers.<a href="#cite_note-100">[100]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Uses">Uses</h2></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951" /><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Ashlar" title="Ashlar">ashlar</a></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Malta_-_Qrendi_-_Hagar_Qim_and_Mnajdra_Archaeological_Park_-_Hagar_Qim_08_ies.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Malta_-_Qrendi_-_Hagar_Qim_and_Mnajdra_Archaeological_Park_-_Hagar_Qim_08_ies.jpg/220px-Malta_-_Qrendi_-_Hagar_Qim_and_Mnajdra_Archaeological_Park_-_Hagar_Qim_08_ies.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Malta_-_Qrendi_-_Hagar_Qim_and_Mnajdra_Archaeological_Park_-_Hagar_Qim_08_ies.jpg/330px-Malta_-_Qrendi_-_Hagar_Qim_and_Mnajdra_Archaeological_Park_-_Hagar_Qim_08_ies.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4d/Malta_-_Qrendi_-_Hagar_Qim_and_Mnajdra_Archaeological_Park_-_Hagar_Qim_08_ies.jpg/440px-Malta_-_Qrendi_-_Hagar_Qim_and_Mnajdra_Archaeological_Park_-_Hagar_Qim_08_ies.jpg 2x" data-file-width="5616" data-file-height="3744" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Megalithic_Temples_of_Malta" title="Megalithic Temples of Malta">Megalithic Temples of Malta</a> such as <a href="/wiki/%C4%A6a%C4%A1ar_Qim" title="Ħaġar Qim">Ħaġar Qim</a> are built entirely of limestone. They are among the oldest freestanding structures in existence.<a href="#cite_note-cassar-101">[101]</a></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Gizeh_Cheops_BW_1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Gizeh_Cheops_BW_1.jpg/250px-Gizeh_Cheops_BW_1.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Gizeh_Cheops_BW_1.jpg/330px-Gizeh_Cheops_BW_1.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d1/Gizeh_Cheops_BW_1.jpg/500px-Gizeh_Cheops_BW_1.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3443" data-file-height="2293" /></a><figcaption>The <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid of Giza</a>, one of the <a href="/wiki/Seven_Wonders_of_the_Ancient_World" title="Seven Wonders of the Ancient World">Seven Wonders of the Ancient World</a>, had an outside cover made entirely from limestone.</figcaption></figure> Limestone is a raw material that is used globally in a variety of different ways including construction, agriculture and as industrial materials.<a href="#cite_note-Oates-2008-102">[102]</a> Limestone is very common in architecture, especially in Europe and North America. Many landmarks across the world, including the <a href="/wiki/Great_Pyramid_of_Giza" title="Great Pyramid of Giza">Great Pyramid</a> and its associated <a href="/wiki/Giza_pyramid_complex" title="Giza pyramid complex">complex</a> in <a href="/wiki/Giza,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Giza, Egypt">Giza, Egypt</a>, were made of limestone. So many buildings in <a href="/wiki/Kingston,_Ontario" title="Kingston, Ontario">Kingston, Ontario</a>, Canada were, and continue to be, constructed from it that it is nicknamed the 'Limestone City'.<a href="#cite_note-103">[103]</a> Limestone, metamorphosed by heat and pressure produces marble, which has been used for many statues, buildings and stone tabletops.<a href="#cite_note-Corathers-2019-104">[104]</a> On the island of <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a>, a variety of limestone called <a href="/wiki/Globigerina_Limestone_Formation" class="mw-redirect" title="Globigerina Limestone Formation">Globigerina limestone</a> was, for a long time, the only building material available, and is still very frequently used on all types of buildings and sculptures.<a href="#cite_note-105">[105]</a> Limestone can be processed into many various forms such as brick, cement, powdered/crushed, or as a filler.<a href="#cite_note-Oates-2008-102">[102]</a> Limestone is readily available and relatively easy to cut into blocks or more elaborate carving.<a href="#cite_note-cassar-101">[101]</a> Ancient American sculptors valued limestone because it was easy to work and good for fine detail. Going back to the Late Preclassic period (by 200–100 BCE), the <a href="/wiki/Maya_civilization" title="Maya civilization">Maya civilization</a> (Ancient Mexico) created refined sculpture using limestone because of these excellent carving properties. The Maya would decorate the ceilings of their sacred buildings (known as <a href="/wiki/Ancient_Maya_art" title="Ancient Maya art">lintels</a>) and cover the walls with carved limestone panels. Carved on these sculptures were political and social stories, and this helped communicate messages of the king to his people.<a href="#cite_note-106">[106]</a> Limestone is long-lasting and stands up well to exposure, which explains why many limestone ruins survive. However, it is very heavy (<a href="/wiki/Density" title="Density">density</a> 2.6<a href="#cite_note-Sharma1997-107">[107]</a>), making it impractical for tall buildings, and relatively expensive as a building material. Limestone was most popular in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. Railway stations, banks and other structures from that era were made of limestone in some areas. It is used as a <a href="/wiki/Fa%C3%A7ade" title="Façade">façade</a> on some skyscrapers, but only in thin plates for covering, rather than solid blocks. In the United States, Indiana, most notably the <a href="/wiki/Bloomington,_Indiana" title="Bloomington, Indiana">Bloomington</a> area, has long been a source of high-quality quarried limestone, called <a href="/wiki/Indiana_limestone" class="mw-redirect" title="Indiana limestone">Indiana limestone</a>. Many famous buildings in London are built from <a href="/wiki/Portland_limestone" class="mw-redirect" title="Portland limestone">Portland limestone</a>. Houses built in <a href="/wiki/Odesa" title="Odesa">Odesa</a> in <a href="/wiki/Ukraine" title="Ukraine">Ukraine</a> in the 19th century were mostly constructed from limestone and the extensive remains of the mines now form the <a href="/wiki/Odesa_Catacombs" class="mw-redirect" title="Odesa Catacombs">Odesa Catacombs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-Odesa-108">[108]</a> Limestone was also a very popular building block in the Middle Ages in the areas where it occurred, since it is hard, durable, and commonly occurs in easily accessible surface exposures. Many medieval churches and castles in Europe are made of limestone. <a href="/wiki/Beer_stone" class="mw-redirect" title="Beer stone">Beer stone</a> was a popular kind of limestone for medieval buildings in southern England.<a href="#cite_note-ashurst-109">[109]</a> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Limestone_Mines_at_Cedar_Creek.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Limestone quarry at Cedar Creek, Virginia, US"><img alt="Limestone quarry at Cedar Creek, Virginia, US" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Limestone_Mines_at_Cedar_Creek.jpg/120px-Limestone_Mines_at_Cedar_Creek.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Limestone_Mines_at_Cedar_Creek.jpg/180px-Limestone_Mines_at_Cedar_Creek.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bb/Limestone_Mines_at_Cedar_Creek.jpg/240px-Limestone_Mines_at_Cedar_Creek.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="683" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Limestone quarry at <a href="/wiki/Cedar_Creek_(North_Fork_Shenandoah_River)" class="mw-redirect" title="Cedar Creek (North Fork Shenandoah River)">Cedar Creek, Virginia</a>, US</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Pargas_Quarry-24.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Nordkalk's limestone quarry in Pargas, Finland"><img alt="Nordkalk's limestone quarry in Pargas, Finland" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pargas_Quarry-24.jpg/120px-Pargas_Quarry-24.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pargas_Quarry-24.jpg/180px-Pargas_Quarry-24.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/64/Pargas_Quarry-24.jpg/240px-Pargas_Quarry-24.jpg 2x" data-file-width="6000" data-file-height="4000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Nordkalk" title="Nordkalk">Nordkalk</a>'s limestone quarry in <a href="/wiki/Pargas" title="Pargas">Pargas</a>, <a href="/wiki/Finland" title="Finland">Finland</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Gozo,_limestone_quarry_-_cutting_the_stone.