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class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Managed retreat</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Managed_retreat-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Hold_the_line" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hold_the_line"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Hold the line</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hold_the_line-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Move_seaward" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Move_seaward"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.3</span> <span>Move seaward</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Move_seaward-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Limited_intervention" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Limited_intervention"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.4</span> <span>Limited intervention</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Limited_intervention-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Construction_techniques" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Construction_techniques"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Construction techniques</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Construction_techniques-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Construction techniques subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Construction_techniques-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Hard_engineering_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Hard_engineering_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1</span> <span>Hard engineering methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Hard_engineering_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Groynes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Groynes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.1</span> <span>Groynes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Groynes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Seawalls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Seawalls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.2</span> <span>Seawalls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Seawalls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Revetments" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Revetments"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.3</span> <span>Revetments</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Revetments-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Rock_armour" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Rock_armour"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.4</span> <span>Rock armour</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Rock_armour-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Geotextile_tubes" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Geotextile_tubes"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.5</span> <span>Geotextile tubes</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Geotextile_tubes-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Gabions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Gabions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.6</span> <span>Gabions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Gabions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Offshore_breakwater" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Offshore_breakwater"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.7</span> <span>Offshore breakwater</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Offshore_breakwater-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Cliff_stabilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Cliff_stabilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.8</span> <span>Cliff stabilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Cliff_stabilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Entrance_training_walls" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Entrance_training_walls"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.9</span> <span>Entrance training walls</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Entrance_training_walls-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Floodgates" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Floodgates"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.1.10</span> <span>Floodgates</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Floodgates-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Soft_engineering_methods" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Soft_engineering_methods"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2</span> <span>Soft engineering methods</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Soft_engineering_methods-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beach_replenishment" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beach_replenishment"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.2.1</span> <span>Beach replenishment</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beach_replenishment-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Sand_Dune_Stabilization" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sand_Dune_Stabilization"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3</span> <span>Sand Dune Stabilization</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sand_Dune_Stabilization-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Beach_drainage" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beach_drainage"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.1</span> <span>Beach drainage</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beach_drainage-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Buffer_zones" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Buffer_zones"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.2</span> <span>Buffer zones</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Buffer_zones-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Costs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Costs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3.3.3</span> <span>Costs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Costs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Monitoring" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Monitoring"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>Monitoring</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-Monitoring-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle Monitoring subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-Monitoring-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Event_warning_systems" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Event_warning_systems"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.1</span> <span>Event warning systems</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Event_warning_systems-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shoreline_mapping" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shoreline_mapping"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2</span> <span>Shoreline mapping</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shoreline_mapping-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Shoreline_indicator" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shoreline_indicator"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.1</span> <span>Shoreline indicator</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shoreline_indicator-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Importance_and_application" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_and_application"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.2</span> <span>Importance and application</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_and_application-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Data_sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Data_sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3</span> <span>Data sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Data_sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Historical_maps" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Historical_maps"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.1</span> <span>Historical maps</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Historical_maps-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Aerial_photographs" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Aerial_photographs"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.2</span> <span>Aerial photographs</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Aerial_photographs-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Object_space_displacements" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Object_space_displacements"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.2.1</span> <span>Object space displacements</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Object_space_displacements-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Radial_lens_distortion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radial_lens_distortion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.2.2</span> <span>Radial lens distortion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radial_lens_distortion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Shoreline_delineation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-5"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Shoreline_delineation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.2.3</span> <span>Shoreline delineation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Shoreline_delineation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Beach_profiling_surveys" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Beach_profiling_surveys"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.3</span> <span>Beach profiling surveys</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Beach_profiling_surveys-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Remote_sensing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Remote_sensing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.4</span> <span>Remote sensing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Remote_sensing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Video_analysis" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-4"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Video_analysis"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4.2.3.5</span> <span>Video analysis</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Video_analysis-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Sources" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Sources"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6.1</span> <span>Sources</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Sources-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Further_reading" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Further_reading"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">7</span> <span>Further reading</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Further_reading-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">8</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Coastal management</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 28 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-28" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">28 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar badge-Q70894304 mw-list-item" title=""><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A5%D8%AF%D8%A7%D8%B1%D8%A9_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%84%D9%8A%D8%A9" title="إدارة ساحلية – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="إدارة ساحلية" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xesti%C3%B3n_costera" title="Xestión costera – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Xestión costera" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3_del_litoral" title="Gestió del litoral – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Gestió del litoral" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kystsikring" title="Kystsikring – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Kystsikring" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de mw-list-item"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/K%C3%BCstenschutz" title="Küstenschutz – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Küstenschutz" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gesti%C3%B3n_costera" title="Gestión costera – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Gestión costera" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kostaren_kudeaketa" title="Kostaren kudeaketa – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Kostaren kudeaketa" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D9%85%D8%AF%DB%8C%D8%B1%DB%8C%D8%AA_%D8%B3%D8%A7%D8%AD%D9%84%DB%8C" title="مدیریت ساحلی – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="مدیریت ساحلی" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/D%C3%A9fense_c%C3%B4ti%C3%A8re_(%C3%A9cologie)" title="Défense côtière (écologie) – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Défense côtière (écologie)" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%ED%95%B4%EC%95%88_%EA%B4%80%EB%A6%AC" title="해안 관리 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="해안 관리" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pengelolaan_wilayah_pesisir" title="Pengelolaan wilayah pesisir – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Pengelolaan wilayah pesisir" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-la mw-list-item"><a href="https://la.wikipedia.org/wiki/Administratio_litoralis" title="Administratio litoralis – Latin" lang="la" hreflang="la" data-title="Administratio litoralis" data-language-autonym="Latina" data-language-local-name="Latin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-my mw-list-item"><a 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i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">This article is about Coastal management aimed to prevent erosion and flooding. For broader management issues, see <a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">Integrated coastal zone management</a>. For military defence of coastal areas, see <a href="/wiki/Coastal_defence_and_fortification" title="Coastal defence and fortification">Coastal defence and fortification</a>.