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vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Importance_and_Uses"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.4</span> <span>Importance and Uses</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Importance_and_Uses-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Chemical_reactions" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Chemical_reactions"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.5</span> <span>Chemical reactions</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Chemical_reactions-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Measurement" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Measurement"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.6</span> <span>Measurement</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Measurement-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Impact_on_air_density" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Impact_on_air_density"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7</span> <span>Impact on air density</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Impact_on_air_density-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Calculations" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Calculations"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.1</span> <span>Calculations</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Calculations-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-At_equal_temperatures" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-3"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#At_equal_temperatures"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.7.2</span> <span>At equal temperatures</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-At_equal_temperatures-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Respiration_and_breathing" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Respiration_and_breathing"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.8</span> <span>Respiration and breathing</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Respiration_and_breathing-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lifting_gas" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lifting_gas"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.9</span> <span>Lifting gas</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lifting_gas-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-General_discussion" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#General_discussion"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">1.10</span> <span>General discussion</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-General_discussion-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-In_Earth's_atmosphere" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#In_Earth's_atmosphere"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2</span> <span>In Earth's atmosphere</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-In_Earth's_atmosphere-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle In Earth's atmosphere subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-In_Earth's_atmosphere-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Radar_and_satellite_imaging" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Radar_and_satellite_imaging"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.1</span> <span>Radar and satellite imaging</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Radar_and_satellite_imaging-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Lightning_generation" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Lightning_generation"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">2.2</span> <span>Lightning generation</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Lightning_generation-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-Extraterrestrial" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Extraterrestrial"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">3</span> <span>Extraterrestrial</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Extraterrestrial-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-See_also" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#See_also"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">4</span> <span>See also</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-See_also-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-References" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#References"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5</span> <span>References</span> </div> </a> <button aria-controls="toc-References-sublist" class="cdx-button cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only vector-toc-toggle"> <span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-expand"></span> <span>Toggle References subsection</span> </button> <ul id="toc-References-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> <li id="toc-Bibliography" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-2"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#Bibliography"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">5.1</span> <span>Bibliography</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-Bibliography-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </li> <li id="toc-External_links" class="vector-toc-list-item vector-toc-level-1 vector-toc-list-item-expanded"> <a class="vector-toc-link" href="#External_links"> <div class="vector-toc-text"> <span class="vector-toc-numb">6</span> <span>External links</span> </div> </a> <ul id="toc-External_links-sublist" class="vector-toc-list"> </ul> </li> </ul> </div> </div> </nav> </div> </div> <div class="mw-content-container"> <main id="content" class="mw-body"> <header class="mw-body-header vector-page-titlebar"> <nav aria-label="Contents" class="vector-toc-landmark"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown vector-page-titlebar-toc vector-button-flush-left" > <input type="checkbox" id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-vector-page-titlebar-toc" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox " aria-label="Toggle the table of contents" > <label id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-label" for="vector-page-titlebar-toc-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--icon-only " aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-listBullet mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-listBullet"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">Toggle the table of contents</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div id="vector-page-titlebar-toc-unpinned-container" class="vector-unpinned-container"> </div> </div> </div> </nav> <h1 id="firstHeading" class="firstHeading mw-first-heading"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Water vapor</span></h1> <div id="p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown mw-portlet mw-portlet-lang" > <input type="checkbox" id="p-lang-btn-checkbox" role="button" aria-haspopup="true" data-event-name="ui.dropdown-p-lang-btn" class="vector-dropdown-checkbox mw-interlanguage-selector" aria-label="Go to an article in another language. Available in 83 languages" > <label id="p-lang-btn-label" for="p-lang-btn-checkbox" class="vector-dropdown-label cdx-button cdx-button--fake-button cdx-button--fake-button--enabled cdx-button--weight-quiet cdx-button--action-progressive mw-portlet-lang-heading-83" aria-hidden="true" ><span class="vector-icon mw-ui-icon-language-progressive mw-ui-icon-wikimedia-language-progressive"></span> <span class="vector-dropdown-label-text">83 languages</span> </label> <div class="vector-dropdown-content"> <div class="vector-menu-content"> <ul class="vector-menu-content-list"> <li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-af mw-list-item"><a href="https://af.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterdamp" title="Waterdamp – Afrikaans" lang="af" hreflang="af" data-title="Waterdamp" data-language-autonym="Afrikaans" data-language-local-name="Afrikaans" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Afrikaans</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-als mw-list-item"><a href="https://als.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserdampf" title="Wasserdampf – Alemannic" lang="gsw" hreflang="gsw" data-title="Wasserdampf" data-language-autonym="Alemannisch" data-language-local-name="Alemannic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Alemannisch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ar mw-list-item"><a href="https://ar.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A7%D9%84%D9%85%D8%A7%D8%A1" title="بخار الماء – Arabic" lang="ar" hreflang="ar" data-title="بخار الماء" data-language-autonym="العربية" data-language-local-name="Arabic" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>العربية</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hyw mw-list-item"><a href="https://hyw.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%87%D5%B8%D5%A3%D5%AB" title="Շոգի – Western Armenian" lang="hyw" hreflang="hyw" data-title="Շոգի" data-language-autonym="Արեւմտահայերէն" data-language-local-name="Western Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Արեւմտահայերէն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-roa-rup mw-list-item"><a href="https://roa-rup.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aburu" title="Aburu – Aromanian" lang="rup" hreflang="rup" data-title="Aburu" data-language-autonym="Armãneashti" data-language-local-name="Aromanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Armãneashti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ast mw-list-item"><a href="https://ast.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_d%27agua" title="Vapor d'agua – Asturian" lang="ast" hreflang="ast" data-title="Vapor d'agua" data-language-autonym="Asturianu" data-language-local-name="Asturian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Asturianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ay mw-list-item"><a href="https://ay.wikipedia.org/wiki/Juwri" title="Juwri – Aymara" lang="ay" hreflang="ay" data-title="Juwri" data-language-autonym="Aymar aru" data-language-local-name="Aymara" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Aymar aru</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-az mw-list-item"><a href="https://az.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_buxar%C4%B1" title="Su buxarı – Azerbaijani" lang="az" hreflang="az" data-title="Su buxarı" data-language-autonym="Azərbaycanca" data-language-local-name="Azerbaijani" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Azərbaycanca</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bn mw-list-item"><a href="https://bn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A6%9C%E0%A6%B2%E0%A7%80%E0%A6%AF%E0%A6%BC_%E0%A6%AC%E0%A6%BE%E0%A6%B7%E0%A7%8D%E0%A6%AA" title="জলীয় বাষ্প – Bangla" lang="bn" hreflang="bn" data-title="জলীয় বাষ্প" data-language-autonym="বাংলা" data-language-local-name="Bangla" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>বাংলা</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-min-nan mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-min-nan.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ch%C3%BAi-cheng-kh%C3%AC" title="Chúi-cheng-khì – Minnan" lang="nan" hreflang="nan" data-title="Chúi-cheng-khì" data-language-autonym="閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú" data-language-local-name="Minnan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>閩南語 / Bân-lâm-gú</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bh mw-list-item"><a href="https://bh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%AD%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AA" title="जलभाप – Bhojpuri" lang="bh" hreflang="bh" data-title="जलभाप" data-language-autonym="भोजपुरी" data-language-local-name="Bhojpuri" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>भोजपुरी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bg mw-list-item"><a href="https://bg.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Водна пара – Bulgarian" lang="bg" hreflang="bg" data-title="Водна пара" data-language-autonym="Български" data-language-local-name="Bulgarian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Български</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-bs mw-list-item"><a href="https://bs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodena_para" title="Vodena para – Bosnian" lang="bs" hreflang="bs" data-title="Vodena para" data-language-autonym="Bosanski" data-language-local-name="Bosnian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bosanski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-br mw-list-item"><a href="https://br.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aezhenn" title="Aezhenn – Breton" lang="br" hreflang="br" data-title="Aezhenn" data-language-autonym="Brezhoneg" data-language-local-name="Breton" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Brezhoneg</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ca mw-list-item"><a href="https://ca.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_d%27aigua" title="Vapor d'aigua – Catalan" lang="ca" hreflang="ca" data-title="Vapor d'aigua" data-language-autonym="Català" data-language-local-name="Catalan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Català</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cv mw-list-item"><a href="https://cv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A8%D1%8B%D0%B2_%D0%BF%C4%83%D1%81%C4%95" title="Шыв пăсĕ – Chuvash" lang="cv" hreflang="cv" data-title="Шыв пăсĕ" data-language-autonym="Чӑвашла" data-language-local-name="Chuvash" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Чӑвашла</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-cs mw-list-item"><a href="https://cs.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodn%C3%AD_p%C3%A1ra" title="Vodní pára – Czech" lang="cs" hreflang="cs" data-title="Vodní pára" data-language-autonym="Čeština" data-language-local-name="Czech" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Čeština</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-da mw-list-item"><a href="https://da.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanddamp" title="Vanddamp – Danish" lang="da" hreflang="da" data-title="Vanddamp" data-language-autonym="Dansk" data-language-local-name="Danish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Dansk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-de badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://de.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wasserdampf" title="Wasserdampf – German" lang="de" hreflang="de" data-title="Wasserdampf" data-language-autonym="Deutsch" data-language-local-name="German" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Deutsch</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-et mw-list-item"><a href="https://et.wikipedia.org/wiki/Veeaur" title="Veeaur – Estonian" lang="et" hreflang="et" data-title="Veeaur" data-language-autonym="Eesti" data-language-local-name="Estonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Eesti</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-el mw-list-item"><a href="https://el.wikipedia.org/wiki/%CE%A5%CE%B4%CF%81%CE%B1%CF%84%CE%BC%CF%8C%CF%82" title="Υδρατμός – Greek" lang="el" hreflang="el" data-title="Υδρατμός" data-language-autonym="Ελληνικά" data-language-local-name="Greek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ελληνικά</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-es mw-list-item"><a href="https://es.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_de_agua" title="Vapor de agua – Spanish" lang="es" hreflang="es" data-title="Vapor de agua" data-language-autonym="Español" data-language-local-name="Spanish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Español</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eo mw-list-item"><a href="https://eo.wikipedia.org/wiki/Akvovaporo" title="Akvovaporo – Esperanto" lang="eo" hreflang="eo" data-title="Akvovaporo" data-language-autonym="Esperanto" data-language-local-name="Esperanto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Esperanto</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-eu mw-list-item"><a href="https://eu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ur_lurrun" title="Ur lurrun – Basque" lang="eu" hreflang="eu" data-title="Ur lurrun" data-language-autonym="Euskara" data-language-local-name="Basque" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Euskara</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fa mw-list-item"><a href="https://fa.