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Cutting limestone blocks at a quarry in Gozo, Malta"><img alt="Cutting limestone blocks at a quarry in Gozo, Malta" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gozo%2C_limestone_quarry_-_cutting_the_stone.JPG/120px-Gozo%2C_limestone_quarry_-_cutting_the_stone.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gozo%2C_limestone_quarry_-_cutting_the_stone.JPG/180px-Gozo%2C_limestone_quarry_-_cutting_the_stone.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Gozo%2C_limestone_quarry_-_cutting_the_stone.JPG/240px-Gozo%2C_limestone_quarry_-_cutting_the_stone.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3888" data-file-height="2592" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Cutting limestone blocks at a quarry in <a href="/wiki/Gozo" title="Gozo">Gozo</a>, <a href="/wiki/Malta" title="Malta">Malta</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Kalkstein_(nahe).JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Limestone as building material"><img alt="Limestone as building material" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kalkstein_%28nahe%29.JPG/80px-Kalkstein_%28nahe%29.JPG" decoding="async" width="80" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kalkstein_%28nahe%29.JPG/120px-Kalkstein_%28nahe%29.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d4/Kalkstein_%28nahe%29.JPG/160px-Kalkstein_%28nahe%29.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="3888" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Limestone as building material</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Bermuda_Number_178_limestone_used_as_building_material_for_walls.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Limestone is used worldwide as building material."><img alt="Limestone is used worldwide as building material." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Bermuda_Number_178_limestone_used_as_building_material_for_walls.jpg/120px-Bermuda_Number_178_limestone_used_as_building_material_for_walls.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/19/Bermuda_Number_178_limestone_used_as_building_material_for_walls.jpg/250px-Bermuda_Number_178_limestone_used_as_building_material_for_walls.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="2592" data-file-height="1944" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Limestone is used worldwide as building material.</div> </li> </ul> Limestone is the raw material for production of lime, primarily known for treating soils, purifying water and <a href="/wiki/Smelting" title="Smelting">smelting</a> copper. Lime is an important ingredient used in chemical industries.<a href="#cite_note-Bliss-2012-1-110">[110]</a> Limestone and (to a lesser extent) marble are reactive to acid solutions, making <a href="/wiki/Acid_rain" title="Acid rain">acid rain</a> a significant problem to the preservation of artifacts made from this stone. Many limestone statues and building surfaces have suffered severe damage due to acid rain.<a href="#cite_note-111">[111]</a><a href="#cite_note-112">[112]</a> Likewise limestone gravel has been used to protect lakes vulnerable to acid rain, acting as a <a href="/wiki/PH_buffer" class="mw-redirect" title="PH buffer">pH buffering</a> agent.<a href="#cite_note-113">[113]</a> Acid-based cleaning chemicals can also etch limestone, which should only be cleaned with a neutral or mild <a href="/wiki/Alkali" title="Alkali">alkali</a>-based cleaner.<a href="#cite_note-114">[114]</a> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Litography_press_with_map_of_Moosburg_01.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Litography_press_with_map_of_Moosburg_01.jpg/220px-Litography_press_with_map_of_Moosburg_01.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Litography_press_with_map_of_Moosburg_01.jpg/330px-Litography_press_with_map_of_Moosburg_01.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e8/Litography_press_with_map_of_Moosburg_01.jpg/440px-Litography_press_with_map_of_Moosburg_01.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>A limestone plate with a negative map of <a href="/wiki/Moosburg" class="mw-redirect" title="Moosburg">Moosburg</a> in Bavaria is prepared for a <a href="/wiki/Lithography" title="Lithography">lithography</a> print.</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:LIMEX_limestone_plastic,_2022_Japan_2.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LIMEX_limestone_plastic%2C_2022_Japan_2.jpg/220px-LIMEX_limestone_plastic%2C_2022_Japan_2.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="165" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LIMEX_limestone_plastic%2C_2022_Japan_2.jpg/330px-LIMEX_limestone_plastic%2C_2022_Japan_2.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/01/LIMEX_limestone_plastic%2C_2022_Japan_2.jpg/440px-LIMEX_limestone_plastic%2C_2022_Japan_2.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4032" data-file-height="3024" /></a><figcaption>Plastic bag "made mainly from limestone"[<a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Please_clarify" title="Wikipedia:Please clarify">clarification needed</a>]</figcaption></figure> Other uses include: <ul><li>It is the raw material for the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Quicklime" class="mw-redirect" title="Quicklime">quicklime</a> (calcium oxide), <a href="/wiki/Slaked_lime" class="mw-redirect" title="Slaked lime">slaked lime</a> (calcium hydroxide), <a href="/wiki/Cement" title="Cement">cement</a> and <a href="/wiki/Mortar_(masonry)" title="Mortar (masonry)">mortar</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980445-59">[59]</a></li> <li>Pulverized limestone is used as a soil conditioner to neutralize acidic soils (<a href="/wiki/Agricultural_lime" title="Agricultural lime">agricultural lime</a>).<a href="#cite_note-Oates2008-115">[115]</a></li> <li>Is crushed for use as <a href="/wiki/Construction_aggregate" title="Construction aggregate">aggregate</a>—the solid base for many roads as well as in <a href="/wiki/Asphalt_concrete" title="Asphalt concrete">asphalt concrete</a>.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980445-59">[59]</a></li> <li>As a <a href="/wiki/Reagent" title="Reagent">reagent</a> in <a href="/wiki/Flue-gas_desulfurization" title="Flue-gas desulfurization">flue-gas desulfurization</a>, where it reacts with <a href="/wiki/Sulfur_dioxide" title="Sulfur dioxide">sulfur dioxide</a> for air pollution control.<a href="#cite_note-116">[116]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Glass_making" class="mw-redirect" title="Glass making">glass making</a>, particularly in the manufacture of <a href="/wiki/Soda%E2%80%93lime_glass" title="Soda–lime glass">soda–lime glass</a>.<a href="#cite_note-117">[117]</a></li> <li>As an additive toothpaste, paper, plastics, paint, tiles, and other materials as both white pigment and a cheap filler.<a href="#cite_note-118">[118]</a></li> <li>As <a href="/wiki/Rock_dust" class="mw-redirect" title="Rock dust">rock dust</a>, to suppress methane explosions in underground coal mines.<a href="#cite_note-119">[119]</a></li> <li>Purified, it is added to bread and cereals as a source of calcium.<a href="#cite_note-120">[120]</a></li> <li>As a calcium supplement in livestock feed, such as for poultry (when ground up).<a href="#cite_note-121">[121]</a></li> <li>For remineralizing and increasing the alkalinity of purified water to prevent pipe corrosion and to restore essential nutrient levels.<a href="#cite_note-122">[122]</a></li> <li>In <a href="/wiki/Blast_furnace" title="Blast furnace">blast furnaces</a>, limestone binds with silica and other impurities to remove them from the iron.<a href="#cite_note-123">[123]</a></li> <li>It can aid in the removal of toxic components created from coal burning plants and layers of polluted molten metals.