</div> <p class="mw-empty-elt"> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Oosterscheldekering,_Netherlands.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Oosterscheldekering%2C_Netherlands.JPG/260px-Oosterscheldekering%2C_Netherlands.JPG" decoding="async" width="260" height="195" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Oosterscheldekering%2C_Netherlands.JPG/390px-Oosterscheldekering%2C_Netherlands.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/f0/Oosterscheldekering%2C_Netherlands.JPG/520px-Oosterscheldekering%2C_Netherlands.JPG 2x" data-file-width="1600" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Oosterscheldekering" title="Oosterscheldekering">Oosterscheldekering</a> sea wall, the Netherlands.</figcaption></figure> <p><b>Coastal management</b> is defence against <a href="/wiki/Flooding" class="mw-redirect" title="Flooding">flooding</a> and <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">erosion</a>, and techniques that stop erosion to claim lands.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Protection against rising sea levels in the 21st century is crucial, as <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a> accelerates due to <a href="/wiki/Climate_change" title="Climate change">climate change</a>. Changes in sea level damage beaches and coastal systems are expected to rise at an increasing rate, causing coastal sediments to be disturbed by tidal energy. </p><p>Coastal zones occupy less than 15% of the Earth's land area, while they host more than 40% of the world population. Nearly 1.2 billion people live within 100 kilometres (62 mi) of a coastline and 100 metres (328 ft) of <a href="/wiki/Sea_level" title="Sea level">sea level</a>, with an average density three times higher than the global average for population.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With three-quarters of the world population expected to reside in the coastal zone by 2025, human activities originating from this small land area will impose heavy pressure on coasts. Coastal zones contain rich resources to produce goods and services and are home to most commercial and industrial activities. </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">.mw-parser-output .toclimit-2 .toclevel-1 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-3 .toclevel-2 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-4 .toclevel-3 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-5 .toclevel-4 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-6 .toclevel-5 ul,.mw-parser-output .toclimit-7 .toclevel-6 ul{display:none}</style><div class="toclimit-4"><meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: History"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Coastal_management" title="Special:EditPage/Coastal management">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a> of <a href="/wiki/Harbour" class="mw-redirect" title="Harbour">harbours</a> began with the origin of maritime traffic, perhaps before 3500 B.C. <a href="/wiki/Dock_(maritime)" class="mw-redirect" title="Dock (maritime)">Docks</a>, <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">breakwaters</a> and other harbour works were built by hand, often in a grand scale. <a href="/wiki/Roman_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman engineering">The Romans</a> introduced many innovations in harbour design. They built walls underwater and constructed solid <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">breakwaters</a>. These structures were made using <a href="/wiki/Roman_concrete" title="Roman concrete">Roman concrete</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Vitruvius" title="Vitruvius">Vitruvius</a> described three methods for building port structures (<a href="/wiki/De_Architectura" class="mw-redirect" title="De Architectura">De Architectura</a>, 5, 12).<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other types of port structure such as rubble mounds and arched breakwaters built by means of timber floating caissons were used also.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Romans were the first dredgers in the Netherlands to maintain the harbour at <a href="/wiki/Velsen" title="Velsen">Velsen</a>. Silting problems there were solved when the previously sealed solid piers were replaced with new "open"-piled <a href="/wiki/Jetties" class="mw-redirect" title="Jetties">jetties</a>. Ancient harbour works are still visible, but most of them disappeared following the <a href="/wiki/Fall_of_the_Western_Roman_Empire" title="Fall of the Western Roman Empire">fall of the Western Roman Empire</a> even if submerged remains are sometimes still visible under water. Although most coastal efforts were directed to port structures, <a href="/wiki/Venice" title="Venice">Venice</a> and its lagoon is an example of measures not related to ports. Protection of the shore in Italy, England and the Netherlands began in the 6th century or earlier. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_Ages">Middle Ages</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Middle Ages"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Attack from the sea caused many coastal towns and their harbours to be abandoned. Other harbours were lost due to natural causes such as rapid silting, shoreline advance or retreat, etc. The <a href="/wiki/Venetian_Lagoon" title="Venetian Lagoon">Venetian Lagoon</a> was one of the few populated coastal areas with continuous prosperity and development where written reports document the evolution of coastal protection works. In other words, this is one of the first accounts of the use of a sea wall to protect a coastal settlement. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Modern_Age">Modern Age</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Modern Age"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Little improvement took place beyond the Roman approach to harbour construction after the <a href="/wiki/Renaissance" title="Renaissance">Renaissance</a>. Then in the early 19th century, the advent of the <a href="/wiki/Steam_engine" title="Steam engine">steam engine</a>, the search for new lands and trade routes, the expansion of the <a href="/wiki/British_Empire" title="British Empire">British Empire</a> through her colonies, and other influences, all contributed to the revitalization of sea trade and a renewed interest in port works. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Twentieth_century">Twentieth century</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Twentieth century"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Prior to the 1950s, the general practice was to use hard structures to protect against <a href="/wiki/Beach_erosion" class="mw-redirect" title="Beach erosion">beach erosion</a> or <a href="/wiki/Storm" title="Storm">storm</a> damages. These structures included <a href="/wiki/Seawall" title="Seawall">seawalls</a> and <a href="/wiki/Revetment" title="Revetment">revetments</a> or sand-trapping structures such as groynes. During the 1920s and '30s, private or local community interests protected many coastal areas using these techniques on an ad hoc basis. In certain resort areas, structures proliferated to such an extent that the protection impeded recreational uses. Erosion continued, but the structures remained, resulting in a loss of beach area. </p><p>The obtrusiveness and cost of these structures led in the late 1940s and early 1950s, to a more dynamic approach. Projects attempted to replicate the protective characteristics of natural beach and dune systems. The resultant use of artificial beaches and stabilized dunes as an engineering approach was economically viable and more environmentally friendly. </p><p>Limited knowledge of coastal sediment transport processes often resulted in inappropriate measures of coastal erosion mitigation. In many cases, measures worked locally, but exacerbated problems at other locations -up to tens of kilometers away- or generated other environmental problems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_Code_of_Conduct">European Code of Conduct</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: European Code of Conduct"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The essential source on coastal engineering is the <i>European Code of Conduct for Coastal Zones</i> issued by the <a href="/wiki/European_Council" title="European Council">European Council</a> in 1999. This document was prepared by the Group of Specialists on Coastal Protection and underlies national legislation and practice. </p><p>The Group of Specialists originated in 1995, pursuant to a decision by the Committee of Ministers of the Council of Europe. It emphasized the need for integrated management and planning, but that coastal areas continued to deteriorate. The Group claimed that this was due to difficulties in implementing the concept of "integrated management". The Group proposed that the <a href="/wiki/Council_of_Europe" title="Council of Europe">Council of Europe</a>, cooperate with the <a href="/wiki/Coastal_%26_Marine_Union_(EUCC)" title="Coastal & Marine Union (EUCC)">Coastal & Marine Union (EUCC)</a> and <a href="/wiki/United_Nations_Environment_Programme" title="United Nations Environment Programme">United Nations Environment Programme</a> (UNEP). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Planning_approaches">Planning approaches</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Planning approaches"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Coastal_management" title="Special:EditPage/Coastal management">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Fivepolicies.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Fivepolicies.svg/350px-Fivepolicies.svg.png" decoding="async" width="350" height="315" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Fivepolicies.svg/525px-Fivepolicies.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9f/Fivepolicies.svg/700px-Fivepolicies.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="500" data-file-height="450" /></a><figcaption>Five general coastal management strategies</figcaption></figure> <p>Five generic strategies are involved in coastal defense:<sup id="cite_ref-auto_6-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <ul><li>Abandonment</li> <li>Managed retreat or realignment, which plans for retreat and adopts engineering solutions that accommodate natural processes of adjustment</li> <li>Armoring by constructing seawalls and other hard structures</li> <li>Construct defenses seaward of the coast</li> <li>Adapting vertically by elevating land and buildings</li></ul> <p>The choice of strategy is site-specific, depending on pattern of sea-level change, geomorphological setting, sediment availability and erosion, as well as social, economic and political factors. </p><p>Alternatively, <a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">integrated coastal zone management</a> approaches may be used to prevent development in erosion- or flood-prone areas, reducing the need to address the changes. <a href="/wiki/Growth_management" title="Growth management">Growth management</a> can be a challenge for <a href="/wiki/Local_governments" class="mw-redirect" title="Local governments">local authorities</a> who must provide the <a href="/wiki/Infrastructure" title="Infrastructure">infrastructure</a> required by new residents.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Managed_retreat">Managed retreat</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Managed retreat"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></div> <p>Managed retreat is an alternative to constructing or maintaining coastal structures. Managed retreat allows an area to erode. Managed retreat is often a response to a change in <a href="/wiki/Sediment_budget" class="mw-redirect" title="Sediment budget">sediment budget</a> or to <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>. The technique is used when the land adjacent to the sea is low in value. A decision is made to allow the land to erode and flood, creating new shoreline habitats. This process may continue over many years. </p><p>The earliest managed retreat in the UK was an area of 0.8 ha at <a href="/wiki/Northey_Island" title="Northey Island">Northey Island</a> flooded in 1991. This was followed by <a href="/wiki/Tollesbury" title="Tollesbury">Tollesbury</a> and Orplands in <a href="/wiki/Essex" title="Essex">Essex</a>, where the sea walls were breached in 1995.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the <a href="/wiki/Ebro_Delta" title="Ebro Delta">Ebro Delta</a> (Spain) coastal authorities planned a managed retreat.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The main cost is generally the purchase of land to be abandoned. Relocation compensation may be needed. Human-made structures that will be engulfed by the sea may need to be removed. In some cases, armouring is used to protect land beyond the area to be flooded. Costs may be lowest if existing defences are left to fail naturally, but the realignment project may be more actively managed, for example by creating an artificial breach in existing defences to allow the sea in at a particular place in a controlled fashion, or by pre-forming drainage channels for created salt-marsh. </p><p>Managed retreat has become more of a necessary strategy due to climate change, as adaptation strategies can only do so much to stop sea level rise.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hold_the_line">Hold the line</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Hold the line"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Holding the line typically involves shoreline hardening techniques, e.g., using permanent concrete and rock constructions. These techniques--<a href="/wiki/Seawall" title="Seawall">seawalls</a>, <a href="/wiki/Groynes" class="mw-redirect" title="Groynes">groynes</a>, detached <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">breakwaters</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Revetments" class="mw-redirect" title="Revetments">revetments</a>—represent more than 70% of protected shorelines in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Alternatively, soft engineering techniques supporting natural processes and relying on natural elements such as dunes and vegetation can prevent erosive forces from reaching the back-shore. These techniques include <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a> and <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune_stabilization" title="Sand dune stabilization">sand dune stabilization</a>. </p><p>Historically coastal strategies were heavily based on static structures, while coastal areas otherwise reflect a <a href="/wiki/Dynamic_equilibrium" title="Dynamic equilibrium">dynamic equilibrium</a>.