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%A8%D8%AE%D8%A7%D8%B1_%D8%A2%D8%A8" title="بخار آب – Persian" lang="fa" hreflang="fa" data-title="بخار آب" data-language-autonym="فارسی" data-language-local-name="Persian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>فارسی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fr mw-list-item"><a href="https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapeur_d%27eau" title="Vapeur d'eau – French" lang="fr" hreflang="fr" data-title="Vapeur d'eau" data-language-autonym="Français" data-language-local-name="French" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Français</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ga mw-list-item"><a href="https://ga.wikipedia.org/wiki/Galuisce" title="Galuisce – Irish" lang="ga" hreflang="ga" data-title="Galuisce" data-language-autonym="Gaeilge" data-language-local-name="Irish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Gaeilge</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-gl mw-list-item"><a href="https://gl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_de_auga" title="Vapor de auga – Galician" lang="gl" hreflang="gl" data-title="Vapor de auga" data-language-autonym="Galego" data-language-local-name="Galician" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Galego</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ko mw-list-item"><a href="https://ko.wikipedia.org/wiki/%EC%88%98%EC%A6%9D%EA%B8%B0" title="수증기 – Korean" lang="ko" hreflang="ko" data-title="수증기" data-language-autonym="한국어" data-language-local-name="Korean" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>한국어</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ha mw-list-item"><a href="https://ha.wikipedia.org/wiki/Turirin_Ruwa" title="Turirin Ruwa – Hausa" lang="ha" hreflang="ha" data-title="Turirin Ruwa" data-language-autonym="Hausa" data-language-local-name="Hausa" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hausa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hy mw-list-item"><a href="https://hy.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D5%8B%D6%80%D5%A1%D5%B5%D5%AB%D5%B6_%D5%A3%D5%B8%D5%AC%D5%B8%D6%80%D5%B7%D5%AB" title="Ջրային գոլորշի – Armenian" lang="hy" hreflang="hy" data-title="Ջրային գոլորշի" data-language-autonym="Հայերեն" data-language-local-name="Armenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Հայերեն</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hi mw-list-item"><a href="https://hi.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%9C%E0%A4%B2%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%B7%E0%A5%8D%E0%A4%AA" title="जलवाष्प – Hindi" lang="hi" hreflang="hi" data-title="जलवाष्प" data-language-autonym="हिन्दी" data-language-local-name="Hindi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>हिन्दी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-hr mw-list-item"><a href="https://hr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodena_para" title="Vodena para – Croatian" lang="hr" hreflang="hr" data-title="Vodena para" data-language-autonym="Hrvatski" data-language-local-name="Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Hrvatski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-io mw-list-item"><a href="https://io.wikipedia.org/wiki/Aquovaporo" title="Aquovaporo – Ido" lang="io" hreflang="io" data-title="Aquovaporo" data-language-autonym="Ido" data-language-local-name="Ido" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ido</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-id mw-list-item"><a href="https://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uap_air" title="Uap air – Indonesian" lang="id" hreflang="id" data-title="Uap air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Indonesia" data-language-local-name="Indonesian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Indonesia</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zu mw-list-item"><a href="https://zu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umhwamuko_wamanzi" title="Umhwamuko wamanzi – Zulu" lang="zu" hreflang="zu" data-title="Umhwamuko wamanzi" data-language-autonym="IsiZulu" data-language-local-name="Zulu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>IsiZulu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-it mw-list-item"><a href="https://it.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapore_acqueo" title="Vapore acqueo – Italian" lang="it" hreflang="it" data-title="Vapore acqueo" data-language-autonym="Italiano" data-language-local-name="Italian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Italiano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-he mw-list-item"><a href="https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%90%D7%93%D7%99_%D7%9E%D7%99%D7%9D" title="אדי מים – Hebrew" lang="he" hreflang="he" data-title="אדי מים" data-language-autonym="עברית" data-language-local-name="Hebrew" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>עברית</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-jv mw-list-item"><a href="https://jv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uwab_banyu" title="Uwab banyu – Javanese" lang="jv" hreflang="jv" data-title="Uwab banyu" data-language-autonym="Jawa" data-language-local-name="Javanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Jawa</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lld mw-list-item"><a href="https://lld.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanf" title="Tanf – Ladin" lang="lld" hreflang="lld" data-title="Tanf" data-language-autonym="Ladin" data-language-local-name="Ladin" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Ladin</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lv mw-list-item"><a href="https://lv.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C5%AAdens_tvaiks" title="Ūdens tvaiks – Latvian" lang="lv" hreflang="lv" data-title="Ūdens tvaiks" data-language-autonym="Latviešu" data-language-local-name="Latvian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Latviešu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-lt mw-list-item"><a href="https://lt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vandens_garai" title="Vandens garai – Lithuanian" lang="lt" hreflang="lt" data-title="Vandens garai" data-language-autonym="Lietuvių" data-language-local-name="Lithuanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Lietuvių</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-li mw-list-item"><a href="https://li.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterdamp" title="Waterdamp – Limburgish" lang="li" hreflang="li" data-title="Waterdamp" data-language-autonym="Limburgs" data-language-local-name="Limburgish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Limburgs</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mk mw-list-item"><a href="https://mk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B5%D0%B0" title="Водена пареа – Macedonian" lang="mk" hreflang="mk" data-title="Водена пареа" data-language-autonym="Македонски" data-language-local-name="Macedonian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Македонски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ml mw-list-item"><a href="https://ml.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B4%85%E0%B4%A8%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%A4%E0%B4%B0%E0%B5%80%E0%B4%95%E0%B5%8D%E0%B4%B7_%E0%B4%9C%E0%B4%B2%E0%B4%95%E0%B4%A3%E0%B4%82" title="അന്തരീക്ഷ ജലകണം – Malayalam" lang="ml" hreflang="ml" data-title="അന്തരീക്ഷ ജലകണം" data-language-autonym="മലയാളം" data-language-local-name="Malayalam" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>മലയാളം</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mr mw-list-item"><a href="https://mr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%A4%B5%E0%A4%BE%E0%A4%AB" title="वाफ – Marathi" lang="mr" hreflang="mr" data-title="वाफ" data-language-autonym="मराठी" data-language-local-name="Marathi" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>मराठी</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ms mw-list-item"><a href="https://ms.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wap_air" title="Wap air – Malay" lang="ms" hreflang="ms" data-title="Wap air" data-language-autonym="Bahasa Melayu" data-language-local-name="Malay" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Bahasa Melayu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-mn mw-list-item"><a href="https://mn.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%A3%D1%81%D0%BD%D1%8B_%D1%83%D1%83%D1%80" title="Усны уур – Mongolian" lang="mn" hreflang="mn" data-title="Усны уур" data-language-autonym="Монгол" data-language-local-name="Mongolian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Монгол</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waterdamp" title="Waterdamp – Dutch" lang="nl" hreflang="nl" data-title="Waterdamp" data-language-autonym="Nederlands" data-language-local-name="Dutch" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nederlands</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nds-nl mw-list-item"><a href="https://nds-nl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Waoterdamp" title="Waoterdamp – Low Saxon" lang="nds-NL" hreflang="nds-NL" data-title="Waoterdamp" data-language-autonym="Nedersaksies" data-language-local-name="Low Saxon" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Nedersaksies</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ja mw-list-item"><a href="https://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E8%92%B8%E6%B0%97" title="水蒸気 – Japanese" lang="ja" hreflang="ja" data-title="水蒸気" data-language-autonym="日本語" data-language-local-name="Japanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>日本語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nap mw-list-item"><a href="https://nap.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapore_acquee" title="Vapore acquee – Neapolitan" lang="nap" hreflang="nap" data-title="Vapore acquee" data-language-autonym="Napulitano" data-language-local-name="Neapolitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Napulitano</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-no mw-list-item"><a href="https://no.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanndamp" title="Vanndamp – Norwegian Bokmål" lang="nb" hreflang="nb" data-title="Vanndamp" data-language-autonym="Norsk bokmål" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Bokmål" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk bokmål</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-nn badge-Q17437796 badge-featuredarticle mw-list-item" title="featured article badge"><a href="https://nn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vassdamp" title="Vassdamp – Norwegian Nynorsk" lang="nn" hreflang="nn" data-title="Vassdamp" data-language-autonym="Norsk nynorsk" data-language-local-name="Norwegian Nynorsk" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Norsk nynorsk</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-oc mw-list-item"><a href="https://oc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_d%27aiga" title="Vapor d'aiga – Occitan" lang="oc" hreflang="oc" data-title="Vapor d'aiga" data-language-autonym="Occitan" data-language-local-name="Occitan" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Occitan</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uz mw-list-item"><a href="https://uz.wikipedia.org/wiki/Suv_bug%CA%BBi" title="Suv bugʻi – Uzbek" lang="uz" hreflang="uz" data-title="Suv bugʻi" data-language-autonym="Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча" data-language-local-name="Uzbek" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Oʻzbekcha / ўзбекча</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ps mw-list-item"><a href="https://ps.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D8%AF_%D8%A7%D9%88%D8%A8%D9%88_%D8%A8%DA%93%D8%A7%D8%B3" title="د اوبو بړاس – Pashto" lang="ps" hreflang="ps" data-title="د اوبو بړاس" data-language-autonym="پښتو" data-language-local-name="Pashto" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>پښتو</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pl mw-list-item"><a href="https://pl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Para_wodna" title="Para wodna – Polish" lang="pl" hreflang="pl" data-title="Para wodna" data-language-autonym="Polski" data-language-local-name="Polish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Polski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-pt mw-list-item"><a href="https://pt.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapor_de_%C3%A1gua" title="Vapor de água – Portuguese" lang="pt" hreflang="pt" data-title="Vapor de água" data-language-autonym="Português" data-language-local-name="Portuguese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Português</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ro mw-list-item"><a href="https://ro.wikipedia.org/wiki/Abur" title="Abur – Romanian" lang="ro" hreflang="ro" data-title="Abur" data-language-autonym="Română" data-language-local-name="Romanian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Română</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-qu mw-list-item"><a href="https://qu.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yaku_wapsi" title="Yaku wapsi – Quechua" lang="qu" hreflang="qu" data-title="Yaku wapsi" data-language-autonym="Runa Simi" data-language-local-name="Quechua" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Runa Simi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ru mw-list-item"><a href="https://ru.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%BE%D0%B9_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80" title="Водяной пар – Russian" lang="ru" hreflang="ru" data-title="Водяной пар" data-language-autonym="Русский" data-language-local-name="Russian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Русский</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sc mw-list-item"><a href="https://sc.wikipedia.org/wiki/Papore_de_abba" title="Papore de abba – Sardinian" lang="sc" hreflang="sc" data-title="Papore de abba" data-language-autonym="Sardu" data-language-local-name="Sardinian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sardu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-scn mw-list-item"><a href="https://scn.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vapuri" title="Vapuri – Sicilian" lang="scn" hreflang="scn" data-title="Vapuri" data-language-autonym="Sicilianu" data-language-local-name="Sicilian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sicilianu</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-simple mw-list-item"><a href="https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Water_vapor" title="Water vapor – Simple English" lang="en-simple" hreflang="en-simple" data-title="Water vapor" data-language-autonym="Simple English" data-language-local-name="Simple English" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Simple English</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sk mw-list-item"><a href="https://sk.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodn%C3%A1_para" title="Vodná para – Slovak" lang="sk" hreflang="sk" data-title="Vodná para" data-language-autonym="Slovenčina" data-language-local-name="Slovak" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenčina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sl mw-list-item"><a href="https://sl.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodni_hlapi" title="Vodni hlapi – Slovenian" lang="sl" hreflang="sl" data-title="Vodni hlapi" data-language-autonym="Slovenščina" data-language-local-name="Slovenian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Slovenščina</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-ckb mw-list-item"><a href="https://ckb.wikipedia.org/wiki/%DA%BE%DB%95%DA%B5%D9%85%DB%8C_%D8%A6%D8%A7%D9%88" title="ھەڵمی ئاو – Central Kurdish" lang="ckb" hreflang="ckb" data-title="ھەڵمی ئاو" data-language-autonym="کوردی" data-language-local-name="Central Kurdish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>کوردی</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sr mw-list-item"><a href="https://sr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D0%B5%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Водена пара – Serbian" lang="sr" hreflang="sr" data-title="Водена пара" data-language-autonym="Српски / srpski" data-language-local-name="Serbian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Српски / srpski</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sh mw-list-item"><a href="https://sh.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vodena_para" title="Vodena para – Serbo-Croatian" lang="sh" hreflang="sh" data-title="Vodena para" data-language-autonym="Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски" data-language-local-name="Serbo-Croatian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Srpskohrvatski / српскохрватски</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-su mw-list-item"><a href="https://su.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saab" title="Saab – Sundanese" lang="su" hreflang="su" data-title="Saab" data-language-autonym="Sunda" data-language-local-name="Sundanese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Sunda</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-fi mw-list-item"><a href="https://fi.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vesih%C3%B6yry" title="Vesihöyry – Finnish" lang="fi" hreflang="fi" data-title="Vesihöyry" data-language-autonym="Suomi" data-language-local-name="Finnish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Suomi</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-sv mw-list-item"><a href="https://sv.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatten%C3%A5nga" title="Vattenånga – Swedish" lang="sv" hreflang="sv" data-title="Vattenånga" data-language-autonym="Svenska" data-language-local-name="Swedish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Svenska</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-th mw-list-item"><a href="https://th.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E0%B9%84%E0%B8%AD%E0%B8%99%E0%B9%89%E0%B8%B3" title="ไอน้ำ – Thai" lang="th" hreflang="th" data-title="ไอน้ำ" data-language-autonym="ไทย" data-language-local-name="Thai" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ไทย</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-chr mw-list-item"><a href="https://chr.