<a href="#cite_note-Bliss-2012-1-110">[110]</a></li></ul> Many limestone <a href="/wiki/Geological_formation" title="Geological formation">formations</a> are porous and permeable, which makes them important <a href="/wiki/Petroleum_reservoir" title="Petroleum reservoir">petroleum reservoirs</a>.<a href="#cite_note-124">[124]</a> About 20% of North American hydrocarbon reserves are found in carbonate rock. Carbonate reservoirs are very common in the petroleum-rich Middle East,<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980445-59">[59]</a> and carbonate reservoirs hold about a third of all petroleum reserves worldwide.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006p=159-125">[125]</a> Limestone formations are also common sources of metal ores, because their porosity and permeability, together with their chemical activity, promotes ore deposition in the limestone. The <a href="/wiki/Lead" title="Lead">lead</a>-<a href="/wiki/Zinc" title="Zinc">zinc</a> deposits of <a href="/wiki/Missouri" title="Missouri">Missouri</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Northwest_Territories" title="Northwest Territories">Northwest Territories</a> are examples of ore deposits hosted in limestone.<a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBlattMiddletonMurray1980445-59">[59]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Scarcity">Scarcity</h3></div> Limestone is a major industrial raw material that is in constant demand. This raw material has been essential in the <a href="/wiki/Iron" title="Iron">iron</a> and <a href="/wiki/Steel" title="Steel">steel</a> industry since the nineteenth century.<a href="#cite_note-Haumann-2020-126">[126]</a> Companies have never had a shortage of limestone; however, it has become a concern as the demand continues to increase<a href="#cite_note-SparenbergHeymann-127">[127]</a> and it remains in high demand today.<a href="#cite_note-ResearchAndMarkets-128">[128]</a> The major potential threats to supply in the nineteenth century were regional availability and accessibility.<a href="#cite_note-Haumann-2020-126">[126]</a> The two main accessibility issues were transportation and property rights. Other problems were high capital costs on plants and facilities due to environmental regulations and the requirement of zoning and mining permits.<a href="#cite_note-Corathers-2019-104">[104]</a> These two dominant factors led to the adaptation and selection of other materials that were created and formed to design alternatives for limestone that suited economic demands.<a href="#cite_note-Haumann-2020-126">[126]</a> Limestone was classified as a critical raw material, and with the potential risk of shortages, it drove industries to find new alternative materials and technological systems. This allowed limestone to no longer be classified as critical as replacement substances increased in production; <a href="/wiki/Minette_(ore)" title="Minette (ore)">minette ore</a> is a common substitute, for example.<a href="#cite_note-Haumann-2020-126">[126]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Occupational_safety_and_health">Occupational safety and health</h3></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1257001546" /><table class="infobox" style="width: 12em;"><tbody><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-above" style="background:#FFCB66; font-size: 98%;"><a href="/wiki/NFPA_704" title="NFPA 704">NFPA 704</a> safety square</th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1170367383">.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-ref{float:right;padding:1px;text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-container{width:82px;font-family:sans-serif;margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-container-ref{float:left;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-images{float:left;font-size:20px;text-align:center;position:relative;height:80px;width:80px;padding:1px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-map{position:absolute;height:80px;width:80px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond .noresize{margin:0 auto}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-code{line-height:1em;text-align:center;position:absolute}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-code>a{color:black}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-blue{width:13px;top:31px;left:15px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-red{width:12px;top:12px;left:35px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-yellow{width:13px;top:31px;left:54px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-image{position:relative;top:51px;left:0}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-text{vertical-align:middle;text-align:center;line-height:80%;position:absolute;top:52px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-text a>span{position:absolute;color:black}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-wors{font-size:15px;width:23px;left:29px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-wox{font-size:15px;font-stretch:condensed;width:21px;line-height:80%;top:-4px;left:29px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-abcp{font-size:13.5px;font-stretch:condensed;width:28px;left:26px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-ac{font-size:10px;width:30px;left:25px}.mw-parser-output .nfpa-704-diamond-white-strike{text-decoration:line-through}</style><div class="nfpa-704-diamond notheme"><div class="nfpa-74-diamond-refs"><a href="#cite_note-MSDS-129">[129]</a></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-container nfpa-704-diamond-container-ref"><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-images nounderlines"> <div class="nfpa-704-diamond-map"><figure class="noresize" typeof="mw:File"><img alt="NFPA 704 four-colored diamond" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/80px-NFPA_704.svg.png" decoding="async" width="80" height="80" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/120px-NFPA_704.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6f/NFPA_704.svg/160px-NFPA_704.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="512" usemap="#ImageMap_e43abf6a22fcb96c" /><map name="ImageMap_e43abf6a22fcb96c"><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Blue" shape="poly" coords="23,23,47,47,23,70,0,47" alt="Health 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentine" title="Health 1: Exposure would cause irritation but only minor residual injury. E.g. turpentine" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Red" shape="poly" coords="47,0,70,23,47,47,23,23" alt="Flammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. water" title="Flammability 0: Will not burn. E.g. water" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Yellow" shape="poly" coords="70,23,94,47,70,70,47,47" alt="Instability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogen" title="Instability 0: Normally stable, even under fire exposure conditions, and is not reactive with water. E.g. liquid nitrogen" /><area href="/wiki/NFPA_704#White" shape="poly" coords="47,47,70,70,47,94,23,70" alt="Special hazards (white): no code" title="Special hazards (white): no code" /></map><figcaption></figcaption></figure></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-blue"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Blue" title="NFPA 704">1</a></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-red"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Red" title="NFPA 704">0</a></div><div class="nfpa-704-diamond-code nfpa-704-diamond-yellow"> <a href="/wiki/NFPA_704#Yellow" title="NFPA 704">0</a></div></div></div></div><div class="infobox-caption"><div style="clear:both;" class=""></div>Limestone</div></td></tr></tbody></table> Powdered limestone as a food additive is <a href="/wiki/Generally_recognized_as_safe" title="Generally recognized as safe">generally recognized as safe</a><a href="#cite_note-130">[130]</a> and limestone is not regarded as a hazardous material. However, limestone dust can be a mild respiratory and skin irritant, and dust that gets into the eyes can cause <a href="/wiki/Corneal_abrasion" title="Corneal abrasion">corneal abrasions</a>. Because limestone contains small amounts of silica, inhalation of limestone dust could potentially lead to <a href="/wiki/Silicosis" title="Silicosis">silicosis</a> or <a href="/wiki/Cancer" title="Cancer">cancer</a>.