<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (November 2022)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> Armouring often has the unintended consequence of moving the problem to another part of the coast. Soft options such as <a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">beach nourishment</a> protect coastlines and help to restore the natural dynamism, although they require repeated applications. Maintenance costs can eventually require a strategy change. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Move_seaward">Move seaward</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Move seaward"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In some cases a seaward strategy can be adopted. Examples from erosion include: Koge Bay (Dk), Western <a href="/wiki/Scheldt" title="Scheldt">Scheldt</a> estuary (Nl), <a href="/wiki/Chatelaillon" class="mw-redirect" title="Chatelaillon">Chatelaillon</a> (Fr) and Ebro delta (Sp).<sup id="cite_ref-auto_6-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-auto-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>There is an obvious downside to this strategy. Coastal erosion is already widespread, and there are many coasts where exceptional high tides or storm surges result in encroachment on the shore, impinging on human activity. If the sea rises, many coasts that are developed with infrastructure along or close to the shoreline will be unable to accommodate erosion. They will experience a so-called "coastal squeeze" whereby ecological or geomorphological zones that would normally retreat landwards encounter solid structures and can migrate no further. Wetlands, salt marshes, mangroves and adjacent fresh water wetlands are particularly vulnerable to such a squeeze. </p><p>An upside to the strategy is that moving seaward (and upward) can create land of high value which can bring investment. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Limited_intervention">Limited intervention</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: Limited intervention"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Limited intervention is an action taken whereby the management only addresses the problem to a certain extent, usually in areas of low economic significance. Limited intervention often includes the succession of <a href="/wiki/Halosere" title="Halosere">haloseres</a>, including salt marshes and sand dunes. This normally results in protecting the land behind the halosere, as wave energy dissipates throughout the accumulated sediment and additional vegetation in the new habitat. Although the halosere is not strictly man-made, as many natural processes contribute to the succession, anthropogenic factors are partially responsible for the formation, since an initial factor was needed to help start the process of succession. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Construction_techniques">Construction techniques</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Construction techniques"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1251242444"><table class="box-More_citations_needed_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Refimprove" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>needs additional citations for <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">verification</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Coastal_management" title="Special:EditPage/Coastal management">improve this article</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a> in this section. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">February 2010</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Hard_engineering_methods">Hard engineering methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Hard engineering methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Groynes">Groynes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: Groynes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Groyne_at_Mundesley,_Norfolk.JPG" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Groyne_at_Mundesley%2C_Norfolk.JPG/220px-Groyne_at_Mundesley%2C_Norfolk.JPG" decoding="async" width="220" height="147" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Groyne_at_Mundesley%2C_Norfolk.JPG/330px-Groyne_at_Mundesley%2C_Norfolk.JPG 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/54/Groyne_at_Mundesley%2C_Norfolk.JPG/440px-Groyne_at_Mundesley%2C_Norfolk.JPG 2x" data-file-width="3504" data-file-height="2336" /></a><figcaption>Groyne at <a href="/wiki/Mundesley" title="Mundesley">Mundesley</a>, Norfolk, UK</figcaption></figure> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Groyne" title="Groyne">Groyne</a></div> <p>Groynes are ert or walls perpendicular to the coastline to trap the <a href="/wiki/Sedimentation" title="Sedimentation">sedimentation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">longshore drift</a> to gradually create a beach and for it ongoing protection by eliminating coastal erosion, often made of greenharts, concrete, rock or wood. Material builds up on the downdrift side, where <a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">littoral drift</a> is predominantly in one direction, creating a wider and a more plentiful beach, thereby protecting the coast because the sand material filters and absorbs wave energy. However, there is a corresponding loss of beach material on the updrift side, requiring another groyne there. Groynes do not protect the beach against storm-driven waves and if placed too close together create currents that carry material offshore. Shapes of groynes can be straight, outwardly curved away in opposite direction from downdrift. </p><p>Groynes are cost-effective, require little maintenance and are one of the most common defences. However, groynes are increasingly viewed as detrimental to the aesthetics of the coastline and face opposition in many coastal communities.<sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Groynes can be considered a "soft" solution because of the beach enhancement. </p><p>Groyne construction creates a problem known as terminal groyne syndrome. The terminal groyne prevents <a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">longshore drift</a> from bringing material to other nearby places. This is a problem along the Hampshire and Sussex coastline in the UK; e.g., at <a href="/wiki/Worthing" title="Worthing">Worthing</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Seawalls">Seawalls</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: Seawalls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Seawall" title="Seawall">Seawall</a></div> <p>Walls of concrete and masonry are used to protect a settlement against erosion or flooding. They are typically about 3–5 metres (10–16 ft) high. Older-style vertical seawalls reflected all the energy of the waves back out to sea, and for this purpose were often given recurved crest walls which increased local turbulence, and thus increased entrainment of sand and sediment. During storms, sea walls help longshore drift. </p><p>Modern seawalls aim to re-direct most of the incident energy in the form of sloping revetments, resulting in low reflected waves and much reduced turbulence. Designs use porous designs of rock, concrete armour (<a href="/wiki/Tetrapod_(structure)" title="Tetrapod (structure)">Tetrapods</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honeycomb_sea_wall" title="Honeycomb sea wall">Seabees</a>, SHEDs, <a href="/wiki/Xblocs" class="mw-redirect" title="Xblocs">Xblocs</a>, etc.) with flights of steps for beach access. </p><p>The location of a seawall, must consider the swept prism of the beach profile, the consequences of long-term beach recession and amenity crest level, including cost implications. </p><p>Sea walls can cause beaches to dissipate. Their presence also alters the landscape that they are trying to protect. </p><p>Modern examples can be found at Cronulla (NSW, 1985–6),<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Blackpool (1986–2001),<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lincolnshire (1992–1997)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and Wallasey (1983–1993).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At <a href="/wiki/Sandwich,_Kent" title="Sandwich, Kent">Sandwich, Kent</a> the Seabee seawall is buried at the back of the beach under the shingle with crest level at road kerb level. </p><p>Sea walls typically cost £10,000 per metre (depending on material, height and width), £10,000,000 per km (depending on material, height and width).<sup class="noprint Inline-Template Template-Fact" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citation_needed" title="Wikipedia:Citation needed"><span title="This claim needs references to reliable sources. (April 2014)">citation needed</span></a></i>]</sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Revetments">Revetments</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Revetments"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Revetments" class="mw-redirect" title="Revetments">Revetments</a></div> <p>Revetments are slanted or upright blockades, built parallel to the coast, usually towards the back of the beach to protect the area beyond. The most basic revetments consist of timber slants with a possible rock infill. Waves break against the revetments, which dissipate and absorb the energy. The shoreline is protected by the beach material held behind the barriers, as the revetments trap some of the material. They may be watertight, covering the slope completely, or porous, to allow water to filter through after the wave energy has been dissipated. Most revetments do not significantly interfere with transport of longshore drift. Since the wall absorbs energy instead of reflecting, the surf progressively erodes and destroys the revetment; therefore, maintenance is ongoing, as determined by the structural material and product quality. </p> <figure typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Waves_Touching_The_Clouds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Waves_Touching_The_Clouds.jpg/281px-Waves_Touching_The_Clouds.jpg" decoding="async" width="281" height="173" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Waves_Touching_The_Clouds.jpg/422px-Waves_Touching_The_Clouds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/9b/Waves_Touching_The_Clouds.jpg/562px-Waves_Touching_The_Clouds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="4000" data-file-height="2459" /></a><figcaption>Cement beach reinforcements in on the coast of <a href="/wiki/Alexandria,_Egypt" class="mw-redirect" title="Alexandria, Egypt">Alexandria, Egypt</a> to prevent further erosion of <a href="/wiki/Subsidence" title="Subsidence">coastline that is vulnerable to subsidence</a>.</figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Rock_armour">Rock armour</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Rock armour"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Riprap" title="Riprap">Riprap</a></div> <p>Rock armour is large rocks placed at the sea edge using local material. This is generally used to absorb wave energy and hold beach material. Although effective, this solution is unpopular for aesthetic reasons. Longshore drift is not hindered. Rock armour has a limited lifespan, is not effective in storm conditions and reduces recreational values. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Geotextile_tubes">Geotextile tubes</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Geotextile tubes"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Riprap" title="Riprap">Riprap</a></div> <p>Geotextile tubes or geotubes are large geotextile bags placed at the sea edge filled with locally available sand slurry. This is generally used to absorb wave energy and hold beach material as riprap does. Often referred to as titan tubes as manufactured by Flint Technical Geosolutions. Longshore drift is not hindered. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Gabions">Gabions</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: Gabions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Gabion" title="Gabion">Gabion</a></div> <p>Boulders and rocks are wired into mesh cages and placed in front of areas vulnerable to erosion: sometimes at cliffs edges or at right angles to the beach. When the ocean lands on the gabion, the water drains through leaving sediment, while the structure absorbs a moderate amount of wave energy. </p><p>Gabions need to be securely tied to protect the structure. </p><p>Downsides include wear rates and visual intrusiveness. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Offshore_breakwater">Offshore breakwater</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: Offshore breakwater"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Breakwater_(structure)" title="Breakwater (structure)">Breakwater (structure)</a></div> <p>Concrete blocks and/or boulders are sunk offshore to alter wave direction and to filter wave and tide energy. The waves break further offshore and therefore lose erosive power. This leads to wider beaches, which further absorb wave energy. <a href="/wiki/Dolos" title="Dolos">Dolos</a> has replaced the use of concrete blocks because it is more resistant to wave action and requires less concrete to produce a superior result. Similar concrete objects like Dolos are <a href="/wiki/A-jack" class="mw-redirect" title="A-jack">A-jack</a>, <a href="/wiki/Akmon" title="Akmon">Akmon</a>, <a href="/wiki/Xbloc" title="Xbloc">Xbloc</a>, <a href="/wiki/Tetrapod_(structure)" title="Tetrapod (structure)">Tetrapod</a> and <a href="/wiki/Accropode" title="Accropode">Accropode</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Cliff_stabilization">Cliff stabilization</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=20" title="Edit section: Cliff stabilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Cliff_stabilization" title="Cliff stabilization">Cliff stabilization</a></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Cliff_stabilization" title="Cliff stabilization">Cliff stabilization</a> can be accomplished through drainage of excess rainwater of through terracing, planting and wiring to hold cliffs in place. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Entrance_training_walls">Entrance training walls</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: Entrance training walls"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Training_(civil)" title="Training (civil)">Training (civil)</a></div> <p>Training walls are built to constrain a river or creek as it discharges across a sandy coastline. The walls stabilise and deepen the channel which benefits navigation, flood management, river erosion and water quality, but can cause coastal erosion by interrupting longshore drift. One solution is a sand bypassing system to pump sand under/around the training walls. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Floodgates">Floodgates</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=22" title="Edit section: Floodgates"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Floodgate" title="Floodgate">Floodgate</a></div> <p>Storm surge barriers, or <a href="/wiki/Floodgates" class="mw-redirect" title="Floodgates">floodgates</a>, were introduced after the <a href="/wiki/North_Sea_flood_of_1953" title="North Sea flood of 1953">North Sea Flood of 1953</a> and prevent damage from storm surges or any other type of natural disaster that could harm the area they protect. They are habitually open and allow free passage, but close under threat of a storm surge. The <a href="/wiki/Thames_Barrier" title="Thames Barrier">Thames Barrier</a> is an example of such a structure. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Soft_engineering_methods">Soft engineering methods</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=23" title="Edit section: Soft engineering methods"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png/400px-Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png" decoding="async" width="400" height="194" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/18/Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png/600px-Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/18/Ecosystem_services_delivered_by_epibenthic_bivalve_reefs.png 2x" data-file-width="785" data-file-height="381" /></a><figcaption> <div class="center" style="width:auto; margin-left:auto; margin-right:auto;"><b>Ecosystem services delivered by <a href="/wiki/Epibenthic" class="mw-redirect" title="Epibenthic">epibenthic</a> <a href="/wiki/Bivalve" class="mw-redirect" title="Bivalve">bivalve</a> reefs</b></div> Reefs provide coastal protection through erosion control and shoreline stabilization, and modify the physical landscape by <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_engineering" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem engineering">ecosystem engineering</a>, thereby providing habitat for species by facilitative interactions with other habitats such as <a href="/wiki/Tidal_flat" class="mw-redirect" title="Tidal flat">tidal flat</a> benthic communities, <a href="/wiki/Seagrass" title="Seagrass">seagrasses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">marshes</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Beach_replenishment">Beach replenishment</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=24" title="Edit section: Beach replenishment"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Beach_replenishment" class="mw-redirect" title="Beach replenishment">Beach replenishment</a></div> <p>Beach replenishment/nourishment involves importing sand from elsewhere and adding it to the existing beach. The imported sand should be of a similar quality to the existing beach material so it can meld with the natural local processes and without adverse effects. Beach nourishment can be used in combination with groynes. The scheme requires repeated applications on an annual or multi-year cycle. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sand_Dune_Stabilization">Sand Dune Stabilization</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=25" title="Edit section: Sand Dune Stabilization"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="/wiki/Sand_dune_stabilization" title="Sand dune stabilization">Sand dune stabilization</a></div> <p>Sand dunes are a common feature of beaches and provide a habitat for many organisms. They are useful when preventing the erosion of beaches, and can catch windblown sand which over time increases the natural formation of the beach. To stabilize sand dunes, foredune flora and backdune flora are planted. Foredune flora are typically plants with a tolerance for salt spray, strong winds and are capable surviving being buried underneath blown sand. Some examples are <a href="/wiki/Ammophila_arenaria" title="Ammophila arenaria">Ammophila arenaria</a>, <a href="/wiki/Honckenya" title="Honckenya">Honckenya peploides</a>, <a href="/wiki/Cakile_maritima" title="Cakile maritima">Cakile maritima</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Spartina" title="Spartina">Spartina coarctata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Whereas backdune flora grow into dense patches called dune mats, which helps to hold dune structure. Examples of backdune flora are <a href="/wiki/Hudsonia_tomentosa" title="Hudsonia tomentosa">Hudsonia tomentosa</a>, <a href="/wiki/Sporobolus_pumilus" title="Sporobolus pumilus">spartina patens</a>, and <a href="/wiki/Iva_imbricata" title="Iva imbricata">Iva imbricata</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> After these plants have taken root, the shrub stage begins. Since the previously established plants have stabilized the dunes, during the shrub stage larger plants with bigger root systems are able to grow. This allows for further stabilization of sand dunes. These larger plants, along with <a href="/wiki/Sand_fence" title="Sand fence">wooden sand fences</a>, footpaths, <a href="/wiki/Dutch_sand_ladder" title="Dutch sand ladder">Dutch ladders</a> and <a href="/wiki/Boardwalk" title="Boardwalk">boardwalks</a> help to catch windblown sand.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_18-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Stabilizing sand dunes with plants is a common practice and can be implemented on private and public beaches. When implementing the stabilization sand dunes on privately owned beaches with multiple owners, coming to a consensual agreement tends to be complicated. Some owners may prefer to leave the dunes bare, while others would rather plant more visually appealing plants. In comparison, when implementing dune stabilization on publicly owned beaches, there are less parties to confer with. Therefore, agreements about implementation can be reached in a quicker fashion. </p><p>Sand dunes are vulnerable to human activities. Therefore, they need as little human interaction as possible for their protection. Human coastal activities has led to the erosion and loss of plant life on sand dunes.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Plant life has been established as an important stabilizing factor of sand dunes and the loss of it will cause more erosion. To prevent this, noticeboards, leaflets, and beach wardens explain to visitors how to avoid damaging the area. Also, beach areas can be closed to the public to reduce damage. Another option is fences which allow sand traps to create blowouts and increase windblown sand capture. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Beach_drainage">Beach drainage</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=26" title="Edit section: Beach drainage"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beach drainage or beach face dewatering lowers the <a href="/wiki/Water_table" title="Water table">water table</a> locally beneath the beach face. This causes <a href="/wiki/Accretion_(coastal_management)" title="Accretion (coastal management)">accretion</a> of sand above the drainage system.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Beach watertables have an important bearing on deposition/erosion across the foreshore.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrant1948_21-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrant1948-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In one study a high watertable coincided with accelerated beach erosion, while a low watertable coincided with pronounced aggradation of the foreshore. A lower watertable (unsaturated beach face) facilitates deposition by reducing flow velocities during backwash and prolonging laminar flow. With the beach in a saturated state, backwash velocity is accelerated by the addition of groundwater seepage out of the beach within the effluent zone. </p><p>However, no case studies provide indisputable evidence of positive results, although in some cases overall positive performance was reported. Long-term monitoring was not undertaken at a frequency high enough to discriminate the response to high energy erosive events. </p><p>A useful side effect of the system is that collected seawater is relatively pure because of sand's filtration effect. Such water may be discharged or be used to oxygenate stagnant inland lagoons/marinas or used as feed for heat pumps, desalination plants, land-based aquaculture, aquariums or swimming pools. </p><p>Beach drainage systems have been installed in many locations around the world to halt and reverse erosion trends in sand beaches. Twenty four beach drainage systems have been installed since 1981 in Denmark, USA, UK, Japan, Spain, Sweden, France, Italy and Malaysia. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Buffer_zones">Buffer zones</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=27" title="Edit section: Buffer zones"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Ecosystem_services" class="mw-redirect" title="Ecosystem services">Ecosystem services</a></div> <p>Coastal and estuarine ecosystems act as buffer zones against natural hazards and environmental disturbances, such as floods, cyclones, tidal surges and storms. The role they play is to "[absorb] a portion of the impact and thus [lessen] its effect on the land".<sup id="cite_ref-davidsuzuki.org_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-davidsuzuki.org-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/Wetland" title="Wetland">Wetlands</a> (which include <a href="/wiki/Saltwater_swamp" class="mw-redirect" title="Saltwater swamp">saltwater swamps</a>, <a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">salt marshes</a>, ...) and the vegetation it supports – trees, root mats, etc. – retain large amounts of water (surface water, snowmelt, rain, groundwater) and then slowly releases them back, decreasing the likeliness of floods.<sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Mangrove forests protect coastal shorelines from tidal erosion or erosion by currents; a process that was studied after the 1999 cyclone that hit India. Villages that were surrounded with <a href="/wiki/Mangrove" title="Mangrove">mangrove</a> forests encountered less damages than other villages that weren't protected by mangroves.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Costs">Costs</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=28" title="Edit section: Costs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The costs of installation and operation vary due to: </p> <ul><li>system length (non-linear cost elements)</li> <li>pump flow rates (sand permeability, power costs)</li> <li>soil conditions (presence of rock or impermeable strata)</li> <li>discharge arrangement /filtered seawater utilization</li> <li>drainage design, materials selection & installation methods</li> <li>geographical considerations (location logistics)</li> <li>regional economic considerations (local capabilities /costs)</li> <li>study requirements /consent process.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Monitoring">Monitoring</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=29" title="Edit section: Monitoring"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Coastal managers must compensate for error and uncertainty in the information regarding the erosive processes. Video-based monitoring can collect data continuously and produce analyses of shoreline processes. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Event_warning_systems">Event warning systems</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=30" title="Edit section: Event warning systems"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Event warning systems, such as <a href="/wiki/Tsunami_warning_system" title="Tsunami warning system">tsunami warnings</a> and <a href="/wiki/Storm_surge" title="Storm surge">storm surge</a> warnings, can be used to minimize the human impact of catastrophic events that cause coastal erosion. Storm surge warnings can help determine when to close <a href="/wiki/Floodgate" title="Floodgate">floodgates</a>. </p><p>Wireless sensor networks can aid monitoring. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Shoreline_mapping">Shoreline mapping</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=31" title="Edit section: Shoreline mapping"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Defining the shoreline is a difficult task due to its dynamic nature and the intended application.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEGrahamSaultBailey2003_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEGrahamSaultBailey2003-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The relevant mapping scale is dependent on the context of the investigation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Generally, the coast comprises the interface between land and sea, and the shoreline is represented by the margin between the two.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodroffe2002_27-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodroffe2002-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Investigators adopt the use of shoreline indicators to represent the true shoreline position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shoreline_indicator">Shoreline indicator</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=32" title="Edit section: Shoreline indicator"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Mcwillizind.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/1/1e/Mcwillizind.jpg" decoding="async" width="318" height="256" class="mw-file-element" data-file-width="318" data-file-height="256" /></a><figcaption>Figure 1. A diagram representing the spatial relationship between many of the commonly used indicators.