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E1%8E%A0%E1%8E%B9_%E1%8E%A4%E1%8F%94%E1%8F%83%E1%8E%B8%E1%8F%93" title="ᎠᎹ ᎤᏔᏃᎸᏓ – Cherokee" lang="chr" hreflang="chr" data-title="ᎠᎹ ᎤᏔᏃᎸᏓ" data-language-autonym="ᏣᎳᎩ" data-language-local-name="Cherokee" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>ᏣᎳᎩ</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-tr mw-list-item"><a href="https://tr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Su_buhar%C4%B1" title="Su buharı – Turkish" lang="tr" hreflang="tr" data-title="Su buharı" data-language-autonym="Türkçe" data-language-local-name="Turkish" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Türkçe</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-uk mw-list-item"><a href="https://uk.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D0%92%D0%BE%D0%B4%D1%8F%D0%BD%D0%B0_%D0%BF%D0%B0%D1%80%D0%B0" title="Водяна пара – Ukrainian" lang="uk" hreflang="uk" data-title="Водяна пара" data-language-autonym="Українська" data-language-local-name="Ukrainian" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Українська</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vep mw-list-item"><a href="https://vep.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vezipuru" title="Vezipuru – Veps" lang="vep" hreflang="vep" data-title="Vezipuru" data-language-autonym="Vepsän kel’" data-language-local-name="Veps" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Vepsän kel’</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-vi mw-list-item"><a href="https://vi.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C6%A1i_n%C6%B0%E1%BB%9Bc" title="Hơi nước – Vietnamese" lang="vi" hreflang="vi" data-title="Hơi nước" data-language-autonym="Tiếng Việt" data-language-local-name="Vietnamese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>Tiếng Việt</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-classical mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-classical.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E8%92%B8%E6%B0%A3" title="水蒸氣 – Literary Chinese" lang="lzh" hreflang="lzh" data-title="水蒸氣" data-language-autonym="文言" data-language-local-name="Literary Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>文言</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-wuu mw-list-item"><a href="https://wuu.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E8%92%B8%E6%B0%94" title="水蒸气 – Wu" lang="wuu" hreflang="wuu" data-title="水蒸气" data-language-autonym="吴语" data-language-local-name="Wu" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>吴语</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh-yue mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh-yue.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E6%B1%BD" title="水汽 – Cantonese" lang="yue" hreflang="yue" data-title="水汽" data-language-autonym="粵語" data-language-local-name="Cantonese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>粵語</span></a></li><li class="interlanguage-link interwiki-zh mw-list-item"><a href="https://zh.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E6%B0%B4%E8%92%B8%E6%B0%94" title="水蒸气 – Chinese" lang="zh" hreflang="zh" data-title="水蒸气" data-language-autonym="中文" data-language-local-name="Chinese" class="interlanguage-link-target"><span>中文</span></a></li> </ul> <div 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<div id="mw-content-text" class="mw-body-content"><div class="mw-content-ltr mw-parser-output" lang="en" dir="ltr"><div class="shortdescription nomobile noexcerpt noprint searchaux" style="display:none">Gaseous phase of water</div> <p> <b>Water vapor</b>, <b>water vapour</b> or <b>aqueous vapor</b> is the <a href="/wiki/Gas" title="Gas">gaseous</a> phase of <a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water" title="Properties of water">water</a>. It is one <a href="/wiki/Phase_(matter)" title="Phase (matter)">state</a> of water within the <a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">hydrosphere</a>. Water <a href="/wiki/Vapor" title="Vapor">vapor</a> can be produced from the <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporation</a> or <a href="/wiki/Boiling" title="Boiling">boiling</a> of liquid water or from the <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimation</a> of <a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">ice</a>. Water vapor is transparent, like most constituents of the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Under typical atmospheric conditions, water vapor is continuously generated by evaporation and removed by <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a>. It is less dense than most of the other constituents of <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> and triggers <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> currents that can lead to clouds and fog. </p><p>Being a component of Earth's hydrosphere and hydrologic cycle, it is particularly abundant in <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a>, where it acts as a <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a> and warming feedback, contributing more to total greenhouse effect than non-condensable gases such as <a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">carbon dioxide</a> and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>. Use of water vapor, as <a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>, has been important for cooking, and as a major component in energy production and transport systems since the <a href="/wiki/Steam_power_during_the_Industrial_Revolution" title="Steam power during the Industrial Revolution">industrial revolution</a>. </p><p>Water vapor is a relatively common atmospheric constituent, present even in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar atmosphere">solar atmosphere</a> as well as every planet in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and many <a href="/wiki/Astronomical_object" title="Astronomical object">astronomical objects</a> including <a href="/wiki/Natural_satellite" title="Natural satellite">natural satellites</a>, <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comets</a> and even large <a href="/wiki/Asteroid" title="Asteroid">asteroids</a>. Likewise the detection of <a href="/wiki/Extrasolar_object" title="Extrasolar object">extrasolar</a> water vapor would indicate a similar distribution in other planetary systems. Water vapor can also be indirect evidence supporting the presence of extraterrestrial liquid water in the case of some planetary mass objects. </p><p>Water vapor, which reacts to temperature changes, is referred to as a 'feedback', because it amplifies the effect of forces that initially cause the warming. So, it is a greenhouse gas.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <meta property="mw:PageProp/toc" /> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Properties">Properties</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=1" title="Edit section: Properties"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evaporation">Evaporation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=2" title="Edit section: Evaporation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Whenever a water molecule leaves a surface and diffuses into a surrounding gas, it is said to have <a href="/wiki/Evaporation" title="Evaporation">evaporated</a>. Each individual water molecule which transitions between a more associated (liquid) and a less associated (vapor/gas) state does so through the absorption or release of <a href="/wiki/Kinetic_energy" title="Kinetic energy">kinetic energy</a>. The aggregate measurement of this kinetic energy transfer is defined as thermal energy and occurs only when there is differential in the temperature of the water molecules. Liquid water that becomes water vapor takes a parcel of heat with it, in a process called <a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooling" class="mw-redirect" title="Evaporative cooling">evaporative cooling</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The amount of water vapor in the air determines how frequently molecules will return to the surface. When a net evaporation occurs, the body of water will undergo a net cooling directly related to the loss of water. </p><p>In the US, the National Weather Service measures the actual rate of evaporation from a standardized "pan" open water surface outdoors, at various locations nationwide. Others do likewise around the world. The US data is collected and compiled into an annual evaporation map.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The measurements range from under 30 to over 120 inches per year. Formulas can be used for calculating the rate of evaporation from a water surface such as a swimming pool.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some countries, the evaporation rate far exceeds the <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a> rate. </p><p>Evaporative cooling is restricted by <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">atmospheric conditions</a>. <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a> is the amount of water vapor in the air. The vapor content of air is measured with devices known as <a href="/wiki/Hygrometer" title="Hygrometer">hygrometers</a>. The measurements are usually expressed as <a href="/wiki/Specific_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific humidity">specific humidity</a> or percent <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a>. The temperatures of the atmosphere and the water surface determine the equilibrium vapor pressure; 100% relative humidity occurs when the partial pressure of water vapor is equal to the equilibrium vapor pressure. This condition is often referred to as complete saturation. Humidity ranges from 0 grams per cubic metre in dry air to 30 grams per cubic metre (0.03 ounce per cubic foot) when the vapor is saturated at 30 °C.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1237032888/mw-parser-output/.tmulti">.mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner{display:flex;flex-direction:column}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{display:flex;flex-direction:row;clear:left;flex-wrap:wrap;width:100%;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{margin:1px;float:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .theader{clear:both;font-weight:bold;text-align:center;align-self:center;background-color:transparent;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbcaption{background-color:transparent}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-left{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-right{text-align:right}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .text-align-center{text-align:center}@media all and (max-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .tmulti .thumbinner{width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;max-width:none!important;align-items:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow{justify-content:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle{float:none!important;max-width:100%!important;box-sizing:border-box;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .tsingle .thumbcaption{text-align:left}.mw-parser-output .tmulti .trow>.thumbcaption{text-align:center}}@media screen{html.skin-theme-clientpref-night .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}@media screen and (prefers-color-scheme:dark){html.skin-theme-clientpref-os .mw-parser-output .tmulti .multiimageinner img{background-color:white}}</style><div class="thumb tmulti tright"><div class="thumbinner multiimageinner" style="width:349px;max-width:349px"><div class="trow"><div class="tsingle" style="width:167px;max-width:167px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Meteorite_Recovery_Antarctica_(retouched).jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Meteorite_Recovery_Antarctica_%28retouched%29.jpg/165px-Meteorite_Recovery_Antarctica_%28retouched%29.jpg" decoding="async" width="165" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Meteorite_Recovery_Antarctica_%28retouched%29.jpg/248px-Meteorite_Recovery_Antarctica_%28retouched%29.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/6a/Meteorite_Recovery_Antarctica_%28retouched%29.jpg/330px-Meteorite_Recovery_Antarctica_%28retouched%29.jpg 2x" data-file-width="768" data-file-height="1024" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption">Recovery of <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a> in Antarctica (<a href="/wiki/ANSMET" title="ANSMET">ANSMET</a>)</div></div><div class="tsingle" style="width:178px;max-width:178px"><div class="thumbimage"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Tightjunction_BBB.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Tightjunction_BBB.jpg/176px-Tightjunction_BBB.jpg" decoding="async" width="176" height="221" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/be/Tightjunction_BBB.jpg/264px-Tightjunction_BBB.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/b/be/Tightjunction_BBB.jpg 2x" data-file-width="311" data-file-height="390" /></a></span></div><div class="thumbcaption"><a href="/wiki/Electron_micrograph" class="mw-redirect" title="Electron micrograph">Electron micrograph</a> of freeze-etched <a href="/wiki/Capillary" title="Capillary">capillary</a> tissue</div></div></div></div></div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Sublimation">Sublimation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=3" title="Edit section: Sublimation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1251242444">.mw-parser-output .ambox{border:1px solid #a2a9b1;border-left:10px solid #36c;background-color:#fbfbfb;box-sizing:border-box}.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+link+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+style+.ambox,.mw-parser-output .ambox+.mw-empty-elt+link+link+.ambox{margin-top:-1px}html body.mediawiki .mw-parser-output .ambox.mbox-small-left{margin:4px 1em 4px 0;overflow:hidden;width:238px;border-collapse:collapse;font-size:88%;line-height:1.25em}.mw-parser-output .ambox-speedy{border-left:10px solid #b32424;background-color:#fee7e6}.mw-parser-output .ambox-delete{border-left:10px solid #b32424}.mw-parser-output .ambox-content{border-left:10px solid #f28500}.mw-parser-output .ambox-style{border-left:10px solid #fc3}.mw-parser-output .ambox-move{border-left:10px solid #9932cc}.mw-parser-output .ambox-protection{border-left:10px solid #a2a9b1}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-text{border:none;padding:0.25em 0.5em;width:100%}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image{border:none;padding:2px 0 2px 0.5em;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-imageright{border:none;padding:2px 0.5em 2px 0;text-align:center}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-empty-cell{border:none;padding:0;width:1px}.mw-parser-output .ambox .mbox-image-div{width:52px}@media(min-width:720px){.mw-parser-output .ambox{margin:0 10%}}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .ambox{display:none!important}}</style><table class="box-Unreferenced_section plainlinks metadata ambox ambox-content ambox-Unreferenced" role="presentation"><tbody><tr><td class="mbox-image"><div class="mbox-image-div"><span typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Question_book-new.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/50px-Question_book-new.svg.png" decoding="async" width="50" height="39" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/75px-Question_book-new.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/99/Question_book-new.svg/100px-Question_book-new.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="512" data-file-height="399" /></a></span></div></td><td class="mbox-text"><div class="mbox-text-span">This section <b>does not <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Citing_sources" title="Wikipedia:Citing sources">cite</a> any <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">sources</a></b>.<span class="hide-when-compact"> Please help <a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Water_vapor" title="Special:EditPage/Water vapor">improve this section</a> by <a href="/wiki/Help:Referencing_for_beginners" title="Help:Referencing for beginners">adding citations to reliable sources</a>. Unsourced material may be challenged and <a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Verifiability#Burden_of_evidence" title="Wikipedia:Verifiability">removed</a>.</span> <span class="date-container"><i>(<span class="date">March 2024</span>)</i></span><span class="hide-when-compact"><i> (<small><a href="/wiki/Help:Maintenance_template_removal" title="Help:Maintenance template removal">Learn how and when to remove this message</a></small>)</i></span></div></td></tr></tbody></table> <p><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a> is the process by which water molecules directly leave the surface of ice without first becoming liquid water. Sublimation accounts for the slow mid-winter disappearance of ice and snow at temperatures too low to cause melting. <a href="/wiki/Antarctica" title="Antarctica">Antarctica</a> shows this effect to a unique degree because it is by far the continent with the lowest rate of precipitation on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As a result, there are large areas where <a href="/wiki/Millennium" title="Millennium">millennial</a> layers of snow have sublimed, leaving behind whatever non-volatile materials they had contained. This is extremely valuable to certain scientific disciplines, a dramatic example being the collection of <a href="/wiki/Meteorite" title="Meteorite">meteorites</a> that are left exposed in unparalleled numbers and excellent states of preservation. </p><p>Sublimation is important in the preparation of certain classes of biological specimens for <a href="/wiki/Scanning_electron_microscope" title="Scanning electron microscope">scanning electron microscopy</a>. Typically the specimens are prepared by <a href="/wiki/Cryofixation" title="Cryofixation">cryofixation</a> and <a href="/wiki/Electron_microscope" title="Electron microscope">freeze-fracture</a>, after which the broken surface is freeze-etched, being eroded by exposure to vacuum until it shows the required level of detail. This technique can display protein molecules, <a href="/wiki/Organelle" title="Organelle">organelle</a> structures and <a href="/wiki/Lipid_bilayer" title="Lipid bilayer">lipid bilayers</a> with very low degrees of distortion. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Condensation">Condensation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=4" title="Edit section: Condensation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Above_the_Clouds.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Above_the_Clouds.jpg/220px-Above_the_Clouds.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="132" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Above_the_Clouds.jpg/330px-Above_the_Clouds.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/4/4b/Above_the_Clouds.jpg/440px-Above_the_Clouds.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2000" data-file-height="1200" /></a><figcaption>Clouds, formed by condensed water vapor</figcaption></figure> <p>Water vapor will only condense onto another surface when that surface is cooler than the <a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">dew point</a> temperature, or when the <a href="/wiki/Saturation_vapor_pressure" class="mw-redirect" title="Saturation vapor pressure">water vapor equilibrium</a> in air has been exceeded. When water vapor condenses onto a surface, a net warming occurs on that surface.<sup id="cite_ref-9" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water molecule brings heat energy with it. In turn, the temperature of the atmosphere drops slightly.<sup id="cite_ref-10" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the atmosphere, condensation produces clouds, fog and precipitation (usually only when facilitated by <a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">cloud condensation nuclei</a>). The <a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">dew point</a> of an air parcel is the temperature to which it must cool before water vapor in the air begins to condense. Condensation in the atmosphere forms cloud droplets. </p><p>Also, a net condensation of water vapor occurs on surfaces when the temperature of the surface is at or below the dew point temperature of the atmosphere. <a href="/wiki/Deposition_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (meteorology)">Deposition</a> is a <a href="/wiki/Phase_transition" title="Phase transition">phase transition</a> separate from condensation which leads to the direct formation of ice from water vapor. <a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">Frost</a> and snow are examples of deposition. </p><p>There are several mechanisms of cooling by which condensation occurs: 1) Direct loss of heat by conduction or radiation. 2) Cooling from the drop in air pressure which occurs with uplift of air, also known as <a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">adiabatic cooling</a>. Air can be lifted by mountains, which deflect the air upward, by convection, and by cold and warm fronts. 3) Advective cooling - cooling due to horizontal movement of air. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Importance_and_Uses">Importance and Uses</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=5" title="Edit section: Importance and Uses"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <ul><li>Provides water for plants and animals: Water vapour gets converted to rain and snow that serve as a natural source of water for plants and animals.</li> <li>Controls evaporation: Excess water vapor in the air decreases the rate of evaporation.</li> <li>Determines climatic conditions: Excess water vapor in the air produces rain, fog, snow etc. Hence, it determines climatic conditions.</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Chemical_reactions">Chemical reactions</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=6" title="Edit section: Chemical reactions"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>A number of chemical reactions have water as a product. If the reactions take place at temperatures higher than the dew point of the surrounding air the water will be formed as vapor and increase the local humidity, if below the dew point local condensation will occur. Typical reactions that result in water formation are the burning of <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen" title="Hydrogen">hydrogen</a> or <a href="/wiki/Hydrocarbon" title="Hydrocarbon">hydrocarbons</a> in air or other <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> containing gas mixtures, or as a result of reactions with oxidizers. </p><p>In a similar fashion other chemical or physical reactions can take place in the presence of water vapor resulting in new chemicals forming such as <a href="/wiki/Rust" title="Rust">rust</a> on iron or steel, polymerization occurring (certain <a href="/wiki/Polyurethane" title="Polyurethane">polyurethane</a> foams and <a href="/wiki/Cyanoacrylate" title="Cyanoacrylate">cyanoacrylate</a> glues cure with exposure to atmospheric humidity) or forms changing such as where anhydrous chemicals may absorb enough vapor to form a crystalline structure or alter an existing one, sometimes resulting in characteristic color changes that can be used for <a href="/wiki/Humidity_indicator_card" title="Humidity indicator card">measurement</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Measurement">Measurement</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=7" title="Edit section: Measurement"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Measuring the quantity of water vapor in a medium can be done directly or remotely with varying degrees of accuracy. Remote methods such <a href="/wiki/Electromagnetic_absorption_by_water" title="Electromagnetic absorption by water">electromagnetic absorption</a> are possible from satellites above planetary atmospheres. Direct methods may use electronic transducers, moistened thermometers or hygroscopic materials measuring changes in physical properties or dimensions. </p> <table class="wikitable sortable" style="text-align: center; font-size: 85%; width: auto; table-layout: fixed;"> <tbody><tr> <th style="width:12em"> </th> <th>medium </th> <th>temperature range (degC) </th> <th>measurement <a href="/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty" title="Measurement uncertainty">uncertainty</a> </th> <th>typical measurement frequency </th> <th>system cost </th> <th>notes </th></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hygrometer#Sling_psychrometer" title="Hygrometer">Sling psychrometer</a> </th> <td>air </td> <td>−10 to 50 </td> <td>low to moderate </td> <td>hourly </td> <td>low </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Satellite-based spectroscopy </th> <td>air </td> <td>−80 to 60 </td> <td>low </td> <td> </td> <td>very high </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hygrometer#Capacitive" title="Hygrometer">Capacitive</a> sensor </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td>−40 to 50 </td> <td>moderate </td> <td>2 to 0.05 Hz </td> <td>medium </td> <td>prone to becoming saturated/contaminated over time </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Warmed capacitive sensor </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td>−15 to 50 </td> <td>moderate to low </td> <td>2 to 0.05 Hz (temp dependant) </td> <td>medium to high </td> <td>prone to becoming saturated/contaminated over time </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hygrometer#Resistive" title="Hygrometer">Resistive</a> sensor </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td>−10 to 50 </td> <td>moderate </td> <td>60 seconds </td> <td>medium </td> <td>prone to contamination </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Lithium chloride <a href="/wiki/Dewcell" title="Dewcell">dewcell</a> </th> <td>air </td> <td>−30 to 50 </td> <td>moderate </td> <td>continuous </td> <td>medium </td> <td>see <a href="/wiki/Dewcell" title="Dewcell">dewcell</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Cobalt(II)_chloride" title="Cobalt(II) chloride">Cobalt(II) chloride</a> </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td>0 to 50 </td> <td>high </td> <td>5 minutes </td> <td>very low </td> <td>often used in <a href="/wiki/Humidity_indicator_card" title="Humidity indicator card">Humidity indicator card</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Absorption_spectroscopy" title="Absorption spectroscopy">Absorption spectroscopy</a> </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td> </td> <td>moderate </td> <td> </td> <td>high </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Aluminum oxide </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td> </td> <td>moderate </td> <td> </td> <td>medium </td> <td>see <a href="/wiki/Moisture_analysis" title="Moisture analysis">Moisture analysis</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Silicon oxide </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td> </td> <td>moderate </td> <td> </td> <td>medium </td> <td>see <a href="/wiki/Moisture_analysis" title="Moisture analysis">Moisture analysis</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Piezoelectric sorption </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td> </td> <td>moderate </td> <td> </td> <td>medium </td> <td>see <a href="/wiki/Moisture_analysis" title="Moisture analysis">Moisture analysis</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Electrolytic </th> <td>air/gases </td> <td> </td> <td>moderate </td> <td> </td> <td>medium </td> <td>see <a href="/wiki/Moisture_analysis" title="Moisture analysis">Moisture analysis</a> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hygrometer#Hair_tension_hygrometers" title="Hygrometer">Hair tension</a> </th> <td>air </td> <td>0 to 40 </td> <td>high </td> <td>continuous </td> <td>low to medium </td> <td>Affected by temperature. Adversely affected by prolonged high concentrations </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Nephelometer </th> <td>air/other gases </td> <td> </td> <td>low </td> <td> </td> <td>very high </td> <td> </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Goldbeater%27s_skin" title="Goldbeater's skin">Goldbeater's skin</a> (Cow Peritoneum) </th> <td>air </td> <td>−20 to 30 </td> <td>moderate (with corrections) </td> <td>slow, slower at lower temperatures </td> <td>low </td> <td>ref:WMO Guide to Meteorological Instruments and Methods of Observation No. 8 2006, (pages 1.12–1) </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;">Lyman-alpha </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>high frequency </td> <td>high </td> <td><a rel="nofollow" class="external free" href="http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=lyman-alpha-hygrometer1">http://amsglossary.allenpress.com/glossary/search?id=lyman-alpha-hygrometer1</a> Requires frequent calibration </td></tr> <tr> <th style="text-align:left;"><a href="/wiki/Hygrometer#Gravimetric" title="Hygrometer">Gravimetric</a> Hygrometer </th> <td> </td> <td> </td> <td>very low </td> <td> </td> <td>very high </td> <td>often called primary source, national independent standards developed in US, UK, EU & Japan </td></tr> <tr class="sortbottom"> <th> </th> <th>medium </th> <th>temperature range (degC) </th> <th>measurement <a href="/wiki/Measurement_uncertainty" title="Measurement uncertainty">uncertainty</a> </th> <th>typical measurement frequency </th> <th>system cost </th> <th>notes </th></tr></tbody></table> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Impact_on_air_density">Impact on air density</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=8" title="Edit section: Impact on air density"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water vapor is lighter or less <a href="/wiki/Density_of_air" title="Density of air">dense than dry air</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-11" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-12" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> At equivalent temperatures it is buoyant with respect to dry air, whereby the density of dry air at <a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">standard temperature and pressure</a> (273.15 K, 101.325 kPa) is 1.27 g/L and water vapor at standard temperature has a <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor pressure</a> of 0.6 kPa and the much lower density of 0.0048 g/L. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Calculations">Calculations</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=9" title="Edit section: Calculations"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Frameless"><a href="/wiki/File:Dewpoint.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dewpoint.jpg/250px-Dewpoint.jpg" decoding="async" width="250" height="250" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/9/91/Dewpoint.jpg/375px-Dewpoint.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/9/91/Dewpoint.jpg 2x" data-file-width="400" data-file-height="400" /></a><figcaption></figcaption></figure> <p>Water vapor and dry air density calculations at 0 °C: </p> <ul><li>The <a href="/wiki/Molar_mass" title="Molar mass">molar mass</a> of water is <span class="nowrap">18.02 g/mol</span>, as calculated from the sum of the <a href="/wiki/Atomic_mass" title="Atomic mass">atomic masses</a> of its constituent <a href="/wiki/Atoms" class="mw-redirect" title="Atoms">atoms</a>.</li> <li>The average molar mass of air (approx. 78% nitrogen, N<sub>2</sub>; 21% oxygen, O<sub>2</sub>; 1% other gases) is <span class="nowrap">28.57 g/mol</span> at standard temperature and pressure (<a href="/wiki/Standard_temperature_and_pressure" title="Standard temperature and pressure">STP</a>).</li> <li>Obeying <a href="/wiki/Avogadro%27s_Law" class="mw-redirect" title="Avogadro's Law">Avogadro's Law</a> and the <a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas_law" title="Ideal gas law">ideal gas law</a>, <a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">moist air</a> will have a lower density than dry air. At max. saturation (i. e. rel. humidity = 100% at 0 °C) the density will go down to 28.51 g/mol.</li> <li>STP conditions imply a temperature of 0 °C, at which the ability of water to become vapor is very restricted. Its <a href="/wiki/Concentration" title="Concentration">concentration</a> in air is very low at 0 °C. The red line on the chart to the right is the maximum concentration of water vapor expected for a given temperature. The water vapor concentration increases significantly as the temperature rises, approaching 100% (<a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">steam</a>, pure water vapor) at 100 °C. However the difference in densities between air and water vapor would still exist (0.598 vs. 1.27 g/L).</li></ul> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="At_equal_temperatures">At equal temperatures</h4><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=10" title="Edit section: At equal temperatures"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>At the same temperature, a column of dry air will be denser or heavier than a column of air containing any water vapor, the molar mass of diatomic <a href="/wiki/Nitrogen" title="Nitrogen">nitrogen</a> and diatomic <a href="/wiki/Oxygen" title="Oxygen">oxygen</a> both being greater than the molar mass of water. Thus, any volume of dry air will sink if placed in a larger volume of moist air. Also, a volume of moist air will rise or be <a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">buoyant</a> if placed in a larger region of dry air. As the temperature rises the proportion of water vapor in the air increases, and its buoyancy will increase. The increase in buoyancy can have a significant atmospheric impact, giving rise to powerful, moisture rich, upward air currents when the air temperature and sea temperature reaches 25 °C or above. This phenomenon provides a significant driving force for <a href="/wiki/Cyclone" title="Cyclone">cyclonic</a> and <a href="/wiki/Anticyclone" title="Anticyclone">anticyclonic</a> weather systems (typhoons and hurricanes). </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Respiration_and_breathing">Respiration and breathing</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=11" title="Edit section: Respiration and breathing"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water vapor is a by-product of <a href="/wiki/Respiration_(physiology)" title="Respiration (physiology)">respiration</a> in plants and animals. Its contribution to the pressure, increases as its concentration increases. Its <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">partial pressure</a> contribution to air pressure increases, lowering the partial pressure contribution of the other atmospheric gases <a href="/wiki/Partial_pressure" title="Partial pressure">(Dalton's Law)</a>. The total air pressure must remain constant. The presence of water vapor in the air naturally dilutes or displaces the other air components as its concentration increases. </p><p>This can have an effect on respiration. In very warm air (35 °C) the proportion of water vapor is large enough to give rise to the stuffiness that can be experienced in humid jungle conditions or in poorly ventilated buildings. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lifting_gas">Lifting gas</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=12" title="Edit section: Lifting gas"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>Water vapor has lower density than that of <a href="/wiki/Air" class="mw-redirect" title="Air">air</a> and is therefore <a href="/wiki/Buoyant" class="mw-redirect" title="Buoyant">buoyant</a> in air but has lower vapor pressure than that of air. When water vapor is used as a <a href="/wiki/Lifting_gas" title="Lifting gas">lifting gas</a> by a <a href="/wiki/Thermal_airship" title="Thermal airship">thermal airship</a> the water vapor is heated to form steam so that its vapor pressure is greater than the surrounding air pressure in order to maintain the shape of a theoretical "steam balloon", which yields approximately 60% the lift of helium and twice that of hot air.<sup id="cite_ref-13" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="General_discussion">General discussion</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=13" title="Edit section: General discussion"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <p>The amount of water vapor in an atmosphere is constrained by the restrictions of partial pressures and temperature. Dew point temperature and relative humidity act as guidelines for the process of water vapor in the <a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">water cycle</a>. Energy input, such as sunlight, can trigger more evaporation on an ocean surface or more sublimation on a chunk of ice on top of a mountain. The <i>balance</i> between condensation and evaporation gives the quantity called <a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">vapor partial pressure</a>. </p><p>The maximum partial pressure (<i>saturation pressure</i>) of water vapor in air varies with temperature of the air and water vapor mixture. A variety of empirical formulas exist for this quantity; the most used reference formula is the <a href="/wiki/Goff-Gratch_equation" class="mw-redirect" title="Goff-Gratch equation">Goff-Gratch equation</a> for the SVP over liquid water below zero degrees Celsius: </p> <dl><dd><span class="mwe-math-element"><span class="mwe-math-mathml-inline mwe-math-mathml-a11y" style="display: none;"><math xmlns="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" alttext="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\log _{10}\left(p\right)=&-7.90298\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)+5.02808\log _{10}{\frac {373.16}{T}}\\&-1.3816\times 10^{-7}\left(10^{11.344\left(1-{\frac {T}{373.16}}\right)}-1\right)\\&+8.1328\times 10^{-3}\left(10^{-3.49149\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)}-1\right)\\&+\log _{10}\left(1013.246\right)\end{aligned}}}"> <semantics> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mstyle displaystyle="true" scriptlevel="0"> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mtable columnalign="right left right left right left right left right left right left" rowspacing="3pt" columnspacing="0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em 2em 0em" displaystyle="true"> <mtr> <mtd> <msub> <mi>log</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mi>p</mi> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>=</mo> </mtd> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7.90298</mn> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>373.16</mn> <mi>T</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> <mo>+</mo> <mn>5.02808</mn> <msub> <mi>log</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>373.16</mn> <mi>T</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1.3816</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>7</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>11.344</mn> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mn>1</mn> <mo>−</mo> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mi>T</mi> <mn>373.16</mn> </mfrac> </mrow> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>+</mo> <mn>8.1328</mn> <mo>×</mo> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3</mn> </mrow> </msup> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <msup> <mn>10</mn> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mo>−</mo> <mn>3.49149</mn> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mrow> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mfrac> <mn>373.16</mn> <mi>T</mi> </mfrac> </mrow> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mrow> </msup> <mo>−</mo> <mn>1</mn> </mrow> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> <mtr> <mtd /> <mtd> <mi></mi> <mo>+</mo> <msub> <mi>log</mi> <mrow class="MJX-TeXAtom-ORD"> <mn>10</mn> </mrow> </msub> <mo>⁡</mo> <mrow> <mo>(</mo> <mn>1013.246</mn> <mo>)</mo> </mrow> </mtd> </mtr> </mtable> </mrow> </mstyle> </mrow> <annotation encoding="application/x-tex">{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\log _{10}\left(p\right)=&-7.90298\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)+5.02808\log _{10}{\frac {373.16}{T}}\\&-1.3816\times 10^{-7}\left(10^{11.344\left(1-{\frac {T}{373.16}}\right)}-1\right)\\&+8.1328\times 10^{-3}\left(10^{-3.49149\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)}-1\right)\\&+\log _{10}\left(1013.246\right)\end{aligned}}}</annotation> </semantics> </math></span><img src="https://wikimedia.org/api/rest_v1/media/math/render/svg/504b77d44b2847bf9279ce34c1d889f01b6da8a9" class="mwe-math-fallback-image-inline mw-invert skin-invert" aria-hidden="true" style="vertical-align: -10.338ex; width:59.979ex; height:21.843ex;" alt="{\displaystyle {\begin{aligned}\log _{10}\left(p\right)=&-7.90298\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)+5.02808\log _{10}{\frac {373.16}{T}}\\&-1.3816\times 10^{-7}\left(10^{11.344\left(1-{\frac {T}{373.16}}\right)}-1\right)\\&+8.1328\times 10^{-3}\left(10^{-3.49149\left({\frac {373.16}{T}}-1\right)}-1\right)\\&+\log _{10}\left(1013.246\right)\end{aligned}}}"></span></dd></dl> <p>where <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">T</span>, temperature of the moist air, is given in units of <a href="/wiki/Kelvin" title="Kelvin">kelvin</a>, and <span class="texhtml mvar" style="font-style:italic;">p</span> is given in units of <a href="/wiki/Millibar" class="mw-redirect" title="Millibar">millibars</a> (<a href="/wiki/Hectopascal" class="mw-redirect" title="Hectopascal">hectopascals</a>). </p><p>The formula is valid from about −50 to 102 °C; however there are a very limited number of measurements of the vapor pressure of water over supercooled liquid water. There are a number of other formulae which can be used.<sup id="cite_ref-14" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Under certain conditions, such as when the boiling temperature of water is reached, a net evaporation will always occur during standard atmospheric conditions regardless of the percent of relative humidity. This immediate process will dispel massive amounts of water vapor into a cooler atmosphere. </p><p><a href="/wiki/Exhalation" title="Exhalation">Exhaled</a> air is almost fully at equilibrium with water vapor at the body temperature. In the cold air the exhaled vapor quickly condenses, thus showing up as a fog or <a href="/wiki/Mist" title="Mist">mist</a> of water droplets and as condensation or frost on surfaces. Forcibly condensing these water droplets from exhaled breath is the basis of <a href="/wiki/Exhaled_breath_condensate" title="Exhaled breath condensate">exhaled breath condensate</a>, an evolving medical diagnostic test. </p><p>Controlling water vapor in air is a key concern in the <a href="/wiki/HVAC" class="mw-redirect" title="HVAC">heating, ventilating, and air-conditioning</a> (HVAC) industry. <a href="/wiki/Thermal_comfort" title="Thermal comfort">Thermal comfort</a> depends on the moist air conditions. Non-human comfort situations are called <a href="/wiki/Refrigeration" title="Refrigeration">refrigeration</a>, and also are affected by water vapor. For example, many food stores, like supermarkets, utilize open chiller cabinets, or <i>food cases</i>, which can significantly lower the water vapor pressure (lowering humidity). This practice delivers several benefits as well as problems. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="In_Earth's_atmosphere"><span id="In_Earth.27s_atmosphere"></span><span class="anchor" id="Water_vapor_in_Earth's_atmosphere"></span> In Earth's atmosphere</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=14" title="Edit section: In Earth's atmosphere"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:BAMS_climate_assess_boulder_water_vapor_2002_-_2.png" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/BAMS_climate_assess_boulder_water_vapor_2002_-_2.png/330px-BAMS_climate_assess_boulder_water_vapor_2002_-_2.png" decoding="async" width="330" height="181" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/BAMS_climate_assess_boulder_water_vapor_2002_-_2.png/495px-BAMS_climate_assess_boulder_water_vapor_2002_-_2.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/BAMS_climate_assess_boulder_water_vapor_2002_-_2.png/660px-BAMS_climate_assess_boulder_water_vapor_2002_-_2.png 2x" data-file-width="775" data-file-height="425" /></a><figcaption>Evidence for increasing amounts of stratospheric water vapor over time in Boulder, Colorado.</figcaption></figure> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1236090951">.mw-parser-output .hatnote{font-style:italic}.mw-parser-output div.hatnote{padding-left:1.6em;margin-bottom:0.5em}.mw-parser-output .hatnote i{font-style:normal}.mw-parser-output .hatnote+link+.hatnote{margin-top:-0.5em}@media print{body.ns-0 .mw-parser-output .hatnote{display:none!important}}</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Atmosphere_of_Earth" title="Atmosphere of Earth">Atmosphere of Earth</a></div> <p>Gaseous water represents a small but environmentally significant constituent of the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">atmosphere</a>. The percentage of water vapor in surface air varies from 0.01% at -42 °C (-44 °F)<sup id="cite_ref-15" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> to 4.24% when the dew point is 30 °C (86 °F).<sup id="cite_ref-16" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Over 99% of atmospheric water is in the form of vapour, rather than liquid water or ice,<sup id="cite_ref-17" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and approximately 99.13% of the water vapour is contained in the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>. The <a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">condensation</a> of water vapor to the liquid or ice phase is responsible for <a href="/wiki/Clouds" class="mw-redirect" title="Clouds">clouds</a>, rain, snow, and other <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitation</a>, all of which count among the most significant elements of what we experience as weather. Less obviously, the <a href="/wiki/Latent_heat_of_vaporization" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent heat of vaporization">latent heat of vaporization</a>, which is released to the atmosphere whenever condensation occurs, is one of the most important terms in the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">atmospheric energy budget</a> on both local and global scales. For example, latent heat release in atmospheric <a href="/wiki/Convection" title="Convection">convection</a> is directly responsible for powering destructive storms such as <a href="/wiki/Tropical_cyclones" class="mw-redirect" title="Tropical cyclones">tropical cyclones</a> and severe <a href="/wiki/Thunderstorms" class="mw-redirect" title="Thunderstorms">thunderstorms</a>. Water vapor is an important <a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">greenhouse gas</a><sup id="cite_ref-Lacis_18-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacis-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ACS_19-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACS-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> owing to the presence of the <a href="/wiki/Hydroxyl" class="mw-redirect" title="Hydroxyl">hydroxyl</a> bond which strongly absorbs in the <a href="/wiki/Infra-red" class="mw-redirect" title="Infra-red">infra-red</a>. </p><p>Water vapor is the "working medium" of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine which transforms heat energy from sun irradiation into mechanical energy in the form of winds. Transforming thermal energy into mechanical energy requires an upper and a lower temperature level, as well as a working medium which shuttles forth and back between both. The upper temperature level is given by the soil or water surface of the Earth, which absorbs the incoming sun radiation and warms up, evaporating water. The moist and warm air at the ground is lighter than its surroundings and rises up to the upper limit of the troposphere. There the water molecules radiate their thermal energy into outer space, cooling down the surrounding air. The upper atmosphere constitutes the lower temperature level of the atmospheric thermodynamic engine. The water vapor in the now cold air condenses out and falls down to the ground in the form of rain or snow. The now heavier cold and dry air sinks down to ground as well; the atmospheric thermodynamic engine thus establishes a vertical convection, which transports heat from the ground into the upper atmosphere, where the water molecules can radiate it to outer space. Due to the Earth's rotation and the resulting Coriolis forces, this vertical atmospheric convection is also converted into a horizontal convection, in the form of cyclones and anticyclones, which transport the water evaporated over the oceans into the interior of the continents, enabling vegetation to grow.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water in Earth's atmosphere is not merely below its boiling point (100 °C), but <a href="/wiki/Tropopause" title="Tropopause">at altitude</a> it <a href="/wiki/Lapse_rate" title="Lapse rate">goes below</a> its freezing point (0 °C), due to water's <a href="/wiki/Hydrogen_bond" title="Hydrogen bond">highly polar attraction</a>. When combined with its quantity, water vapor then has a relevant <a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">dew point</a> and <a href="/wiki/Dew_point#Frost_point" title="Dew point">frost point</a>, unlike e. g., carbon dioxide and methane. Water vapor thus has a <a href="/wiki/Scale_height" title="Scale height">scale height</a> a fraction of that of the bulk atmosphere,<sup id="cite_ref-21" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-21"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>21<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-History,_AIP_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History,_AIP-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-23" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> as the water <a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">condenses</a> and <a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">exits</a>, primarily in the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a>, the lowest layer of the atmosphere.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Carbon dioxide (<a href="/wiki/Carbon_dioxide" title="Carbon dioxide">CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub></a>) and <a href="/wiki/Methane" title="Methane">methane</a>, being well-mixed in the atmosphere, tend to rise above water vapour. The absorption and emission of both compounds contribute to Earth's emission to space, and thus the <a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_energy_budget" title="Earth's energy budget">planetary greenhouse effect</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-History,_AIP_22-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-History,_AIP-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-25" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This greenhouse forcing is directly observable, via distinct <a href="/wiki/Spectroscopy" title="Spectroscopy">spectral features</a> versus water vapor, and observed to be rising with rising CO<sub style="font-size: 80%;vertical-align: -0.35em">2</sub> levels.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Conversely, adding water vapor at high altitudes has a disproportionate impact, which is why <a href="/wiki/Environmental_impact_of_aviation" title="Environmental impact of aviation">jet traffic</a><sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> has a disproportionately high warming effect. Oxidation of methane is also a major source of water vapour in the stratosphere,<sup id="cite_ref-31" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and adds about 15% to methane's global warming effect.<sup id="cite_ref-32" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>In the absence of other greenhouse gases, Earth's water vapor would condense to the surface;<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> this <a href="/wiki/Snowball_Earth" title="Snowball Earth">has likely happened</a>, possibly more than once. Scientists thus distinguish between non-condensable (driving) and condensable (driven) greenhouse gases, i.e., the above water vapor feedback.<sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-ACS_19-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ACS-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Lacis_18-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Lacis-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a> and clouds form through condensation around <a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">cloud condensation nuclei</a>. In the absence of nuclei, condensation will only occur at much lower temperatures. Under persistent condensation or deposition, cloud droplets or snowflakes form, which <a href="/wiki/Precipitation_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Precipitation (meteorology)">precipitate</a> when they reach a critical mass. </p><p>Atmospheric concentration of water vapour is highly variable between locations and times, from 10 ppmv in the coldest air to 5% (50 000 ppmv) in humid tropical air,<sup id="cite_ref-WallaceHobbs_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WallaceHobbs-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and can be measured with a combination of land observations, weather balloons and satellites.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The water content of the atmosphere as a whole is constantly depleted by precipitation. At the same time it is constantly replenished by evaporation, most prominently from oceans, lakes, rivers, and moist earth. Other sources of atmospheric water include combustion, respiration, volcanic eruptions, the transpiration of plants, and various other biological and geological processes. At any given time there is about 1.29 x 10<sup>16</sup> litres (3.4 x 10<sup>15</sup> gal.) of water in the atmosphere. The atmosphere holds 1 part in 2500 of the fresh water, and 1 part in 100,000 of the total water on Earth.<sup id="cite_ref-Gleick_39-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Gleick-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mean global content of water vapor in the atmosphere is roughly sufficient to cover the surface of the planet with a layer of liquid water about 25 mm deep.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsythe_40-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsythe-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Mockler_42-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mockler-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The mean annual precipitation for the planet is about 1 metre, a comparison which implies a rapid turnover of water in the air – on average, the residence time of a water molecule in the <a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">troposphere</a> is about 9 to 10 days.<sup id="cite_ref-Mockler_42-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Mockler-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg/220px-20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg.png" decoding="async" width="220" height="161" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg/330px-20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a4/20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg/440px-20220726_Feedbacks_affecting_global_warming_and_climate_change_-_block_diagram.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1650" data-file-height="1210" /></a><figcaption>Some <a href="/wiki/Effects_of_climate_change" title="Effects of climate change">effects of global warming</a> can either enhance (<a href="/wiki/Positive_feedback" title="Positive feedback">positive feedbacks</a> such as increased water vapor concentration) or inhibit (<a href="/wiki/Negative_feedback" title="Negative feedback">negative feedbacks</a>) warming.<sup id="cite_ref-43" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-IPCC_AR6_SGI_FigTS.17_44-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-IPCC_AR6_SGI_FigTS.17-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Global mean water vapour is about 0.25% of the atmosphere by mass and also varies seasonally, in terms of contribution to atmospheric pressure between 2.62 hPa in July and 2.33 hPa in December.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="/wiki/IPCC_Sixth_Assessment_Report" title="IPCC Sixth Assessment Report">IPCC AR6</a> expresses medium confidence in increase of total water vapour at about 1-2% per decade;<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> it is expected to <a href="/wiki/Clausius-Clapeyron_relation" class="mw-redirect" title="Clausius-Clapeyron relation">increase</a> by around 7% per °C of warming.<sup id="cite_ref-Forsythe_40-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Forsythe-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Episodes of surface geothermal activity, such as volcanic eruptions and geysers, release variable amounts of water vapor into the atmosphere. Such eruptions may be large in human terms, and major explosive eruptions may inject exceptionally large masses of water exceptionally high into the atmosphere, but as a percentage of total atmospheric water, the role of such processes is trivial. The relative concentrations of the various gases emitted by <a href="/wiki/Volcano" title="Volcano">volcanoes</a> varies considerably according to the site and according to the particular event at any one site. However, water vapor is consistently the commonest <a href="/wiki/Volcanic_gas" title="Volcanic gas">volcanic gas</a>; as a rule, it comprises more than 60% of total emissions during a <a href="/wiki/Subaerial_eruption" title="Subaerial eruption">subaerial eruption</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-47" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Atmospheric water vapor content is expressed using various measures. These include vapor pressure, <a href="/wiki/Specific_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Specific humidity">specific humidity</a>, mixing ratio, dew point temperature, and <a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">relative humidity</a>. </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Radar_and_satellite_imaging">Radar and satellite imaging</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=15" title="Edit section: Radar and satellite imaging"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><span><video id="mwe_player_0" poster="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/d/d2/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv/220px--MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv.jpg" controls="" preload="none" data-mw-tmh="" class="mw-file-element" width="220" height="147" data-durationhint="35" data-mwtitle="MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv" data-mwprovider="wikimediacommons" resource="/wiki/File:MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv"><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d2/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv.360p.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp8, vorbis"" data-transcodekey="360p.webm" data-width="472" data-height="316" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d2/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv" type="video/ogg; codecs="theora"" data-width="472" data-height="316" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d2/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv.144p.mjpeg.mov" type="video/quicktime" data-transcodekey="144p.mjpeg.mov" data-width="216" data-height="144" /><source src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/transcoded/d/d2/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv/MYDAL2_M_SKY_WV.ogv.240p.vp9.webm" type="video/webm; codecs="vp9, opus"" data-transcodekey="240p.vp9.webm" data-width="358" data-height="240" /></video></span><figcaption>These maps show the average amount of water vapor in a column of atmosphere in a given month.(<i>click for more detail</i>)</figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg/220px-Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="116" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg/330px-Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/a/a0/Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg/440px-Atmospheric_Water_Vapor_Mean.2005.030.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2431" data-file-height="1280" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/MODIS" class="mw-redirect" title="MODIS">MODIS</a>/<a href="/wiki/Terra_(satellite)" title="Terra (satellite)">Terra</a> global mean atmospheric water vapor in atm-cm (centimeters of water in an atmospheric column if it condensed)</figcaption></figure> <p>Because water molecules <a href="/wiki/Absorption_(electromagnetic_radiation)" title="Absorption (electromagnetic radiation)">absorb</a> <a href="/wiki/Microwave" title="Microwave">microwaves</a> and other <a href="/wiki/Radio_wave" title="Radio wave">radio wave</a> frequencies, water in the atmosphere attenuates <a href="/wiki/Radar" title="Radar">radar</a> signals.<sup id="cite_ref-48" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In addition, atmospheric water will <a href="/wiki/Reflection_(physics)" title="Reflection (physics)">reflect</a> and <a href="/wiki/Refraction" title="Refraction">refract</a> signals to an extent that depends on whether it is vapor, liquid or solid. </p><p>Generally, radar signals lose strength progressively the farther they travel through the troposphere. Different frequencies attenuate at different rates, such that some components of air are opaque to some frequencies and transparent to others. Radio waves used for broadcasting and other communication experience the same effect. </p><p>Water vapor reflects radar to a lesser extent than do water's other two phases. In the form of drops and ice crystals, water acts as a prism, which it does not do as an individual <a href="/wiki/Molecule" title="Molecule">molecule</a>; however, the existence of water vapor in the atmosphere causes the atmosphere to act as a giant prism.<sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>A comparison of <a href="/wiki/GOES-12" class="mw-redirect" title="GOES-12">GOES-12</a> satellite images shows the distribution of atmospheric water vapor relative to the oceans, clouds and continents of the Earth. Vapor surrounds the planet but is unevenly distributed. The image loop on the right shows monthly average of water vapor content with the units are given in centimeters, which is the <a href="/wiki/Precipitable_water" title="Precipitable water">precipitable water</a> or equivalent amount of water that could be produced if all the water vapor in the column were to condense. The lowest amounts of water vapor (0 centimeters) appear in yellow, and the highest amounts (6 centimeters) appear in dark blue. Areas of missing data appear in shades of gray. The maps are based on data collected by the <a href="/wiki/Moderate_Resolution_Imaging_Spectroradiometer" title="Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer">Moderate Resolution Imaging Spectroradiometer</a> (MODIS) sensor on NASA's Aqua satellite. The most noticeable pattern in the time series is the influence of seasonal temperature changes and incoming sunlight on water vapor. In the tropics, a band of extremely humid air wobbles north and south of the equator as the seasons change. This band of humidity is part of the <a href="/wiki/Intertropical_Convergence_Zone" title="Intertropical Convergence Zone">Intertropical Convergence Zone</a>, where the easterly trade winds from each hemisphere converge and produce near-daily thunderstorms and clouds. Farther from the equator, water vapor concentrations are high in the hemisphere experiencing summer and low in the one experiencing winter. Another pattern that shows up in the time series is that water vapor amounts over land areas decrease more in winter months than adjacent ocean areas do. This is largely because air temperatures over land drop more in the winter than temperatures over the ocean. Water vapor condenses more rapidly in colder air.<sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>As water vapor absorbs light in the visible spectral range, its absorption can be used in spectroscopic applications (such as <a href="/wiki/Differential_optical_absorption_spectroscopy" title="Differential optical absorption spectroscopy">DOAS</a>) to determine the amount of water vapor in the atmosphere. This is done operationally, e.g. from the Global <a href="/wiki/Ozone" title="Ozone">Ozone</a> Monitoring Experiment (GOME) spectrometers on <a href="/wiki/European_Remote-Sensing_Satellite" title="European Remote-Sensing Satellite">ERS</a> (GOME) and <a href="/wiki/MetOp" title="MetOp">MetOp</a> (GOME-2).<sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The weaker water vapor absorption lines in the blue spectral range and further into the UV up to its dissociation limit around 243 nm are mostly based on quantum mechanical calculations<sup id="cite_ref-TennysonFPrinciples_52-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-TennysonFPrinciples-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and are only partly confirmed by experiments.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Lightning_generation">Lightning generation</h3><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=16" title="Edit section: Lightning generation"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="/wiki/Van_de_Graaff_generator" title="Van de Graaff generator">Van de Graaff generator</a></div> <p>Water vapor plays a key role in <a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">lightning</a> production in the atmosphere. From <a href="/wiki/Cloud_physics" title="Cloud physics">cloud physics</a>, usually clouds are the real generators of static <a href="/wiki/Electric_charge" title="Electric charge">charge</a> as found in Earth's atmosphere. The ability of clouds to hold massive amounts of electrical energy is directly related to the amount of water vapor present in the local system. </p><p>The amount of water vapor directly controls the <a href="/wiki/Permittivity" title="Permittivity">permittivity</a> of the air. During times of low humidity, static discharge is quick and easy. During times of higher humidity, fewer static discharges occur. Permittivity and capacitance work hand in hand to produce the megawatt outputs of lightning.<sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>After a cloud, for instance, has started its way to becoming a lightning generator, atmospheric water vapor acts as a substance (or <a href="/wiki/Electrical_insulation" class="mw-redirect" title="Electrical insulation">insulator</a>) that decreases the ability of the cloud to <a href="/wiki/Electrostatic_discharge" title="Electrostatic discharge">discharge</a> its electrical energy. Over a certain amount of time, if the cloud continues to generate and store more <a href="/wiki/Static_electricity" title="Static electricity">static electricity</a>, the barrier that was created by the atmospheric water vapor will ultimately break down from the stored electrical potential energy.<sup id="cite_ref-55" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This energy will be released to a local oppositely charged region, in the form of lightning. The strength of each discharge is directly related to the atmospheric permittivity, capacitance, and the source's charge generating ability.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Extraterrestrial">Extraterrestrial</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=17" title="Edit section: Extraterrestrial"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236090951"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a></div> <p>Water vapor is common in the <a href="/wiki/Solar_System" title="Solar System">Solar System</a> and by extension, other <a href="/wiki/Planetary_system" title="Planetary system">planetary systems</a>. Its signature has been detected in the atmospheres of the Sun, occurring in <a href="/wiki/Sunspots" class="mw-redirect" title="Sunspots">sunspots</a>. The presence of water vapor has been detected in the atmospheres of all seven extraterrestrial planets in the Solar System, the Earth's Moon,<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the moons of other planets,<sup class="noprint Inline-Template" style="white-space:nowrap;">[<i><a href="/wiki/Wikipedia:Avoid_weasel_words" class="mw-redirect" title="Wikipedia:Avoid weasel words"><span title="The material near this tag possibly uses too vague attribution or weasel words. (June 2017)">which?</span></a></i>]</sup> although typically in only trace amounts. </p> <figure class="mw-default-size mw-halign-left" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Artist%27s_Concept_of_Europa_Water_Vapor_Plume.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Artist%27s_Concept_of_Europa_Water_Vapor_Plume.jpg/170px-Artist%27s_Concept_of_Europa_Water_Vapor_Plume.jpg" decoding="async" width="170" height="220" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Artist%27s_Concept_of_Europa_Water_Vapor_Plume.jpg/255px-Artist%27s_Concept_of_Europa_Water_Vapor_Plume.