<a href="#cite_note-MSDS-129">[129]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4></div> The <a href="/wiki/Occupational_Safety_and_Health_Administration" title="Occupational Safety and Health Administration">Occupational Safety and Health Administration</a> (OSHA) has set the legal limit (<a href="/wiki/Permissible_exposure_limit" title="Permissible exposure limit">permissible exposure limit</a>) for limestone exposure in the workplace as 15 mg/m3 (0.0066 gr/cu ft) total exposure and 5 mg/m3 (0.0022 gr/cu ft) respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday. The <a href="/wiki/National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health</a> (NIOSH) has set a <a href="/wiki/Recommended_exposure_limit" title="Recommended exposure limit">recommended exposure limit</a> (REL) of 10 mg/m3 (0.0044 gr/cu ft) total exposure and 5 mg/m3 (0.0022 gr/cu ft) respiratory exposure over an 8-hour workday.<a href="#cite_note-131">[131]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Graffiti">Graffiti</h3></div> Removing <a href="/wiki/Graffiti" title="Graffiti">graffiti</a> from weathered limestone is difficult because it is a porous and permeable material. The surface is fragile, therefore usual abrasion methods run the risk of severe surface loss. Since it is an acid-sensitive stone, some cleaning agents cannot be used due to adverse effects.<a href="#cite_note-132">[132]</a> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Gallery">Gallery</h2></div> <ul class="gallery mw-gallery-traditional"> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:OrdOutcropTN.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, U.S. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale. The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction."><img alt="A stratigraphic section of Ordovician limestone exposed in central Tennessee, U.S. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of shale. The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/OrdOutcropTN.JPG/103px-OrdOutcropTN.JPG" decoding="async" width="103" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/OrdOutcropTN.JPG/154px-OrdOutcropTN.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/42/OrdOutcropTN.JPG/205px-OrdOutcropTN.JPG 2x" data-file-width="700" data-file-height="818" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Stratigraphic_section" title="Stratigraphic section">stratigraphic section</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ordovician" title="Ordovician">Ordovician</a> limestone exposed in central <a href="/wiki/Tennessee" title="Tennessee">Tennessee</a>, U.S. The less-resistant and thinner beds are composed of <a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">shale</a>. The vertical lines are drill holes for explosives used during road construction.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Photo and etched section of a sample of fossiliferous limestone from the Kope Formation (Upper Ordovician) near Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S."><img alt="Photo and etched section of a sample of fossiliferous limestone from the Kope Formation (Upper Ordovician) near Cincinnati, Ohio, U.S." src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg/112px-Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg" decoding="async" width="112" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg/169px-Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/7/73/Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg/225px-Limestone_etched_section_KopeFm_new.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1433" data-file-height="1530" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Photo and etched section of a sample of <a href="/wiki/Fossiliferous_limestone" title="Fossiliferous limestone">fossiliferous limestone</a> from the <a href="/wiki/Kope_Formation" title="Kope Formation">Kope Formation</a> (Upper Ordovician) near <a href="/wiki/Cincinnati" title="Cincinnati">Cincinnati</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ohio" title="Ohio">Ohio</a>, U.S.</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="biosparite limestone of the Brassfield Formation (Lower Silurian) near Fairborn, Ohio, U.S., showing grains mainly composed of crinoid fragments"><img alt="biosparite limestone of the Brassfield Formation (Lower Silurian) near Fairborn, Ohio, U.S., showing grains mainly composed of crinoid fragments" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg/120px-BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg/180px-BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/0/0f/BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg/240px-BrassfieldEncrinite042112.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="3000" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext"><a href="/wiki/Biosparite" class="mw-redirect" title="Biosparite">biosparite</a> limestone of the <a href="/wiki/Brassfield_Formation" title="Brassfield Formation">Brassfield Formation</a> (Lower <a href="/wiki/Silurian" title="Silurian">Silurian</a>) near <a href="/wiki/Fairborn" class="mw-redirect" title="Fairborn">Fairborn</a>, Ohio, U.S., showing grains mainly composed of <a href="/wiki/Crinoid" title="Crinoid">crinoid</a> fragments</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%A7%E8%BF%9E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD12-%E9%BE%9F%E8%83%8C%E7%9F%B3.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="A concretionary nodular (septarian) limestone at Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, China"><img alt="A concretionary nodular (septarian) limestone at Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, Dalian, China" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%E5%A4%A7%E8%BF%9E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD12-%E9%BE%9F%E8%83%8C%E7%9F%B3.jpg/120px-%E5%A4%A7%E8%BF%9E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD12-%E9%BE%9F%E8%83%8C%E7%9F%B3.jpg" decoding="async" width="67" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e6/%E5%A4%A7%E8%BF%9E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD12-%E9%BE%9F%E8%83%8C%E7%9F%B3.jpg/250px-%E5%A4%A7%E8%BF%9E%E5%9B%BD%E5%AE%B6%E5%9C%B0%E8%B4%A8%E5%85%AC%E5%9B%AD12-%E9%BE%9F%E8%83%8C%E7%9F%B3.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1296" data-file-height="2304" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">A <a href="/wiki/Concretionary" class="mw-redirect" title="Concretionary">concretionary</a> <a href="/wiki/Nodule_(geology)" title="Nodule (geology)">nodular</a> (septarian) limestone at Jinshitan Coastal National Geopark, <a href="/wiki/Dalian" title="Dalian">Dalian</a>, China</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E8%B3%9E%E7%9F%B3-Rock_in_the_form_of_a_fantastic_mountain_MET_DT208239.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Limestone from Lake Tai, used in gongshi, a Chinese stone art"><img alt="Limestone from Lake Tai, used in gongshi, a Chinese stone art" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E8%B3%9E%E7%9F%B3-Rock_in_the_form_of_a_fantastic_mountain_MET_DT208239.jpg/96px-%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E8%B3%9E%E7%9F%B3-Rock_in_the_form_of_a_fantastic_mountain_MET_DT208239.jpg" decoding="async" width="96" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E8%B3%9E%E7%9F%B3-Rock_in_the_form_of_a_fantastic_mountain_MET_DT208239.jpg/144px-%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E8%B3%9E%E7%9F%B3-Rock_in_the_form_of_a_fantastic_mountain_MET_DT208239.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/e5/%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E8%B3%9E%E7%9F%B3-Rock_in_the_form_of_a_fantastic_mountain_MET_DT208239.jpg/192px-%E5%A4%AA%E6%B9%96%E8%B3%9E%E7%9F%B3-Rock_in_the_form_of_a_fantastic_mountain_MET_DT208239.