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>The choice of shoreline indicator is a primary consideration. Indicators must be easily identified in the field and on <a href="/wiki/Aerial_photography" title="Aerial photography">aerial photography</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shoreline indicators may be morphological features such as the <a href="/wiki/Berm" title="Berm">berm</a> crest, scarp edge, <a href="/wiki/Vegetation" title="Vegetation">vegetation</a> line, <a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">dune</a> toe, dune crest and cliff or the bluff crest and toe. Alternatively, non-morphological features may be used such as water level (high water line (HWL), mean high water line) wet/dry boundary and the physical water line.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002_30-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Figure 1 provides a sketch of the spatial relationships between commonly used shoreline indicators. </p><p>The HWL (H in Figure 1) is the most commonly used shoreline indicator because it is visible in the field, and can be interpreted on both colour and grey scale aerial photographs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrowellLeathermanBuckley1991_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowellLeathermanBuckley1991-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The HWL represents the landward extent of the most recent <a href="/wiki/High_tide" class="mw-redirect" title="High tide">high tide</a> and is characterised by a change in sand colour due to repeated, periodic inundation by high tides. The HWL is portrayed on aerial photographs by the most landward change in colour or grey tone.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Importance_and_application">Importance and application</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=33" title="Edit section: Importance and application"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The shoreline location and its changing position over time is of fundamental importance to coastal scientists, engineers and managers.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002_30-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shoreline monitoring campaigns provide information about historic shoreline location and movement, and about predictions of future change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAppeaning_AddoWalkdenMills2008_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppeaning_AddoWalkdenMills2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More specifically the position of the shoreline in the past, at present and where it is predicted to be in the future is useful for in the design of coastal protection, to calibrate and verify <a href="/wiki/Computer_simulation" title="Computer simulation">numerical models</a> to assess <a href="/wiki/Sea_level_rise" title="Sea level rise">sea level rise</a>, map hazard zones and to regulate coastal development. The location of the shoreline also provides information regarding shoreline reorientation adjacent to structures, <a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">beach</a> width, volume and rates of historical change.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002_30-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Data_sources">Data sources</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=34" title="Edit section: Data sources"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A variety of data sources are available for examining shoreline position. However, the availability of historical data is limited at many coastal sites and so the choice of data source is largely limited to what is available for the site at a given time.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Shoreline mapping techniques have become more automated. The frequent changes in technology prevented the emergence of one standard mapping approach. Each data source and associated method have capabilities and shortcomings.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Historical_maps">Historical maps</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=35" title="Edit section: Historical maps"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>In the event that a study requires the shoreline position from before aerial photographs, or if the location has poor photographic coverage, historical maps provide an alternative.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many errors are associated with early maps and charts. Such errors may be associated with scale, <a href="/wiki/Datum_(geodesy)" class="mw-redirect" title="Datum (geodesy)">datum</a> changes, distortions from uneven shrinkage, stretching, creases, tears and folds, different <a href="/wiki/Surveying" title="Surveying">surveying</a> standards, different publication standards and <a href="/wiki/Map_projection" title="Map projection">projection</a> errors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The severity of these errors depends on the accuracy of the map and the physical changes that occurred after it was made.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAndersByrnes1991_34-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAndersByrnes1991-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The oldest reliable source of shoreline data in the United States dates is the <a href="/w/index.php?title=United_States_Geodetic_Survey&action=edit&redlink=1" class="new" title="United States Geodetic Survey (page does not exist)">United States Coast Survey</a> T-sheets and dates to the early-to-mid-19th century.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMorton1991_35-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMorton1991-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the United Kingdom, many pre-1750 maps and charts were deemed to be inaccurate. The founding of the <a href="/wiki/Ordnance_Survey" title="Ordnance Survey">Ordnance Survey</a> in 1791 improved mapping accuracy. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Aerial_photographs">Aerial photographs</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=36" title="Edit section: Aerial photographs"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Aerial photographs began to be used in the 1920s to provide <a href="/wiki/Topography" title="Topography">topographical</a> data. They provide a good <a href="/wiki/Database" title="Database">database</a> for compilation of shoreline change maps. Aerial photographs are the most commonly used data source because many coastal areas have extensive aerial photo coverage.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>Aerial photographs generally provide good spatial coverage. However, temporal coverage is site specific. The interpretation of shoreline position is subjective given the dynamic nature of the coastal environment. This combined with various distortions inherent in aerial photographs can lead to <a href="/wiki/Statistical_significance" title="Statistical significance">significant</a> error levels.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The minimisation of further errors is discussed below. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Object_space_displacements">Object space displacements</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=37" title="Edit section: Object space displacements"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Displacement1.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/f/ff/Displacement1.jpg/260px-Displacement1.jpg" decoding="async" width="260" height="260" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/f/ff/Displacement1.jpg 1.5x" data-file-width="390" data-file-height="390" /></a><figcaption>Figure 2. An example of relief displacement. All objects above ground level are displaced outwards from the centre of the photograph. The displacement becomes more evident near the edges.</figcaption></figure> <p>Conditions outside of the camera can cause objects in an image to appear displaced from their true ground position. Such conditions may include ground relief, camera <a href="/wiki/Tilt_(optics)" title="Tilt (optics)">tilt</a> and <a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_refraction" title="Atmospheric refraction">atmospheric refraction</a>. </p><p>Relief displacement is prominent when photographing a variety of <a href="/wiki/Elevation" title="Elevation">elevations</a>. This situation causes objects above sea level to be displaced outward from the centre of the photograph and objects below ground level to be displaced toward the centre of the image (Figure 2). The severity of the displacement is negatively associated with decreases in flight altitude and as <a href="/wiki/Radial_distance_(geometry)" class="mw-redirect" title="Radial distance (geometry)">radial distance</a> from the centre of the photograph increases. This distortion can be minimised by photographing multiple <a href="/wiki/Swath_width" class="mw-redirect" title="Swath width">swaths</a> and creating a <a href="/wiki/Mosaic" title="Mosaic">mosaic</a> of the images. This technique creates a focus for the centre of each photograph where distortion is minimised. This error is not common in shoreline mapping as the relief is fairly constant. It is however important to consider when mapping cliffs.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Ideally aerial photographs are taken so the <a href="/wiki/Optical_axis" title="Optical axis">optical axis</a> of the camera is perfectly <a href="/wiki/Perpendicular" title="Perpendicular">perpendicular</a> to the ground surface, thereby creating a <a href="/wiki/Vertical_direction" class="mw-redirect" title="Vertical direction">vertical</a> photograph. Unfortunately this is often not the case and virtually all aerial photographs experience tilt up to 3°.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECamfieldMorang1996_36-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECamfieldMorang1996-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In this situation the scale of the image is larger on the upward side of the tilt axis and smaller on the downward side. Many coastal researchers do not consider this in their work.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Radial_lens_distortion">Radial lens distortion</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=38" title="Edit section: Radial lens distortion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Photographic_lens" class="mw-redirect" title="Photographic lens">Lens</a> distortion varies as a function of radial distance from the iso-centre of the photograph meaning that the centre of the image is relatively distortion free, but as the <a href="/wiki/Angle" title="Angle">angle</a> of view increases distortion. This is a significant source of error in earlier aerial photography. Such a distortion is impossible to correct for without knowing the details of the lens used to capture the image. Overlapping images can be used to resolve errors.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECrowellLeathermanBuckley1991_31-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECrowellLeathermanBuckley1991-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading6"><h6 id="Shoreline_delineation">Shoreline delineation</h6><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=39" title="Edit section: Shoreline delineation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The dynamic nature of coasts compromises shoreline mapping. This uncertainty arises because at any given time the position of the shoreline is influenced by the immediate tidal effects and a variety of long-term effects such as relative sea-level rise and along <a href="/wiki/Shore" class="mw-redirect" title="Shore">shore</a> <a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">littoral</a> <a href="/wiki/Sediment" title="Sediment">sediment</a> movement. This affects the accuracy of computed historic shoreline position and predictions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAppeaning_AddoWalkdenMills2008_32-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppeaning_AddoWalkdenMills2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> HWL is most commonly used as a shoreline indicator. Many errors are associated with using the wet/dry line as a proxy for the HWL and shoreline. The errors of largest concern are the short-term migration of the wet/dry line, interpretation of the wet/dry line on a photograph and measurement of the interpreted line position.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Systematic errors such as the migration of the wet/dry line arise from tidal and <a href="/wiki/Seasonal" class="mw-redirect" title="Seasonal">seasonal</a> changes. <a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a> may cause the wet/dry line to migrate. Field investigations have shown that these changes can be minimised by using only summertime data.;<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMoore2000_33-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMoore2000-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Furthermore, the error bar can be significantly reduced by using the longest record of reliable data to calculate erosion rates.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Errors may arise due to the difficulty of measuring a single line on a photograph. For example, where the pen line is 0.13 mm thick this translates to an error of ±2.6 m on a 1:20000 scale photograph. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Beach_profiling_surveys">Beach profiling surveys</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=40" title="Edit section: Beach profiling surveys"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Beach profiling surveys are typically repeated at regular intervals along the coast in order to measure short-term (daily to annual) variations in shoreline position and beach volume.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithZarillo1990_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithZarillo1990-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beach profiling is a very accurate source of information. However, measurements are generally subject to the limitations of conventional surveying techniques. Shoreline data derived from beach profiling is often spatially and temporally limited due to the high cost associated with that labour-intensive activity. Shorelines are generally derived by <a href="/wiki/Interpolation" title="Interpolation">interpolating</a> from a series of discrete beach profiles. The distance between the profiles is usually quite large, limiting the accuracy of the interpolating. Survey data is limited to smaller lengths of shoreline generally less than ten kilometres.