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/6/61/Artist%27s_Concept_of_Europa_Water_Vapor_Plume.jpg/340px-Artist%27s_Concept_of_Europa_Water_Vapor_Plume.jpg 2x" data-file-width="2550" data-file-height="3300" /></a><figcaption><a href="/wiki/Cryogeyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogeyser">Cryogeyser</a> erupting on Jupiter's moon <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a> (artist concept)<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20131212-EU_58-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20131212-EU-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <figure class="mw-default-size" typeof="mw:File/Thumb"><a href="/wiki/File:Atmosphere_of_exoplanet.jpg" class="mw-file-description"><img src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Atmosphere_of_exoplanet.jpg/220px-Atmosphere_of_exoplanet.jpg" decoding="async" width="220" height="124" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Atmosphere_of_exoplanet.jpg/330px-Atmosphere_of_exoplanet.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/1/15/Atmosphere_of_exoplanet.jpg/440px-Atmosphere_of_exoplanet.jpg 2x" data-file-width="1280" data-file-height="720" /></a><figcaption>Artist's illustration of the signatures of water in exoplanet atmospheres detectable by instruments such as the <a href="/wiki/Hubble_Space_Telescope" title="Hubble Space Telescope">Hubble Space Telescope</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-59" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></figcaption></figure> <p>Geological formations such as <a href="/wiki/Cryogeyser" class="mw-redirect" title="Cryogeyser">cryogeysers</a> are thought to exist on the surface of several <a href="/wiki/Icy_moons" class="mw-redirect" title="Icy moons">icy moons</a> ejecting water vapor due to <a href="/wiki/Tidal_heating" title="Tidal heating">tidal heating</a> and may indicate the presence of substantial quantities of subsurface water. Plumes of water vapor have been detected on Jupiter's moon <a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a> and are similar to plumes of water vapor detected on Saturn's moon <a href="/wiki/Enceladus" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20131212-EU_58-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20131212-EU-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Traces of water vapor have also been detected in the stratosphere of <a href="/wiki/Titan_(moon)" title="Titan (moon)">Titan</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-60" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Water vapor has been found to be a major constituent of the atmosphere of <a href="/wiki/Dwarf_planet" title="Dwarf planet">dwarf planet</a>, <a href="/wiki/Ceres_(dwarf_planet)" title="Ceres (dwarf planet)">Ceres</a>, largest object in the <a href="/wiki/Asteroid_belt" title="Asteroid belt">asteroid belt</a><sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The detection was made by using the <a href="/wiki/Far-infrared_astronomy" title="Far-infrared astronomy">far-infrared abilities</a> of the <a href="/wiki/Herschel_Space_Observatory" title="Herschel Space Observatory">Herschel Space Observatory</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20140122_62-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140122-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The finding is unexpected because <a href="/wiki/Comets" class="mw-redirect" title="Comets">comets</a>, not <a href="/wiki/Asteroids" class="mw-redirect" title="Asteroids">asteroids</a>, are typically considered to "sprout jets and plumes." According to one of the scientists, "The lines are becoming more and more blurred between comets and asteroids."<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20140122_62-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140122-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Scientists studying <a href="/wiki/Mars" title="Mars">Mars</a> hypothesize that if water moves about the planet, it does so as vapor.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>The brilliance of <a href="/wiki/Comet" title="Comet">comet</a> tails comes largely from water vapor. On approach to the <a href="/wiki/Sun" title="Sun">Sun</a>, the ice many comets carry <a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">sublimes</a> to vapor. Knowing a comet's distance from the sun, astronomers may deduce the comet's water content from its brilliance.<sup id="cite_ref-64" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p><p>Water vapor has also been confirmed outside the Solar System. Spectroscopic analysis of <a href="/wiki/HD_209458_b" title="HD 209458 b">HD 209458 b</a>, an extrasolar planet in the constellation Pegasus, provides the first evidence of atmospheric water vapor beyond the Solar System. A star called <a href="/wiki/IRC_%2B10216" class="mw-redirect" title="IRC +10216">CW Leonis</a> was found to have a ring of vast quantities of water vapor circling the aging, massive <a href="/wiki/Star" title="Star">star</a>. A <a href="/wiki/NASA" title="NASA">NASA</a> satellite designed to study chemicals in interstellar gas clouds, made the discovery with an onboard spectrometer. Most likely, "the water vapor was vaporized from the surfaces of orbiting comets."<sup id="cite_ref-65" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Other exoplanets with evidence of water vapor include <a href="/wiki/HAT-P-11b" title="HAT-P-11b">HAT-P-11b</a> and <a href="/wiki/K2-18b" title="K2-18b">K2-18b</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-NASA-20140924_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NASA-20140924-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-67" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> </p> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="See_also">See also</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=18" title="Edit section: See also"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1184024115">.mw-parser-output .div-col{margin-top:0.3em;column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .div-col-small{font-size:90%}.mw-parser-output .div-col-rules{column-rule:1px solid #aaa}.mw-parser-output .div-col dl,.mw-parser-output .div-col ol,.mw-parser-output .div-col ul{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .div-col li,.mw-parser-output .div-col dd{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}</style><div class="div-col" style="column-width: 15em;"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Air_density" class="mw-redirect" title="Air density">Air density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_river" title="Atmospheric river">Atmospheric river</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Boiling_point" title="Boiling point">Boiling point</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Condensation_in_aerosol_dynamics" class="mw-redirect" title="Condensation in aerosol dynamics">Condensation in aerosol dynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Deposition_(meteorology)" class="mw-redirect" title="Deposition (meteorology)">Deposition</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Earth%27s_atmosphere" class="mw-redirect" title="Earth's atmosphere">Earth's atmosphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Eddy_covariance" title="Eddy covariance">Eddy covariance</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equation_of_state" title="Equation of state">Equation of state</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Evaporative_cooler" title="Evaporative cooler">Evaporative cooler</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Frost" title="Frost">Frost</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gas_laws" title="Gas laws">Gas laws</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbs_free_energy" title="Gibbs free energy">Gibbs free energy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Gibbs_phase_rule" class="mw-redirect" title="Gibbs phase rule">Gibbs phase rule</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Greenhouse_gas" title="Greenhouse gas">Greenhouse gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_capacity" title="Heat capacity">Heat capacity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_of_vaporization" class="mw-redirect" title="Heat of vaporization">Heat of vaporization</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hygrometer" title="Hygrometer">Hygrometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ideal_gas" title="Ideal gas">Ideal gas</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Kinetic_theory_of_gases" title="Kinetic theory of gases">Kinetic theory of gases</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat" title="Latent heat">Latent heat</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Latent_heat_flux" class="mw-redirect" title="Latent heat flux">Latent heat flux</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Microwave_radiometer" title="Microwave radiometer">Microwave radiometer</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Phase_of_matter" class="mw-redirect" title="Phase of matter">Phase of matter</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Saturation_vapor_density" title="Saturation vapor density">Saturation vapor density</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">Steam</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sublimation_(phase_transition)" title="Sublimation (phase transition)">Sublimation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Superheating" title="Superheating">Superheating</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Supersaturation" title="Supersaturation">Supersaturation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamics" title="Thermodynamics">Thermodynamics</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Troposphere" title="Troposphere">Troposphere</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapor pressure</a></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=19" title="Edit section: References"><span>edit</span></a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div> <style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1239543626">.mw-parser-output .reflist{margin-bottom:0.5em;list-style-type:decimal}@media screen{.mw-parser-output .reflist{font-size:90%}}.mw-parser-output .reflist .references{font-size:100%;margin-bottom:0;list-style-type:inherit}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-2{column-width:30em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns-3{column-width:25em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns{margin-top:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns ol{margin-top:0}.mw-parser-output .reflist-columns li{page-break-inside:avoid;break-inside:avoid-column}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-alpha{list-style-type:upper-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-upper-roman{list-style-type:upper-roman}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-alpha{list-style-type:lower-alpha}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-greek{list-style-type:lower-greek}.mw-parser-output .reflist-lower-roman{list-style-type:lower-roman}</style><div class="reflist reflist-columns references-column-width" style="column-width: 21em;"> <ol class="references"> <li id="cite_note-1"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-1">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1238218222">.mw-parser-output cite.citation{font-style:inherit;word-wrap:break-word}.mw-parser-output .citation q{quotes:"\"""\"""'""'"}.mw-parser-output .citation:target{background-color:rgba(0,127,255,0.133)}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-free.id-lock-free a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/6/65/Lock-green.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited.id-lock-limited a,.mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration.id-lock-registration a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d6/Lock-gray-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription.id-lock-subscription a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/a/aa/Lock-red-alt-2.svg")right 0.1em center/9px no-repeat}.mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background:url("//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/4/4c/Wikisource-logo.svg")right 0.1em center/12px no-repeat}body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-free a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-limited a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-registration a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .id-lock-subscription a,body:not(.skin-timeless):not(.skin-minerva) .mw-parser-output .cs1-ws-icon a{background-size:contain;padding:0 1em 0 0}.mw-parser-output .cs1-code{color:inherit;background:inherit;border:none;padding:inherit}.mw-parser-output .cs1-hidden-error{display:none;color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-visible-error{color:var(--color-error,#d33)}.mw-parser-output .cs1-maint{display:none;color:#085;margin-left:0.3em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-left{padding-left:0.2em}.mw-parser-output .cs1-kern-right{padding-right:0.2em}.mw-parser-output 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(2010). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nsf.gov/news/newsmedia/goldilocks_planet/goldilocks_paper_gliese581.pdf">"The Lick-Carnegie Exoplanet Survey: a 3.1 <i>M</i><sub>⊕</sub> planet in the habitable zone of the nearby M3V star Gliese 581"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF draft)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/The_Astrophysical_Journal" title="The Astrophysical Journal">The Astrophysical Journal</a></i>. <b>723</b> (1): 954–965. <a href="/wiki/ArXiv_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ArXiv (identifier)">arXiv</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://arxiv.org/abs/1009.5733">1009.5733</a></span>. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/2010ApJ...723..954V">2010ApJ...723..954V</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F723%2F1%2F954">10.1088/0004-637X/723/1/954</a>. <a href="/wiki/S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:3163906">3163906</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/https://www.nsf.gov/news/newsmedia/goldilocks_planet/goldilocks_paper_gliese581.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=The+Astrophysical+Journal&rft.atitle=The+Lick-Carnegie+Exoplanet+Survey%3A+a+3.1+M%3Csub%3E%E2%8A%95%3C%2Fsub%3E+planet+in+the+habitable+zone+of+the+nearby+M3V+star+Gliese+581&rft.volume=723&rft.issue=1&rft.pages=954-965&rft.date=2010&rft_id=info%3Aarxiv%2F1009.5733&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fapi.semanticscholar.org%2FCorpusID%3A3163906%23id-name%3DS2CID&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1088%2F0004-637X%2F723%2F1%2F954&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F2010ApJ...723..954V&rft.aulast=Vogt&rft.aufirst=Steven+S.&rft.au=Butler%2C+R.+Paul&rft.au=Rivera%2C+E.+J.&rft.au=Haghighipour%2C+N.&rft.au=Henry%2C+Gregory+W.&rft.au=Williamson%2C+Michael+H.&rft_id=https%3A%2F%2Fwww.nsf.gov%2Fnews%2Fnewsmedia%2Fgoldilocks_planet%2Fgoldilocks_paper_gliese581.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+vapor" class="Z3988"></span></li> <li><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1238218222"><cite id="CITEREFWeaverRamanathan1995" class="citation journal cs1">Weaver, C. P.; Ramanathan, V. (1995). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www-ramanathan.ucsd.edu/files/pr63.pdf">"Deductions from a simple climate model: factors governing surface temperature and atmospheric thermal structure"</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span>. <i><a href="/wiki/Journal_of_Geophysical_Research" title="Journal of Geophysical Research">Journal of Geophysical Research</a></i>. <b>100</b> (D6): 11585–11591. <a href="/wiki/Bibcode_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Bibcode (identifier)">Bibcode</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ui.adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1995JGR...10011585W">1995JGR...10011585W</a>. <a href="/wiki/Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1029%2F95jd00770">10.1029/95jd00770</a>. <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ghostarchive.org/archive/20221009/http://www-ramanathan.ucsd.edu/files/pr63.pdf">Archived</a> <span class="cs1-format">(PDF)</span> from the original on October 9, 2022.</cite><span title="ctx_ver=Z39.88-2004&rft_val_fmt=info%3Aofi%2Ffmt%3Akev%3Amtx%3Ajournal&rft.genre=article&rft.jtitle=Journal+of+Geophysical+Research&rft.atitle=Deductions+from+a+simple+climate+model%3A+factors+governing+surface+temperature+and+atmospheric+thermal+structure&rft.volume=100&rft.issue=D6&rft.pages=11585-11591&rft.date=1995&rft_id=info%3Adoi%2F10.1029%2F95jd00770&rft_id=info%3Abibcode%2F1995JGR...10011585W&rft.aulast=Weaver&rft.aufirst=C.+P.&rft.au=Ramanathan%2C+V.&rft_id=http%3A%2F%2Fwww-ramanathan.ucsd.edu%2Ffiles%2Fpr63.pdf&rfr_id=info%3Asid%2Fen.wikipedia.org%3AWater+vapor" class="Z3988"></span></li></ul> </div> <div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2><span class="mw-editsection"><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a href="/w/index.php?title=Water_vapor&action=edit&section=21" title="Edit section: External links"><span>edit</span></a><span 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A Brief Tutorial</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.eso.org/gen-fac/pubs/astclim/espas/pwv/mockler.html">AGU Water Vapor in the Climate System – 1995</a></li> <li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://web.archive.org/web/20090218003456/http://phymetrix.com/Software.htm">Free Windows Program, Water Vapor Pressure Units Conversion Calculator</a> – PhyMetrix</li></ul> <div class="navbox-styles"><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r1129693374">.mw-parser-output .hlist dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist ul{margin:0;padding:0}.mw-parser-output .hlist dd,.mw-parser-output .hlist dt,.mw-parser-output .hlist li{margin:0;display:inline}.