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1488" data-file-height="1861" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Limestone from <a href="/wiki/Lake_Tai" title="Lake Tai">Lake Tai</a>, used in <a href="/wiki/Gongshi" title="Gongshi">gongshi</a>, a Chinese stone art</div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Folded_Rock_Provo_Canyon.JPG" class="mw-file-description" title="Folded limestone layers on Cascade Mountain in Provo Canyon, Utah"><img alt="Folded limestone layers on Cascade Mountain in Provo Canyon, Utah" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Folded_Rock_Provo_Canyon.JPG/120px-Folded_Rock_Provo_Canyon.JPG" decoding="async" width="120" height="90" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Folded_Rock_Provo_Canyon.JPG/180px-Folded_Rock_Provo_Canyon.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/bf/Folded_Rock_Provo_Canyon.JPG/240px-Folded_Rock_Provo_Canyon.JPG 2x" data-file-width="2272" data-file-height="1704" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Folded limestone layers on <a href="/wiki/Cascade_Mountain_(Utah)" title="Cascade Mountain (Utah)">Cascade Mountain</a> in <a href="/wiki/Provo_Canyon" title="Provo Canyon">Provo Canyon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Utah" title="Utah">Utah</a></div> </li> <li class="gallerybox" style="width: 155px"> <div class="thumb" style="width: 150px; height: 150px;"><a href="/wiki/File:Calcined_fossils.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Fossils in limestone from the northern Black Sea region"><img alt="Fossils in limestone from the northern Black Sea region" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Calcined_fossils.jpg/114px-Calcined_fossils.jpg" decoding="async" width="114" height="120" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Calcined_fossils.jpg/171px-Calcined_fossils.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Calcined_fossils.jpg/228px-Calcined_fossils.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3266" data-file-height="3431" /></a></div> <div class="gallerytext">Fossils in limestone from the northern <a href="/wiki/Black_Sea" title="Black Sea">Black Sea</a> region</div> </li> </ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2></div> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Coral_sand" title="Coral sand">Coral sand</a> – Carbonate sand formed in warm oceans</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charmant_Som" title="Charmant Som">Charmant Som</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/In_Praise_of_Limestone" title="In Praise of Limestone">In Praise of Limestone</a> – Poem by W. H. Auden</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kurkar" title="Kurkar">Kurkar</a> – Regional name for an aeolian quartz calcrete on the Levantine coast</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Limepit" title="Limepit">Limepit</a> – Old method of calcining limestone</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstone</a> – Type of sedimentary rock</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Liming_(soil)" title="Liming (soil)">Liming (soil)</a> – Application of minerals to soil</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite id="CITEREFBoggs2006" class="citation book cs1">Boggs, Sam (2006). Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy (4th ed.). Upper Saddle River, N.J.: Pearson Prentice Hall. pp. 177, 181. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-13-154728-3" title="Special:BookSources/0-13-154728-3"><bdi>0-13-154728-3</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Principles+of+sedimentology+and+stratigraphy&rft.place=Upper+Saddle+River%2C+N.J.&rft.pages=177%2C+181&rft.edition=4th&rft.pub=Pearson+Prentice+Hall&rft.date=2006&rft.isbn=0-13-154728-3&rft.aulast=Boggs&rft.aufirst=Sam&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-2"><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLeong1995" class="citation book cs1">Leong, Goh Cheng (27 October 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=XhJ4RAAACAAJ&q=certificate+physical+and+human+geography">Certificate Physics And Human Geography; Indian Edition</a>. Oxford University Press. p. 62. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-19-562816-0" title="Special:BookSources/0-19-562816-0"><bdi>0-19-562816-0</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Certificate+Physics+And+Human+Geography%3B+Indian+Edition&rft.pages=62&rft.pub=Oxford+University+Press&rft.date=1995-10-27&rft.isbn=0-19-562816-0&rft.aulast=Leong&rft.aufirst=Goh+Cheng&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DXhJ4RAAACAAJ%26q%3Dcertificate%2Bphysical%2Band%2Bhuman%2Bgeography&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159-3">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159_3-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159_3-1">b</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159_3-2">c</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159_3-3">d</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159_3-4">e</a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoggs2006159_3-5">f</a> <a href="#CITEREFBoggs2006">Boggs 2006</a>, p. 159. </li> <li id="cite_note-4"><a href="#cite_ref-4">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlattTracy1996" class="citation book cs1">Blatt, Harvey; Tracy, Robert J. 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"Magnesian limestone". Glossary of geology (Fourth ed.). Alexandria, Virginia: American Geological Institute. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-922152-34-9" title="Special:BookSources/0-922152-34-9"><bdi>0-922152-34-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=bookitem&rft.atitle=Magnesian+limestone&rft.btitle=Glossary+of+geology.&rft.place=Alexandria%2C+Virginia&rft.edition=Fourth&rft.pub=American+Geological+Institute&rft.date=1997&rft.isbn=0-922152-34-9&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-6"><a href="#cite_ref-6">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBlattMiddletonMurray1980" class="citation book cs1">Blatt, Harvey; Middleton, Gerard; Murray, Raymond (1980). Origin of sedimentary rocks (2d ed.). 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(2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13507486.2020.1737653">"Introduction: resource challenges and constructions of scarcity in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries"</a>. European Review of History: Revue européenne d'histoire. 27 (3): 243–252. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1080%2F13507486.2020.1737653">10.1080/13507486.2020.1737653</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:221055042">221055042</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=European+Review+of+History%3A+Revue+europ%C3%A9enne+d%27histoire&rft.atitle=Introduction%3A+resource+challenges+and+constructions+of+scarcity+in+the+nineteenth+and+twentieth+centuries&rft.volume=27&rft.issue=3&rft.pages=%3Cspan+class%3D%22nowrap%22%3E243-%3C%2Fspan%3E252&rft.date=2020&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F13507486.2020.1737653&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A221055042%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.aulast=Sparenberg&rft.aufirst=O.&rft.au=Heymann%2C+M.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F13507486.2020.1737653&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-ResearchAndMarkets-128"><a href="#cite_ref-ResearchAndMarkets_128-0">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFResearchAndMarkets.com2020" class="citation web cs1">ResearchAndMarkets.com (9 June 2020). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.businesswire.com/news/home/20200609005311/en/Global-Limestone-Market-Analysis-and-Forecasts-2020-2027---Steady-Growth-Projected-over-the-Next-Few-Years---ResearchAndMarkets.com">"Global Limestone Market Analysis and Forecasts 2020-2027 - Steady Growth Projected over the Next Few Years - ResearchAndMarkets.com"</a>. Limestone - Global Market Trajectory & Analytics. businesswire.com. Retrieved 24 March 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=Limestone+-+Global+Market+Trajectory+%26+Analytics&rft.atitle=Global+Limestone+Market+Analysis+and+Forecasts+2020-2027+-+Steady+Growth+Projected+over+the+Next+Few+Years+-+ResearchAndMarkets.com&rft.date=2020-06-09&rft.au=ResearchAndMarkets.com&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.businesswire.com%2Fnews%2Fhome%2F20200609005311%2Fen%2FGlobal-Limestone-Market-Analysis-and-Forecasts-2020-2027---Steady-Growth-Projected-over-the-Next-Few-Years---ResearchAndMarkets.com&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-MSDS-129">^ <a href="#cite_ref-MSDS_129-0">a</a> <a href="#cite_ref-MSDS_129-1">b</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFLhoist_North_America" class="citation web cs1">Lhoist North America. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.7springsfarm.com/content/MSDS_Limestone.pdf">"Material Safety Data Sheet: Limestone"</a> (PDF). Retrieved 5 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Material+Safety+Data+Sheet%3A+Limestone&rft.au=Lhoist+North+America&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.7springsfarm.com%2Fcontent%2FMSDS_Limestone.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-130"><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.accessdata.fda.gov/scripts/cdrh/cfdocs/cfcfr/CFRSearch.cfm?fr=184.1409">"CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21"</a>. US Food & Drug Administration. US Department of Health & Human Services. Retrieved 5 February 2021.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=US+Food+%26+Drug+Administration&rft.atitle=CFR+-+Code+of+Federal+Regulations+Title+21&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.accessdata.fda.gov%2Fscripts%2Fcdrh%2Fcfdocs%2Fcfcfr%2FCFRSearch.cfm%3Ffr%3D184.1409&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-131"><a href="#cite_ref-131">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0369.html">"Limestone"</a>. NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards. CDC. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20151120065513/http://www.cdc.gov/niosh/npg/npgd0369.html">Archived</a> from the original on 20 November 2015. Retrieved 19 November 2015.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=unknown&rft.jtitle=NIOSH+Pocket+Guide+to+Chemical+Hazards&rft.atitle=Limestone&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.cdc.gov%2Fniosh%2Fnpg%2Fnpgd0369.html&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> <li id="cite_note-132"><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFWeaver1995" class="citation web cs1">Weaver, Martin E. (October 1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nps.gov/tps/how-to-preserve/briefs/38-remove-graffiti.htm">"Removing Graffiti from Historic Masonry"</a>. National Park Service. Retrieved 5 February 2019.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=unknown&rft.btitle=Removing+Graffiti+from+Historic+Masonry&rft.pub=National+Park+Service&rft.date=1995-10&rft.aulast=Weaver&rft.aufirst=Martin+E.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nps.gov%2Ftps%2Fhow-to-preserve%2Fbriefs%2F38-remove-graffiti.htm&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"> </li> </ol></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><a href="/wiki/File:Commons-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/40px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/60px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></a></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Limestone" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Limestone">Limestone</a>.</div></div> </div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239549316">.mw-parser-output .refbegin{margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul{margin-left:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{margin-left:0;padding-left:3.2em;text-indent:-3.2em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul,.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents ul li{list-style:none}@media(max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .refbegin-hanging-indents>ul>li{padding-left:1.6em;text-indent:-1.6em}}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .refbegin-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .refbegin{font-size:90%}}</style><div class="refbegin refbegin-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 30em"> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222" /><cite id="CITEREFBoynton1980" class="citation book cs1">Boynton, Robert S. (1980). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://archive.org/details/rulesdistrictco00distgoog">Chemistry and Technology of Lime and Limestone</a>. Wiley. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-471-02771-5" title="Special:BookSources/0-471-02771-5"><bdi>0-471-02771-5</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Chemistry+and+Technology+of+Lime+and+Limestone&rft.pub=Wiley&rft.date=1980&rft.isbn=0-471-02771-5&rft.aulast=Boynton&rft.aufirst=Robert+S.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Farchive.org%2Fdetails%2Frulesdistrictco00distgoog&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ALimestone" class="Z3988"></li></ul> </div> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline 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title="Andesite">Andesite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Anorthosite" title="Anorthosite">Anorthosite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aplite" title="Aplite">Aplite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basalt" title="Basalt">Basalt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Alkali_basalt" title="Alkali basalt">Alkali basalt</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Picrite_basalt" title="Picrite basalt">Picrite basalt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basaltic_trachyandesite" class="mw-redirect" title="Basaltic trachyandesite">Basaltic trachyandesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mugearite" title="Mugearite">Mugearite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoshonite" title="Shoshonite">Shoshonite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Basanite" title="Basanite">Basanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blairmorite" title="Blairmorite">Blairmorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boninite" title="Boninite">Boninite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Carbonatite" title="Carbonatite">Carbonatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Charnockite" title="Charnockite">Charnockite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Enderbite" title="Enderbite">Enderbite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dacite" title="Dacite">Dacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diabase" title="Diabase">Diabase</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diorite" title="Diorite">Diorite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Napoleonite" title="Napoleonite">Napoleonite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dunite" title="Dunite">Dunite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Essexite" title="Essexite">Essexite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Foidolite" title="Foidolite">Foidolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gabbro" title="Gabbro">Gabbro</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granite" title="Granite">Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granodiorite" title="Granodiorite">Granodiorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granophyre" title="Granophyre">Granophyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Harzburgite" title="Harzburgite">Harzburgite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornblendite" title="Hornblendite">Hornblendite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloclastite" title="Hyaloclastite">Hyaloclastite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Icelandite" title="Icelandite">Icelandite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ignimbrite" title="Ignimbrite">Ignimbrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijolite" title="Ijolite">Ijolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kimberlite" title="Kimberlite">Kimberlite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Komatiite" title="Komatiite">Komatiite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamproite" title="Lamproite">Lamproite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lamprophyre" title="Lamprophyre">Lamprophyre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latite" title="Latite">Latite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lherzolite" title="Lherzolite">Lherzolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monzogranite" title="Monzogranite">Monzogranite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Monzonite" title="Monzonite">Monzonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nepheline_syenite" title="Nepheline