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Beach profiling data is commonly available in from regional councils in New Zealand.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Remote_sensing">Remote sensing</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=41" title="Edit section: Remote sensing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A range of airborne, <a href="/wiki/Satellite" title="Satellite">satellite</a> and land based <a href="/wiki/Remote_sensing" title="Remote sensing">remote sensing</a> techniques can provide additional, mappable data.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmithZarillo1990_37-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmithZarillo1990-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability"><span title="Smith & Zarillo 1990 only discusses aerial photography, not satellite or other remote sensing (November 2022)">failed verification</span></a></i>]</sup> Remotely sensed data sources include: </p> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Multispectral" class="mw-redirect" title="Multispectral">Multispectral</a> and <a href="/wiki/Hyperspectral" class="mw-redirect" title="Hyperspectral">hyperspectral</a> imaging</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">Microwave</a> sensors</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Global_positioning_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Global positioning system">Global positioning system</a> (GPS)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/LIDAR" class="mw-redirect" title="LIDAR">Airborne light detection and ranging technology</a> (LIDAR)</li></ul> <p>Remote sensing techniques can be cost effective, reduce manual error and reduce the subjectivity of conventional field techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMaitiBhattacharya2009_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMaitiBhattacharya2009-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Remote sensing is a relatively new concept, limiting extensive historical observations. Coastal morphology observations must be quantified by coupling remotely sensed data with other sources of information detailing historic shoreline position from archived sources.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEAppeaning_AddoWalkdenMills2008_32-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEAppeaning_AddoWalkdenMills2008-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Video_analysis">Video analysis</h5><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=42" title="Edit section: Video analysis"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p><a href="/wiki/Video" title="Video">Video</a> analysis provides quantitative, cost-effective, continuous and long-term monitoring beaches.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurnerAarninkhofDronkersMcGrath2004_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurnerAarninkhofDronkersMcGrath2004-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The advancement of coastal video systems in the twenty-first century enabled the extraction of large amounts of geophysical data from images. The data describes coastal morphology, surface currents and wave parameters. The main advantage of video analysis lies in the ability to reliably quantify these parameters with high resolution space and time coverage. This highlights their potential as an effective coastal monitoring system and an aid to coastal zone management.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEVan_KoningsveldDavidsonHuntlyMedina2007_41-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEVan_KoningsveldDavidsonHuntlyMedina2007-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Interesting case studies have been carried out using video analysis. One group used a video-based ARGUS coastal imaging system<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTETurnerAarninkhofDronkersMcGrath2004_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTETurnerAarninkhofDronkersMcGrath2004-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to monitor and quantify the regional-scale coastal response to sand nourishment and construction of the world-first <a href="/wiki/Gold_Coast,_Queensland" title="Gold Coast, Queensland">Gold Coast</a> artificial surfing <a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">reef</a> in Australia. Another assessed the added value of high <a href="/wiki/Image_resolution" title="Image resolution">resolution</a> video observations for short-term predictions of near shore hydrodynamic and morphological processes, at temporal scales of meters to kilometres and days to seasons.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTESmitAarninkhofWijnbergGonzalez2007_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTESmitAarninkhofWijnbergGonzalez2007-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Video analysis gives coastal zone managers the opportunity to obtain <a href="/wiki/Bathymetry" title="Bathymetry">bathymetry</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPlantHollandHaller2008_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPlantHollandHaller2008-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanPlantHolland2013_45-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanPlantHolland2013-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergsmaConleyDavidsonO'Hare2016_46-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergsmaConleyDavidsonO'Hare2016-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> It can be used to obtain inter-tidal topographies and sub-tidal bathymetries and measure coastal zone resilience [as in available beach volume as well as sub-tidal bar configuration]. Video-based depth estimations were applied in micro/meso tidal environments at DUCK, NC<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEHolmanPlantHolland2013_45-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEHolmanPlantHolland2013-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and highly energetic wave climates with a macro tidal regime at Porthtowan in the United Kingdom.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBergsmaConleyDavidsonO'Hare2016_46-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBergsmaConleyDavidsonO'Hare2016-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The latter showed the application of video-based depth estimations during extreme storms.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMasselinkScottPoateRussell2016_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMasselinkScottPoateRussell2016-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTECastelleMarieuBujanaSplinter2015_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTECastelleMarieuBujanaSplinter2015-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=43" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 30em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach#Erosion_and_accretion" title="Beach">Beach erosion and accretion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_evolution" title="Beach evolution">Beach evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">Beach nourishment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_recession_of_beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern recession of beaches">Modern recession of beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_beach" title="Raised beach">Raised beach</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">Integrated coastal zone management</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Landforms#Coastal_and_oceanic_landforms" class="mw-redirect" title="Landforms">Coastal and oceanic landforms</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_development_hazards" title="Coastal development hazards">Coastal development hazards</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_geography" title="Coastal geography">Coastal geography</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cuspate_foreland" title="Cuspate foreland">Cuspate foreland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Detention_basin" title="Detention basin">Detention basin</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hard_engineering" title="Hard engineering">Hard engineering</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accropode" title="Accropode">Accropode</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Xbloc" title="Xbloc">Xbloc</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_engineering" title="Soft engineering">Soft engineering</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_morphodynamics" title="Coastal morphodynamics">Coastal morphodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_and_Estuarine_Research_Federation" title="Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation">Coastal and Estuarine Research Federation</a> (CERF)</li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast#Human_impacts" title="Coast">Human impacts on coasts</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_sea_level_rise" class="mw-redirect" title="Current sea level rise">Sea level rise</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mangrove_restoration" title="Mangrove restoration">Mangrove restoration</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_hazard" class="mw-redirect" title="Natural hazard">Natural hazard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swamp" title="Swamp">Restoration of saltwater swamps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marsh" title="Marsh">Restoration of salt marshes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_countries_by_length_of_coastline" title="List of countries by length of coastline">List of countries by length of coastline</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Erosion" title="Erosion">Erosion</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bioerosion" title="Bioerosion">Bioerosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Blowhole_(geology)" title="Blowhole (geology)">Blowhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_arch" title="Natural arch">Natural arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave-cut_platform" title="Wave-cut platform">Wave-cut platform</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(sediment)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (sediment)">Deposition (sediment)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_sediment_supply" title="Coastal sediment supply">Coastal sediment supply</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Longshore transport">Longshore transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_dune_stabilization" title="Sand dune stabilization">Sand dune stabilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersion_(coastal_management)" title="Submersion (coastal management)">Submersion</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=44" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist"> <div class="mw-references-wrap mw-references-columns"><ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration 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.cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .citation .mw-selflink{font-weight:inherit}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .cs1-format{font-size:95%}html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{color:#18911f}}</style><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.tulane.edu/~sanelson/Natural_Disasters/coastalzones.htm">"Coastal Zones"</a>.</cite><span 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title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Hydrological+Sciences+Journal&rft.atitle=Soil+water+retention+and+carbon+pools+in+tropical+forested+wetlands+and+marshes+of+the+Gulf+of+Mexico&rft.volume=56&rft.issue=8&rft.pages=1388-1406&rft.date=2011&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A85551159%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1080%2F02626667.2011.629786&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2011HydSJ..56.1388C&rft.aulast=Campos+c&rft.aufirst=Adolfo&rft.au=Hern%C3%A1ndez%2C+Mar%C3%ADa+E.&rft.au=Moreno-Casasola%2C+Patricia&rft.au=Cejudo+Espinosa%2C+Eduardo&rft.au=Robledo+r%2C+Alezandra&rft.au=Infante+Mata%2C+Dulce&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fdoi.org%2F10.1080%252F02626667.2011.629786&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-24"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-24">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Badol, Ruchi & 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href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-5"><sup><i><b>f</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-6"><sup><i><b>g</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-7"><sup><i><b>h</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoakTurner2005_26-8"><sup><i><b>i</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFBoakTurner2005">Boak & Turner 2005</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEWoodroffe2002-27"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWoodroffe2002_27-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFWoodroffe2002">Woodroffe 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-28"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-28">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Adapted from <a href="#CITEREFBoakTurner2005">Boak & Turner 2005</a></span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003-29"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-3"><sup><i><b>d</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTELeatherman2003_29-4"><sup><i><b>e</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFLeatherman2003">Leatherman 2003</a>.</span> </li> <li id="cite_note-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002-30"><span class="mw-cite-backlink">^ <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002_30-0"><sup><i><b>a</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002_30-1"><sup><i><b>b</b></i></sup></a> <a href="#cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPajakLeatherman2002_30-2"><sup><i><b>c</b></i></sup></a></span> <span class="reference-text"><a href="#CITEREFPajakLeatherman2002">Pajak & Leatherman 2002</a>.