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist.inline ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ol,.mw-parser-output .hlist dl ul,.mw-parser-output .hlist ol dl,.mw-parser-output .hlist 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title="Special:EditPage/Template:Water"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Water" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Water</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Overviews</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Outline_of_water" title="Outline of water">Outline</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_(data_page)" title="Water (data page)">Data</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_model" title="Water model">Model</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Properties_of_water" title="Properties of water">Properties</a></li></ul> </div></td><td class="noviewer navbox-image" rowspan="6" style="width:1px;padding:0 0 0 2px"><div><figure class="mw-halign-right" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Water_drop_001.jpg" class="mw-file-description" title="Water droplet"><img alt="Water droplet" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/70px-Water_drop_001.jpg" decoding="async" width="70" height="47" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/105px-Water_drop_001.jpg 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/5/5e/Water_drop_001.jpg/140px-Water_drop_001.jpg 2x" data-file-width="3714" data-file-height="2475" /></a><figcaption>Water droplet</figcaption></figure></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="/wiki/State_of_matter" title="State of matter">States</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water" title="Water">Liquid</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ice" title="Ice">Ice</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Vapor</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Steam" title="Steam">Steam</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Superheated_steam" title="Superheated steam">superheated</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Forms</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Deuterium-depleted_water" title="Deuterium-depleted water">Deuterium-depleted</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Semiheavy_water" title="Semiheavy water">Semiheavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heavy_water" title="Heavy water">Heavy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Tritiated_water" title="Tritiated water">Tritiated</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Doubly_labeled_water" title="Doubly labeled water">Doubly labeled water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydronium" title="Hydronium">Hydronium</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">On <a href="/wiki/Earth" title="Earth">Earth</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_cycle" title="Water cycle">Cycle</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_distribution_on_Earth" title="Water distribution on Earth">Distribution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrosphere" title="Hydrosphere">Hydrosphere</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Hydrology" title="Hydrology">Hydrology</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrobiology" title="Hydrobiology">Hydrobiology</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Origin_of_water_on_Earth" title="Origin of water on Earth">Origin</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_pollution" title="Water pollution">Pollution</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resources" title="Water resources">Resources</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_management" class="mw-redirect" title="Water resource management">management</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_resource_policy" title="Water resource policy">policy</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_supply" title="Water supply">Supply</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Extraterrestrial</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Extraterrestrial_liquid_water" title="Extraterrestrial liquid water">Extraterrestrial liquid water</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Asteroidal_water" title="Asteroidal water">Asteroidal water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Planetary_oceanography" title="Planetary oceanography">Planetary oceanography</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_world" title="Ocean world">Ocean world</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hycean_planet" title="Hycean planet">Hycean planet</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/List_of_extrasolar_candidates_for_liquid_water" title="List of extrasolar candidates for liquid water">List of Candidates</a></li></ul></li> <li>Specific <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Europa_(moon)#Subsurface_ocean" title="Europa (moon)">Europa</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Water_on_Mars" title="Water on Mars">Mars</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lunar_water" title="Lunar water">Moon</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Enceladus#Subsurface_water_ocean" title="Enceladus">Enceladus</a></li></ul></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Physical parameters</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Stratification_(water)" title="Stratification (water)">Stratification</a> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_stratification" title="Ocean stratification">Ocean stratification</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lake_stratification" title="Lake stratification">Lake stratification</a></li></ul></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Ocean_temperature" title="Ocean temperature">Ocean temperature</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="3" style="font-weight: bold;"><div> <ul><li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Symbol_portal_class.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Portal"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/16px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/23px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/e/e2/Symbol_portal_class.svg/31px-Symbol_portal_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></a></span> <a href="/wiki/Portal:Water" title="Portal:Water">Portal</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/16px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/23px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/9/96/Symbol_category_class.svg/31px-Symbol_category_class.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="180" data-file-height="185" /></span></span> <a href="/wiki/Category:Water" title="Category:Water">Category</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/12px-Commons-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="12" height="16" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/18px-Commons-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/4/4a/Commons-logo.svg/24px-Commons-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="1024" data-file-height="1376" /></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Water" class="extiw" title="commons:Category:Water">Commons</a></li> <li> <span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><a href="/wiki/File:Wiktionary-logo.svg" class="mw-file-description" title="Wiktionary page"><img alt="" src="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/16px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png" decoding="async" width="16" height="15" class="mw-file-element" srcset="//upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/24px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 1.5x, //upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/e/ec/Wiktionary-logo.svg/32px-Wiktionary-logo.svg.png 2x" data-file-width="370" data-file-height="350" /></a></span> <a href="https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/water" class="extiw" title="wikt:water">Wiktionary</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1236075235"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Meteorological_data_and_variables" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2" style="background-color: skyblue"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1239400231"><div class="navbar plainlinks hlist navbar-mini"><ul><li class="nv-view"><a href="/wiki/Template:Meteorological_variables" title="Template:Meteorological variables"><abbr title="View this template">v</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-talk"><a href="/wiki/Template_talk:Meteorological_variables" title="Template talk:Meteorological variables"><abbr title="Discuss this template">t</abbr></a></li><li class="nv-edit"><a href="/wiki/Special:EditPage/Template:Meteorological_variables" title="Special:EditPage/Template:Meteorological variables"><abbr title="Edit this template">e</abbr></a></li></ul></div><div id="Meteorological_data_and_variables" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Meteorological data and variables</div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%">General</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Adiabatic_process" title="Adiabatic process">Adiabatic processes</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Advection" title="Advection">Advection</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Buoyancy" title="Buoyancy">Buoyancy</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lapse_rate" title="Lapse rate">Lapse rate</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lightning" title="Lightning">Lightning</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Solar_radiation" class="mw-redirect" title="Solar radiation">Surface solar radiation</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Surface_weather_analysis" title="Surface weather analysis">Surface weather analysis</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Visibility" title="Visibility">Visibility</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vorticity" title="Vorticity">Vorticity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind" title="Wind">Wind</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_shear" title="Wind shear">Wind shear</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Condensation" title="Condensation">Condensation</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Cloud" title="Cloud">Cloud</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Cloud_condensation_nuclei" title="Cloud condensation nuclei">Cloud condensation nuclei (CCN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Fog" title="Fog">Fog</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_condensation_level" title="Convective condensation level">Convective condensation level (CCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifting_condensation_level" title="Lifting condensation level">Lifting condensation level (LCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitable_water" title="Precipitable water">Precipitable water</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Precipitation" title="Precipitation">Precipitation</a></li> <li><a class="mw-selflink selflink">Water vapor</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_convection" title="Atmospheric convection">Convection</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Convective_available_potential_energy" title="Convective available potential energy">Convective available potential energy (CAPE)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_inhibition" title="Convective inhibition">Convective inhibition (CIN)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_instability" title="Convective instability">Convective instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_momentum_transport" title="Convective momentum transport">Convective momentum transport</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Conditional_symmetric_instability" title="Conditional symmetric instability">Conditional symmetric instability</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Convective_temperature" title="Convective temperature">Convective temperature (<i>T</i><sub>c</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equilibrium_level" title="Equilibrium level">Equilibrium level (EL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Free_convective_layer" title="Free convective layer">Free convective layer (FCL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Hydrodynamical_helicity#Meteorology" title="Hydrodynamical helicity">Helicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/K-index_(meteorology)" title="K-index (meteorology)">K Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Level_of_free_convection" title="Level of free convection">Level of free convection (LFC)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Lifted_index" title="Lifted index">Lifted index (LI)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_parcel_level" title="Maximum parcel level">Maximum parcel level (MPL)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Bulk_Richardson_number" title="Bulk Richardson number">Bulk Richardson number (BRN)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Temperature" title="Temperature">Temperature</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Dew_point" title="Dew point">Dew point (<i>T</i><sub>d</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dew_point_depression" title="Dew point depression">Dew point depression</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Dry-bulb_temperature" title="Dry-bulb temperature">Dry-bulb temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_temperature" title="Equivalent temperature">Equivalent temperature (<i>T</i><sub>e</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Forest_fire_weather_index" title="Forest fire weather index">Forest fire weather index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Haines_Index" title="Haines Index">Haines Index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Heat_index" title="Heat index">Heat index</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidex" title="Humidex">Humidex</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Humidity" title="Humidity">Humidity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Relative_humidity" class="mw-redirect" title="Relative humidity">Relative humidity (RH)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Mixing_ratio" title="Mixing ratio">Mixing ratio</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Potential_temperature" title="Potential temperature">Potential temperature (<i>θ</i>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Equivalent_potential_temperature" title="Equivalent potential temperature">Equivalent potential temperature (<i>θ</i><sub>e</sub>)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Sea_surface_temperature" title="Sea surface temperature">Sea surface temperature (SST)</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Temperature_anomaly" title="Temperature anomaly">Temperature anomaly</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Thermodynamic_temperature" title="Thermodynamic temperature">Thermodynamic temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Vapor_pressure" title="Vapor pressure">Vapor pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Virtual_temperature" title="Virtual temperature">Virtual temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_temperature" title="Wet-bulb temperature">Wet-bulb temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_globe_temperature" title="Wet-bulb globe temperature">Wet-bulb globe temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wet-bulb_potential_temperature" title="Wet-bulb potential temperature">Wet-bulb potential temperature</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Wind_chill" title="Wind chill">Wind chill</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Pressure" title="Pressure">Pressure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Atmospheric_pressure" title="Atmospheric pressure">Atmospheric pressure</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Baroclinity" title="Baroclinity">Baroclinity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Barotropic" class="mw-redirect" title="Barotropic">Barotropicity</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure_gradient" title="Pressure gradient">Pressure gradient</a></li> <li><a href="/wiki/Pressure-gradient_force" title="Pressure-gradient force">Pressure-gradient force (PGF)</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="background-color: skyblue;width:1%"><a href="/wiki/Velocity" title="Velocity">Velocity</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even hlist" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"> <ul><li><a href="/wiki/Maximum_potential_intensity" title="Maximum potential intensity">Maximum potential intensity</a></li></ul> </div></td></tr></tbody></table></div> <div class="navbox-styles"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" href="mw-data:TemplateStyles:r1129693374"><link rel="mw-deduplicated-inline-style" 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