syenite">Nepheline syenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Nephelinite" title="Nephelinite">Nephelinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Norite" title="Norite">Norite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Obsidian" title="Obsidian">Obsidian</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pegmatite" title="Pegmatite">Pegmatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peridotite" title="Peridotite">Peridotite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonolite" title="Phonolite">Phonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phonotephrite" title="Phonotephrite">Phonotephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Porphyry_(geology)" title="Porphyry (geology)">Porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pumice" title="Pumice">Pumice</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyroxenite" title="Pyroxenite">Pyroxenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz_diorite" title="Quartz diorite">Quartz diorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartz_monzonite" title="Quartz monzonite">Quartz monzonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartzolite" title="Quartzolite">Quartzolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyodacite" title="Rhyodacite">Rhyodacite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhyolite" title="Rhyolite">Rhyolite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Comendite" title="Comendite">Comendite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pantellerite" title="Pantellerite">Pantellerite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Scoria" title="Scoria">Scoria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shonkinite" title="Shonkinite">Shonkinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sovite" title="Sovite">Sovite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Syenite" title="Syenite">Syenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachylyte" class="mw-redirect" title="Tachylyte">Tachylyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephriphonolite" title="Tephriphonolite">Tephriphonolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tephrite" title="Tephrite">Tephrite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tonalite" title="Tonalite">Tonalite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyandesite" title="Trachyandesite">Trachyandesite</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Benmoreite" title="Benmoreite">Benmoreite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachybasalt" title="Trachybasalt">Trachybasalt</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hawaiite" title="Hawaiite">Hawaiite</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trachyte" title="Trachyte">Trachyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troctolite" title="Troctolite">Troctolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Trondhjemite" title="Trondhjemite">Trondhjemite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tuff" title="Tuff">Tuff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Websterite" title="Websterite">Websterite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wehrlite" title="Wehrlite">Wehrlite</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Sedimentary_rock" title="Sedimentary rock">Sedimentary rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Argillite" title="Argillite">Argillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Arkose" title="Arkose">Arkose</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Banded_iron_formation" title="Banded iron formation">Banded iron formation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Breccia" title="Breccia">Breccia</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Calcarenite" title="Calcarenite">Calcarenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chalk" title="Chalk">Chalk</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Chert" title="Chert">Chert</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Claystone" class="mw-redirect" title="Claystone">Claystone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coal" title="Coal">Coal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conglomerate_(geology)" title="Conglomerate (geology)">Conglomerate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coquina" title="Coquina">Coquina</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diamictite" title="Diamictite">Diamictite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Diatomite" class="mw-redirect" title="Diatomite">Diatomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dolomite_(rock)" title="Dolomite (rock)">Dolomite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporite" title="Evaporite">Evaporite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geyserite" title="Geyserite">Geyserite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greywacke" title="Greywacke">Greywacke</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gritstone" title="Gritstone">Gritstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itacolumite" title="Itacolumite">Itacolumite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jaspillite" title="Jaspillite">Jaspillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Laterite" title="Laterite">Laterite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lignite" title="Lignite">Lignite</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Limestone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lumachelle" title="Lumachelle">Lumachelle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marl" title="Marl">Marl</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudstone" title="Mudstone">Mudstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oil_shale" title="Oil shale">Oil shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Oolite" title="Oolite">Oolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phosphorite" title="Phosphorite">Phosphorite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sandstone" title="Sandstone">Sandstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shale" title="Shale">Shale</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Siltstone" title="Siltstone">Siltstone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sylvinite" title="Sylvinite">Sylvinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tillite" class="mw-redirect" title="Tillite">Tillite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Travertine" title="Travertine">Travertine</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tufa" title="Tufa">Tufa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Turbidite" title="Turbidite">Turbidite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Varve" title="Varve">Varve</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wackestone" title="Wackestone">Wackestone</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Metamorphic_rock" title="Metamorphic rock">Metamorphic