</span> </li> <li 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href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071017223708/http://www.hbrc.govt.nz/PORTALS/0/CHA/CHA%20Vol%203%20Appendix%20A.PDF">"CHA Vol 3 Appendix A"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i>hbrc.govt.nz</i>. 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(1990). "Calculating Long-Term Shoreline Recession Rates Using Aerial Photographic and Beach Profiling Techniques". <i>Journal of Coastal Research</i>. <b>6</b> (1): 111–120. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0749-0208">0749-0208</a>. <a href="/wiki/JSTOR_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="JSTOR (identifier)">JSTOR</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.jstor.org/stable/4297648">4297648</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Coastal+Research&rft.atitle=Calculating+Long-Term+Shoreline+Recession+Rates+Using+Aerial+Photographic+and+Beach+Profiling+Techniques&rft.volume=6&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=111-120&rft.date=1990&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.jstor.org%2Fstable%2F4297648%23id-name%3DJSTOR&rft.issn=0749-0208&rft.aulast=Smith&rft.aufirst=George+L.&rft.au=Zarillo%2C+Gary+A.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnerAarninkhofDronkersMcGrath2004" class="citation journal cs1">Turner, Ian L.; Aarninkhof, S. G. J.; Dronkers, T. D. T.; McGrath, J. (1 July 2004). "CZM Applications of Argus Coastal Imaging at the Gold Coast, Australia". <i>Journal of Coastal Research</i>. <b>20</b>: 739–752. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.2112%2F1551-5036%282004%2920%5B739%3ACAOACI%5D2.0.CO%3B2">10.2112/1551-5036(2004)20[739:CAOACI]2.0.CO;2</a>. <a href="/wiki/ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0749-0208">0749-0208</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:130099070">130099070</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Coastal+Research&rft.atitle=CZM+Applications+of+Argus+Coastal+Imaging+at+the+Gold+Coast%2C+Australia&rft.volume=20&rft.pages=739-752&rft.date=2004-07-01&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A130099070%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft.issn=0749-0208&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.2112%2F1551-5036%282004%2920%5B739%3ACAOACI%5D2.0.CO%3B2&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=Ian+L.&rft.au=Aarninkhof%2C+S.+G.+J.&rft.au=Dronkers%2C+T.+D.+T.&rft.au=McGrath%2C+J.&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFVan_KoningsveldDavidsonHuntlyMedina2007" class="citation journal cs1">Van Koningsveld, M.; Davidson, M.; Huntly, D.; Medina, R.; Aarninkhof, S.; Jimenez, J. A.; Ridgewell, J.; de Kruif, A. (2007). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.researchgate.net/publication/223761543">"A critical review of the CoastView project: Recent and future developments in coastal management video systems"</a>. <i>Coastal Engineering</i>. <b>54</b> (6–7): 567–576. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2007CoasE..54..567V">2007CoasE..54..567V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.coastaleng.2007.01.006">10.1016/j.coastaleng.2007.01.006</a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Coastal+Engineering&rft.atitle=A+critical+review+of+the+CoastView+project%3A+Recent+and+future+developments+in+coastal+management+video+systems&rft.volume=54&rft.issue=6%E2%80%937&rft.pages=567-576&rft.date=2007&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1016%2Fj.coastaleng.2007.01.006&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2007CoasE..54..567V&rft.aulast=Van+Koningsveld&rft.aufirst=M.&rft.au=Davidson%2C+M.&rft.au=Huntly%2C+D.&rft.au=Medina%2C+R.&rft.au=Aarninkhof%2C+S.&rft.au=Jimenez%2C+J.+A.&rft.au=Ridgewell%2C+J.&rft.au=de+Kruif%2C+A.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.researchgate.net%2Fpublication%2F223761543&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWoodroffe2002" class="citation book cs1">Woodroffe, C. D. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=jRqW0FVwWh8C"><i>Coasts: Form, Process and Evolution</i></a>. Cambridge University Press. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01183-9" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-521-01183-9"><bdi>978-0-521-01183-9</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Coasts%3A+Form%2C+Process+and+Evolution&rft.pub=Cambridge+University+Press&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-521-01183-9&rft.aulast=Woodroffe&rft.aufirst=C.+D.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DjRqW0FVwWh8C&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Further_reading">Further reading</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=46" title="Edit section: Further reading"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite class="citation book cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=lfJOAQAAIAAJ"><i>The Rock Manual: The Use of Rock in Hydraulic Engineering</i></a>. CIRIA. 2007. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-86017-683-1" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-86017-683-1"><bdi>978-0-86017-683-1</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=The+Rock+Manual%3A+The+Use+of+Rock+in+Hydraulic+Engineering&rft.pub=CIRIA&rft.date=2007&rft.isbn=978-0-86017-683-1&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3DlfJOAQAAIAAJ&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFAllsop2002" class="citation book cs1">Allsop, N. W. H. (2002). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=0XtfQ_iW0_YC&pg=PA198"><i>Breakwaters, Coastal Structures and Coastlines: Proceedings of the International Conference Organized by the Institution of Civil Engineers and Held in London, UK on 26-28 September 2001</i></a>. Thomas Telford. p. 198. <a href="/wiki/ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <a href="/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7277-3042-8" title="Special:BookSources/978-0-7277-3042-8"><bdi>978-0-7277-3042-8</bdi></a>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Abook&rft.genre=book&rft.btitle=Breakwaters%2C+Coastal+Structures+and+Coastlines%3A+Proceedings+of+the+International+Conference+Organized+by+the+Institution+of+Civil+Engineers+and+Held+in+London%2C+UK+on+26-28+September+2001&rft.pages=198&rft.pub=Thomas+Telford&rft.date=2002&rft.isbn=978-0-7277-3042-8&rft.aulast=Allsop&rft.aufirst=N.+W.+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fbooks.google.com%2Fbooks%3Fid%3D0XtfQ_iW0_YC%26pg%3DPA198&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFTurnerLeatherman1997" class="citation journal cs1">Turner, I.L.; Leatherman, S.P. (1997). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20190531181759/http://journals.fcla.edu/jcr/article/view/80349">"Beach Dewatering as a 'Soft' Engineering Solution to Coastal Erosion-A History and Critical Review"</a>. <i>Journal of Coastal Research</i>. <b>13</b> (4): 1050–1063. Archived from <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://journals.fcla.edu/jcr/article/view/80349">the original</a> on 31 May 2019<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">21 February</span> 2017</span>.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Coastal+Research&rft.atitle=Beach+Dewatering+as+a+%27Soft%27+Engineering+Solution+to+Coastal+Erosion-A+History+and+Critical+Review&rft.volume=13&rft.issue=4&rft.pages=1050-1063&rft.date=1997&rft.aulast=Turner&rft.aufirst=I.L.&rft.au=Leatherman%2C+S.P.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fjournals.fcla.edu%2Fjcr%2Farticle%2Fview%2F80349&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3ACoastal+management" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Coastal_management&action=edit&section=47" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1235681985">.mw-parser-output .side-box{margin:4px 0;box-sizing:border-box;border:1px solid #aaa;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em;background-color:var(--background-color-interactive-subtle,#f8f9fa);display:flow-root}.mw-parser-output .side-box-abovebelow,.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{padding:0.25em 0.9em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-image{padding:2px 0 2px 0.9em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-imageright{padding:2px 0.9em 2px 0;text-align:center}@media(min-width:500px){.mw-parser-output .side-box-flex{display:flex;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .side-box-text{flex:1;min-width:0}}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .side-box{width:238px}.mw-parser-output .side-box-right{clear:right;float:right;margin-left:1em}.mw-parser-output .side-box-left{margin-right:1em}}</style><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237033735">@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox{display:none!important}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .sistersitebox img[src*="Wiktionary-logo-en-v2.svg"]{background-color:white}}</style><div class="side-box side-box-right plainlinks sistersitebox"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1126788409">.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul{line-height:inherit;list-style:none;margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .plainlist ol li,.mw-parser-output .plainlist ul li{margin-bottom:0}</style> <div class="side-box-flex"> <div class="side-box-image"><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/30px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="30" height="40" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/45px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/59px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span></div> <div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Coastal_management" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Coastal management">Coastal management</a></span>.</div></div> </div> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.coastalwiki.org">Coastal Wiki</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.deltaworks.org">Deltaworks Online - Coastal Defenses in the Netherlands</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090324220554/http://www.public.iastate.edu/~sws/cp/coastalpolicy.html">Coastal Zone Management Policy and Politics Class</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.safecoast.org">Safecoast</a> Knowledge exchange on <a href="/wiki/Coastal_flooding" title="Coastal flooding">coastal flooding</a> and climate change in the North Sea region</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20071213225816/http://www.encora.eu/coastalwiki/Main_Page">Encora Coastal Wiki</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/oa/esb/?goal=ecosystems&file=users/government/crm/">Social & Economic Benefits of Coastal Resource Management</a> from "NOAA Socioeconomics" website initiative</li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.crc.uri.edu/">Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Videos</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20080412234040/http://www.public.iastate.edu/~sws/cp/coastalpolicyvideos.html">Free Educational Videos about Coastal Policy and Zone Management</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cr2H3CEIbBs"><span class="plainlinks">The Future of Coastal Policy textbook overview</span></a> on <a href="/wiki/YouTube_video_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="YouTube video (identifier)">YouTube</a></li></ul> <dl><dt>Images</dt> <dd></dd></dl> <ul><li>'What is Remote Sensing', [Image] n.d. 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class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(coastal_management)" title="Accretion (coastal management)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coastal management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">Integrated coastal zone management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Managed_retreat" title="Managed retreat">Managed retreat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersion_(coastal_management)" title="Submersion (coastal management)">Submersion</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="4" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Seawallventnor.jpg" 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style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_nourishment" title="Beach nourishment">Beach nourishment</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink-fragment" href="#Beach_drainage">Beach drainage</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dynamic_revetment" title="Dynamic revetment">Dynamic revetment</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Living_shorelines" class="mw-redirect" title="Living shorelines">Living shorelines</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand_dune_stabilization" title="Sand dune stabilization">Sand dune stabilization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Soft_engineering" title="Soft engineering">Soft engineering</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_evolution" title="Beach evolution">Beach evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geotechnical_engineering" title="Geotechnical engineering">Geotechnical engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Land_reclamation" title="Land reclamation">Land reclamation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_transport" class="mw-redirect" title="Longshore transport">Longshore transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_recession_of_beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern recession of beaches">Modern recession of beaches</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stream_restoration" title="Stream restoration">Stream restoration</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Coastal_geography" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" 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geography</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Landform" title="Landform">Landforms</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Anchialine_system" title="Anchialine system">Anchialine pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Archipelago" title="Archipelago">Archipelago</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atoll" title="Atoll">Atoll</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Avulsion_(river)" title="Avulsion (river)">Avulsion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ayre_(landform)" title="Ayre (landform)">Ayre</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barrier_island" title="Barrier