rock</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anthracite" title="Anthracite">Anthracite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Amphibolite" title="Amphibolite">Amphibolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blueschist" title="Blueschist">Blueschist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cataclasite" title="Cataclasite">Cataclasite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eclogite" title="Eclogite">Eclogite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gneiss" title="Gneiss">Gneiss</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granulite" title="Granulite">Granulite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenschist" title="Greenschist">Greenschist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hornfels" title="Hornfels">Hornfels</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Calcflinta" title="Calcflinta">Calcflinta</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Itabirite" title="Itabirite">Itabirite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litchfieldite" title="Litchfieldite">Litchfieldite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marble" title="Marble">Marble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Migmatite" title="Migmatite">Migmatite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mylonite" title="Mylonite">Mylonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Metapelite" class="mw-redirect" title="Metapelite">Metapelite</a></li> <li><a href="/w/index.php?title=Metapsammite&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="Metapsammite (page does not exist)">Metapsammite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phyllite" title="Phyllite">Phyllite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pseudotachylite" class="mw-redirect" title="Pseudotachylite">Pseudotachylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Quartzite" title="Quartzite">Quartzite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Schist" title="Schist">Schist</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Serpentinite" title="Serpentinite">Serpentinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skarn" title="Skarn">Skarn</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Slate" title="Slate">Slate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Suevite" title="Suevite">Suevite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Talc_carbonate" title="Talc carbonate">Talc carbonate</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Soapstone" title="Soapstone">Soapstone</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tectonite" title="Tectonite">Tectonite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Whiteschist" title="Whiteschist">Whiteschist</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Specific varieties</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adamellite" class="mw-redirect" title="Adamellite">Adamellite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Appinite" title="Appinite">Appinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Aphanite" title="Aphanite">Aphanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Borolanite" title="Borolanite">Borolanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larvikite" title="Larvikite">Blue Granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Epidosite" title="Epidosite">Epidosite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Felsite" title="Felsite">Felsite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flint" title="Flint">Flint</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ganister" title="Ganister">Ganister</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gossan" title="Gossan">Gossan</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hyaloclastite" title="Hyaloclastite">Hyaloclastite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ijolite" title="Ijolite">Ijolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jadeitite" title="Jadeitite">Jadeitite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Jasperoid" title="Jasperoid">Jasperoid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kenyte" title="Kenyte">Kenyte</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapis_lazuli" title="Lapis lazuli">Lapis lazuli</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Larvikite" title="Larvikite">Larvikite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Litchfieldite" title="Litchfieldite">Litchfieldite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Llanite" title="Llanite">Llanite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Luxullianite" title="Luxullianite">Luxullianite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangerite" title="Mangerite">Mangerite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Novaculite" title="Novaculite">Novaculite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pietersite" title="Pietersite">Pietersite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pyrolite" title="Pyrolite">Pyrolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rapakivi_granite" title="Rapakivi granite">Rapakivi granite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rhomb_porphyry" class="mw-redirect" title="Rhomb porphyry">Rhomb porphyry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rodingite" title="Rodingite">Rodingite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shonkinite" title="Shonkinite">Shonkinite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Taconite" title="Taconite">Taconite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tachylite" title="Tachylite">Tachylite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Teschenite" title="Teschenite">Teschenite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Theralite" title="Theralite">Theralite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Unakite" title="Unakite">Unakite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Variolite" title="Variolite">Variolite</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wad_(mineral)" title="Wad (mineral)">Wad</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374" /><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235" /><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1038841319">.mw-parser-output .tooltip-dotted{border-bottom:1px dotted;cursor:help}</style><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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href="https://www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q23757#identifiers" title="Edit this at Wikidata"><img alt="Edit this at Wikidata" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/10px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png" decoding="async" width="10" height="10" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/15px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/8/8a/OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg/20px-OOjs_UI_icon_edit-ltr-progressive.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="20" data-file-height="20" /></a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4163107-9">Germany</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85077017">United States</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11938314x">France</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb11938314x">BnF data</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.ndl.go.jp/auth/ndlna/00570623">Japan</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph162639&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></li><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007529220205171">Israel</a></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://esu.com.ua/search_articles.php?id=33111">Encyclopedia of Modern Ukraine</a></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>    </div><noscript><img src="https://login.wikimedia.org/wiki/Special:CentralAutoLogin/start?useformat=desktop&type=1x1&usesul3=0" alt="" width="1" height="1" style="border: none; position: absolute;"></noscript> <div class="printfooter" data-nosnippet="">Retrieved from "<a dir="ltr" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limestone&oldid=1276252014">https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Limestone&oldid=1276252014</a>"</div></div> <div id="catlinks" class="catlinks" data-mw="interface"><div id="mw-normal-catlinks" class="mw-normal-catlinks"><a href="/wiki/Help:Category" title="Help:Category">Categories</a>: <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Limestone" title="Category:Limestone">Limestone</a></li><li><a href="/wiki/Category:Industrial_minerals" title="Category:Industrial minerals">Industrial minerals</a></li></ul></div><div 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