island">Barrier island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bay" title="Bay">Bay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bight_(geography)" title="Bight (geography)">Bight</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bodden" title="Bodden">Bodden</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Brackish_marsh" title="Brackish marsh">Brackish marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cape_(geography)" title="Cape (geography)">Cape</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Channel_(geography)" title="Channel (geography)">Channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliff" title="Cliff">Cliff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coast" title="Coast">Coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_plain" title="Coastal plain">Coastal plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_waterfall" title="Coastal waterfall">Coastal waterfall</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_margin" title="Continental margin">Continental margin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Continental_shelf" title="Continental shelf">Continental shelf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coral_reef" title="Coral reef">Coral reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cove" title="Cove">Cove</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dune" title="Dune">Dune</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cliff-top_dune" title="Cliff-top dune">cliff-top</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Estuary" title="Estuary">Estuary</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Firth" title="Firth">Firth</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjard" title="Fjard">Fjard</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fjord" title="Fjord">Fjord</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Freshwater_marsh" title="Freshwater marsh">Freshwater marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fundus_(seabed)" title="Fundus (seabed)">Fundus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gat_(landform)" title="Gat (landform)">Gat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Geo_(landform)" title="Geo (landform)">Geo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gulf" title="Gulf">Gulf</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gut_(coastal_geography)" title="Gut (coastal geography)">Gut</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hapua" title="Hapua">Hapua</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Headland" title="Headland">Headland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Inlet" title="Inlet">Inlet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_wetland" title="Intertidal wetland">Intertidal wetland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Island" title="Island">Island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Islet" title="Islet">Islet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Isthmus" title="Isthmus">Isthmus</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lagoon" title="Lagoon">Lagoon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Machair" title="Machair">Machair</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mudflat" title="Mudflat">Mudflat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Natural_arch" title="Natural arch">Natural arch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Peninsula" title="Peninsula">Peninsula</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Reef" title="Reef">Reef</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ria" title="Ria">Ria</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Salt_marsh" title="Salt marsh">Salt marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Skerry" title="Skerry">Skerry</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sound_(geography)" title="Sound (geography)">Sound</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Spit_(landform)" title="Spit (landform)">Spit</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Stack_(geology)" title="Stack (geology)">Stack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strait" title="Strait">Strait</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Strand_plain" title="Strand plain">Strand plain</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submarine_canyon" title="Submarine canyon">Submarine canyon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_island" title="Tidal island">Tidal island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tidal_marsh" title="Tidal marsh">Tidal marsh</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tide_pool" title="Tide pool">Tide pool</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tied_island" title="Tied island">Tied island</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tombolo" title="Tombolo">Tombolo</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Waituna" title="Waituna">Waituna</a></li> <li><i><a href="/wiki/Windwatt" title="Windwatt">Windwatt</a></i></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Accreting_coast_Image6.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Coastal and oceanic landforms"><img alt="Coastal and oceanic landforms" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/140px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png" decoding="async" width="140" height="66" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/210px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/48/Accreting_coast_Image6.svg/280px-Accreting_coast_Image6.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1481" data-file-height="697" /></a></span><br /><br /><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Fernando_noronha.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha"><img alt="Dois Irmãos - Fernando de Noronha" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/140px-Fernando_noronha.jpg" decoding="async" width="140" height="105" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/210px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/58/Fernando_noronha.jpg/280px-Fernando_noronha.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="768" /></a></span></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Beach" title="Beach">Beaches</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Beach_cusps" title="Beach cusps">Beach cusps</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_evolution" title="Beach evolution">Beach evolution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_ridge" title="Beach ridge">Beach ridge</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beach_wrack" title="Beach wrack">Beach wrack</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beaches_in_estuaries_and_bays" title="Beaches in estuaries and bays">Beaches in estuaries and bays</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Beachrock" title="Beachrock">Beachrock</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_morphodynamics" title="Coastal morphodynamics">Coastal morphodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pocket_beach" title="Pocket beach">Pocket beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_beach" title="Raised beach">Raised beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Modern_recession_of_beaches" class="mw-redirect" title="Modern recession of beaches">Recession</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Seashell" title="Seashell">Shell beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">Shingle beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Storm_beach" title="Storm beach">Storm beach</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wash_margin" title="Wash margin">Wash margin</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/River_mouth" title="River mouth">River mouths</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Debouch" title="Debouch">Debouch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mouth_bar" title="Mouth bar">Mouth bar</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_delta" title="River delta">River delta</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Mega_delta" class="mw-redirect" title="Mega delta">mega</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Regressive_delta" title="Regressive delta">regressive</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Processes</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Blowhole_(geology)" title="Blowhole (geology)">Blowhole</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cliffed_coast" title="Cliffed coast">Cliffed coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_biogeomorphology" title="Coastal biogeomorphology">Coastal biogeomorphology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_erosion" title="Coastal erosion">Coastal erosion</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Concordant_coastline" title="Concordant coastline">Concordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Current_(hydrology)" title="Current (hydrology)">Current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cuspate_foreland" title="Cuspate foreland">Cuspate foreland</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Discordant_coastline" title="Discordant coastline">Discordant coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Emergent_coastline" title="Emergent coastline">Emergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Feeder_bluff" title="Feeder bluff">Feeder bluff</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Flat_coast" title="Flat coast">Flat coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Graded_shoreline" title="Graded shoreline">Graded shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ingression_coast" title="Ingression coast">Ingression coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Large-scale_coastal_behaviour" title="Large-scale coastal behaviour">Large-scale coastal behaviour</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Longshore_drift" title="Longshore drift">Longshore drift</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_regression" title="Marine regression">Marine regression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Marine_transgression" title="Marine transgression">Marine transgression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Raised_shoreline" title="Raised shoreline">Raised shoreline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rip_current" title="Rip current">Rip current</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Rocky_shore" title="Rocky shore">Rocky shore</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_cave" title="Sea cave">Sea cave</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_foam" title="Sea foam">Sea foam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shoal" title="Shoal">Shoal</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Peresyp" title="Peresyp">peresyp</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steep_coast" title="Steep coast">Steep coast</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submergent_coastline" title="Submergent coastline">Submergent coastline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_break" title="Surf break">Surf break</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surf_zone" title="Surf zone">Surf zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surge_channel" title="Surge channel">Surge channel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Swash" title="Swash">Swash</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Undertow_(water_waves)" title="Undertow (water waves)">Undertow</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Volcanic_arc" title="Volcanic arc">Volcanic arc</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave-cut_platform" title="Wave-cut platform">Wave-cut platform</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wave_shoaling" title="Wave shoaling">Wave shoaling</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_fetch" title="Wind fetch">Wind fetch</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_wave" title="Wind wave">Wind wave</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Management</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Accretion_(coastal_management)" title="Accretion (coastal management)">Accretion</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Coastal management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Integrated_coastal_zone_management" title="Integrated coastal zone management">Integrated coastal zone management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Submersion_(coastal_management)" title="Submersion (coastal management)">Submersion</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Bulkhead_line" title="Bulkhead line">Bulkhead line</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Coastal_engineering" title="Coastal engineering">Coastal engineering</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Grain_size" title="Grain size">Grain size</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Boulder" title="Boulder">boulder</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Clay" title="Clay">clay</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cobble_(geology)" title="Cobble (geology)">cobble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Granule_(geology)" title="Granule (geology)">granule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gravel" title="Gravel">gravel</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pebble" title="Pebble">pebble</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sand" title="Sand">sand</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Shingle_beach" title="Shingle beach">shingle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Silt" title="Silt">silt</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Intertidal_zone" title="Intertidal zone">Intertidal zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Littoral_zone" title="Littoral zone">Littoral zone</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Physical_oceanography" title="Physical oceanography">Physical oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Region_of_freshwater_influence" title="Region of freshwater influence">Region of freshwater influence</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/River_plume" title="River plume">River plume</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3"><div> <ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" 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